Physlet

11: PHYSLETS -
INTERACTIVE
ILLUSTRATIONS,
EXPLORATIONS, AND
PROBLEMS FOR
INTRODUCTORY
PHYSICS (CHRISTIAN
AND BELLONI)
Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne

Cox, Melissa H. Dancy, and Aaron Titus, &
Thomas M. Colbert
Davidson College
Before You Start
Assigning Physlet Physics or Physlet Quantum Physics material without properly preparing the class can lead to frustration.
Although Physlet problems often appear to be simple, they are usually more challenging than traditional problems because novice
solution strategies are often ineffective. In addition, small technical problems are bound to occur without testing. We use Physlets
extensively in our introductory courses at Davidson College, but we always start the semester with a short laboratory whose sole
purpose is to introduce the Physlet user interface and to solve a Physlet problem in the way a physicist solves a problem; that is, to
consider the problem conceptually, to decide what method is required and what data to collect, and finally to solve the problem. As
a follow-up, we then assign a simple Physlet-based exercise that must be completed in one of the College's public computer
clusters. This minimal preparation allows us to identify potential problems before Physlet-based material is assigned on a regular
basis.
In response to these possible difficulties, we have written Chapter 1: Introduction to Physlets. This chapter provides students and
instructors with a guided tutorial through the basic functionality of Physlets. It is important to emphasize that:
Physics are almost always simulations, not animations, that solve a mathematical model and the simulation will reflect the
model's assumptions and not the real world. For example, mechanics models may, or may not, include the effects of friction and
optics models use the small angle approximation for lenses and mirrors. These assumptions are stated in the narrative.
Physlets usually output numbers, not symbols such as units. When units are required, they are stated in the narrative.
Physlets almost always require that the student or teacher interact with the simulation. If the narrative asks about the position of
an object, the user can click-drag with simulation to measure an objects coordinates. Objects in some simulations can be
repositioned by click dragging on the object. Note that the cursor will change if an object is draggable.
Many simulations have input fields that accept a number or a simple mathematical expression, such as 2*pi. The user must,
however, press the [Enter] key after entering a new value. The input field will show a red background if the entered value is
incorrect and a white background if the entered value has been accepted. If the input field in an initial condition, the user should
reset the the time to rerun the simulation.
If a simulation becomes hopelessly confused because of invalid or unrealistic initial values, reloading the html page will usually
clear the problem.
You are not alone. Ask questions, reports bugs, and suggest Physlet-based supplemental material on the OSP-ComPADRE
Physlet discussion forum.
After completing the exercises in Chapter 1, students and instructors alike should be in a position to complete the exercises in
the Physlet Physics and Physlet Quantum Physics books.
Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

1 3/24/2022 https://phys.libretexts.org/@go/page/34059
and Aaron Titus, & Thomas M. Colbert
Davidson College
11: Physlets - Interactive Illustrations,
Explorations, and Problems for Introductory
Physics (Christian and Belloni)
Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox,

Melissa H. Dancy, and Aaron Titus, & Thomas
M. Colbert
Conditions of Use
Each exercise in Physlet® Physics 3E contains explicit credits regarding the authorship of the script, the narrative, and the Java
applet. Unless otherwise stated, all of the curricular material appearing in Physlet® Physics 3E (the Illustrations, Explorations, and
Problems) is authored by Wolfgang Christian and Mario Belloni and all of the applets are authored by Wolfgang Christian and his
students at Davidson College.
The following authors have contributed curricular material (unless otherwise stated, the author of the Illustration, Exploration, or
Problem narrative is also the script author): Chuck Bennett, Scott Bonham, Morten Brydensholt, Anne J. Cox, Melissa Dancy,
Dwain Desbien, Andrew Duffy, Fu-Kwun Hwang, William Junkin, Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter, Evelyn Patterson, Peter
Sheldon, Aaron Titus, and Toon Van Hoecke.
The following authors have contributed Java applets: Harry Broeders, the CoLoS consortium, Fu-Kwun Hwang, Ernesto Martin,
Toon Van Hoecke, and Vojko Valencic.
We especially thank Robert Hansen (St. Olaf College) for the collaboration in converting out Java-based Physlet materials to
JavaScript.
We also thank Davidson College Physics majors, Aiden Edmonson and Ricky Davidson, who along with Wolfgang Christian did
all the "heavy lifting" of the conversion of all 800 Physlet Physics pages.
Except for the exercises placed in the public domain, Physlet® Physics 3E, i.e., the text and associated script for the Illustrations,
Explorations, and Problems in Physlet® Physics 3E are copyrighted by Wolfgang Christian and Mario Belloni in the English
language and for all other languages. The HTML pages for public domain Physlet-based exercises are are marked near the bottom
of the individual html pages on which they appear.
Physlets, i.e., the Java applets themselves, are authored by Wolfgang Christian and his students at Davidson College. The term
Physlet® is a registered trademark of Wolfgang Christian. Physlets, that is the Java applets themselves but not the Physlet
Physics scripts or narrative, are free for noncommercial use as described on the Conditions of Use page.

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This text was compiled on 03/24/2022

Credits
Each exercise in Physlet® Physics 3E contains explicit credits regarding the authorship of the script, the narrative, and the Java
applet. Unless otherwise stated, all of the curricular material appearing in Physlet® Physics 3E (the Illustrations, Explorations, and
Problems) is authored by Wolfgang Christian and Mario Belloni and all of the applets are authored by Wolfgang Christian and his
students at Davidson College.
The following authors have contributed curricular material (unless otherwise stated, the author of the Illustration, Exploration, or
Problem narrative is also the script author): Chuck Bennett, Scott Bonham, Morten Brydensholt, Anne J. Cox, Melissa Dancy,
Dwain Desbien, Andrew Duffy, Fu-Kwun Hwang, William Junkin, Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter, Evelyn Patterson, Peter
Sheldon, Aaron Titus, and Toon Van Hoecke.
The following authors have contributed Java applets: Harry Broeders, the CoLoS consortium, Fu-Kwun Hwang, Ernesto Martin,
Toon Van Hoecke, and Vojko Valencic.
JavaScript.
We also thank Davidson College Physics majors, Aiden Edmonson and Ricky Davidson, who along with Wolfgang Christian did
all the "heavy lifting" of the conversion of all 800 Physlet Physics pages.
Explorations, and Problems in Physlet® Physics 3E are copyrighted by Wolfgang Christian and Mario Belloni in the English
language and for all other languages. The HTML pages for public domain Physlet-based exercises are are marked near the bottom
of the individual html pages on which they appear.
Physlet® is a registered trademark of Wolfgang Christian. Physlets, that is the Java applets themselves but not the Physlet
Physics scripts or narrative, are free for noncommercial use as described on the Conditions of Use page.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
BEFORE YOU START

CONDITIONS OF USE
CREDITS
PREFACE
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
11.1: MECHANICS
11.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSLETS
11.1.1.1: ILLUSTRATIONS
11.1.1.2: EXPLORATIONS
11.1.1.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.1.4: SUPPLEMENTS
11.1.2: ONE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS
11.1.2.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.3: TWO-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS
11.1.3.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.4: NEWTON'S LAWS
11.1.4.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.5: NEWTON'S LAWS 2
11.1.5.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.6: WORK
11.1.6.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.7: ENERGY
11.1.7.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.8: MOMENTUM
11.1.8.3: PROBLEMS
1 3/24/2022
11.1.9: REFERENCE FRAMES
11.1.9.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.10: ROTATIONS ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
11.1.10.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.11: GENERAL ROTATIONS
11.1.11.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.12: GRAVITATION
11.1.12.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.13: STATICS
11.1.13.3: PROBLEMS
11.2: FLUIDS
11.2.1: STATIC FLUIDS
11.2.1.3: PROBLEMS
11.2.2: FLUIDS IN MOTION
11.2.2.3: PROBLEMS
11.3: WAVES
11.3.1: PERIODIC MOTION
11.3.1.3: PROBLEMS
11.3.2: WAVES AND OSCILLATIONS
11.3.2.3: PROBLEMS
11.3.3: SOUND
11.3.3.3: PROBLEMS
2 3/24/2022
BACK MATTER
INDEX
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
3 3/24/2022
Preface
The third edition to Physlet Physics represents a major technological advancement in how the 800 Physlet-based interactive
materials are delivered to teachers and students alike. In the first and second edition, the interactive Physlet-based materials relied
on Java applets. With the 2014 release of the new HTML5 standards, browsers have gradually ceased supporting plug-ins, such as
Java. In addition, the popularity of smart phones and tablets has increased, and these devices never supported Java. However, the
new HTML5 standard fully supports JavaScript simulations allowing materials to run on all platforms. To that end, we have
partnered with Robert Hansen (St. Olaf College) to use his SwingJS platform to port our Physlet Java Applets to
JavaScript/HTML5. Physlet Physics 3E now runs on any platform on a JavaScript-enabled browser. More details are below in the
SwingJS section.
Users simply access the Physlet Physics 3E ComPADRE site (as they did for Physlet Physics 2E)
at https://www.compadre.org/Physlets/index.cfm and the original functionality of Physlet-based materials is 100% maintained. The
partnership with ComPADRE will continue to allow us to update materials and therefore provide the best materials to teachers and
students. Housing the material on ComPADRE lowers the barrier for adoption, since anyone can access these materials.
In Summary, Physlet Physics 3E:
Replaces Java Physlets with JavaScript Physlets: This change provides more reliable simulations behavior on Windows and
Macintosh operating systems as well as all mobile devices via a JavaScript-enabled browser.
Provides Same Navigation: The Physlet Physics 3E ComPADRE site looks and behaves as the successful Physlet Physics
3E ComPADRE site which was designed to allow quick navigation to each section, chapter, and exercise. In addition, arrows at
the top of the exercises (and previous / next navigation at the bottom of each exercise) allow for quick navigating to the next
exercise.
Includes Exploration Worksheets: To aid in the assignment of the Explorations, Exploration Worksheets are included on
the Physlet Physics 3E ComPADRE site. They can be viewed and downloaded under Supplements in each chapter, and at the
bottom of every Exploration page.
Is Still Not Tied to a Single Publisher's Textbooks: The materials on ComPADRE allows everyone teaching introductory
physics to use these materials irrespective of the textbook one uses.
Is Still Free: This material is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License but at no
cost to the teacher or student. If you wish to support this and other projects on ComPADRE, please consider joining
the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) and/or donating to the ComPADRE Continuation Fund through the
AAPT.
Copyright and Conditions of Use

Explorations, and Problems in Physlet® Physics 3E are copyrighted by Mario Belloni, Wolfgang Christian and Anne J. Cox for the
English language and all other languages. The materials in Physlet Physics 3E are released under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License. More details can be found on the Conditions of Use page or by clicking the
Creative Commons link at the bottom of each page in Physlet Physics 3E.
The HTML pages for public domain Physlet-based exercises are marked near the bottom of the individual html pages on which
they appear.
Physlet® is a registered trademark of Wolfgang Christian. Physlets, that is the Java applets themselves but not the Physlet Physics
3E scripts or narrative, are free for noncommercial use.
SwingJS
SwingJS is an open-source SourceForge project by Robert Hansen (St. Olaf College) that allows the rapid and easy conversion of
Java applets to JavaScript. The project started by convert the very popular Jmol Java Applet, also developed by Robert, to
JavaScript/HTML5, now called JSmol.
Instructor Resources
In addition to the interactive curricular material on this site, instructors may also wish to view the Physlet Physics Instructor's
Guide by Anne J. Cox and Melissa H. Dancy. The Physlet Physics Instructor's Guide is available to verified teachers from the

ComPADRE PhysPort site.
Acknowledgements
In addition to the lengthy and complete acknowledgements to the First Edition and Second Edition, which can be found below in
the Preface to the First and Second Editions below, there are several people we wish to thank for making the Third Edition possible.
JavaScript. We also thank Davidson College Physics majors, Aiden Edmonson and Ricky Davidson, who along with Wolfgang
Christian did all the "heavy lifting" of the conversion of all 800 Physlet Physics pages. In addition, we thank Bruce Mason, Lyle
Barbato, and Matt Riggsbee of ComPADRE for their tireless work in getting our materials into ComPADRE (a second time). We
also thank Beth Cunningham, Bob Hilborn, and the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) for their continuing support
of Physlets and ComPADRE. We thank our colleagues at Davidson College for their support over the years, especially the Physics
Department, Dean of Faculty Wendy Raymond, and President Carol Quillen.
Finally, and most importantly, we again express our sincerest thanks to those who have encouraged us the most: our spouses,
Barbara and Nancy, and our children, Beth, Charlie, and Konrad and Emmy.
Preface to the Second Edition

The second edition to Physlet Physics represents a major change in how the 800 Physlet-based interactive materials are delivered to
teachers and students alike. Instead of accessing materials off of the CD that came with the first edition, now users simply access
the Physlet Physics 2E ComPADRE site at https://www.compadre.org/Physlets/index.cfm. This new partnership with ComPADRE
also allows us to update materials and therefore provide the best materials to teachers and students. Housing the material on
ComPADRE also lowers the barrier for adoption, since anyone can adopt these materials.
In addition, Physlet Physics 2E:
Replaces multiple Physlet jar files with a single Physlet jar file: This single jar file provides more reliable script
initialization and incorporates work-arounds for bugs in Java 7 and inconsistent behavior in Windows and Macintosh operating
systems.
Provides Updates to the Narrative and Physlets: Over the past 7 years when we have found an error we have fixed it on our
master copy of Physlet Physics. However, due to timing in the publishing cycle, these updates were not always reflected in the
published book and CD. By being on ComPADRE, when we find something that needs changing, we can do so immediately
and every teacher and student will then be delivered the correct exercise. In other words, if something breaks, we can fix it
almost immediately.
Provides New Navigation: The Physlet Physics 2E ComPADRE site has been designed to allow quick navigation to each
section, chapter, and exercise. In addition, arrows at the top of the exercises (and previous / next navigation at the bottom of
each exercise) allow for quick navigating to the next exercise.
Emphasizes Exploration Worksheets: To aid in the assignment of the Explorations, Exploration Worksheets are included on
the Physlet Physics 2E ComPADRE site. They can be viewed and downloaded under Supplements in each chapter, and at the
bottom of every Exploration page.
Is Not Tied to a Single Publisher's Textbooks: Moving the materials on ComPADRE allows everyone teaching introductory
physics to use these materials irrespective of the textbook one uses.
Is Free: This material is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License but at no cost to
the teacher or student. If you wish to support this and other projects on ComPADRE, please consider joining the American
Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) and/or donating to ComPADRE through the AAPT.
Copyright and Conditions of Use

Explorations, and Problems in Physlet® Physics 2E are copyrighted by Wolfgang Christian and Mario Belloni for the English
language and all other languages. The materials in Physlet Physics 2E are released under the Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-NoDerivs License. More details can be found on the Conditions of Use page or by clicking the Creative
Commons link at the bottom of each page in Physlet Physics 2E.

Instructor Resources
In addition to the interactive curricular material on this site, instructors may also wish to view the Physlet Physics Instructor's
Guide by Anne J. Cox and Melissa H. Dancy. The Physlet Physics Instructor's Guide are available upon request.
Acknowledgments
In addition to the lengthy and complete acknowledgements to the First Edition which can be found below in the Preface to the First
Edition, there are several people we wish to thank for making the Second Edition possible. We thank Bruce Mason, Lyle Barbato,
and Matt Riggsbee of ComPADRE for their tireless work in getting our materials into ComPADRE. We also thank Beth
Cunningham, Bob Hilborn, and all of the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) for their continuing support of
Physlets and ComPADRE. We thank our colleagues at Davidson College for their support over the years, especially the Physics
Department, Dean of Faculty Clark Ross, and President Carol Quillen. Without Davidson College's support of Mario Belloni's
sabbatical, this project could not have happened.
Finally, and most importantly, we again express our sincerest thanks to those who have encouraged us the most: our spouses,
Barbara and Nancy, and our children, Beth, Charlie, and Konrad and Emmy.
Preface to the First Edition

By now it is hard to imagine an instructor who has not heard the call to "teach with technology," as it has resounded through
educational institutions and government agencies alike over the past several years. However, teaching with technology has often
resulted in the use of technology for technology's sake and also often resulted in the development of tools that are not
pedagogically sound. For example, consider PowerPoint lectures, which are a popular response to the "teach with technology"
push. While PowerPoint lectures are more colorful, they are generally no more interactive than chalkboard lectures. The physics
community has, to its credit, worked to use technology in a variety of highly interactive and effective ways including wireless
classroom response systems that allow for in-class quizzing of students and MBLs (microcomputer-based laboratories) that free
students from the drudgery of data collection so that they can spend more time understanding the underlying physical concepts.
Into this we offer Physlet Physics, a collection of ready-to-run interactive computer simulations designed with a sound use of
pedagogy in mind. The aim of Physlet Physics is to provide a resource for teaching that enhances student learning and interactive
engagement. At the same time, Physlet Physics is a resource flexible enough to be adapted to a variety of pedagogical strategies
and local environments.
Content
Physlet Physics contains a collection of exercises spanning the introductory physics sequence. These exercises use computer
animations generated in Java applets to show physics content. We call these Java applets Physlets (Physics content simulated with
Java applets). Every chapter of Physlet Physics contains three quite different Physlet-based exercises: Illustrations, Explorations,
and Problems.
Illustrations are designed to demonstrate physical concepts. Students need to interact with the Physlet, but the answers to the
questions posed in the Illustration are given or are easily determined from interacting with it. Many Illustrations provide examples
of physics applications. Other Illustrations are designed to introduce a particular concept or analytical tool. Typical uses of
Illustrations would include "reading" assignments prior to class and classroom demonstrations.
Explorations are tutorial in nature. They provide some hints or suggest problem-solving strategies to students in working problems
or understanding concepts. Some Explorations ask students to make a prediction and then check their predictions, explaining any
differences between predictions and observations. Other Explorations require students to change parameters and observe the effect,
asking students to develop, for themselves, certain physics relationships (equations). Typical uses of Explorations would be in
group problem-solving and homework or pre-laboratory assignments. Explorations are also often useful as Just-In-Time
Teaching exercises. The Worksheets provide students with extra structure to aid in the completion of the Exploration and provide
instructors with an easy way to assign Explorations.
Problems are interactive versions of the kind of exercises typically assigned for homework. They require the students to
demonstrate their understanding without as much guidance as is given in the Explorations. They vary widely in difficulty, from
exercises appropriate for high school physics students to exercises appropriate for calculus-based university physics students. Some
Problems ask conceptual questions, while others require detailed calculations. Typical uses for the Problems would be for
homework assignments, in-class concept questions, and group problem-solving sessions.

Before You Start
Assigning Physlet Physics material without properly preparing the class can lead to frustration. Although Physlet problems often
appear to be simple, they are usually more challenging than traditional problems because novice solution strategies are often
ineffective. In addition, small technical problems are bound to occur without testing. We use Physlets extensively in our
introductory courses at Davidson College, but we always start the semester with a short laboratory whose sole purpose is to solve a
Physlet problem in the way a physicist solves a problem; that is, to consider the problem conceptually, to decide what method is
required and what data to collect, and finally to solve the problem. As a follow-up, we then assign a simple Physlet-based exercise
that must be completed in one of the College's public computer clusters. This minimal preparation allows us to identify potential
problems before Physlet-based material is assigned on a regular basis.
In response to these possible difficulties, we have written Chapter 1: Introduction to Physlets. This chapter provides students and
instructors with a guided tutorial through the basic functionality of Physlets. After completing the exercises in Chapter 1, students
and instructors alike should be in a position to complete the exercises in the rest of the book.
Before you begin, or assign material to students, you should also read the page on System Requirements.
Acknowledgements
There are a great many people and institutions that have contributed to our efforts, and we take great pleasure in acknowledging
their support and their interest.
We thank our colleague Larry Cain for the many hours he spent reading the manuscript and for providing many insightful
comments and suggestions. We also thank our colleagues and our students at Davidson College for testing of Physlet-based
material in the classroom and the laboratory. Mur Muchane and the Davidson ITS staff have provided excellent technical support.
We would also like to thank the Davidson College Faculty Study and Research Committee and Dean Clark Ross for providing seed
grants for the development of Physlet-based curricular material. We also thank Nancy Maydole and Beverly Winecoff for guiding
us through the grant application process.
The Physlets project has benefited tremendously from collaborations with non-U.S. universities. In particular, special thanks and
recognition go to Francisco Esquembre and Ernesto Martin at the University of Murcia (Spain), to Sasa Divjak at the Universtiy of
Ljubljana (Slovenia), and to Frank Schweickert at the University of Kaiserslautern (Germany) for translating Physlet-based
material into their respective languages and for maintaining non-English-language Physlets websites.
W.C. would like to thank the numerous students who have worked with him over the years developing programs for use in
undergraduate physics education. Some of our best Physlets are the result of collaborative efforts with student coworkers. In
particular, we would like to single out Mike Lee, Cabel Fisher, and Jim Nolen.
M.B. would like to thank Mario Capitolo, Anne J. Cox, Edward Deveney, Harry Ellis, Kurt Haller, Bill Junkin, Ken Krebs, and
Steve Weppner for many useful and stimulating discussions regarding teaching and the incorporation of Physlets with existing
curricular material.
Some people have been such frequent contributors of time and ideas that we have brought them in as contributing authors of this
book. We would like to thank Anne J. Cox, Melissa Dancy, and Aaron Titus (whose work was supported in part by NSF DUE-
9952323), both for their writing and for the many valuable ideas we have gained during our associations with each of them. In
addition, we would like to thank Thomas M. Colbert for his work creating Worksheets for the Explorations.
Special thanks to Chuck Bennett, Scott Bonham, Morten Brydensholt, Anne J. Cox, Melissa H. Dancy, Dwain Damian, Andrew
Duffy, Fu-Kwun Hwang, William Junkin, Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter, Evelyn Patterson, Peter Sheldon, Aaron Titus, and
Toon Van Hoecke for their contributions of curricular material. In addition, we thank Harry Broeders, the CoLoS consortium, Fu-
Kwun Hwang, Ernesto Martin, Toon Van Hoecke, and Vojko Valencic for the use of their applets.
We would like to thank all those who reviewed material. During the initial writing we received feedback from Rhett Allain
(Southeastern Louisiana University), Cornelius Bennhold (George Washington University), Thomas M. Colbert (Augusta State
University), Edward F. Deveney (Bridgewater State College), Kevin M. Lee (University of Nebraska), Chuck Niederriter
(Gustavus Adolphus College), and Steve Mellema (Gustavus Adolphus College). We also would like to thank Harry Ellis, Eduardo
Fernandez, and Steve Weppner of Eckerd College for the feedback we received from their class testing of the exercises.
Ranking tasks in this book are inspired by the ranking tasks in Ranking Task Exercises in Physics, T. O' Kuma, D. Maloney, and C.
Hieggelke. Their Two-Year College (TYC) Workshops have been an especially fruitful arena for the give-and-take of ideas with

fellow faculty. The Physlet strategy could not have grown and matured without these opportunities and the exchange of ideas that
they afforded.
Both of us express our thanks to Eric Fahlgren, Christian Botting, Mark Pfaktzgraff, and their coworkers at Prentice Hall for
supporting the development of Physlets Physics and for all of their hard work getting this book to press on an accelerated schedule.
In addition, we thank Ruth Saavedra for her copyediting of the manuscript and Michael Drew and his coworkers at nSight for their
work formatting and typesetting this book.
We also wish to express our sincerest thanks to those who have encouraged us the most: our spouses, Barbara and Nancy, and our
children, Beth, Charlie, and Konrad and Emmy.
This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation under contracts DUE-9752365 and DUE-0126439.

System Requirements
Personal Computer, Laptop, or Mobile Device
Physlet Physics 3E provides physics teachers with a collection of ready-to-run, interactive, computer-based curricular material
spanning the entire introductory physics curriculum. All that is required is accessing Physlet Physics 3E on ComPADRE on a
device by using a browser that supports JavaScript. A JavaScript-enabled browser is available for all recent versions of Microsoft
Windows (Edge, Chrome, Firefox), Apple Macintosh (Safari, Chrome, Firefox), and most versions of Unix. In addition, JavaScript-
capable browsers are available on all mobile device platcorms (such as on Andriod and Apple devices).

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
11.1: MECHANICS
11.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSLETS

11.1.1.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.2: ONE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS
11.1.2.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.3: TWO-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS
11.1.3.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.4: NEWTON'S LAWS
11.1.4.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.5: NEWTON'S LAWS 2
11.1.5.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.6: WORK
11.1.6.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.7: ENERGY
11.1.7.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.8: MOMENTUM
11.1.8.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.9: REFERENCE FRAMES
11.1.9.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.10: ROTATIONS ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
11.1.10.3: PROBLEMS
1 3/24/2022
11.1.11: GENERAL ROTATIONS
11.1.11.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.12: GRAVITATION
11.1.12.3: PROBLEMS
11.1.13: STATICS
11.1.13.3: PROBLEMS
2 3/24/2022
11.1.1: Introduction to Physlets
This chapter is an introduction to the various types of interactive curricular material you will find in Physlet® Physics 3E. In
addition, this chapter gives a brief tutorial on the types of basic computer skills you will need to run, interact with, and complete the
exercises.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.1.1: Illustrations
11.1.1.2: Explorations
11.1.1.3: Problems
11.1.1.4: Supplements
Contributions and Attributions

This page is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Wolfgang Christian, Mario
Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy, and Aaron Titus, & Thomas M. Colbert. A detailed versioning history of the edits to source
content is available upon request.
Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

11.1.1.1 3/24/2022 https://phys.libretexts.org/@go/page/34065
Dancy, and Aaron Titus, & Thomas M. Colbert
Illustration 1: Static Text Images Versus Physlet Animations
Illustration 1 describes how to use Physlets. First of all, a Physlet is a Physics (Java) Applet. We use Physlets to animate physical
phenomena and to ask questions regarding the phenomena. Sometimes you will need to collect data from the Physlet animation and
perform calculations in order to answer the questions. Sometimes simply viewing the animation will be enough.
Figure 11.1.1.1.1: Image from Isaac Newton's Principia (1687).

The Physlet animations presented in Physlet® Physics 3E will be similar to the static images in your textbook. There are differences
that need to be examined, however, because we will be making extensive use of these types of animations
throughout Physlet® Physics 3E. First consider the image taken from Sir Isaac Newton's Principia. It is a static image depicting
possible orbits of an object around Earth. We are supposed to imagine objects thrown from the mountain top with different initial
velocities and imagine where they would land. (We are also supposed to imagine that for just the right conditions objects could
orbit in the circles farther out from the center of Earth.)
Press play to begin the animation. Note that the VCR-type buttons beneath the animation control the animation much like buttons
on a VCR, CD, or DVD player. Specifically,

11.1.1.1.1 3/24/2022 https://phys.libretexts.org/@go/page/34066
play starts the animation and continues it until either the animation is over or is stopped.
pause pauses the animation. Press play to resume the animation.
« step steps the animation backward in time by one time step (the size of the time step varies with the animation). In this
animation, there is no "<<step" button.
step » steps the animation forward in time by one time step.
reset resets the animation time to the initial time. Press play to start the animation from the beginning.
Make sure you understand what these buttons do, since you will need to use them throughout the rest of the book when you interact
with the Physlets on ComPADRE.
In addition to these buttons, there are hyperlinks on the page that control which animation is played. For example, on this
page, Restart reinitializes the applet to the way it was when the page was loaded. On other pages there will often be a choice of
which animation to play, but Restart always gets you back to the initial condition the animation was in when the page loaded.
So what is so neat about this animation compared to the static image? Plenty. Most of what you will study in physics is related to
objects in motion. It is difficult to understand the details of the motion of an object if you are trying to describe it with a static
picture. Since the examples in this book are interactive animations, you can actually see the details of the motion as the objects
undergo their motions.
Restart (or reset) the animation and play it again. What do you notice about the motion of the balls? Specifically, what can you say
about the motion of the balls that have orbits inside of the red ball? What can you say about the motion of the balls that have orbits
outside of the red ball? First, all of the orbits are squashed circles (called ellipses) except for the red ball that moves in a circle.
Second, all of the balls—except the red one—change speed throughout their orbits. The inner balls travel faster near the bottom of
the screen as opposed to the top, while the outer balls travel slower at the bottom of the screen as opposed to the top. (Note that we
are choosing to show the complete orbits of the balls, even the ones that would have hit Earth. We do this to compare all of the
orbits.)
This is not something that is obvious from Newton's drawing from the Principia, but it is made clear by the animation. This effect
is even easier to see with only three balls. Ghost images of the balls are placed at equal time intervals to further display this effect
when you click only three balls. Don't forget to press play after selecting the hyperlink!
In the natural sciences, simulations are almost always deterministic. By deterministic, we mean that the simulation evolves in time
according to a predefined mathematical model. The models we have built for this text may or may not represent physical reality. In
fact, we will often present multiple models and ask you to determine which model is in agreement with experiment. Do not assume
that every simulation obeys the laws of physics.
It is important not to confuse deterministic with predictable. Simulations that depend on random numbers, contain large numbers of
parameters, or exhibit chaos are often not predictable in the sense that the exact behavior may depend on infinitesimal changes of
initial conditions. However, even if the details of the dynamics cannot be determined, the model may still give useful information
about the types of behavior that can occur.


Exploration 1: Click-Drag to Get Position
Some problems require that you click-drag the mouse inside the animation to make measurements. These measurements cannot
be more accurate than one screen pixel. This means that depending on how you measure the position of an object you may get a
slightly different answer than another student in your class. Restart.
Use the following techniques (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds) to measure the position of the man in the
x direction as a function of time:
a. Pause the animation at t = 0 s (you may have to step back or reinitialize or reset the animation).
b. With the cursor in the animation, hold down the left mouse button and drag the cursor to the center of the man to measure his
position in the x direction.
c. Step forward by 2s and record the time and the man's new position in the x direction.
d. Repeat these measurements for t = 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 s.
Look at show data in table after you have finished part (d). Be sure to take a close look at the data table.
e. Do your answers agree with the table? Why or why not?


11.1.1.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.1.3. Use a caliper to measure different objects
Animation 1 | Animation 2 | Animation 3 | Animation 4
During the laboratory portion of your physics class, you will most likely have to measure objects rather precisely. A Vernier
caliper is a device that can precisely measure the length of small objects (less than about 20 cm long (position units on the
caliper are given in centimeters). You read the caliper by placing an object in the caliper, closing the arm of the caliper, and
reading off of the scale. Restart.
In the animations you are to drag the red circle on the caliper arm to move it. Your cursor will change into a little hand when it
is over the circle. Once the cursor changes, left-click to drag the object around.
The 0 line on the movable arm tells you centimeters and tenths of centimeters. The zero line is almost always between two
tenths on the scale. To figure out the hundredths place, you look to find which line on the movable arm matches up with a line
on the fixed scale. The number on the movable scale tells you the hundredths place. The default position of the caliper after
clicking Restart is 1.64 cm.
Now try it yourself for Animations 1 through 4. What are the lengths of these objects?
Note
In Animation 4 you must drag the object in position before you can measure its length.
Problem authored by Morten Brydensholt, Wolfgang Christian, and Mario Belloni.


https://www.compadre.org/Physlets/me..._worksheet.pdf


11.1.2: One-Dimensional Kinematics
Motion along a straight line, also called one-dimensional motion, can be represented in a number of different ways: as a formula, as
a graph, as data in a table, or as an animation. All four representations are useful for problem solving.
The study of motion in one, two, or three dimensions is called kinematics. What distinguishes kinematics from the techniques
which we will consider later is that, at the moment, we do not care why an object is moving the way it is. We just care that it is
moving the way described. Do not think that this degrades the study of kinematics. The exact opposite is true. Kinematics is
powerful precisely because it is independent of the cause of the motion. We will learn to speak using the common language for
describing motion irrespective of the cause.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.2.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Position and Displacement
Animation 1 | Animation 2
Shown are two animations, each with three toy monster trucks and their position vs. time graphs (position is given in centimeters
and time is given in seconds). The arrow in each animation shows where the origin of coordinates is located. All measurements of
position are with respect to this origin. Animation 1 shows the three monster trucks starting at different positions at t = 0 s . During
this animation, for each individual truck, the distance traveled is equal to the displacement.
Note that we are treating each monster truck as an idealized object, a point. We are always measuring the position of a convenient
part of the monster truck and then describing the motion of this part of the monster truck. For this animation the part of each
monster truck that we follow is its front bumper, but it could have been the middle or the rear bumper. What matters is that we are
consistent in the measurement process. The position of the object will vary depending on where you take the measurement (the
front bumper, the middle, the rear bumper of the truck), but the difference in position measurements, the displacement vector,
always stays the same. Therefore, it is not position that is important in physics, but rather the change in position or displacement
that is important.
When you get a good-looking graph, right-click on it to clone the graph and resize it for a better view.
What are the average velocities of the trucks in Animation 1? Even though the trucks start at different positions, all three trucks
have the same average speed (distance traveled/time) and average velocity (displacement/time). This can be seen from the slope of
the graph (note that the distance traveled and displacements for each individual truck are identical in this animation). In Animation
2 the initial positions of the three monster trucks are the same, but each truck travels a different distance and also has a different
displacement. The truck with the largest average speed and average velocity (for each individual truck, its average speed is still
equal to its average velocity) is the one with the largest slope on the position vs. time graph.


Exploration 1: Compare Position vs. Time and Velocity vs. Time Graphs
Shown are three different animations, each with three toy monster trucks moving to the right. Two ways to describe the motion of
the trucks are position vs. time graphs and velocity vs. time graphs (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
Answer the following questions that focus on the velocity and acceleration of the monster trucks.
a. How does the initial position affect the various graphs?
b. Describe the motion of the trucks by analyzing the position vs. time graphs.
c. Once you have completed (a) and (b), check your answers by analyzing the velocity vs. time graphs.
When you get a good-looking graph, right-click on it to clone the graph and resize it for a better view. This is especially important
for viewing points near the origin.
Exploration 2: Determine the Correct Graph

a. View the animation of the red ball by selecting Ball Only and describe its motion in words (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). Restart.
b. Now view the three possible position vs. time graphs A, B, and C by clicking the links in the table. Which one is the correct
graph? Give at least one reason why each of the other two graphs is incorrect.
c. Now view the three possible velocity vs. time graphs D, E, and F by clicking the links in the table. Which one is the correct
graph? Give at least one reason why each of the other two graphs is incorrect.
Exploration authored by Wolfgang Christian and Mario Belloni and modified by Aaron Titus.
Exploration 3: A Curtain Blocks Your View of a Golf Ball

A putted golf ball (not shown to scale) rolls on a green. A black curtain blocks your view of the ball, but otherwise does not
interfere with the ball's motion (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The animation is a side viewof the ball
rolling on the green.
Analyze the velocity vs. time graph for the ball and describe the terrain of the green behind the curtain that blocks your view. Give
valid reasons for your answer. Restart.
After you answer this question, check the correct answer.
Exploration authored by Aaron Titus. Script authored by Aaron Titus and Mario Belloni.
Exploration 4: Set the x(t) of a Monster Truck

By now you have seen the equation x = x + v 0 0
2
∗ t + 0.5 ∗ a ∗ t . Perhaps you have even derived it for yourself. But what does it
really mean for the motion of objects? Restart.
The animation allows you to explore all three terms in the equation: the initial position by changing x from −50 cm to 50 cm, the
0
velocity term by changing v from −15 cm/s to 15 cm/s, and the acceleration term by changing a from −5 cm/s to 5 cm/s .
0
2 2
Use the animation to guide your answers to the following questions (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds).
a. How does changing the initial position affect the position vs. time graph?
b. How does changing the initial position affect the velocity vs. time graph?
c. How does changing the initial velocity affect the velocity vs. time graph?
d. How does a positive initial velocity vs. a negative initial velocity affect the velocity vs. time graph?
Exploration 5: Determine x(t) and v(t) of the Lamborghini

a. Find the position of the toy Lamborghini as a function of time, x(t), for each animation (position is given in centimeters and
time is given in seconds). Restart. Note that the graph depicts the position as a function of time. Use the "check function"

button to see the actual position vs. time graph and use this as a guide for your analysis.
Remember to use the proper syntax such as: −10 + 0.5 ∗ t , −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∗ t , or −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∧ 2 . Revisit Exploration 1.3 to
refresh your memory.
b. Find the velocity of the toy Lamborghini as a function of time, v(t) , for each animation (position is given in centimeters and
time is given in seconds). Use the "check function" button to see the actual velocity vs. time graph and use this as a guide for
your analysis. (If you have taken calculus, this exercise should be particularly straightforward.)
Exploration 6: Toss the Ball to Barely Touch the Ceiling

To show your coordination, you try to toss a ball straight upward so that it just barely touches the ceiling (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). What initial velocity is required? In this Exploration the acceleration of the ball is
2
−9.8 m/s . Calculate this initial velocity and then test your answer bytyping the initial velocity in the text box and clicking the
"set velocity and play" button. Restart.

Exploration authored by Aaron Titus.
Exploration 7: Drop Two Balls; One with a Delayed Drop

Two giant tennis balls are released from rest at a certain height. One (the ball on the right) can be dropped after the first ball is
dropped. You may change the time delay from 0 to 2.5 s (enter the time delay in the text box and click the "set delay and play"
button). The ghost images mark the balls' positions every 0.5 s (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
Choose a 1-s delay (for simplicity) and then answer the following questions.
a. Once the second tennis ball (the ball on the right) is released, does the difference in the speeds increase, decrease, or stay the
same?
b. Once the second tennis ball (the ball on the right) is released, does their separation increase, decrease, or stay the same?
c. Is the time interval between the instants at which they hit the ground smaller than, equal to, or larger than the time interval
between the instants at which they were released?
Exploration 8: Determine the Area Under a(t) and v(t)

Please wait for the animation to completely load.
A 1.0-kg cart on a track experiences several different constant accelerations as shown in the animation (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). The red dot shows you where position measurements are taken. In addition, the graph of either the
acceleration vs. time or the velocity vs. time is shown (use the check box to toggle between the two) along with data in a table. One
cell of the table shows the calculation of the area under the curve (the integral ∫ a dt or ∫ v dt ) as it is plotted in the graph
shown. Restart.
View all five animations and answer the questions below for the acceleration vs. time graph.
a. What is the initial velocity in each animation?
b. What is the final velocity in each animation?
c. What is the difference between the final velocity and the initial velocity (v − v ) in each animation?
0
d. What is the total area under the curve calculated during each animation?
e. How are your answers for (c) and (d) related? Does this make sense? Why?
View all five animations and answer the questions below for the velocity vs. time graph (use the check box to view the velocity vs.
time graphs).
f. What is the initial position in each animation?
g. What is the final position in each animation?
h. What is the displacement of the cart (x − x ) in each animation?
0
i. What is the total area under the curve calculated during each animation?
j. How are your answers for (f) and (g) related? Does this make sense? Why?
Physlets were developed at Davidson College and converted from Java to JavaScript using the SwingJS system developed at St.
Olaf College.


11.1.2.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.2.3.1: Position vs. time graph for the T-bird
Which of the animations shows the correct position vs. time graph for the toy T-bird (position is given in centimeters and
time is given in seconds)? For simplicity, the red dot is shown to indicate where measurements are taken. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.2: A hockey puck sliding on ice collides and rebounds from a wall
A hockey puck sliding on ice collides and rebounds from a wall on a hockey rink. A top view is shown in the above
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. For each time interval in the data table below, calculate the displacement, distance traveled, average velocity, and average
speed of the puck.
Time interval Displacement (m) Distance traveled (m) Average velocity (m/s) Average speed (m/s)
t = 1.5 s to 12.0 s
t = 1.5 s to 6.0 s
t = 6.0 s to 12.0 s
Table 11.1.2.3.1
b. For which time interval(s) listed in the table above is the displacement equal to the distance traveled?
c. Is the magnitude of the displacement always equal to the distance traveled?
d. In general, if an object moves in a straight line but does not change direction, will the magnitude of its displacement during
any interval equal its distance traveled during the same interval? If the answer is no, which will be greater?
e. In general, if an object moves in a straight line but changes direction at some point, will the magnitude of its displacement
during an interval that includes the change in direction equal its distance traveled? If the answer is no, which will be
greater?
f. Finally, qualitatively draw the acceleration vs. time graph for the animation.
Problem authored by Aaron Titus.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.3: Which helicopter flies according to the velocity vs. time graph shown?
Which helicopter flies according to the velocity vs. time graph shown above (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds)? Restart.
Problem authored by Aaron Titus with support by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DUE-9952323 and placed
in the public domain.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.4: Two balls are putted with the same initial velocity on separate greens
Two balls are putted with the same initial velocity on separate greens. The x axis is always defined to be parallel to the ground
(even when the blue ball is on the hill). The first ball (red) rolls on a flat surface. The second ball (blue) rolls on a flat surface,
then down a hill, onto a flat surface, then up a hill, and onto a flat surface again (position is given in meters and time is given
in seconds).
a. Which ball will reach the hole first? Make your prediction and then press "play" to view the animation to see the
result. Restart.
b. Which ball has a greater average velocity during the animation time?
Problem authored by Aaron Titus. Script authored by Aaron Titus and Mario Belloni.

Exercise 11.1.2.3.5: Sketch velocity vs. time graph
Observe the two animations (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. Sketch the velocity as a function of time for each animation. Draw both functions on the same graph in order to compare
the two animations.
b. Make a second velocity vs. time sketch for Animation 1. On your graph, make sure to have a long enough time interval that
the ball's position is between x = −2 m and x = 2 m twice. What is the area under this portion of the velocity curve?
Remember the convention that area under a curve above the axis is considered positive and area below the axis is
considered negative. How would your answer change if you did this for Animation 2?
Exercise 11.1.2.3.6: Playing constant velocity putt-putt golf
Shown is a red golf ball that you are to putt into the green hole (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Two time-dependent obstacles are in your way. Find the initial velocity that will score a hole-in-one. Show all your
work leading up to this velocity. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.7: Calculate the acceleration of 6 carts depending on the data given
A 1.0-kg cart on a track experiences several different constant accelerations as shown in the animation (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). The red dot shows you where position measurements are taken. What is the acceleration
of the cart in each animation? Restart.
Note
In Animation 1, the click-drag to read coordinates is disabled.
In Animations 4-6, the time display is disabled.
In Animations 2 and 3, the calculation for the velocity is disabled.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.8: The purple truck is catching up to the yellow truck
The purple truck is catching up to the yellow truck (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. If the trucks continue, at what clock reading, t , will the purple truck pass the yellow truck?
b. At what position, x, does the purple truck pass the yellow truck?
c. On one graph, plot x vs. t for each truck. Verify your answers for parts (a) and (b).
Exercise 11.1.2.3.9: The animation simulates the motion of a helium balloon
The animation simulates the motion of a helium balloon with the effect of air resistance neglected. A graph of y velocity vs.
time for the balloon is also shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. Is the y velocity increasing, decreasing, or constant?
b. Is the y acceleration increasing, decreasing, or constant?
c. What is the acceleration of the balloon?

Exercise 11.1.2.3.10: The rope holding cargo on a hot-air balloon is cut
At t = 10 s , the rope holding cargo on a hot-air balloon is cut and the cargo is in free fall (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). The table gives you the coordinates of the cargo. Restart.
a. What is the velocity of the cargo before the rope is cut?
b. At what instant does the cargo reach its maximum height? Calculate t and compare it to what you measure in the animation
(to the nearest 0.05 s).
c. What is the maximum height (relative to the ground) reached by the cargo? Calculate this height and compare it to what you
measure in the animation.
d. Calculate the instantaneous velocity of the cargo at the instant (just before) it hits the ground.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.11: A golf ball is putted on a level, but wet, green
A golf ball is putted on a level, but wet, green. A top view is shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). Restart.
a. Is the velocity of the golf ball constant, increasing, or decreasing during the interval from t = 0 to t = 5 s ?
b. Is the speed of the golf ball constant, increasing, or decreasing during the interval from t = 0 to t = 5 s ?
c. What does the area under the velocity vs. time graph (from zero to the curve) from t = 0 to t = 9.4 s correspond to?
d. What is the ball's average acceleration between t = 0 and t = 9.4 s ?
e. Is the acceleration of the golf ball constant, increasing, or decreasing during the interval from t = 0 to t = 5 s ?
Exercise 11.1.2.3.12: Two springs are attached to the ends of a cart that is on a cart track
Two springs are attached to the ends of a cart that is on a cart track. If the cart is pulled back and released, it will move back
and forth as shown in the animation. The graph shows the acceleration of the cart as a function of time (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. At what time(s) is the acceleration of the cart equal to zero?
b. Where is the acceleration a maximum? A minimum?
c. What is the area under the graph for the interval from t = 0.5 s to t = 1.0 s ?
Exercise 11.1.2.3.13: A golf ball is putted up a steep hill on a green
A golf ball is putted up a steep hill on a green. A side view is shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). The positive x direction is defined to be parallel to the hill and down the hill. What should the minimum
initial velocity of the ball be in order to make it into the hole located at x = −3.6 m? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.14: A putted golf ball rolls on a green
Press "play" to see a putted golf ball roll on a green as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given
in seconds). Restart.
a. What is the acceleration of the ball for each region (the lowest flat surface, the hill, and the highest flat surface)?
b. When the ball is on the hill, would you say that the velocity of the ball is increasing, decreasing, or constant? What about its
speed?
c. Suppose you want to putt the ball so that it just barely makes it to the hole at the top of the hill. What should the initial
velocity of the ball be (i.e., the velocity of the ball at the bottom of the hill)?

Problem authored by Aaron Titus. Script authored by Aaron Titus and Mario Belloni.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.15: Playing constant acceleration putt-putt golf
seconds). Two time-dependent obstacles are in your way. Find the initial velocity and the acceleration that will score a hole-in-
one. Show all your work leading up to this velocity and acceleration. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.16: Playing constant accerlation putt-putt golf
seconds). Two time-dependent obstacles are in your way. Find the initial velocity and the acceleration that will score a hole-in-
one. Show all your work leading up to this velocity and acceleration. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.17: Drag the black rectangle into position
Drag the black rectangle into position (between x = 0.5 m to x = 3.5 m) before you play the animation (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). Play the animation in order to measure the time when the ball collides with the
rectangle. After the ball collides with the rectangle, you must click "reset" to move the rectangle to a new position and play the
animation again. Restart.
a. How would you describe the motion of the ball before it collides with the rectangle? How many measurements are needed
to confirm your description?
b. Is the x trajectory of the ball best described using the equation for constant velocity or the equation for constant
acceleration? Support your answer with actual measurements.
c. Find an equation for the x trajectory of the ball (before it hits the rectangle). What minimum number of measurements is
required to determine this trajectory?
Exercise 11.1.2.3.18: A tennis ball launcher shoots a red tennis ball into the air
A giant tennis ball launcher shoots a giant red tennis ball straight up into the air. At the instant it leaves the launcher (t = 0 s ),
a giant green tennis ball is dropped from rest (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. If you want the red ball to return to the launcher at the same instant that the green ball hits the ground, what should the red
tennis ball's initial velocity be?
b. With the initial velocity you calculated in part (a), what would be the maximum height of the red ball shot from the
launcher?
Make sure to measure the position of each ball consistently.
Exercise 11.1.2.3.19: A tennis ball launcher shoots a tennis ball into the air
A giant tennis ball launcher shoots a giant tennis ball straight up into the air (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Because of the cylinder of the launcher, you can't see where the ball is first launched (assume it is launched at
t = 0 s ). If you double the initial velocity of the ball, what is the new position of the maximum height? Restart.
Problem authored by Aaron Titus and modified by Mario Belloni.
Olaf College.





11.1.3: Two-Dimensional Kinematics
In this chapter we generalize the study of motion in one dimension to the motion of objects in two dimensions. In doing so we
discuss two of the most important forms of two-dimensional motion, projectile motion and circular motion.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.3.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Vector Decomposition
A red vector is shown on a coordinate grid, and several properties of that vector are given in a data table (position is given in
meters). How can you represent this vector? There are two ways: component form and magnitude and direction form. Both ways
of representing vectors are correct, but in different circumstances one way may be more convenient than the other. Restart.
You can drag the head of the vector by click-dragging the small circle at the vector's head.
Magnitude and Direction Form: When you think of a vector, such as the one depicted, you are thinking of the magnitude and
direction form. We describe the magnitude as the size of the vector (depicted in the table as r, which is always a positive number)
and the direction as an angle (also depicted in the table and given in degrees). This angle is measured from the positive x axis to the
direction that the vector is pointing.
Component Form: When you are solving problems in two dimensions, you often need to decompose a vector into the component
form. So how do you do that? Look at the show components version of the animation. As you drag around the red vector, the
maroon vectors show you the x and y components of the red vector (these are also shown in the table as x and y ). Try to keep the
length of the vector the same and change the angle. How did the components change with angle? As the angle gets smaller, the x
component of the vector gets larger (it approaches the magnitude of the vector) and the y component of the vector gets smaller (it
approaches zero). As the angle approaches 90 the x component of the vector gets smaller (it approaches zero) and the y
∘
component of the vector gets larger (it approaches the magnitude of the vector). Mathematically this is described by the statement
that
x = r cos(θ) and y = r sin(θ)
Once in component form, we can of course, go back to magnitude and direction form by using the relationships
2 2 1/2 −1
r = (x +y ) and θ = tan (y/x)
Notice that the magnitude of the vector, here r, must be positive as stated above.
Illustration 2: Motion on an Incline

Galileo was the first person to realize that a well-polished (a very slippery or frictionless) inclined plane could be used to reduce the
effect of gravity. He realized that if you started with a vertical incline (angle of 90 ), the scenario was equivalent to free fall. If the
∘
incline was horizontal (an angle of 0 ), the object would not move at all. He therefore reasoned that as you decreased this angle
∘
from 90 the acceleration would decrease. He was able to measure this acceleration and, thereby, determine the acceleration due to
∘
gravity. Mathematically, this amounts to the realization that as a function of the incline's angle:
geff = g sin(θ)
where g eff is the acceleration down the incline. See Illustration 2.5 and Chapter 4 for more details.
By varying the type of object sliding down the slippery (frictionless) incline, he was able to show that all objects accelerate at the
same rate. Try the experiment for yourself (time is given in seconds and distance is given in meters) with the above three
animations.
Galileo started his objects from rest on an incline. What did he find from his experiments? Galileo's conclusion was that during
successive equal-time intervals the objects' successive displacements increased as odd integers: 1, 3, 5, 7, …. What does that
really mean? Consider the chart below, which converts Galileo's data into data we can more easily understand (data shown for an
incline whose angle yields an acceleration of 2 m/s ): 2
Elapsed time (s) Displacement during the time interval (m) Total displacement (m)
1 1 1
2 3 4
3 5 9
4 7 16

Table 11.1.3.1.1
The third column is constructed by adding up all of the previous displacements that occurred in each time interval to get the net or
total displacement that occurred so far. What is the relationship between displacement and time? The displacement is related to the
square of the time elapsed. Does that idea look familiar? It should. We found in Chapter 2 that x = x + v ∗ t + 0.5 ∗ a ∗ t or
0 0
2
that, for no initial velocity, x = x + 0.5 ∗ a ∗ t or that Δx is proportional to t .

0
2 2
Illustration 3: The Direction of Velocity and Acceleration Vectors

A putted golf ball rolls across the green as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The
animation represents the top view of the motion of the ball. Restart.
What is the direction of the velocity of the golf ball at any instant of time? View the velocity vector to check your answer (notice
that a black line tangent to the object's path is also drawn). The direction of the velocity vector is determined by a fairly simple
rule: It is always tangent to the path and in the direction of motion. The "direction of motion" is basically the direction of the
object's displacement during a very small time interval. Since the displacement divided by this very small time interval approaches
the instantaneous velocity (see Illustration 2.3), the instantaneous velocity must point in the direction of motion. This also directly
follows from the definition of instantaneous velocity as the derivative of the position vector with respect to time.
What about the acceleration vector? It points in the direction of the change in velocity during any small time interval. This is again
a result of the definition of acceleration. However, it also follows an interesting rule.
The acceleration vector can be resolved into two components, a component tangent to the path (called the tangential acceleration)
and a component perpendicular to the path (called the radial component). View the velocity and acceleration vectors. The radial
component of the acceleration is related to the change in direction of the velocity vector and points along the radius of curvature.
The tangential component of the acceleration is related to the change in the magnitude of the velocity vector. In other words, it is
related to the change in the speed. If the object is slowing down, then the tangential component of the acceleration is opposite to the
velocity. If the object is speeding up, the tangential component of the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity.
Click here to view the velocity vector (blue), acceleration vector (orange), and acceleration components (yellow for the tangential
component and red for the radial component).
Illustration authored by Aaron Titus with support by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DUE-9952323 and placed
Illustration 4: Projectile Motion

A purple ball undergoes projectile motion as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
The blue and red objects illustrate the x and y components of the ball's motion. Ghost images are placed on the screen every
second. To understand projectile motion, you must first understand the ball's motion in the x and y directions separately (any
multidimensional motion can be resolved into components). Restart.
Consider the x direction. Notice that the x coordinate of the projectile (purple) is identical to the x coordinate of the blue object at
every instant. What do you notice about the spacing between blue images? You should notice that the displacement between
successive images is constant. So what does this tell you about the x velocity of the projectile? What does it tell you about the x
acceleration of the projectile? This should tell you that the object moves with a constant velocity in this direction (which is also
depicted on the left graph).
Now consider the y direction. Notice that the y coordinate of the projectile (purple) is identical to the y coordinate of the red object
at every instant. What do you notice about the spacing between successive images for the red object? You should notice that the
displacement between successive images gets smaller as the object rises and gets larger as the object falls. This means that it has a
downward acceleration. By studying the right-hand graph, we can also see that the y acceleration is constant.
A particularly important point to understand for the motion of a projectile is what happens at the peak. What is the velocity of the
projectile at the peak? This is a tricky question because you have a good idea that the y velocity is zero. However, does this mean
that the velocity is zero? Remember that velocity has two components, v and v . At the peak, v is not zero. Therefore, the
x y x
velocity at the peak is not zero. Click here to view the velocity and acceleration vectors.
Illustration authored by Aaron Titus with support by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DUE-9952323 and placed

Illustration 5: Uniform Circular Motion and Acceleration
Uniform circular motion is an interesting mixture of one- and two-dimensional concepts. Restart. For uniform circular motion the
speed of the object must be constant. This is the uniform in uniform circular motion. Show the ball undergoing uniform circular
motion. So is an object moving in a circle with a constant speed accelerating? Yes! Why? The velocity is changing with time.
Watch the animation (position is shown in meters and time is shown in seconds). The animation depicts an object moving in a
circle at a constant speed. To determine the acceleration, we need to consider the change in velocity for a change in time.
Since the speed does not change in time, what does change in time? It is the direction of the velocity that changes with time. Draw
two velocity vectors corresponding to two different times to convince yourself that the direction of the velocity changes with time.
Recall that velocity has both a direction (which always points tangent to the path, the so-called tangential direction) and a
magnitude, and either or both can change with time. Where does the change in velocity point? Calculate the acceleration. The
acceleration points toward the center of the circle. This direction—toward the center of the circle—is called the centripetal or
center-seeking direction. It is often also called the radial direction, since the radius points from the center of the circle out to the
object (the net acceleration points in the opposite direction).
Therefore, for uniform circular motion, the acceleration always points toward the center of the circle, no matter the cause. This is
despite the fact that the velocity and the acceleration point in changing directions as time goes on. However, we get around this
apparent difficulty in describing direction by defining the centripetal or radial direction and the tangential direction (the direction
tangent to the circle). These directions change, but the velocity is always tangent to the circle and the acceleration is always
pointing toward the center of the circle. The following animation shows velocity and acceleration as the object undergoes uniform
circular motion.
Illustration 6: Circular and Noncircular Motion

A planet (green) orbits a star (yellow) as shown in the two animations. Restart. One animation depicts the uniform circular
motion of a planet and the other one depicts the noncircular motion of a planet (position is given in 10 km and time is given in
3
years). This Illustration will compare the two motions by focusing on the velocity and the acceleration of the planet in each of the
animations.
Start the uniform circular motion animation and watch the planet's motion. How would you describe the motion of the planet
(consider velocity and acceleration)? The speed of the planet is certainly a constant since the motion of the planet is uniform. But
using our usual xy coordinates, the velocity certainly changes with time. Recall that the term velocity refers to both the magnitude
and direction. However, if we use the radial and tangential directions to describe the motion of the planet, the velocity can be
described as tangential and the acceleration can be described as being directed along the radius (the negative of the radial
direction). Click here to view the velocity vector (blue) and the black line tangent to the path. Click here to view the acceleration
vector (red), too. Notice that the acceleration vector points toward the star at the center of the circle.
Start the noncircular motion animation and watch the planet's motion. How would you now describe the motion of the planet
(consider velocity and acceleration)? The speed of the planet is certainly no longer a constant since the motion of the planet is no
longer uniform. Again using our usual xy coordinates, the velocity certainly changes with time since now both the direction and the
magnitude change. However, if we use the radial and tangential directions to the path of the planet, the velocity can be described as
tangential and the acceleration can be described as being directed along the radius. Click here to view the velocity vector (blue)
and click here to view the acceleration vector (red), too. Notice that the velocity and the acceleration are no longer perpendicular
for most of the orbit of the planet.
Notice that between points A and C the planet is speeding up, and between points C and A the planet is slowing down. This means
that at points A and C the tangential component of acceleration is zero. It turns out that for a planet orbiting a star (if there are no
other planets or stars nearby) the acceleration of the planet is directed exactly toward the star whether the motion of the planet is
uniform or not.
Illustration authored by Aaron Titus and Mario Belloni.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Addition of Displacement Vectors
Suppose that you use a radar system to track an airplane (the red circle) and the airplane travels according to the animation
shown. Restart.
a. Draw a vector for the displacement of the airplane from t = 0 s to t = 8 s . To do this, click the "Draw Vector" button. When a
vector appears, drag it to the position of the airplane at t = 0 s . Then play the animation, stop it at t = 8 s , and adjust the tip of
the vector until it is at this position.
b. Now draw a displacement vector for the airplane from t = 8 s to t = 16 s . Use the same procedure as before. Be sure to click
the "Draw Vector" button so that you can have a new vector to work with. You should see both the first displacement vector and
the second displacement vector.
c. Now draw a displacement vector for the airplane from t = 0 s to t = 16 s . Use the same procedure as before. What do you
notice? To add vectors like this, you can connect the vectors from tail to head. The result, called the resultant vector, is the
vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.
d. Click here to view the correct answer. How does your result compare to the correct answer?
Exploration authored by Aaron Titus with support by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DUE-9952323 and placed
Exploration 2: Run the Gauntlet, Controlling x, v, and a

Drag the tip of the arrow to control the position, velocity, or acceleration of the object depending on which animation you choose.
Use the animation to answer the following questions (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. Can you navigate to the goal on the right? We call this challenge Running the Gauntlet.
b. Which controller (the position, velocity, or acceleration) is harder to use? Why?
Exploration 3: Acceleration of a Golf Ball That Rims the Hole

A putted golf ball "rims" the hole as shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds).
Velocity vectors for the ball at the instant just before it hits the hole and the instant just after it hits the hole are shown. Restart.
Note that the ball's speed does not change upon hitting the edge of the hole; this would not occur for an actual golf ball that rims
the hole.
Suppose we want to find the average acceleration of the golf ball at some instant when it is in contact with the hole.
a. Draw the change-in-velocity vector using the velocity vectors shown. Click "Draw Vector" to add a vector to the animation and
click "Clear Screen" to erase all drawn vectors.
b. What is the magnitude and direction of the change-in-velocity during this interval?
c. What is the average acceleration during this interval?
d. For the animation shown, at what instant do you think the instantaneous acceleration will equal the average acceleration of the
golf ball during the time interval from 0.9 s to 1.2 s?
e. Click here to view the acceleration vector. If your change-in-velocity vector is still drawn on the screen, then you can stop the
animation at the point where the acceleration vector and change-in-velocity vector match up. Did this occur at the instant you
predicted?
Exploration 4: Space Probe with Constant Acceleration

When you studied projectile motion, you learned that for projectile motion the x acceleration is zero and constant (which results in
2
a constant x velocity) and the y acceleration is constant and downward toward Earth with a magnitude of 9.8 m/s . What
mathematical curve describes the shape of the path of the projectile? Its shape is a parabola. It turns out that the shape of the path of
any object that has constant acceleration and an initial velocity that is in a different direction than the acceleration is a parabola.

In the animation shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds), a space probe has engines that can fire on all
four sides. Two of the engines engage at t = 2 s . Restart. The acceleration is constant and zero before the engines engage, and it is
constant (but not equal to zero) after the engines engage.
a. What is the direction of the x component of the acceleration after the engines engage?
b. What is the y velocity before the engines engage?
c. After the engines engage, how is the y velocity different?
d. Now click here to view the velocity and acceleration vectors. Do they match what you predicted?
Exploration 5: Uphill and Downhill Projectile Motion

A projectile is launched at t = 0 s (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). You may change the projectile's
launch angle and initial speed and the height of the hill by using the text boxes and clicking the "set values and play"
button. Restart.
For h = 0 m , vary the projectile's launch angle and initial speed and consider the following questions.
a. For a given initial speed, what launch angle will provide the maximum range of the projectile?
b. For the value of launch angle in (a), what is the value of the initial speed that will hit the target?
c. What other value(s) of the projectile's launch angle and initial speed will enable the projectile to hit the target?
d. Are these values unique?
e. What is the general relationship between launch angle and initial speed?
For h = 10 m , vary the projectile's launch angle and initial speed and consider the following questions.
f. For a given initial speed, what launch angle will provide the maximum horizontal displacement of the projectile?
g. What value(s) of the projectile's launch angle and initial speed will enable the projectile to hit the target?
h. Are these values unique?
i. Are these values the same as in (c)?
For h = −10 m , vary the projectile's launch angle and initial speed and consider the following questions.
j. For a given initial speed, what launch angle will provide the maximum horizontal displacement of the projectile?
k. What value(s) of the projectile's launch angle and initial speed will enable the projectile to hit the target?
l. Are these values unique?
m. Are these values the same as in (c) and (g)?
Exploration 6: Uniform Circular Motion

A point (red) on a rotating wheel is shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. Note that the speed of the red point is constant. Is its velocity constant?
b. Click here to view the velocity vector. After viewing the vector rethink your answer: is the velocity of the red point constant?
c. What is the direction of the red point's acceleration vector? Click here to view the acceleration and velocity vectors.
d. How does the speed of the red point compare to the speed of another point, say a green one, which is at only half the radius of
the red point? Click here to view both points. For clarity the green point is shown on the opposite side from the red one.
e. Why is the speed of the green point less than the speed of the red point?
f. How does the magnitude of the acceleration of the red point compare to the magnitude of the acceleration of the green
point? Click here to view both points and their velocity and acceleration vectors.
Olaf College.


11.1.3.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.3.3.1: Rank the 5 vectors
Five vectors are shown on the coordinate grid (position is given in meters). You can change the position of a vector by click-
dragging at the base of the vector. Click restart to return the vectors to their original positions.
a. Rank the x components of the five vectors shown (smallest to largest).
b. Rank the y components of the five vectors shown (smallest to largest).
c. What are the components of the vector that results when Vector B is added to Vector D?
Problem authored by Melissa Dancy.
Exercise 11.1.3.3.2: Two vectors are shown on the coordinate grid
Two vectors are shown on the coordinate grid (position is given in meters). Restart.
a. What are the x and y components of the blue vector?
b. What are the x and y components of the red vector?
Now drag the circle at the tail of the red vector so that it is on top of the blue vector's head. The vector sum is now a vector that
reaches from the tail of the first (blue) vector to the head of the second (red) vector.
c. What are the components of this vector sum?
d. How do they relate to the components of the original (blue and red) vectors?
Exercise 11.1.3.3.3: Rank the motion diagrams
The animations represent the motion of a ball on various surfaces (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
The "ghosts" are placed at equal time intervals. Such a picture is often called a motion diagram. Restart.
Answer the following questions using the coordinate system specified in each animation by the red arrow. Please indicate ties
by ( ). For example a suitable response could be: 1, (2, 3), 4, 5, 6.
For parts (a), (b), and (c), use the ghost images to qualitatively rank the quantities.
a. Rank each case from highest to lowest displacement.
b. Rank each case from highest to lowest final velocity.
c. Rank each case from highest to lowest acceleration (assume constant acceleration).
Now use the usual x and y coordinates that you can access by click-dragging in the animation.
d. Calculate the displacement vector for each animation.
e. Calculate the acceleration vector for each animation (assume that in Animation 3 and Animation 6 the ball starts at rest and
that in Animation 1 and Animation 4 the ball ends at rest).
Problem authored by Mario Belloni*.
*This exercise was adapted from an original Ranking Task Exercise which appears in the book Ranking Task Exercises in
Physics, T. O' Kuma, D. Maloney, and C. Hieggelke.
Exercise 11.1.3.3.4: A bowling ball is lifted from rest onto a shelf
A bowling ball is lifted from rest onto a shelf by an external agent (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
For each quantity below, rank the animations (numbered 1 through 4) from least to greatest. Ties in ( ) please. For example, a
suitable response could be: 1, (2, 3), 4. Restart.
Quantity Ranking
magnitude of displacement
magnitude of average velocity

Table 11.1.3.3.1
Exercise 11.1.3.3.5: A helicopter takes off
A flying helicopter is shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. Sketch a graph of x position vs. time for the helicopter.
b. Sketch a graph of y position vs. time for the helicopter.
c. What is the x velocity of the helicopter at any instant?
d. What is the y velocity of the helicopter at any instant?
e. What is the speed of the helicopter at any instant?
Exercise 11.1.3.3.6: A hot-air balloon takes off
A hot-air balloon travels as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The x and y
positions of the hot-air balloon's basket are shown in the graphs. Restart.
a. During approximately what time interval is the magnitude of the y velocity increasing?
b. During approximately what time interval is the magnitude of the y velocity decreasing?
c. At approximately what instant of time does the y acceleration change from positive to negative?
d. What is the y velocity from t = 87 s until t = 200 s ?
e. What is the y acceleration from t = 87 s until t = 200 s ?
f. What is the x velocity from t = 87 s until t = 200 s ?
g. What is the x acceleration from t = 87 s until t = 200 s ?
h. What is the x displacement from t = 0 s until t = 200 s ?
i. What is the y displacement from t = 0 s until t = 200 s ?
Exercise 11.1.3.3.7: A projectile is launched
A projectile is launched as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Where does the
ball reach its minimum speed, and what is its speed when it gets there? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.3.3.8: Shoot the apple from the tree
A hunter (off screen) aims his rifle at an apple in a tree as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). At the instant the bullet leaves the rifle, the apple starts falling from rest. Which of the above animations
correctly depicts the hunter's aim that hits the apple?
Note
All three show the apple being hit, but only one animation depicts correct physics. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.3.3.9: Projectile motion problem
A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 20 m/s as shown in the animation (position is given in meters). Restart. The
time display is suppressed, but you can still click-drag to get coordinates. A line is also shown that represents the initial
direction of the velocity.
a. What is the launch angle?
b. What are v and v ?
0x 0y
c. What is the maximum height the projectile will reach?

d. How long does it take the projectile to reach that height?
e. What is the total time that the projectile is in the air?
Exercise 11.1.3.3.10: Aim the projectile to hit the moving Lamborghini
A projectile is launched when the yellow Lamborghini (not shown to scale) goes by at t = 0 s (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). You may change the projectile's launch angle and initial speed by using the text boxes and
clicking "set values and play." Find the relationship between v and θ such that the projectile will always hit the car. When you
0
determine the relationship, make sure to test it with a few values of v and θ . Restart.
0
Exercise 11.1.3.3.11: A red ball slides off a table
A red ball slides off a table as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Ignore air
friction. If the ball collides with the other table such that v remains the same and v changes sign upon collision, where will
y x
the red ball land? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.3.3.12: A basketball bounces on the floor
A bouncing basketball is shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. While
the basketball is in the air, its motion is characterized by projectile motion.
a. What is the average y acceleration of the ball during the interval of the first bounce, that is from t = 0.85 s to t = 0.95 s?
b. What is the average x acceleration of the ball during the interval of the first bounce, that is from t = 0.85 s to t = 0.95 s?
c. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the ball during this interval?
d. While the ball is in the air (between the bounces), is the x velocity increasing, decreasing, or constant? What is the x
acceleration while the ball is in the air?
e. As the ball rolls to a stop, between t = 3.0 s and t = 8.0 s , what is the x acceleration of the ball? What is the y
acceleration of the ball during this interval?
Exercise 11.1.3.3.13: A putted golf ball rolls in a straight line toward the hole
The animation shows a putted golf ball as it travels toward the hole (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. Is the acceleration of the golf ball between t = 0 and t = 4.2 s constant, increasing, or decreasing?
b. What is the average acceleration of the golf ball during this time interval?
c. Calculate the x displacement of the golf ball from t = 0 to t = 4.2 s and show that it is the same as what you measure on
the animation.
d. Calculate the y displacement of the golf ball from t = 0 to t = 4.2 s and show that it is the same as what you measure on
the animation.
e. What is the magnitude of the displacement of the golf ball from t = 0 to t = 4.2 s ?
Exercise 11.1.3.3.14: A space probe travels with a constant acceleration
In the animation shown, a space probe has engines that can fire on all four sides (position is given in meters and time is given
in seconds). Two of the engines engage at t = 5 s . Restart The acceleration is constant and zero before the engines engage,
and it is constant (but not equal to zero) after the engines engage.
a. What is the initial velocity of the probe just before the engines fire?
b. What is the acceleration of the probe after the engines fire?

c. Assuming the engines continue to fire in the same way, what will be the position and velocity of the probe at t = 25 s ?
d. At what instant is v = 0 ? At what instant is v = 0 ?
x y
Exercise 11.1.3.3.15: An object travels along a circular path
An object travels along a circular path as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. At t = 2 s , what is the direction of the velocity of the object?
b. At t = 2 s , what is the approximate direction of the acceleration of the object? You do not need to give an exact direction,
just an approximate direction based on what you know about the direction of the radial component and the direction of the
tangential component.
c. At t = 4 s , what is the direction of the velocity? If it is zero, indicate so.
d. At t = 4 s , what is the approximate direction of the acceleration? If it is zero, indicate so.
e. At t = 6 s , what is the direction of the velocity?
f. At t = 6 s , what is the approximate direction of the acceleration?
Exercise 11.1.3.3.16: Rotating square
A square rotates as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. A corner of
the square is labeled A. For all of the following questions consider the motion of point A from t = 0.5 s to t = 2.5 s .
a. What is the displacement of point A during this time interval?
b. What is its distance traveled during this interval?
c. What is its average velocity during this interval?
d. What is its average speed during this interval?
Exercise 11.1.3.3.17: Uniform circular motion of a wheel
A point (red) on a rotating wheel is shown in the animation (position given in meters and time given in seconds). Restart.
a. What is the period of the wheel (the time it takes the red point to complete one revolution)?
b. What is the speed of the red point?
c. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the red point?
d. At t = 5.0 s , what is the direction of the velocity vector and what is the direction of the acceleration vector for the red
point?
Olaf College.




11.1.4: Newton's Laws
We have just finished our study of kinematics. In kinematics we did not care why an object was moving. We are now going to
explain why objects move or do not move. We do so by using the concept of force. In this chapter we consider the basic techniques
of free-body diagrams, the normal force, and the forces of weight and tension.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.4.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Newton's First Law and Reference Frames
On first glance it may seem like Newton's first law (an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion
unless acted on by a net force) is contained within Newton's second law. This is actually not the case. The first law is also a
statement regarding reference frames. This is the information NOT contained in the second law. Sometimes the first law is also
called the law of inertia. It defines a certain set of reference frames in which the first law holds, and these reference frames are
therefore called inertial frames of reference. Put another way, Newton's first law states that if the net force on an object is zero, it is
possible to find at least one reference frame in which that object is stationary. There are many frames in which the object is moving
with a constant velocity.
A ball popper on a cart (not shown to scale) is shown moving on a track in three different animations (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). In each animation the ball is ejected straight up by the popper mechanism at t = 1 s . Restart.
Let us first consider Animation 1. In this animation the cart is stationary. But is it really? We know that we cannot tell if we are
stationary or moving at a constant velocity (in other words in an inertial reference frame). Recall that if we are moving relative to
Earth at a constant velocity we are in an inertial reference frame. So how can we tell if we are moving? How about the cart? We
cannot tell if there is motion as long as the relative motion with respect to Earth can be described by a constant velocity. In
Animation 1 the cart could be stationary. In this case, we expect—and actually see—that the ball lands back in the popper.
However, if the cart was moving relative to Earth and we were moving along with the cart, the motion of the ball and the cart
would look exactly the same!
What would the motion of this ball and cart look like if the cart moved relative to our reference frame (or if we moved relative to
its reference frame)? Animations 2 and 3 show the motion from different reference frames. What do these animations look like?
Both animations resemble projectile motion. The motion of the ball looks like motion in a plane as opposed to motion on a line.
Does the ball still land in the popper? Would you expect this? Sure. There is nothing out of the ordinary going on here. Since there
are no forces in the x direction, the motion of the ball (and cart) should be described by constant velocity in that direction.
Therefore the ball and the cart have the same constant horizontal velocity.
For more on reference frames and relative motion, see Chapter 1.9.
Illustration 2: Free-Body Diagrams

In Illustration 2 an 8-kg block is pushed across the floor (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). Along
with the motion, several possible free-body diagrams are drawn for both the x and y components of the force. Note that only one of
the possible free-body diagrams is correct for each component. Restart.
Look at the motion of the block by pressing "play." How do we analyze the motion of the block using forces? Well, the first thing
we do is draw a picture that shows only the object and the direction of the forces. The picture we draw is called a free-body
diagram. First we will analyze the forces in the x direction and then the forces in the y direction.
Consider the forces in the x direction (Free-Body x). What forces act? How big are they? How do we know? Click each of the four
x-direction free-body diagrams. Which one do you think is correct? Usually we know all of the forces that act, but here we just
know of the push that is shown in Free-Body 1x. Is that the only force acting in the x direction? Newton's second law says that a
net force acting on an object means that the object must be accelerating (the object's velocity changes). Does the block's velocity
change? No (You can tell either by looking at the block's motion or by calculating the velocity and showing that it does not
change.); therefore there must be another force acting, that of friction that opposes the motion. This eliminates Free-Body
1x and Free-Body 3x because they show only one force. The second force not only opposes motion, but in this animation it is
exactly the same size as the push. This means that Free-Body 2x is not correct either. Therefore, Free-Body 4x depicts the correct
free-body diagram for the forces that act in the x direction. (The form of the frictional force will be considered in detail in Chapter
5.)
Now consider the forces in the y direction (Free-Body y ). What forces act? How big are they? How do we know? Click each of the
four y -direction free-body diagrams. Which one do you think is correct? Usually we know all of the forces that act, but here we just
know of the force of gravity that is shown in Free-Body 1y. Is that the only force acting in the y direction? Since the block does not
accelerate in the y direction, there must be another force acting. This eliminates Free-Body 1y and Free-Body 2y because they
show only one force. The force that is missing is the so-called normal force (the force of the table acting on the block) that opposes

gravity. The normal force not only opposes motion in the y direction but here is exactly the same size as the gravitational force, the
object's weight. This means that Free-Body 3y cannot be correct either. Therefore, Free-Body 4y depicts the correct free-body
diagram for the forces that act in the y direction. Note that the normal force is not always equal to the weight. If there is an
acceleration in the y direction or if the block is on an incline, the normal is not equal to the weight.
Note that in order to solve the complete problem we would draw all of the forces on one free-body diagram. We have done the
analysis here by breaking up the motion into components. Given what we have said above, what does the complete free-body
diagram look like? The complete free-body diagram animation shows the combination of the forces in the x direction and the
forces in the y direction.
Illustration 3: Newton's Second Law and Force

Although most physicists would agree that the concept of force is not as fundamental as the concept of a conservation law, it is still
considered central to the study of physics. A force is a push, a pull, or any other interaction, exerted by one object on another
object. We know from experience that a push or a pull often causes an object to move. This allows us to quantify the definition of
force in terms of a quantity that was defined previously: acceleration. Restart.
Note
If an object's mass remains constant, the magnitude of a force exerted on an object is proportional to the time rate of change of
the velocity (i.e., acceleration). Specifically, ∑ F = ma .
Use this definition as you consider the results of Illustration 3 (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Set the
mass in the text box before you select the graph type, velocity or acceleration.
The two-handed image ("handy") interacts with the 1.0-kg cart in the animation if the image is near the left-hand or right-hand end
of the cart. The arrow below the cart shows the direction and strength of the force exerted on the cart. You will have to move the
image to keep it behind the cart since the interaction changes direction if the image passes through the center of the cart. Start the
animation and explore it for a few minutes. Reset the animation if the cart goes off the end of the track.
Now select velocity (and then acceleration). Drag the handy image to the left of the cart and try to apply the force for as brief a
period of time as you can. This will result in a force applied to the cart only for a short period of time and then no force will act.
What do the resulting velocity and acceleration graphs look like? The velocity graph should show an increasing velocity for the
instant handy is acting on the cart; then it should have a slope of zero. The velocity only changes when the force is acting. The
acceleration graph should give a spike during the application of the force and be zero otherwise. Repeat the same process when the
image is to the right of the cart. What changes? Because force is a vector, the applied force is now in the negative x direction.
Therefore, the velocity and the acceleration are now both negative as well.
Now select velocity (and then acceleration). Drag the handy image to the left of the cart and then keep dragging it to the right as the
cart moves. This will result in a constant force applied to the cart. What do the resulting velocity and acceleration graphs look like?
The velocity graph should have a constant slope upward while the acceleration graph should give a constant acceleration during the
application of the force. Repeat the process when the image is to the right of the cart. What changes? Because force is a vector, the
applied force is now in the negative x direction. Therefore, the velocity and the acceleration are now both negative as well.
What changes on the velocity and acceleration graphs will occur if the mass of the cart is doubled or decreased by a factor of two?
Try it and find out. Since acceleration is equal to the force over the mass, an increase in mass means a smaller acceleration, and a
decrease in mass means a larger acceleration.
Illustration 4: Mass on an Incline

A mass is on a frictionless incline as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds. You may
adjust m, the mass of the block 100 grams < m < 500 grams) , and θ , the angle of the incline (10 < θ < 45 ) , and view how
∘ ∘
these changes affect the motion of the block. Restart.

One of the first things to stress about this type of problem is that, for a suitable set of coordinates, while it is a two-dimensional
problem, the motion of the block is one dimensional. Since the motion of the block is down the incline, let's choose that direction
for the x axis. Since coordinate axes are perpendicular, let's also call the direction normal to the incline, the y axis. This does two
things for us: The net force (and therefore the acceleration) is now on axis (the x axis) and we do not need to decompose the

normal force. Check the box and click the "register and play" button to see the free-body diagram for the block and the net force
acting on the block.
What force determines the acceleration of the block? It is the part of the gravitational force that is down the incline (mg sin θ ).
Therefore, the other component of the gravitational force (mg cos θ ) must be equal to the normal force since we do not see the
block flying off of the incline. The acceleration of the block is g sin θ down the incline.
Now try changing the mass of the block. How do you think the block's acceleration will change as you change the mass?
Now change the angle of the incline. How do you think the angle of the incline affects the acceleration of the block. In the
animation you are limited to 10 > θ > 45 . Can you predict, from either the formula or the animation, what will happen to the
∘ ∘
normal force and the acceleration when θ = 0 and θ = 90 ?

∘ ∘
Illustration authored by Mario Belloni.

Script authored by Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter and modified by Mario Belloni.
Illustration 5: Pull Your Wagons

Two toy wagons, attached by a lightweight rope (of negligible mass), are pulled with a constant force using another lightweight
rope (again of negligible mass) as shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart. The mass of the red wagon is 2.0 kg and the mass of the blue wagon is 1.2 kg. What is the force of the hand on
the rope, and what is the tension in the rope joining the two wagons? To answer these questions, you must apply Newton's second
law. However, when applying Newton's second law, you must first define the system that you are considering. Let's answer each
question separately.
What is the force of the hand on the rope? Begin by defining the system to which we will apply Newton's second law. Since we
want to determine the force of the hand on the rope, we start by choosing the rope to be our system. What forces act on the rope? It
may help to draw a free-body diagram. View a free-body diagram of the rope along with the animation.
Note that there are two forces on the rope, the force of the hand on the rope in the +x direction and the force of the red wagon on
the rope in the −x direction. These two forces are equal in magnitude; therefore, the net force on the rope is zero. But how can it be
zero if the rope's acceleration is NOT zero? Since the mass of the rope is negligible, we set the mass of the rope equal to zero, and
because of Newton's second law, the net force on the rope is zero. Of course, the rope's mass, in reality, is not zero; however, it's
close enough to zero that we can say that it's approximately zero. Ultimately, this means that the tension in the rope is constant.
What is the force of the red wagon on the rope? What system should we now consider? We have two choices: (1) Consider the red
wagon as the system or (2) consider the blue wagon, the red wagon, and the rope between them as the system. Either choice can
lead you to the answer, but choice (2) is the most direct and best choice in order to solve the problem most quickly.
Consider the two wagons and rope as the system as depicted in this animation. The gray box represents the system. Now, draw a
free-body diagram for the system and then view the animation again in order to check your answer. Once you have drawn the free-
body diagram and identified the forces, you can apply Newton's second law, determine the force of the red wagon on the rope, and
solve for the force of the hand on the rope.
That answers the first question. Now for the second question: What is the tension in the rope joining the two wagons? You can
answer this question by following a similar procedure. Identify your system, draw a free-body diagram, and apply Newton's second
law.
Illustration authored by and placed into the public domain by Aaron Titus.
Illustration 6: Newton's Third Law, Contact Forces

Illustration 6 shows graphs of position, velocity, and acceleration vs. time for a 2-kg red block (not shown to scale) pushed by a
12-N force on a frictionless horizontal surface (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. The red block
is in contact with (and therefore pushes on) the green 1-kg block (also not shown to scale). Click here to show and play the
physical situation. Note that on the position vs. time graph each block's trajectory is shown in a color-coded x(t) function, while in
the velocity and acceleration vs. time graphs, a single v(t) or a(t) is shown (the blocks move together and therefore must have the
same velocity and acceleration). The blocks may not move together when you set the contact forces.
Now it is up to you to determine what contact forces are required to make the motion of the blocks physical. When you are ready,
select the "set values and play" button with the default forces. What happens? The red block "moves through" the green one

because the forces are not correct. The red block has the 12-N force acting on it and the green block has no forces acting on it. Of
course each object's weight and normal force act in the vertical direction, but they cancel for each object. Here we are just
considering the horizontal forces that could give a net force.
Try some values for the forces and check to see if you can get the same motion of the blocks and the same graphs as the physical
situation.
Were you able to get the motion correct? Let us now go about it systematically instead of by exploring (or guessing). Show and
play the physical situation with both masses as one system. If we look at things this way we have one object of mass 3 kg and a net
force of 12 N, which means an acceleration of 4 m/s (this is borne out by the acceleration graph).
2
What next? We could analyze the forces acting on the first mass, but let's analyze the second mass since it has only the first mass
pushing on it. Because it has an acceleration of 4 m/s and a mass of 1 kg , it must experience a force of 4 N from the push of the
2
red mass. What about the red mass? Newton's third law says it must experience an equal and opposite force, here a force of −4 N .
Try these values out (−4 N for the force on the red block and 4 N for the force on the green block) to see if you believe what
Newton's third law says the forces should be.
Illustration authored by Anne J. Cox and Mario Belloni.
Script authored by Anne J. Cox.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Vectors for a Box on an Incline
Exploration 1 represents a free-body diagram for a 20-N block on a 30 frictionless incline (the length of the vectors is given in
∘
newtons). The light gray lines represent the traditional xy axis, and the black lines represent the coordinates along the incline. The
blue vector represents the normal force; the green vector represents the weight. You may move the tails of the blue and green
vectors to add them and use the red vector to represent their resultant vector by dragging the red vector's tip. Restart.
a. Determine the resultant force from the diagram.
b. Determine the acceleration of the block.
Exploration 2: Change the Two Forces Applied

Drag either of the crosshair cursors or the ball (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). The cursors each
exert a constant force on the black ball (either attraction or repulsion) if they are within 10cm of the ball. When the ball hits a
wall, the wall exerts a force on the ball causing it to recoil. The green and red arrows display the forces due to each cursor, and the
blue arrow represents the net force. Restart.
For attraction and repulsion, drag the black ball around to see the net force. When you get the ball in a "good" spot, click the "play"
button to see the effect of the forces on the ball. Briefly explain how and why the ball moves according to the forces applied.
Exploration 3: Change the Force Applied to Get to the Goal

Drag the crosshair cursor close to the black ball (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Notice that the cursor
exerts a force, that is, a push or a pull, on the ball depending on the force you select. The ball will bounce off the purple spheres
and will bounce off the soft walls around the animation. The animation will end if the ball hits either rectangle. The blue arrow
represents the net force. Restart.
a. Try to get the ball to hit the green rectangle and not the red rectangle.
b. Given an applied force, how does the ball move?
c. Does the ball always move the way you expect? Why or why not?
Exploration 4: Set the Force on a Hockey Puck

A 250-gram hockey puck is acted upon by a single force. It is free to slide on the ice (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds) in any direction. You can set the force vector by changing its magnitude (0 N < F < 10 N) and direction. The
force vector is shown in the animation as a red arrow. You also can set the initial velocity components
(−15 m/s < v < 15 m/s) . Restart.
a. When the initial velocity is zero, in what direction does the ball travel for a given force?
b. When the initial velocity is not zero, in what direction does the ball travel for a given force? Hint: The best way to do this is to
pick a nonzero v or v , not both. Also turn on the ghosts.
0x 0y
c. Try F = 5 N , θ = 270 , v = 7 m/s , and v = 15 m/s . Does this motion look familiar? Turn on the ghosts to help with the
∘
0x 0y
answer.
Exploration 5: Space Probe with Multiple Engines

A space probe is designed with four engines that can fire in the +x, -x, +y, and -y directions, respectively (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). For each of the situations below, first predict the motion of the space probe. Your prediction
should be a detailed description of the motion of the probe. Only after you make a prediction, check it by viewing the animation.
An example is shown in the first row of the table. Restart.
Situation Your prediction Animation
The probe will have an acceleration in the +x

The space probe has a constant velocity in the direction. Therefore, since it is already traveling
+x direction when suddenly an engine exerts a in that direction when the engine fires, it will Animation 1
force on the probe in the +x direction. speed up and will continue moving in the +x
direction.

Situation Your prediction Animation
The space probe has a constant velocity in the

+x direction when suddenly an engine exerts a Animation 2
force on the probe in the −x direction.
force on the probe in the +y direction.
force on the probe in the −y direction.
+x direction when suddenly an engine exerts a
force on the probe in the −y direction and Animation 5
another engine exerts a force in the −x
direction.
+x direction when suddenly an engine exerts a
force on the probe in the +y direction and Animation 6
another engine exerts a force in the +x
direction.
+x direction when suddenly all four engines fire Animation 7
simultaneously.
Table 11.1.4.2.1
Exploration authored by and placed into the public domain by Aaron Titus.
Exploration 6: Putted Golf Ball Breaks Toward the Hole

A putted golf ball rolls toward the hole on a green. The animation shows a top view of the ball on the green. Restart. The
acceleration vector (orange) of the ball is shown on the animation, and the components of the ball's acceleration are displayed in
the data table.
The net force on the golf ball is in the same direction as the acceleration of the golf ball, according to Newton's second law. This
means that if you know the mass of the golf ball and the acceleration of the golf ball, you can calculate the net force on the golf
ball.
a. Is the net force on the golf ball in the animation constant during the interval from t = 0 to t = 4.8 s ?
b. If not, does its magnitude and/or direction change?
c. If the mass of a golf ball is 0.046 kg, what is the net force on the golf ball at t = 1.0 s ?
d. For practice, calculate the net force on the golf ball at t = 2.0 s, t = 3.0 s , and t = 4.0 s as well.
Exploration 7: Atwood's Machine

Note
You must keep the ratio above 0.25 and below 10.
A 10-kg mass, M , is attached via a massless pulley to another variable mass m (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). You can test the limits of the formula for the acceleration of the Atwood's machine (not shown to scale) by changing the
ratio of the masses above. Restart.
a. Draw a free-body diagram for each mass.
b. Solve for the acceleration of m in terms of g, M , and m.
c. Which, if any, of the following statements regarding the motion of the masses are true?

when M =m then: a = g .
when M =m then: a = 0 .
when M >> m then: a = g .
when M >> m then: a = 0 .
when M < m then: a = 0 .
when M < m then: a = g .
when M < m then: a < 0 .
Verify your answer(s) to (c) by using the animation and your answer for (b).
Exploration 8: Enter a Formula for the Force Applied

This Exploration allows you to choose initial conditions and forces and then view how that force affects the red ball. You can right-
click on the graph to make a copy at any time. If you check the "strip chart" mode box, the top graph will show data for a time
interval that you set. Note that the animation will end when the position of the ball exceeds +/-100 m from the origin. Restart.
Remember to use the proper syntax, such as: −10 + 0.5 ∗ t , −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∗ t , and −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∧ 2 . Revisit Exploration 1.3 to
Differential equations can be difficult to solve analytically. One way around this is to use a numerical method to generate a solution
at discrete time steps. The above animation does just that by advancing the position of the red ball from its initial value at time t to 0
a new value at t = t + dt . This process can be repeated over and over to approximate the solution as a function of time.
1 0
Clearly there are pitfalls in the above procedure. If the time step is too large (1 year for example) interesting phenomena can be
missed. This is clearly not an informative dataset if something interesting happens during the time interval. On the other hand, if
the time step is too small (1 nanosecond for example) the computer may take a very long time to plot a representative set of points
so that you can see the motion of the ball.
For each of the following forces, first describe the force (magnitude and direction) and then predict the motion of the ball. How
close were you? Don't forget to determine how the initial position and velocity affect the motion of the ball for each of the forces.
a. Fx (x, t) = 1
b. Fx (x, t) = −1
c. Fx (x, t) = 1 ∗ step(3 − t) This function is a constant until t = 3 s when it turns off.
d. Fx (x, t) = x
e. Fx (x, t) = −x
f. Fx (x, t) = cos(x)
g. Fx (x, t) = cos(t)
Olaf College.


11.1.4.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.4.3.1: Which is the correct free-body diagram?
A red block is pushed and moves as shown in the animation. In addition, a green block sits on the red block and moves as
well. Restart.
a. Which free-body diagram is correct? Give reasons why the other three diagrams are incorrect.
b. How would your answer to (a) change if the blocks did not move?
Exercise 11.1.4.3.2: Interpret the free-body diagram
A free-body diagram for a 20, 000-kg airplane at some instant is shown in the animation (grid size is given in 40, 000
newtons). Generally, all of the external forces on an airplane can be resolved into four components called weight, lift, thrust,
and drag. Restart. You can move a vector around by click-dragging at its tail.
a. What is the net force on the airplane at this instant?
b. What is the acceleration of the airplane at this instant?
c. What can you definitely say about the velocity of the airplane at this instant?
d. Suppose a classmate in your study group proclaims that "the net force on the airplane is zero and therefore the airplane must
be on the ground and at rest." What is the error in your classmate's statement?
Exercise 11.1.4.3.3: Pull your little red wagon
A 100-kg wagon with a 20-kg block on its frictionless bed is pulled to the right with a constant force (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). Does the animation obey Newton's laws? Support your answer. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.4.3.4: Pull your little red wagon
A 100-kg wagon with a 20-kg block on its frictionless bed is pulled to the right with an unknown force (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). Sketch a plot of the force exerted by the hand on the cart as a function of time. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.4.3.5: A buoy is dropped into a lake
A 0.010-kg buoy is dropped into a lake as shown in the animation. Before it hits the water, it is in free fall. Restart.
a. Before the buoy hits the water, what is the net force on the buoy?
b. At t = 1.2 s , what is the net force on the buoy?
c. At t = 1.2 s , what is the force of the water on the buoy?
d. At t = 4.5 s , what is the net force on the buoy? Approximately, what is the velocity of the buoy at this instant? Can the
velocity of an object be zero even though the net force on the object is not zero?
e. At t = 4.5 s , what is the force of the water on the buoy?
f. At t = 11.0 s, what is the net force on the buoy?
g. At t = 11.0 s, what is the force of the water on the buoy?
h. Describe the velocity of the buoy at this instant (t = 11.0 s); is it increasing, decreasing, or constant?
Exercise 11.1.4.3.6: Putted golf ball
The animation shows a putted golf ball of mass 0.050 kg as it rolls toward the hole. The putter hit the ball before t = 0 s and is
no longer in contact with the ball (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. What is the net force on the golf ball during the interval from t = 0 to t = 4.2 s ?
b. What is the force of the putter on the golf ball during this interval?

Exercise 11.1.4.3.7: A ball constrained to move on a rod
A 20-kg ball has a hole with a rod passing through. The rod exerts a force as needed that constrains the ball to move along the
rod. An applied force is now added (the "pulling" force) so the ball is pulled as shown (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). The force vector is shown as a red arrow, and the force makes an angle θ with the horizontal. The velocity is
given in meters/second. You may adjust the angle and/or the magnitude of the pulling force (F < 7 N) . Restart.
a. How does the acceleration change as you vary the pulling force for a constant angle?
b. How does the acceleration change as you vary the angle for a constant pulling force?
c. Combine your answers above to obtain a general mathematical formula for the acceleration of the ball due to an arbitrary
applied force.
d. Determine the general mathematical formula for the normal force the rod exerts on the ball when an arbitrary force is
applied to the ball.
Script authored by Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter and modified by Mario Belloni.
Problem authored by Mario Belloni.
Exercise 11.1.4.3.8: Take a ride in an elevator
A 50-kg box is riding in an elevator that accelerates upward or downward at a constant rate (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). The box rests on a digital scale that records its apparent weight in newtons. The green arrow
represents the instantaneous velocity of the elevator and its contents. Adjust the value of the acceleration
(−9.8 m/s ≤ a ≤ 9.8 m/s ) and see how it affects the apparent weight. Restart.
2 2
a. What type of force is recorded on the scale?

b. Draw a free-body diagram for the box when its acceleration is 4.9 m/s , 0 m/s , and −4.9 m/s .
2 2 2
c. Write a formula for the scale reading as a function of the acceleration of the elevator, the mass of the box, and g.
d. Determine the value of the elevator's acceleration that would make the force that the scale exerts on the box vanish In other
words, how can the box become apparently "weightless?"
Script authored by Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter, and modified by Mario Belloni.
Exercise 11.1.4.3.9: Rank the accelerations and tensions
A 10-kg mass is attached via a massless string over a massless pulley to a hand (position is given in meters and time is given
in seconds). The masses in each animation are identical. Restart.
a. Rank the animations according to the acceleration of the mass, from greatest to least (positive is up).
b. Rank the animations according to the tension in the string, from greatest to least (positive is up).
Indicate ties by placing the animation numbers in () please. For example, a suitable response could be: 1, 2, (3, 4), 5, 6 .
c. Calculate the acceleration of the mass in each animation.
d. Calculate the tension of the string in each animation.
Problem authored by Mario Belloni*.
*This exercise was adapted from an original Ranking Task Exercise which appears in the book Ranking Task Exercises in
Physics, T. O' Kuma, D. Maloney, and C. Hieggelke.
Exercise 11.1.4.3.10: Hoisted boxes
Two boxes, each of mass 2.0 kg, are connected by a lightweight rope. The boxes are hoisted upward with a constant
acceleration as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.

a. Draw a free-body diagram for each box.
b. What is the tension in the top rope?
c. What is the tension in the rope connecting the two boxes?
Consider an alternative situation in which the system has the same acceleration but the rope between the boxes is not
lightweight. It is a steel cable with a total mass of 1.0 kg.
d. What would be the force of the steel cable on the top box?
e. What would be the force of the steel cable on the bottom box?
Exercise 11.1.4.3.11: Modified Atwood's machine
A 1.0-kg cart (not shown to scale) on a low-friction track is connected to a string and a hanging object as shown in the
animation. Neglect any effects of the pulley on the motion of the system (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. What is the tension in the string?
b. What is the mass of the hanging object?
Note that the coordinates for each object (the positive x direction) are already chosen for you.
Exercise 11.1.4.3.12: A truck and car collision
A large 2000-kg truck and a small compact car collide head-on as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). Assume the collision takes place in 0.05 seconds. Restart.
a. Describe the force on each vehicle before, during, and after the collision. Be sure to estimate the magnitudes of these forces
and give their directions.
b. Which vehicle, the car or the truck, experiences the greater force during the collision?
Exercise 11.1.4.3.13: Does the force obey Newton's third law?
Newton's third law states that whenever two objects interact, they exert equal and opposite forces on each other (position is
given in meters and time is given in seconds). The balls in the animations can be dragged around. As you do so, notice how
the sizes of the arrows change. Each arrow represents the force on an object (the length of the arrow indicates the magnitude of
the force). Which animation, if any, obeys Newton's third law? Restart.
Olaf College.




11.1.5: Newton's Laws 2
We have thus far studied simple Newton's laws problems and now consider additional applications such as friction (including air
friction), circular motion, and springs.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.5.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Static and Kinetic Friction
How does friction change our analysis? Well, friction is due to the fact that objects, even smooth ones, are actually very bumpy on
a microscopic level. Because of this, atoms from each surface are in such close contact that they form chemical bonds with each
other. These bonds need to be broken in order for motion to occur. Restart.
The direction of the frictional force is opposite to the direction of motion, and the magnitude of the frictional force is proportional
to the magnitude of the normal force, N . There are two kinds of frictional forces: static and kinetic friction.
Static friction is the force when there is no relative motion between surfaces in contact. Conversely, kinetic friction is the force
when there is relative motion between surfaces in contact. We represent the coefficient of friction by the Greek letter μ , and use
subscripts corresponding to static and kinetic friction, respectively: μ and μ . It is always the case that μ > μ .
s k s k
Consider what happens when you pull on a stationary block up to the point where there is still no motion. Set the mass to 100 kg
and vary F . The frictional force f matches F
applied s up to the frictional force's maximum value, f
applied =μ N = 392 N .
s; max s
After that the frictional force dramatically decreases, the block accelerates, and the frictional force becomes the kinetic friction of
motion, f = μ N .
k k
So what are μ and μ ? Well, given that there is no motion until when F
s k = 392 N , f is approximately 392 N.
applied s; max
Therefore, given that the normal force is 980 N, μ = 0.4 . Now there is an acceleration when F
s = 392 N . Since the change
applied
in v = 9.8 m/s in 5 seconds, a = 1.96 m/s . Given this, ma = F

2
−f = F applied− μ N . Therefore, after some algebra,
k applied k
μ = 0.2 .
k

Script authored by Steve Mellema and Chuck Niederriter and modified by Mario Belloni.
Illustration 2: Uniform Circular Motion: F and a c c
Uniform circular motion is an interesting mixture of one- and two-dimensional concepts. During uniform circular motion, the speed
of the object must be constant. This is the uniform in uniform circular motion. So is an object moving in a circle with a constant
speed accelerating? Yes! Why? The velocity is changing with time. Watch the animation (position is shown in meters and time
is shown in seconds). The animation depicts an object moving in a circle at a constant speed. To determine the acceleration we
need to consider the change in velocity for a change in time. Restart.
Since the speed does not change in time, what does change in time? It is the direction that changes with time. Draw two velocity
vectors to convince yourself that the direction of the velocity changes with time. Recall that velocity has a direction (which always
points tangent to the path, the so-called tangential direction) and a magnitude, and either or both can change with time. In what
direction does the change in velocity point? Calculate the acceleration. It points toward the center of the circle. Since the object is
accelerating, this motion must be due to a force (or a set of forces, a net force) that points solely toward the center of the circle.
(Note: if the motion is nonuniform circular motion, the net force can point in another direction.) This direction—toward the center
of the circle—is called the centripetal or center-seeking direction. It is often also called the radial direction, since the radius points
from the center of the circle out to the object (the net force points in the opposite direction).
Therefore, for uniform circular motion, the acceleration always points toward the center of the circle. This is despite the fact that
the velocity and the acceleration point in changing directions as time goes on. However, we get around this apparent difficulty in
describing direction by defining the centripetal or radial direction and the tangential direction (the direction tangent to the circle).
These directions change, but the velocity is always tangent to the circle, and the net force is always pointing toward the center of
the circle. The following animation shows velocity and acceleration as the object undergoes uniform circular motion.
Illustration 3: The Ferris Wheel

So how does our analysis of Newton's laws change when an object is moving in uniform circular motion? There are really only two
things to remember.
First, the net force is always toward the center of the circle for uniform circular motion. This net force is responsible for the
acceleration toward the center of the circle, the centripetal acceleration we saw in Illustration 5.2.

Second, because the centripetal acceleration is a positive number, v /r, it can never be negative. So unlike linear motion in which
2
you have a choice of where to place the coordinate axes (to make life easier or more difficult), the choice here is critical. Your
choice of coordinates must have one axis with its positive direction pointing toward the center of the circle.
In the animation, a Ferris wheel rotates at constant speed as shown (position is shown in meters and time is shown in minutes).
Each square represents a chair on the Ferris wheel. Restart.
Consider a rider at point (a). What does the free-body diagram for a chair on the Ferris wheel look like at this point? To answer this
question we must determine the applied forces that act on a rider when the rider is at point (a). At point (a) there are the normal
force and the weight acting in opposite directions. Are the forces the same size or different? They must be different and the normal
force must be bigger. Why? We know that the net force must point toward the center of the circle and that the net force is
ma = m v /r for uniform circular motion.
2
What is the acceleration of the rider when the rider is at point (a)? As stated above we know the acceleration must be v 2
/r , where
v = 2πr/T , where T is the period of one revolution.
What about the answers to these questions when the rider is at points (b), (c), and (d)? Well, the forces may be different or point in
different directions, but the results are the same. The net force must be toward the center of the circle and be mv /r.
2

Script authored by Aaron Titus.
Illustration 4: Springs and Hooke's Law

Springs are interesting objects that for a range of stretching and compression follow Hooke's law. Hooke's law states that the force
that the spring exerts is F = −kΔx , where k is the spring constant and Δx is the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium
position. In this Illustration the spring can be stretched by click-dragging the blue ball (position is given in centimeters and force
is given in newtons). Slowly drag the spring back and forth and watch the graph. Restart.
Where is the equilibrium position of the spring? Given that Δx is measured from the equilibrium of the spring, look for the
position where F = 0 N . This occurs at x = 30 cm. This is the equilibrium position.
What is the spring constant of the spring? It is not the force shown in the table divided by the position shown in the table. Why not?
Recall that the "Δx" in the spring force equation is measured from equilibrium. Therefore, at maximum extension, x = 20 cm and
the force is −160 N. Therefore, k = 800 N/m . Given that the negative of the slope of the line on the graph should also be k , we
can measure the spring constant by finding the slope and we get the same result.
The fact that spring forces are variable with position means that while we can determine the force, we cannot (given what we
currently know) determine the velocity and position vs. time for an object attached to a stretched spring. Why? The force is not
constant (it varies with position), and therefore the acceleration is not constant. This means we cannot use the kinematic equations
for constant acceleration. What can we do? We can use concepts that you will learn about in Chapters 6 and 7.
Illustration 5: Air Friction

In this Illustration we compare the motion of a red projectile launched upward to that of an identical green projectile launched
upward but subjected to the force of air friction. To make the motion easier to see, we have given both projectiles a slight
horizontal velocity and do not consider frictional effects in this direction either. In addition, we show the free-body diagrams for
each projectile (the force of gravity is drawn with a fatter vector so it is easier to see). Restart.
Watch the Position Graph animation and look at the free-body diagram. First, what is the direction of the force of air friction? It
opposes motion, just as static and kinetic friction do. Consider the Velocity Graph animation. If we look at the motion on the way
up, the velocity is positive, and therefore the force of friction opposes the motion and is downward, hence |a | > g on the way up.
y
At the top of the arc, the velocity is zero, and hence |a | = g . On the descent, the velocity is downward, and the force of air friction
y
is therefore upward and hence |a | < g . Therefore, |ay| is greater on the way up! This is borne out by the Acceleration Graph. At
y
some point, the frictional force has exactly the same size as the force of gravity. When this occurs there is no longer a net force, and
the acceleration of the projectile is zero. The velocity corresponding to this situation is called the terminal velocity.
These animations are valid at low speeds. We can experimentally determine that the force of air friction is proportional to the
velocity at low speeds, with R = −b v , where R is the resistive or drag force and b is a constant that depends on the properties of

the air and the size and shape of the object. One benefit of this model is that the mathematics is a little easier to handle than for the
high-speed case.
For massive small objects at high speeds (not depicted, but you can look at Exploration 5.6 to view this model) we can
experimentally determine that the force of air friction is proportional to the velocity squared. The magnitude of the drag force can
be represented as R = 1/2DρAv , where ρ is the density of air (mass/volume), A is the cross sectional area of the object, v is the
2
magnitude of the velocity, and D is the drag coefficient (0.2– 2.0). Sometimes the drag force is written as bv with the assignment
2
that b = 1/2DρA. We can solve for the velocity as a function of time, but it is harder. We must be careful in this model if we have
two-dimensional motion, since the x and y motions are no longer independent.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Circular Motion
A puck travels in a circular path on a frictionless table, propelled by a string pulling from the center of the circle (position is shown
in meters and time is shown in seconds). You may adjust the mass (10 g < m < 500 g) , the speed (1 m/s < v < 50 m/s) ,
and/or the radius (0.5 m < r < 3.5 m) . The tension is displayed on the screen. Restart.
How does the tension in the string depend upon the mass, the speed of the block, and the radius of the circle?
a. If you only vary the mass, how does the tension change?
b. If you only vary the velocity, how does the tension change?
c. If you only vary the radius, how does the tension change?
Exploration 2: Force an Object Around a Circle

In this Exploration you are looking down at a black ball on a table top. Drag the crosshair cursor (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds) to within 5 m of the 0.2-kg ball. The cursor will then exert a constant force on the black ball. You may
choose either an attractive or a repulsive force. In addition, the black ball is constrained to move in a circle by a very long wire. The
blue arrow represents the net force acting on the mass, while the bar graph displays its speed in meters/second. Restart.
For both attraction and repulsion, drag the cursor around to see how the net force varies.
a. At the beginning of the animation (before you move the cursor), in what direction does the net force point?
b. With this force, does the ball move?
c. What type of applied force makes the ball acquire a tangential velocity?
d. Describe the direction of the force that makes the ball acquire the maximum tangential velocity for the force applied.
e. When the ball has a tangential velocity, in which direction does the net force point when the cursor is nearby? In what direction
does the acceleration point?
f. With the object moving, drag the cursor far away from the ball. In what direction is the net force now? What is the direction of
the acceleration? Why?
Exploration 3: Spring Force

The spring-ball system shown in the animation can be stretched by click-dragging the dark blue ball (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). The black arrow attached to the ball shows the net, i.e., total, force on the ball. The pale blue ball on
the left is the free-body diagram for the dark blue ball. The red and green arrows attached to the pale blue ball show the spring and
gravitational forces, respectively. The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s in this animation. Restart.
2
a. Find the mechanical equilibrium for this system when the spring constant is 1.0 N/m, 2.0 N/m, 3.0 N/m, and 4.0 N/m.
b. Use your equilibrium measurements to find the mass of the ball. Hint: What forces act on the ball?
c. Use your equilibrium measurements to find the natural length of the spring, that is, the length of the spring without an attached
mass.
Exploration 4: Circular Motion and a Spring Force

A 1-kg mass is attached to the end of a spring of spring constant k = 10 N/m and natural length l = 5 m (position is shown in
0
meters and time is shown in seconds). You are to set the spring in motion by setting its initial position (x , 0) and its initial
0
velocity (0, v ). Restart.

0y
a. Find the v needed for circular motion at a radius of 10 m (the red circle).
0y
b. Determine the period of such a motion.
Exploration 5: Enter a Formula for the Force

This Exploration allows you to choose initial conditions and forces with damping, and then view how that force affects the red ball.
You can right-click on the graph to make a copy at any time. If you check the "strip chart" mode box, the top graph will show data
for a time interval that you set. Note that the animation will end when the position of the ball exceeds +/ − 100 m from the
origin. Restart.

Remember to use the proper syntax such as −10 + 0.5 ∗ t , −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∗ t , and −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∧ 2 . Revisit Exploration 1.3 to
close were you? Don't forget to determine how the initial position and velocity affect the motion of the ball for each force.
a. Fx (x, vx, t) = 1 − 0.05 ∗ vx
b. Fx (x, vx, t) = 1 − 0.5 ∗ vx
c. Fx (x, vx, t) = 1 − vx
d. Fx (x, vx, t) = −9.8 − vx
e. Fx (x, vx, t) = x − vx
f. Fx (x, vx, t) = cos(x) − vx
g. Fx (x, vx, t) = cos(t) − vx
Exploration 6: Air Friction

Two identical balls are dropped. The one on the left is in a resistive medium represented by varying shades of blue. The resistive
force is represented as bv , where b is a constant between 0 and 2 and n is an integer between 0 and 2 (note that as you vary n , the
n
units of b also change). Restart.

Select values for b and n , and then click on a graph link to show the motion and that particular graph. When you get a good-looking
graph, right-click on it to clone the graph and resize it for a better view.
a. How does your choice of n(0, 1, 2) affect the unit of b ?
b. For b = 1 , how does your choice of n(0, 1, 2) affect the position vs. time graph?
c. For b = 1 , how does your choice of n(0, 1, 2) affect the velocity vs. time graph?
d. For b = 1 , how does your choice of n(0, 1, 2) affect the acceleration vs. time graph?
e. For b = 1 , how does your choice of n(0, 1, 2) affect the terminal velocity?
Exploration 7: Enter a Formula, F and F , for the Force

x y
This Exploration allows you to choose initial conditions and forces and then view how that force affects the red ball. You can right-
click on the graph to make a copy at any time. If you check the "strip chart" mode box, the top graph will show data for a time
interval that you set. Note that the animation will end when the position of the ball exceeds +/ − 100 m from the origin. Restart.
Remember to use the proper syntax such as −10 + 0.5 ∗ t , −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∗ t , and −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∧ 2 . Revisit Exploration 1.3 to
close were you? Don't forget to determine how the initial position and velocity affect the motion of the ball for each force.
Fx Fy x0 y0 v0x y0x
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
−x −2 ∗ y 10 10 0 0
−0.5 ∗ vx −9.8 − 0.5 ∗ vy −20 0 20 20
Table 11.1.5.2.1
Olaf College.


11.1.5.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.5.3.1: A 2 − kg Physics textbook pressed against a wall does not move
Consider a 2-kg physics textbook (not drawn to scale) pressed against a wall, which has a coefficient of static friction of
μ = 0.3 and a coefficient of kinetic friction of μ = 0.2 as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
s k

a. Draw a free-body diagram for the book, showing all the forces that act.
b. What is the net force on the book? Include both magnitude and direction in your answer.
c. What is the minimum force of the push represented by the hand?
d. What happens to the motion of the book and to the forces if the push is greater than your answer to (c)?
Exercise 11.1.5.3.2: A 2 − kg Physics textbook pressed against a wall moves
Consider a 2-kg physics textbook (not drawn to scale) pressed against a wall, which has a coefficient of kinetic friction of
μ = 0.4 as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
k
c. What is the force of the push represented by the hand?
Exercise 11.1.5.3.3: A 2 − kg Physics textbook pressed against a wall moves
Consider a 2-kg physics textbook (not drawn to scale) pressed against a wall, which has a coefficient of kinetic friction of
μ = 0.4 as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
k
c. What is the force of the push represented by the hand?
Exercise 11.1.5.3.4: A block is pushed by a varying force
A woman pushes on a block with an unknown force as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given
in seconds). At t = 2 seconds she doubles the force applied to the block. Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between
the block and the table. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.5.3.5: A 4 − kg block sits on an 8 − kg block pushed across the floor
A 4-kg block sits on an 8-kg block that is pushed across the floor as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. Which free-body diagram is correct? Give reasons why the other three diagrams are incorrect.
b. Draw the correct free-body diagram and label the force that causes each interaction.
Be sure to include the force of friction if two surfaces are rubbing against each other. Remember that the length of an arrow is
proportional to the value of the quantity being represented, and its length does not represent the actual size of the quantity.
Exercise 11.1.5.3.6: A 10.0 − kg block sits on a 20 − kg block
A 10.0-kg block sits on a 20-kg block as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). There is friction
between the top and the bottom block, but the surface between the bottom block and the table is frictionless. Restart.
a. Draw free-body diagrams for both blocks.
b. Find the net force on each block.
c. Find the force of the push.

Exercise 11.1.5.3.7: A 12 − kg box slides on a rough 26.56 ramp ∘
A 12 − kg box slides on a rough (meaning that there is friction) 26.56 ramp as shown in the animation (position is given in
∘

a. Draw a free-body diagram for the box, showing all the forces that act.
b. What is the net force on the box? Include both magnitude and direction in your answer.
c. What is the value for the coefficient of kinetic friction?
Exercise 11.1.5.3.8: Take a ride on a Ferris wheel
In the animation, a Ferris wheel rotates at constant speed as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in minutes).
Each square represents a chair on the Ferris wheel. Restart.
a. Draw the free-body diagram for a chair on the Ferris wheel when it is at the points (a), (b), (c), and (d).
b. What forces act on a rider when the rider is at points (a), (b), (c), and (d)?
c. What is the acceleration of the rider when the rider is at points (a), (b), (c), and (d)?
d. If the rider has a mass of 100 kg, what is the size and direction of the net force on the rider at points (a), (b), (c), and (d)?
Problem authored by Wolfgang Christian and Mario Belloni.
Exercise 11.1.5.3.9: A mass sits on a turntable
A mass sits on a turntable as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. What force provides the centripetal acceleration?
b. Which vector represents the net force on the object?
Exercise 11.1.5.3.10: A puck resting on an air hocket table is attached to a string
A puck resting on an air hockey table is attached to a string and given an initial tangential push such that it travels in a circle at
constant speed (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the puck?
b. Draw the free-body diagram for the puck.
c. What is the tension in the string if the puck has a mass of 0.1 kg?
Exercise 11.1.5.3.11: A 5 -gram coin is on a rotating turntable
A 5-gram coin is on a rotating turntable as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. What is the coin's acceleration during the animation?
b. Draw a free-body diagram for the coin.
c. Determine the minimum value of μ for this motion to occur.
s
Exercise 11.1.5.3.12: The spring can be stretched by click-dragging the blue ball
The spring can be stretched by click-dragging the blue ball as shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and
time is given in seconds). Slowly drag the spring back and forth out of the equilibrium position and answer the following
questions. Restart.
a. Over what range of compression and stretching is Hooke's law valid?
b. Find the elastic limit of the spring.
c. Determine the spring constant of the spring.

Exercise 11.1.5.3.13: A 200-gram brick falls onto a platform
A 200-gram brick falls onto a platform as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
The animation stops when the brick is in equilibrium. Determine the spring constant of the spring. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.5.3.14: A ball is fired at a block connected to a spring
A ball on a frictionless table is fired at a block that is connected to a very light spring as shown (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. For each animation, draw the force vs. time graph for the orange ball.
b. Suppose you wanted to determine x(t) for the orange ball. Are Newton's laws an effective way to determine x(t) for the
orange ball? Why or why not?
Olaf College.




11.1.6: Work
In this chapter we will talk about the concept of work. The concept of work has a very special meaning to physicists and differs
from the colloquial usage in a number of ways. Work is related to the displacement through which the force acts. We will consider
forces and displacement in the same direction and also consider what happens when the force and displacement are not in the same
direction.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.6.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Dot Products
We talk about work as the amount of force in the direction of an object's displacement, Δx, multiplied by the displacement, Δx.
No displacement, no work. Work is positive if F and Δx point in the same direction and negative if F and Δx point in opposite
directions. This statement is fine if the force and displacement lie on the same axis (in other words lie on a line). What happens if
they do not lie on the same axis? When working in two dimensions, the force and the displacement can point in any direction. So
how much of a given force is in the direction of the displacement? (We could consider the equivalent description of the amount of
the displacement in the direction of the force.)
To answer this question we must use the mathematical construction of the scalar or dot product. The dot product is defined as the
scalar product of two vectors: A dot B = A ⋅ B = AB cos(θ) , where θ is the angle between the two vectors and A and B are the
magnitudes of the vectors A and B, respectively. Restart.
Drag the tip of either arrow (position is given in meters). The red arrow is A and the green arrow is B. The magnitude of each
arrow is shown and the dot product is calculated. When is the dot product zero? The dot product is zero when the vectors are
perpendicular. For any two vectors, the magnitude of the dot product is a maximum when the vectors point in the same (or
opposite) directions and a minimum when the vectors are perpendicular. Note also that the assignment of which vector is A and
which vector is B does not matter.
So the dot product has the right properties to help us mathematically describe WORK. In general, for a constant force,
WORK = F ⋅ Δx = F Δx cos(θ),
where F is the constant force and Δx is the displacement. F and Δx are the magnitude of the vectors, respectively. You may have
heard or seen "WORK = F d " which is not always correct. That statement ignores the vector properties of F and x and can lead
you into thinking that the definition of WORK is FORCE times DISTANCE, which it is not.
Illustration 2: Constant Forces

This Illustration shows a block on a table subjected to an applied force and a frictional force. The mass of the block, the force
applied, and the coefficient of kinetic friction can be controlled by typing values for these variables into the text boxes and pressing
the "set values and play" button. The coefficient of static friction is fixed at μ = 0.4 . Restart.
s
Consider the animation with a 100-kg block and vary the force applied from 0 to 391 N. What happens in the animation? The
block does not move. What is the work done on the block due to the applied force? What is the work done on the block due to the
force of static friction? What is the work done on the block due to the normal force? What is the work done on the block due to the
force of gravity? The work done by each of these forces is zero. How do you know? First there is no displacement. If there is no
displacement there can be no work. In addition, the normal force and the force of static friction can never do work. The normal
force cannot do work because if there is a displacement it would always be perpendicular to the normal force, hence no work. The
force of static friction can also never do work. When there is static friction there can never be a displacement. After all, static
friction implies the block is static and thus not moving. Since there is no work done on the block, the block's kinetic energy cannot
change.
Now consider the animation with a 100-kg block and an applied force of 446 N. What happens in the animation? The block moves
and, in fact, it accelerates. What is the work done on the block due to the applied force? What is the work done by the force of
kinetic friction? What is the work done on the block due to the normal force? What is the work done on the block due to the force
of gravity? The net work done by the sum of these forces is now not zero. How do you know? There is a change in kinetic energy.
This can only happen when there is work done on the block. The force of gravity does not do any work on the block because the
force is perpendicular to the displacement in this animation. The normal force, as said above, can never do work. The work done by
the applied force will be positive.
The force of kinetic friction reduces the kinetic energy of the block by |F Δx| because the frictional force and the block's
k friction
displacement are in opposite directions. Kinetic friction will always oppose motion, so it will always reduce kinetic energy. Note
that we do not say the work done on the block by kinetic friction. This phrase is not correct. The work done by friction on the block
is the energy the block loses, and this is not equal to −F Δx . Some of the kinetic energy dissipated by friction,
k friction
|F Δx|, is transferred to the table as thermal energy (the table heats up), while some of it remains with the block as thermal
k fricion

energy (the block heats up). Therefore, −F Δx is not the work done on the block by friction: −F
k friction k friction Δx is the total
work done by friction (done on the block and the table) and is the amount that the kinetic energy is reduced.
The change in kinetic energy of the block is the net force F −F
applied times the displacement (this is because the net force
k friction
points in the direction of the displacement). Therefore, in the table, F times x = KE (because x is the displacement since the
net
block starts at x = 0 m and the final KE is the change in KE since the block starts with no kinetic energy).
Illustration 3: Force and Displacement

Two forces that we often use as examples when talking about work are the force of gravity and the elastic force of springs. We
know from earlier chapters that the character of the two forces is different. The gravitational force on an object is always mg, while
the spring force is dependent on how much the spring is stretched or compressed from equilibrium. As a consequence, the form for
the work done by each force will be different. Restart.
In general, for a constant force, WORK = F ⋅ Δx = F Δx cos(θ) , where F is the constant force and Δx is the displacement. F
and Δx are the magnitude of the vectors, respectively.

The graph shows F cos(θ) vs. distance for a 1-kg object near the surface of Earth (position is given in meters). By checking the
box you make the graph represent the F cos(θ) vs. distance graph for a mass on a spring with k = 2 N/m (the equilibrium point
of the spring is conveniently set at x = 0 m ). You can enter in values for the starting and stopping points for the calculation of the
work and then click the "evaluate area (integral)" button to calculate the work.
Begin by looking at the F cos(θ) vs. distance graph for gravity (F vs. y ). Gravity is a constant force (near the surface of Earth).
y
Therefore, the magnitude of work done by gravity will be |mgΔy|. So, consider a ball at y = 0 m that drops to y = −2 m . Is the
work done by gravity positive or negative? Use the graph to calculate the work. It is indeed positive (a negative force in the y
direction and a negative displacement in the y direction means cos(θ) = 1 ). This is because the force is in the same direction as the
displacement. What about lifting an object up from y = −2 m to y = 0 m ? The work done is negative since the force is in the
opposite direction from the displacement [cos(θ) = −1] . We can use |F Δy| because the force does not vary over the displacement.
But what if the force does vary, as in the case of a spring?
Check the check box to see the graph representing a spring force. Enter in values for the starting and stopping points for the
calculation of the work and then click the "evaluate area (integral)" button. Enter in x = 0 m for the starting point and x = 4 m for
the ending point, representing the stretching of a spring. Is the magnitude of the work done |F Δx|? Why or why not? The
magnitude of the work is not |F Δx|. In the case of the spring, the magnitude of the work is 0.5 ∗ kx , which is the area under the
2
force function (it is also the integral of F dx). Note also that the work is negative: The force and the displacement are in the
opposite direction [cos(θ) = −1] .
Enter in x = 4 m for the starting point and x = 0 m for the ending point. What happens to the sign of the work done by the spring
now?
Illustration 4: Springs
The fact that the spring force varies with position means that while we can determine the force, we cannot determine the velocity of
an object attached to a stretched spring using kinematic equations for constant acceleration. Why? The force is not constant (it
varies with position) and therefore the acceleration is not constant. What can we do? We can use the work-energy theorem.
The spring-ball system shown in the animation can be stretched by click-dragging the 1-kg dark blue ball (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). The black arrow attached to the ball shows the net, i.e., total, force on the ball. The pale
blue ball on the left is the free-body diagram for the dark blue ball. The red and green arrows attached to the pale blue ball show the
spring and gravitational forces, respectively. The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s in this animation. Restart.
2
Hooke's law states that the force that the spring exerts is F = −kx , where k is the spring constant and x is measured from the
equilibrium position of the spring. In this Illustration the initial position of the spring and the spring constant can be changed by
using the text boxes.
So how do we determine the work done by the spring? We need to calculate the integral of F cos(θ)Δx, where F and Δx are the
magnitude of the force vector and the displacement vector, respectively. We must calculate the integral because the force is not a

constant.
Consider k = 2 N/m and y = 5 m and run the animation. Initially the spring is compressed and the net force points down and the
infinitesimal displacement points down; therefore, cos(θ) = 1 . We determine that the work done by the spring is initially positive,
yielding an increasing kinetic energy. After passing through equilibrium (y = 0.1 m for this k ), however, the net force is now
upward, while the infinitesimal displacement still points down. Thus cos(θ) = −1 , and the work is negative. Therefore, the kinetic
energy decreases until the spring is maximally extended and v = 0 m/s . The process then reverses with a positive amount of work
until the mass again passes through equilibrium and the spring does a negative amount of work until the mass is at rest at its
starting position y = 5 m . The process repeats indefinitely if there are no resistive forces.
Illustration 5: Circular Motion

A 1-kg black ball is constrained to move in a circle as shown in the animation (position is given in meters, time is given in
seconds, and energy on the bar graph is given in joules). Restart. In the no external force animation the wire is horizontal on a
frictionless tabletop and the force of the wire is the only force that acts. In the gravity animation the wire is vertical and the ball is
subjected to gravity (downward as usual) as well as the force of the wire. You may set the initial velocity and then choose either
configuration. The blue arrow represents the net force acting on the mass, while the bar graph displays its kinetic energy in Joules.
For no external force, select various initial velocities and then set v and play: no external force. In what direction does the net force
point? Here the only force acting is the force of the wire pulling on the ball to make it go in a circle. The direction of this force is
always toward the center of the circle (a centripetal force). With this force, does the black ball's speed change? No. The ball's
velocity changes, but its speed does not. The work-energy theorem tells us that since there is no work done by the force of the wire
(its force is perpendicular to the ball's displacement) there can be no change in the ball's kinetic energy. In general, any centripetal
force cannot ever do work.
For gravity, select various initial velocities and then set v and play: gravity. In what direction does the net force point now? Well,
this is a bit more complicated. There is a force toward the center of the circle as there was before (again due to the wire), but now
there is also the force of gravity downward. Therefore, the net force does not point toward the center of the circle any more. With
this force, does the black ball's speed change? Yes. While the part of the force due to the wire cannot do any work, the part of the
force that is due to gravity can and does do work.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: An Operational Definition of Work
This Exploration allows you to discover how work causes changes in kinetic energy. Restart.
Drag "handy" to the front and/or the back of the cart to impart a force (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
Look at the force cos(θ) vs. position graph as well as the final velocity.
a. What can you say about the relationship between the force applied and the work done?
b. How does the application of the force change the kinetic energy?
c. What happens when the mass changes?
Make sure to push from both sides when the cart is both stationary and moving to the left and to the right.
Exploration 2: Two Two-Block Push

Two blocks are pushed by identical forces (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds), each block starting at rest at
the first vertical rectangle (start). The top block is twice the mass of the bottom block, m = 2m . Restart. The graphs and tables
1 2
are initially blank. Animation without Graphs and Tables.

a. Which object has the greater kinetic energy when it reaches the second vertical rectangle (finish)? Why?
b. Once you have answered the above question, click Animation with Graphs and Tables to see if you were correct. Consider both
the graphs and the tables.
c. If you were incorrect in your answer, can you figure out why you answered incorrectly? What is the correct rationale you
should have used to answer this question? Use the graphs and tables where appropriate.
Exploration 3: The Gravitational Force and Work

A 1-kg ball is subjected to the force of gravity as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). The ball starts at x = 0 m and y = 0 m . You can vary the ball's initial velocity and view how this affects the motion of
the ball and the ball's kinetic energy. Also shown are the graphs of force cos(θ ) vs. position and kinetic energy vs.
y y
position where θ is the angle between the gravitational force and the ball's infinitesimal y displacement. Restart.
y y
With v0x = 0 m/s and v 0y = 0 m/s ,

a. In what direction does the net force on the ball point?
b. How would you describe the kinetic energy vs. position graph?
With v0x = 10 m/s and v
0y = 0 m/s ,
c. What is the ball's minimum kinetic energy?
With v0x = 10 m/s and v
0y = 10 m/s ,
d. How would you describe the KE vs. position graph? Be explicit about what happens to the kinetic energy.
e. What is the condition for the work done by gravity to be zero?
f. What is the ball's minimum kinetic energy?
With v0x = −10 m/s and v 0y = 10 m/s ,
g. How would you describe the kinetic energy vs. position graph? Be explicit about what happens to the kinetic energy.
h. What is the condition for the work done by gravity to be zero?
i. What is the ball's minimum kinetic energy?
Exploration 4: Change the Direction of the Force Applied

A 20-kg ball has a hole with a rod passing through. The rod exerts a force as needed that constrains the ball to move along the rod.
An applied force is now added (the "pulling" force) so the ball is pulled as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). The pulling force vector is shown as a red arrow, and the force makes an angle θ with the horizontal. The velocity is
given in meters/second. You may adjust the angle and/or the magnitude of the pulling force (F < 7 N ). Restart.
a. How does the work done by the pulling force change as you vary the pulling force for a constant angle?

b. How does the work done by the pulling force change as you vary the angle for a constant pulling force?
c. Combine your answers above to obtain a general mathematical formula for the work done on the ball due to an arbitrary pulling
force.
d. Determine the general mathematical formula for the work done by the force the rod exerts on the ball when an arbitrary force is
applied to the ball.
Exploration 5: Circular Motion and Work

A 1-kg black ball is constrained to move in a circle as shown in the animation (position is given in meters, time is given in
seconds, and energy on the bar graph is given in joules). In the animation the wire is vertical and the ball is subjected to gravity
(downward as usual), as well as the force of the wire. You may set the initial velocity and then play the animation. The blue arrow
represents the net force acting on the mass, while the bar graph displays its kinetic energy in joules. Restart.
a. Set the speed fast enough to get the ball over the top. Then restart and examine forces at positions near, say, −45 and
∘
45 (hanging straight down is −90 ). Label your forces as F (gravity), F , and F .

∘ ∘
g wire net
b. Given your force diagrams, there are positions where the speed of the ball is changing more rapidly than others. Take each of
the positions you considered and rank them from highest tangential acceleration to lowest.
c. Assume that the ball can get to y = 10 m . How much kinetic energy does the ball lose in going from y = −10 m to y = 10 m ?
Is this independent of v initial?
0x
d. What is the work done by gravity when the ball goes from y = −10 m to y = 10 m ?
e. Determine the minimum speed that the ball must have to go over the top. Once you have an answer, check it using the
animation.
Exploration 6: Forces, Path Integrals, and Work

Move your cursor into the animation, then click-drag the crosshair cursor with the mouse. The bar graph on the right displays the
work done by the force along the path. For your reference, there are circles every 10 m that form a coordinate grid (position is
given in meters and the result of the integral is given on the bar graph in joules). Use the "reset integral" button to re-zero the
work calculation between paths. Restart.
For each force, answer the following questions:
a. Starting at the origin (the center, x = 0 m and y = 0 m ) and moving to x = 0 m and y = 10 m , what is the work done by the
force?
b. Starting at x = 0 m and y = 10 m and moving to x = 0 m and y = 0 m , what is the work done by the force?
c. Starting at the origin (the center, x = 0 m and y = 0 m ) and moving to x = 0 m and y = −10 m , what is the work done by
the force?
d. Starting at the origin (the center, x = 0 m and y = 0 m ) and moving to x = 10 m and y = 0 m , what is the work done by the
force?
e. Starting at the origin (the center, x = 0 m and y = 0 m ) and moving to x = −10 m and y = 0 m , what is the work done by
the force?
f. Starting at the origin (the center, x = 0 m and y = 0 m ), choosing your own path around the animation and ending back at the
origin, what is the work done by the force?
When you are through, feel free to experiment with forces of your own choosing.
Olaf College.


11.1.6.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.6.3.1: A hammer hits a nail
A 2-kg hammer strikes a 1.5-gram nail at t = 1.8 s as shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is
a. Determine the work done on the hammer by the nail.
b. Use your calculation in (a) to determine the average force exerted on the nail by the hammer.
Exercise 11.1.6.3.2: A brick falls on a nail
A 1.5-kg brick falls a given height onto a 15-gram spike as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
a. Determine the work done on the brick by the nail.
b. Use your calculation in (a) to determine the average force exerted on the nail by the brick.
Exercise 11.1.6.3.3: A block is pushed
A woman pushes on a 2.5-kg block with an unknown force as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). At t = 2 seconds she doubles the force applied to the block. Restart.
a. Determine the total work done on the block and table in the first two seconds of the animation.
b. Determine the total work done on the block and table in the final two seconds of the animation.
Exercise 11.1.6.3.4: A bowling ball is lifted to a shelf
A bowling ball is lifted from rest onto a shelf by an external agent (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
The bowling ball starts at rest and ends up at rest when the animation ends. For each quantity below, rank the animations
(numbered 1 through 4) from least to greatest. Restart.
Quantity Ranking
Work done on the bowling ball by gravity

Work done on the bowling ball by the external agent
Total work done on the bowling ball
Table 11.1.6.3.1
Exercise 11.1.6.3.5: Path dependence of forces and work
A 5.0-kg block (called Block 1) is lifted from rest by an external agent, then returned to its original position as shown in the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). An identical block (called Block 2) is pushed along the
surface with a force of 10 N. As with Block 1, it is returned to its original position at the end of the animation. Both blocks
start and end at rest. Restart.
a. Determine the work done by gravity on Block 1 during the animation.
b. Determine the work done by gravity on Block 2 during the animation.
c. Determine the work done by the normal force on Block 2 during the animation.
d. Determine the total work done by friction (done on Block 2 and the table) during the animation.

Exercise 11.1.6.3.6: A ball in a bowl
A mass of 2 kg is in a rather large bowl and moves as depicted in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given
in seconds). There is no friction between the mass and the bowl, so the mass slides along the surface of the bowl (it does not
roll at all). Determine the velocity of the mass at the bottom of the bowl. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.6.3.7: A 12-kg box is pushed at an angle of 60 from the vertical

∘
A 12-kg box is pushed at constant speed (the box is already moving at this constant speed at t = 0 s and continues to do so
even after the animation ends) as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The hand
pushes on the box at an angle of 60 from the vertical. Note that there are four forces acting on the box: gravity, the force of
∘
the hand, the normal force, and friction. Restart.

During the animation,
a. Is the work done on the box by the external force (hand) positive, negative, or zero?
b. Is the work done on the box by the normal force positive, negative, or zero?
c. Is the work done on the box by gravity positive, negative, or zero?
d. Is the work done by friction (done on the box and the table) positive, negative, or zero?
e. Is the total work done on the box positive, negative, or zero?
Problem authored by Melissa Dancy.
Exercise 11.1.6.3.8: A 12-kg box slides up a 26.56 frictionless ramp

∘
A 12-kg box slides up a 26.56 frictionless ramp at a constant speed as shown in the animation (position is given in meters
∘
and time is given in seconds). Note that both gravity and the hand do work on the box. Restart.
a. What is the work done on the box by the external force (hand) during the animation?
b. What is the work done on the box by gravity during the animation?
c. What is the total work done on the box during the animation?
Exercise 11.1.6.3.9: A 12-kg box slides down a rough ramp
A 12-kg box slides down a rough 26.56 ramp at constant speed (it is already traveling at this constant speed at t = 0 s and
∘
continues to do so even after the animation ends) as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Note that both gravity and friction do work on the box. Restart.
a. What is the work done by friction (done on the box and the ramp) during the animation?
b. What is the work done on the box by gravity during the animation?
c. What is the total work done on the box during the animation?
Exercise 11.1.6.3.10: A mass is lifted by a string
a. Rank the animations according to the work done on the mass by gravity, from greatest to least.
b. Rank the animations according to the work done on the mass by the tension in the string, from greatest to least.
c. Rank the animations according to the total amount of work done on the mass, from greatest to least.
d. Calculate the work done on the mass by gravity during each of the animations.
e. Calculate the work done on the mass by the tension in the string during each of the animations.
f. Calculate the total amount of work done on the mass during each of the animations.

Note
For this Problem, the mouse-down for coordinates has been disabled.
Exercise 11.1.6.3.11: A modified Atwood's machine
A 2.5-kg cart on a low-friction track is connected to a string and a 0.5-kg hanging mass as shown in the animation. Neglect
any effects of the pulley on the motion of the system (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. What is the work done on the hanging mass due to the tension in the string?
b. What is the work done on the hanging mass due to gravity?
c. What is the work done on the cart due to the tension in the string?
d. What is the work done on the cart due to gravity?
e. What is the work done on the cart due to the normal force?
f. What is the total amount of work done on the two-object system?
g. What is the final kinetic energy of the two-object system?
Note

Exercise 11.1.6.3.12: An oscillating mass on a spring
A ball on an air track is attached to a compressed spring (at x = 0 m the spring is unstretched) as shown in the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Which area properly represents the work done by the
spring during the animation (assume v = 0 m/s at the beginning and end of the animation)? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.6.3.13: A compressed spring is stretched
A cart sits on a track. A compressible spring is connected to the cart and to a barrier at the end of the track. At t = 0 s , the
spring is compressed 0.5 m from its unstretched position, and you have to push on the cart to keep it in equilibrium. Then, by
applying a varying force, you allow the spring to relax and then cause it to stretch while maintaining equilibrium during the
entire process. The spring constant is 50 N/m. The frictional force of the track on the cart is negligible. Treat the cart as a
point particle (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. What is the work done by the force of your hand on the cart during the interval between t = 0 and when the spring is fully
stretched?
b. What is the work done by the spring on the cart during this same interval?
c. What is the total work done on the cart during this interval?
d. What must the force of your hand on the cart be to keep it in equilibrium when the spring is fully compressed?
e. What must the force of your hand on the cart be to keep it in equilibrium when the spring is fully stretched?
f. Why is the work done by your hand on the cart not equal to the product of this force component [calculated in part (e)] and
the displacement of the cart?
Illustration authored by Aaron Titus and placed in the public domain.
Exercise 11.1.6.3.14: An oscillating mass on a spring
A 0.50-kg cart resting on an air track oscillates as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). What is the spring constant of the spring? Restart.

Olaf College.




11.1.7: Energy
Kinetic energy (KE ) is proportional to the square of the speed of the object; KE is therefore a number and not a vector. In order
to understand how to use energy correctly, we will also need to discuss isolated systems, potential energy, and internal energy.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.7.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Choice of System
The animation represents a ball sliding on a curved wire (position is given in meters, time is given in seconds, and energy on the
bar graph is given in joules) subject to the forces of gravity, the normal force, and friction. Note that the wire does not depict the
potential energy function of the ball (see Illustration 7.3 for the Illustration on Potential Energy Diagrams). There are also three bar
graphs that accompany the animation. They represent the kinetic energy (orange), gravitational potential energy (blue), and the
energy dissipated due to friction (red). The two animations represent two different systems in which to analyze the motion via
energy. Restart.
First play Animation 1. Note that in this animation there is no potential energy due to gravity and no energy dissipated due to
friction. How can this be? Well, in this case we have chosen the system to be just the ball. Animation 1: show system. As a
consequence, the system is not isolated because the ball experiences an external force due to gravity in addition to
the external dissipative force of friction. Gravity does positive and then negative work on the ball, changing the ball's kinetic
energy. In addition, the force of friction dissipates energy by doing a negative amount of work on the ball.
Now play Animation 2. What is going on here? What is the system now? Here there is potential energy due to gravity as well as
energy dissipated due to friction. The system includes Earth and the room, and therefore the total energy must include gravitational
potential energy and the frictional energy. Animation 2: show system. Given that we have defined a system that includes Earth and
the room, the total energy (found by adding up all three bar graphs) should stay constant.
Illustration 2: Representations of Energy

There are many different ways to represent motion (as we have already seen). The same is true for energy. For example we can
represent an object's kinetic energy using a graph of kinetic energy vs. time, a bar chart of kinetic energy that changes with time, or
as a value in a table that changes with time (position is given in meters, time is given in seconds, and energy on the bar graph
is given in joules). All three representations give us the same information, just in different forms. So why might we want to use a
different representation? Well, it depends on what concept we are trying to illustrate and which representation gets to the heart of
that concept. The collision occurs at a distance due to magnets on the front of each cart that allow the carts to collide without
touching. Restart.
The graph shows us an instant-by-instant accounting of the kinetic energy of each cart. This is important if we wish to analyze
every detail of the kinetic energy of the carts involved in the collision. Usually we are interested in whether or not energy is
conserved in a given collision. In this case a graph gives this information, but it also gives us much more information. Notice that
during the collision (kinetic) energy appears to be missing! This energy must be accounted for, so where is it? It is temporarily
stored by the magnets attached to the carts. If there was a spring in between the carts, the energy would have been temporarily
stored there instead. This energy is then transferred back to the carts by the end of the collision. This is why we compare the kinetic
energies before the collision to those after the collision and often do not attempt to analyze the details of the collision itself.
Another way to answer the question of energy conservation, therefore, is with the bar chart (it is color coded) or with a table (the
values are labeled). We simply compare the values—either the size of the bars or the values from the table—
from before and after the collision. Are they the same? If yes, the energy, specifically the kinetic energy, of the two-cart system is
conserved.
Illustration 3: Potential Energy Diagrams

A large 2-N/m spring is shown attached to a 1-kg red ball that is initially displaced 5 m (position is given in meters, time is
given in seconds, and energy on the bar graph is given in joules). The total energy and the potential energy are shown in the
graph. Two bar graphs that depict the kinetic and potential energy are also shown. Finally, the values of the energy are shown in the
table. Restart.
The potential energy diagram is an important diagram because it depicts the potential energy function, often just called the
potential. This terminology is unfortunate since it can lead to confusion with the electric potential. The potential energy function is
plotted vs. position, and therefore it tells you the potential energy of an object if you know its position. The potential energy
function for a mass on a spring is just P E(x) = 0.5 ∗ k ∗ x . Here P E(x) = x . Note that, depending on your text, you may have
2 2

seen the potential energy function represented as either V (x) or U (x) . We use the book-independent version P E(x). In addition to
the potential energy function, a horizontal teal line represents the total energy of the system.
Because of the form of the above potential energy function, it is easy to get confused as to what it is actually showing and what it
represents. If you have not done so already, run the animation. The red dot on the potential energy curve does NOT represent the
actual motion of a particle on a bowl or roller coaster. In other words, it does NOT represent the two-dimensional motion of an
object. It represents the one-dimensional motion of an object, here the one-dimensional motion of a mass attached to a spring. The
motion of the red mass is limited to between the turning points represented by where the total energy is equal to the potential
energy.
Now also show the kinetic energy on the graph. Watch the kinetic energy and potential change as the mass moves and the spring
ceases to be stretched and then gets compressed. Notice that the potential energy added to the kinetic energy always adds up to the
total energy. Therefore, if you know the total energy and the potential energy function, you know the kinetic energy of the object at
any position in its motion.
Clearly, the force depicted is a spring force. How can we be sure? Well, there is a relationship between the force and the potential
energy function. This relationship is expressed as F = −d(P E)/dx . Therefore, since P E(x) = x , F = −2x , which tells us
x
2
x
that k = 2 N/m (as stated in the first line of the Illustration).
Illustration 4: External Forces and Energy

When we talk about energy we tend to focus on the change in kinetic energy and change in potential energy, where the change in
potential energy is the negative of the work done by conservative forces. But what happens with nonconservative and external
forces? (Note that some books lump external forces with nonconservative forces.) Well, these are the forces that cause the total
energy of the system to change. In other words, without a nonconservative force or an external force, the total energy would never
change. This is what we mean by the statement of energy conservation, ΔKE + ΔP E = 0 .
If there are nonconservative or external forces, the total energy will change. When we say nonconservative forces we usually are
thinking about kinetic friction. Kinetic friction is a special force that always decreases the total energy of the system (the amount of
work that it does on an object is always negative). If friction exists in a system, and you wait long enough, all of the energy will
dissipate. What about external forces? Do they add or take energy from the system? Well, it depends.
Consider the cart in the animation. The cart interacts with the two-handed image if the image is near the left-hand or right-hand end
of the cart (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The arrow below the cart shows the direction and strength
of the external force applied. Reset the animation if the cart goes off the end of the track. Restart.
Move the cart around and look at each of the graphs. Now focus on the |F| cos(theta) vs.position graph, which tells you about the
work done by the external force (the hand). Is it always positive or is it always negative? It can be positive or negative depending
on the circumstances. If the work done by the force is positive, the energy of the system (the cart and Earth) increases. Since the
potential energy of the cart remains fixed (since it does not change height), all of this energy is seen as kinetic energy. If the work
done by the force is negative, the energy of the system decreases. Again, the change in energy is seen as kinetic energy.
Illustration 5: A Block on an Incline

A block is on an incline and slides without friction. Partway down the incline, it hits a spring as shown (position is given in
meters, time is given in seconds, and energy on the bar graph is given in joules). You can add the protractor by checking the
box. Also shown are the force vectors, one for each force (the red ones) and one for the total force acting (the blue one). The
energy of the system is shown in the three bar graphs on the right: kinetic energy (orange), gravitational potential energy (blue),
and elastic potential energy (green). Restart.
Let's begin by analyzing this situation as we would have in Chapters 3 and 4. First, we need to define a convenient set of axes. A
convenient set of axes has one axis along the incline and the other axis perpendicular to the incline. This choice allows us to have
one direction where there is no acceleration (the direction perpendicular to the incline) and one direction where there is an
acceleration (parallel to the incline). There is also another reason for this choice of axes. It allows us to decompose only one force
instead of two. We have to decompose the gravitational force into a component along the incline and one perpendicular to the
incline. How do we deal with the spring force? Well, the honest answer is that while we can analyze the forces to determine the
acceleration, it is not tremendously useful since the spring force is not constant.

Run the animation and look at the normal force and the gravitational force vs. the spring force. The spring is not compressed
initially, then it compresses, and then it uncompresses. During this time the net force on the block changes dramatically. Look at the
blue net force vector. As a consequence, the acceleration of the block changes dramatically as well. (Note that the net force still
points parallel to the incline; its size is what changes dramatically.)
Since the forces change over the course of the motion of the block, the acceleration of the block is not constant throughout the
motion of the block. Newton's laws and kinematics clearly fall short in analyzing the motion here. What to do? Use energy! At the
starting point of the motion of the block, it has no kinetic energy, and no elastic (spring) potential energy, but it does have
gravitational potential energy. As the block moves down the incline some of the gravitational potential energy is converted to
kinetic energy. When the block hits the spring, the kinetic energy and the gravitational potential energy get converted to elastic
(spring) potential energy.
Watch the animation and describe how all of the potential energy due to the compressed spring gets converted to other types of
energy.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Push a Cart Around
The cart in the animation interacts with the two-handed image if the image is near the left-hand or right-hand end of the
cart (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Move the image from side to side and observe the resulting graph.
The arrow below the cart shows the direction and strength of the force. Restart the animation if the cart goes off screen. Restart.
Define the system to be just the cart and answer the following questions assuming that you are moving the cart around with the
"handy" image.
a. Is the energy of the system constant? If not, where is it coming from?
b. Does the energy always decrease if the image is to the right of the cart? Does it increase if the image is to the left of the cart?
Exploration 2: Choice of Zero for Potential Energy

The animation depicts a ball being dropped from y = 15 m onto the ground 15 meters below at y = 0 m (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). For this animation we will assume that the ball undergoes a very hard collision with the
ground, which also conserves energy. Also shown are two pairs of bar graphs representing the different types of energy associated
with the ball: the kinetic energy (orange) and the gravitational potential energy (blue). The bar graphs on the left show the kinetic
energy and the potential energy as measured from y = 0 m . The bar graphs on the right show the kinetic energy and the potential
ref
energy with a varying zero potential energy point. You can vary the zero point from −15 m < y < 15 m by changing the value
ref
in the text box and clicking the "set value and play" button. Restart.
Change the zero point for the potential energy from zero to a variety of positive values and a variety of negative values. Answer the
following questions about the animation.
a. For zero points that are less than zero, does the gravitational potential energy shift up or down?
b. Is all of this energy accessible to the ball? In other words, can it all be converted to kinetic energy?
c. For zero points that are greater than zero, does the gravitational potential energy shift up or down?
d. For y = −15 m , how much potential energy does the ball start out with? How much does it have when it hits the ground?
ref
What is the change in potential energy?

e. For y = 15 m , how much potential energy does the ball start out with? How much does it have when it hits the ground? What
ref
is the change in potential energy?

f. How do your answers for (d) and (e) compare? Why?
Exploration 3: Elastic Collision

The initial velocities of the two carts in the above animation can be changed by entering new values into the text fields (position is
given in meters, time is given in seconds, and energy on the bar graph is given in joules). As the carts approach one another,
they begin to repel due to the magnets carried by each of them, thereby changing their velocities. The two color-coded bar graphs
on the right show the instantaneous kinetic energy of the carts. Restart.
a. Run the animation using 2 m/s and −2 m/s for the velocities of the left and right carts, respectively. What is the change in
kinetic energy of the left cart? The right cart? What is the total change in energy?
b. Simulate collisions using other values of equal but opposite velocities. How does this effect each cart's change in kinetic
energy? The change in the total energy?
c. Stop the animation just as the collision is about to take place and step forward in time so that the animation is paused during the
collision process. What happens to the total energy during the collision process?
d. Does the last result imply that the two-cart system is not isolated?
e. Run the animation using 1 m/s and −2 m/s for the velocities of the left and right carts, respectively. What is the change in
total kinetic energy produced by the collision?
Exploration 4: A Ball Hits a Mass Attached to a Spring

Whenever objects interact, energy is likely to be converted from one form to another and/or dissipated (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). Consider two models of a ball hitting a 0.4-kg rectangle attached to a massless spring. After the

collision the masses stick together and oscillate. Animation 1 represents an ideal spring and frictionless conditions,
while Animation 2 represents a more realistic spring, and friction takes its inevitable toll on the system (only the kinetic energy of
the ball is shown in the graph). Consider a system made up of the mass, the rectangle, and the massless spring as you answer the
following questions. The potential energy of the spring is zero when the spring is uncompressed and, since the spring is massless, it
has no kinetic energy. Restart.
a. What is the mass of the black ball?
b. What is the initial energy of the system?
Answer the following questions for each animation.
c. What is the energy of the system immediately after the collision?
d. Draw energy diagrams for the three objects that make up the system at the following times: t = 0 s , t = 1.90 s, t = 4.10 s,
t = 6.30 s , and t = 8.55 s .
e. For Animation 2 only: Approximately how long does it take for 80% of the initial energy to be dissipated?
Exploration 5: Drag the Ball to Determine P E(x)

Potential energy is energy associated with the configuration of an object or a system (position is given in meters and time is given
in seconds). Since potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy, an operational way to determine potential energy is to let
the system evolve from an unknown configuration to a known configuration and measure the kinetic energy. You can use this
technique to measure and plot potential energy functions, P E(x). Restart
Plot the potential energy as a function of position for both animations. Note that these interactions may or may not be physical
interactions.
Procedure: Reset will initialize the system to a known potential energy. This initial configuration has been marked with a small red
dot. Assume this configuration has zero potential energy, P E = 0 , and the object has a mass of 1 kg . Use the mouse to move the
0
object to a new position and release it. The object will have zero initial velocity when it is released. If the object returns to the
original position you can record the velocity and calculate the kinetic energy. This kinetic energy must have come from the
potential energy at the new position if the interaction is conservative.
Note
Animation will stop after 100 s.
Exploration 6: Different Interactions

The animations show a red ball that you can drag with the mouse (position is given in meters, time is given in seconds, and
energy on the bar graph is given in joules). The bar graph shows the negative of the force on the ball integrated over the
displacement from the origin. This is the negative of the work done on the ball to get it to this position. This integral, when the
force is conservative, is also the potential energy associated with the ball when it is at this position. Also shown is a table with a
calculation of position and the negative of the work. Restart.
a. Briefly describe the force in each animation.
b. Which of the forces is conservative? Why?
c. For the conservative forces, draw the potential energy function.
Exploration 7: Exploring Potential Energy Functions

Select a possible potential energy function. Drag the crosshair cursor with the mouse. The bar graph on the right displays the work
done along the path by the force that corresponds to the given potential energy function. For your reference, there are circles every
10 m that form a coordinate grid (position is given in meters and the result of the integral given on the bar graph is in
joules). Restart.
a. Describe each potential energy function in words.
b. How does the work relate to the change in potential energy along a certain path?
c. What happens when you drag the cursor through a closed path (a path that begins and ends at the same point)?
d. What is the force that is responsible for each potential energy function? Write the force in the x and y direction as a function of
x and y , F (x, y) and F (x, y).
x y

When you are finished with this Exploration, feel free to enter your own potential energy function.
Olaf College.


11.1.7.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.7.3.1: A ball slides in a frictionless bowl
A mass of 2 kg is in a rather large bowl and moves as depicted in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given
in seconds). There is no friction between the mass and the bowl so it slides along the surface of the bowl (it does not roll at
all). Determine the velocity of the mass at the bottom of the bowl. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.7.3.2: A 12-kg box slides up a 26.56 frictionless ramp

∘
A 12-kg box slides up a 26.56 frictionless ramp at constant speed as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and
∘
time is given in seconds). Note that the hand does work on the box. Restart.
b. What is the change in gravitational potential energy of the box during the animation?
c. What is the change in kinetic energy of the box during the animation?
Exercise 11.1.7.3.3: A 12-kg box slides down a 26.56 frictionless ramp

∘
A 12-kg box slides down a 26.56 frictionless ramp at constant speed as shown in the animation (position is given in meters
∘
and time is given in seconds). Note that the hand does work on the box. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.7.3.4: A 12-kg box slides down a rough ramp
A 12-kg box slides down a rough 26.56 ramp at constant speed (it is already traveling at this constant speed at t = 0 s and
∘
continues to do so even after the animation ends) as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Note that friction does work on the box. Restart.
a. What is the work done by friction (done on the box and the ramp) during the animation?
Exercise 11.1.7.3.5: A mass is lifted by a string
a. Rank the animations according to the change in gravitational potential energy of the mass, from greatest to least.
b. Rank the animations according to the work done on the mass by the tension in the string, from greatest to least.
c. Rank the animations according to the change in kinetic energy of the mass, from greatest to least.
d. Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy of the mass during each of the animations.
e. Calculate the work done on the mass by the tension in the string during each of the animations.
f. Calculate the change in kinetic energy of the mass during each of the animations.
Exercise 11.1.7.3.6: A modified Atwood's machine
A 2.5-kg cart on a low-friction track is connected to a string and then to a 0.5-kg hanging mass as shown in the animation.
Neglect any effects of the massless pulley on the motion of the system (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.

a. What is the work done on the hanging mass due to the tension in the string?
b. What is the change in gravitational potential energy of the hanging mass?
c. What is the work done on the cart due to the tension in the string?
d. What is the change in gravitational potential energy of the cart?
e. What is the work done on the cart due to the normal force?
f. What is the total work done by the tension on the two-object system?
g. What is the change in potential energy of the two-object system?
h. What is the change in kinetic energy of the two-object system?
Note

Script authored by Aaron Titus
Exercise 11.1.7.3.7: Three balls are thrown off the top of a building
Three balls are thrown off the top of a building, all with the same speed but with different launch angles (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. The components of the initial velocities are given.
The blue ball has an initial velocity of (6 m/s, 8 m/s).
The green ball has an initial velocity of (10 m/s, 0 m/s).
The red ball has an initial velocity of (8 m/s, −6 m/s).
a. Rank the three balls according to which one hits the ground first.
b. Rank the three balls according to which one has the greatest speed the instant before impact with the ground.
c. Now calculate the speed of each of the balls the instant before impact with the ground.
Exercise 11.1.7.3.8: A ball is dropped on a hard floor
A ball is dropped on a hard floor as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
2
Assume that the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s . Restart.
a. What is the speed of the ball the instant before it hits the ground?
b. How much energy (in % of original energy) is lost in the collision with the floor?
c. What is the coefficient of restitution for the ball?
The coefficient of restitution, for the collision where one object does not move, is the ratio |v
f .
|/| vi |
Exercise 11.1.7.3.9: An explosive collision
Two carts are in close proximity. A massless spring is attached to the end of the red cart and is compressed. The massless
spring is released such that the two carts are "pushed" apart as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). The mass of the green cart is 1.5 kg. Consider a system made up of the two carts and the massless
spring. Restart.
a. What is the velocity of the center of mass of the carts after the massless spring is released (assume that since the spring is
massless it cannot have a kinetic energy)?
b. What is the mass of the red cart?
c. What is the change in kinetic energy of the system due to the release of the spring?
d. What was the change in potential energy of the spring?

Exercise 11.1.7.3.10: A spring gun
A spring gun is loaded with a 500-gram projectile (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). The spring
is massless and therefore has no kinetic energy. Restart.
a. How much potential energy is converted to kinetic energy in the spring gun?
b. How much potential energy has been converted to kinetic energy when the ball is at the following positions: −5 cm,
−4 cm, −3 cm, −2 cm, −1 cm, and 0 cm ?
c. Plot the potential energy of the spring as a function of distance.
Exercise 11.1.7.3.11: Collision between a mass and a mass connected to a spring
A 1.0-kg projectile bounces off of an object (m = 1 kg ) attached to a massless spring as shown (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). The table entries, v and v , show the velocities of the projectile and the target, respectively.
1 2
Assume that the collision is elastic. Restart.

a. There are five important time intervals during the animation. What are they? Briefly describe what is happening during
these intervals.
b. Draw a graph of energy vs. time for the kinetic energy of the projectile, the kinetic energy of the target, and the potential
energy of the spring.
Exercise 11.1.7.3.12: Collision between a mass and a mass connected to a spring
A 0.5-kg projectile bounces off of an object (m = 1 kg ) attached to a massless spring as shown (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). The table entries, v and v , show the velocities of the projectile and the target, respectively.
1 2
Assume that the collision is elastic. Restart.

a. Draw a graph of energy vs. time for the kinetic energy of the projectile, the kinetic energy of the target, and the potential
energy of the spring.
b. What percent of the initial energy was transferred to the target-spring system during the collision?
Olaf College.




11.1.8: Momentum
It turns out that ∑ F = ma is a special case of Newton's second law. Newton determined that a net force was something that
net
caused a time rate of change of momentum, Δp/Δt or dp/dt, where momentum is defined as p = mv . The two descriptions are
the same if the mass of the object in question does not change. Therefore, if there is no net force acting on an object or a system of
objects, the momentum does not change. This statement is called conservation of momentum. Conservation of momentum, along
with conservation of energy, is used in analyzing collisions between objects.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.8.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Force and Impulse
So what do we mean by a force? Newton considered a net force as something that caused a time rate of change of momentum,
Δp/Δt or dp/dt. However, C.D. Broad (Scientific Thought, 1923) wrote, "It seems clear to me that no one ever does mean or
ever has meant by 'force', rate of change of momentum." So if Newton's statement seems odd it is because you are used to a special
—and famous—case of Newton's general statement of the second law, that of ∑ F = ma . Restart.
net
Consider the force applied by the hand over a small Δt (this happens automatically at t = 1 s ). Notice the change in
momentum (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The arrow represents the change in momentum. Initially
the mass of the cart is 1 kg . Change the mass to 2 kg . Does the change in momentum differ? No! But what does change is the final
velocity; it is half of the velocity when the mass was 1 kg . The same force results in the same change in momentum in the same
time interval.
Another way to represent this is in terms of the integral (the area) under a force vs. time graph. Check the box to see this graph.
This area is called the impulse, which is a fancy name for Δp. What can you say about the impulse received by the cart,
independent of its mass? Check the second box to find out. Again, it should be, and is, the same.
Consider the animation with the force applied by the hand over a large Δt (this happens automatically at t = 1 s ). The difference
between the animations is that in large Δt the force acts for a longer time and therefore the force causes a larger change in
momentum. Again, the arrow represents the change in momentum, which is larger than the small Δt case.
Illustration 2: The Difference between Impulse and Work

In Illustration 8.1, we learned a change in momentum was due to a net applied force. What about kinetic energy? Well, it is also
due to a net applied force, but in a different way. Recall that we talk about work as the amount of force in the direction of an
object's displacement multiplied by the displacement. No displacement, no work. Work is positive if F and Δx (or dx) point in the
same direction and negative if F and Δx (or dx) point in opposite directions. Restart.
Consider the force applied by the hand over a small Δt (this happens automatically at t = 1 s ). Notice the change in
momentum (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Initially the mass of the cart is 1 kg . Change the mass to
2 kg . Does the change in momentum differ? No! But what does change is the final velocity; it is half of the velocity when the
mass was 1 kg . The same force results in the same change in momentum in the same time interval.
So what happens to the kinetic energy? Does it remain the same upon a change in mass? No. Why not? Recall that the work that
will be equal to the change in kinetic energy is related to the displacement the cart undergoes when the force is applied. Due to the
larger mass, the cart does not accelerate as much and therefore does not move as far, so its kinetic energy is less.
Another way to represent this is in terms of the integral (the area) under a force cos(θ) vs. distance graph. This area is called the
work that is the object's ΔKE . What can you say about the work received by the cart when its mass changes? Check the second
box to find out. Again, it should be, and is, different.
What happens when instead of applying a small Δt, you apply a large Δt? There is a larger impulse because Δt is larger. There is
also a larger change in the kinetic energy since Δx is larger as well.
Illustration 3: Hard and Soft Collisions and the Third Law

This Illustration models collisions between two particles (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. Both
animations assume identical particles and both animations start with the particles having the same velocities. What is different
about the animations is the interaction between the two particles. The interaction in Animation 1 can be characterized as hard since
the acceleration is very large and the interaction is very short range. It is also called a contact interaction because the force turns on
when the two particles are in contact.
In Animation 2 the interaction can be characterized as soft. Vary the masses of the two particles and be sure to pay attention to the
scale of the acceleration graph in each animation. In addition, watch the relative acceleration of the particles as you vary the
masses. Notice that the accelerations are different when the masses are different.
What can you say about the force experienced by each particle in each animation? The character of the forces is different: One is
soft and one is hard. Nonetheless, the forces are always equal and opposite. To see this you must take each object's acceleration and

multiply it by its mass. This is exactly the statement of Newton's third law, the law of reciprocity of forces. In this case, there are no
net external forces acting on the two particles, so the change in momentum of the two-particle system is zero. In other words,
momentum is conserved. Using equations, we would say that since ∑ F = ΔP/Δt or ∑ F = dp/dt , if the net force on a
net net
system is zero, then Δp/Δt = 0 or dp/dt = 0 , which means that the change in momentum over time must be zero. Hence the
sum of the two impulses experienced by the balls must be zero. If one particle's momentum goes up, the other particle's momentum
must go down by exactly the same amount. Check it out by looking at the tables.
Two-dimensional models show a dramatic difference between hard and soft collisions. (See Problem 8.12 for two-dimensional
collisions.) Hard collisions tend not to have much of an effect on incident particles except for the occasional particle that suffers a
head-on impact. Soft collisions, on the other hand, produce minor deflections on a large number of particles. The experimental
observation of alpha particles being deflected backwards from gold foil led Ernest Rutherford to predict that atoms have a small
hard core, the nucleus.
Illustration 4: Relative Velocity in Collisions

In this set of collisions there are no net external forces acting on the two carts. Restart. Enter new values for the velocity of each
cart and the mass of the right-moving (orange) cart. Then click the "set values and play" button to register your values and play the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). We have set limits on the values you can choose:
0.5 kg < m1 < 4 kg, 0 m/s < v1 < 4 m/s, and − 4 m/s < v2 < 0 m/s.
The table gives an instantaneous reading of each cart's momentum as well as the total momentum in the two-cart system. In
addition, when you select the check box, arrows representing the magnitude of the relative velocities before and after the collision
between the two carts are also shown.
Because the net force on the system of two carts is zero, the change in momentum of the two-particle system is zero. In other
words, momentum is conserved. Using equations, we would say that since ∑ F = Δp/Δt or ∑ F = dp/dt , if the net force
net net
on a system is zero, then Δp/Δt = 0 or dp/dt = 0 , which means that the change in momentum over time must be zero. Hence
the sum of the two impulses experienced by the carts must be zero. If one particle's momentum goes up, the other particle's
momentum must go down by exactly the same amount.
In elastic collisions, the concept of the relative velocity is an important one in analyzing the collision. The relative velocity is
defined as v − v (it could also be defined as v − v as the choice of 1 and 2 is arbitrary).
1 2 2 1
Turn on the relative velocity arrows and vary the velocity of each cart and the mass of the right-moving (orange) cart. Determine
the relationship between the relative velocity before the collision and the relative velocity after the collision. What did you find? It
turns out that the magnitude of the relative velocity before and after an elastic collision is the same. However, the sign of the
relative velocity changes from before to after the collision: (v − v ) = −(v − v ) . This relationship can be verified by using
1 2 i 1 2 f
the conservation of energy and conservation of momentum equations and a bit of algebra.
Consider an elastic collision where v = 1 m/s and v = −4 m/s . Clearly the relative velocity before the collision is 5 m/s.
1 2
What must it be after the collision? −5 m/s. Try it and find out if this is true. Does it matter if you change the mass of the orange
cart?
Exploration 5: The Zero-Momentum Frame

Is physics different when viewed in different reference frames? Well, it can certainly look different. Consider the collision in the
animation as seen initially in the reference frame of Earth (the relative velocity between this frame and Earth's stationary frame is
zero). Here both the red ball and the blue ball have the same mass equal to 1 kg . Note that energy and momentum are conserved in
the collision with KE = 2 J and p = 2 kg ⋅ m/s before and after the collision. Restart.
x
Change v from zero to 2 m/s (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). How does the collision change? The red
ball is now initially stationary, and the blue ball is moving to the left at 2 m/s. Note that in the original collision with v = 0 m/s ,
the red ball was initially moving to the right and the blue ball was initially stationary. In the new frame the momentum of the two-
ball system is different. However, the kinetic energy happens to be the same and energy and momentum are conserved.
Now try v = −2 m/s . Are energy and momentum still conserved? Even though the values of the kinetic energy and momentum
change, the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum still hold.

Now try v = 1 m/s . What is the new momentum for the two-ball system? This frame of reference is appropriately called the zero-
momentum frame. In this frame the sum of the momentum of all objects in the system is zero. This frame is also called the center-
of-mass frame. The center of mass is a coordinate that is a mass-weighted average of the positions of the objects that make up the
system. In a two-object system the center of mass is always somewhere in between the two objects. Since the center of mass is a
mass-weighted average, the center of mass will always be closer to the object that is more massive. In the case of this animation,
where both balls have the same mass, the center of mass is always at the midpoint between the two masses. This point does not
move in the zero-momentum frame, but does move in other frames.
Illustration 6: Microscopic View of a Collision

In the animation, a red 80-kg ball with an initial kinetic energy of 360 J is trapped inside a box with rigid walls containing a
cylinder constructed of 80 small 1-kg spheres (position is given in meters, time is given in seconds, and energy shown on the
bar graph is given in joules). The ball crashes into the cylinder and breaks it apart. The bar graph displays the kinetic energy of
the red ball. The table displays the time, momentum, and kinetic energy of the red ball. Restart.
This animation is meant to simulate a collision between two solid objects, one of which is stationary. The stationary object is a
loose collection of smaller objects and approximates a larger solid object. This is only an approximation since this object should
stay together, not break apart. When you do collision experiments in the lab the objects colliding do not usually deform this much!
Nevertheless, we can learn a lot from this animation. As the red ball hits the blue object, the blue object deforms, absorbing some
of the red ball's kinetic energy and momentum. If the blue object were indeed solid, the deformed object—the entire object—would
move to the right. We can imagine this by considering the average motion of the small blue balls that make up the larger solid
object. We note that the general motion of these blue balls is to the right. Where does all of the initial kinetic energy go? It goes
into the kinetic energy of the small blue balls.
Illustration 7: Center of Mass

The first image shows two blocks of equal mass (position is given in meters). The center of mass of the system is shown by a red
dot and its position is calculated for you. Drag the green block on the right. What do you notice about the location of the center of
mass as you change the right block's position? Restart.
Now suppose the two blocks have unequal mass as shown in Animation 2. Is the center of mass at the center of the system? By
viewing the location of the center of mass, you know which block is more massive. So which one is more massive?
How can we calculate the ratio of the mass of the blue block to the mass of the red block? If you only have two blocks, then the
ratio of the distances of each block from the center of mass is related to the ratio of their masses. Therefore, by measuring the
distance from each block to the center of mass, you can calculate the ratio of their masses. The location of the center of mass is
given by X = (x m + x m )/(m + m ) for a one-dimensional two-object system.
cm 1 1 2 2 1 2
A concept similar to that of the center of mass is that of the center of gravity. In fact the two are often used interchangeably. The
center of mass is defined above; the center of gravity is defined as the point on a system where gravity can be considered to act.
The center of gravity takes into account the fact that the force of gravity—and therefore the acceleration due to gravity—is
different for different heights above the surface of Earth. For this Illustration, the center of mass is equivalent to the center of
gravity. Only if the system is really large might the acceleration due to gravity be different at different parts of the system. This
would cause the center of gravity to differ from the center of mass.
Script by Aaron Titus.
Illustration 8: Moving Objects and Center of Mass

A green block, 1.00 kg, sits on a red block, 4.46 kg, as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart. All surfaces are frictionless except for the gray patches on the red block. Given the self-propelled motion of the
green block in Animation 1, are momentum and energy conserved in the animation? If not, why not?
Well, momentum is conserved because there are no external forces. The momentum of the system was zero before the green block
moved, is zero when the blocks move, and is again zero when the blocks are stationary. From the point of view of the center of
mass, V = 0 m/s and therefore P = 0 kg ⋅ m/s .
cm cm

We can see this by considering what happens to the center of mass during Animation 2. The center of mass of the system is
X cm = (m x + m x )/(m + m )
1 1 2 2 1 2and is represented by the black dot. Note that the center of mass of the system does not
move relative to the ground but does move to the left relative to the right edge of the red block as the red block moves to the right.
In fact we can look at the center of mass for each object by replacing each block by a dot as well as shown in Animation 3.
What about energy? As is always the case, whether energy is conserved depends on how you define your system. Looking just at
the center of mass, since V = 0 m/s , energy is conserved. However, if we look at the blocks individually, energy (in the sense of
cm
mechanical energy) is not conserved. Energy stored in the individual elements of the system (presumably the green block's
potential energy) is turned into kinetic energy of both blocks and then is dissipated by friction.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Understanding Conservation Laws
Observe the animation to see if you can discover any conservation laws. You should determine whether your laws hold for the left
half of the animation, the right half of the animation, or the entire animation. Properties that you might want to consider are number
of particles, color, and sum of the particle speeds. Restart.
The animation will run for 100 seconds.
Exploration 2: An Elastic Collision

The animation shows an elastic collision between two masses (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. Set the initial velocity of the blue ball to zero. For the three conditions of the relative masses of the blue and red balls shown in
the table, PREDICT what value (or values) of the initial velocity of the red ball will result in...
both balls moving to the right after the collision.
the red ball stopping after hitting the blue ball.
the red ball moving to the left and the blue ball moving to the right after the collision.
Enter the range of initial velocity ...both balls moving ...the red ball stopping ...the red ball moving to the left and the
values for the red ball that to the right after the after colliding with the blue ball moving to the right after the
results in... collision. blue ball. collision.
mred = mblue
mred = 2 ∗ mblue
mred = 0.5 ∗ mblue
AFTER you have made your predictions, test them using the animation. Were you correct? If not, explain.
b. Now set the initial velocity of the blue mass to −20 cm/s, the initial velocity of the red mass to 5 cm/s, and the masses equal.
PREDICT the direction each ball will be traveling after impact. AFTER you have made your prediction, try it. Were you
correct? If not, explain.
c. Set the initial velocity of the blue mass to −10 cm/s and the red mass to half the mass of the blue ball. PREDICT the velocity
the red mass must have in order to completely stop the blue mass when they collide. Now try it. Were you correct? If not,
explain.
d. Set the initial velocity of the blue mass to −10 cm/s and the red mass to twice the mass of the blue ball. PREDICT the velocity
the red mass must have in order to completely stop the blue mass when they collide. Now try it. Were you correct? If not,
explain.
Exploration authored by Melissa Dancy.
Exploration 3: An Inelastic Collision with Unknown Masses

The initial velocities of the two carts in the animation can be changed by entering new values into the text fields (position is given
in meters and time is given in seconds). As the carts approach one another they stick together. Restart.
Repeat the animation using varying velocities as you answer the following questions. Right-click on the graph to make a copy that
can be expanded for better resolution.
a. Run the animation using 2 m/s and −2 m/s for the velocities of the left and right carts, respectively. What is the change in
velocity of the left cart? The right cart? What is the ratio of these changes?
b. Simulate collisions using other values of equal but opposite velocities. How does this effect the changes in the velocities? The
ratio of the changes?

c. Run the animation using 1 m/s and −2 m/s for the velocities of the left and right carts, respectively. What is the change in
velocity of the left cart? The right cart? What is the ratio of these changes?
d. Is the ratio of the changes in the velocities always the same?
e. What is the mass ratio of the carts?
Exploration 4: Elastic and Inelastic Collisions and Δp

Enter in a new value and click the "set values and play" button to register your values and run the animation (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). We have set limits on the values you can choose:
0.5 kg < m1 < 2 kg, 0 m/s < v1 < 4 m/s, and − 4 m/s < v2 < 0 m/s
The bar graph gives an instantaneous reading of each cart's energy and the check box changes the collision type from perfectly
elastic to perfectly inelastic. Restart.
Answer the following questions for both the elastic and inelastic collisions.
a. Vary the mass and velocities. Is Δp = −Δp ?
1 2
b. Why should this be the case?

c. Is the energy of the system constant? If not, where is it going?
Exploration 5: Two and Three Ball Collisions

If you drop a rubber ball and it hits the ground at 5 m/s, it bounces back at almost the same speed (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). But what happens if you drop two balls stacked one upon another? A common lecture demonstration has
a professor dropping a light ball and a heavy ball at the same time. The light ball is directly above the heavy ball so that the heavy
ball hits the ground first, bounces back, and then hits the light ball which is still on its way down. Restart.
This animation uses two balls with a mass ratio of 1 : 10. We consider motion on a horizontal air track so we can ignore the effect
of gravity so as to make the physics as clear as possible. The balls move at constant speed to the left before hitting the wall; assume
all collisions are elastic.
a. Predict the velocities of the balls after the first set of collisions, that is, when both balls are moving to the right.
b. Predict the velocities if you use three balls with mass ratios of 1 : 10 : 100.
c. Now run the animations. Were you correct? If not, explain why.
Note: The animation will run for 100 seconds.
Exploration 6: An Explosive Collision

The system's total kinetic energy is increased in a 1200-J explosion in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
Use a mass ratio of 1 : 2 for the following questions.
a. Draw energy diagrams for the system before and after the explosion.
b. What percentage of the explosion's energy is converted to kinetic energy?
c. What percentage of the explosion's energy is usable as kinetic energy?
d. Is the process shown in the animation reversible?
Vary the mass of the left cart from 0.1 kg to 1.0 kg for the following questions.
e. Does the larger or the smaller mass receive the most energy?
f. Does the larger or the smaller mass receive the most momentum?
g. Does the ratio of the two masses have any effect on the total resulting kinetic energy?
h. Does the ratio of the two masses have any effect on the recoverable energy?
Exploration 7: A Bouncing Ball

The animation represents the seemingly simple example of a ball hitting the ground and bouncing back (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). The graph can show velocity vs. time or acceleration vs. time and can be zoomed in to see

the collision with the ground. Also shown are three bar graphs representing the different types of energy associated with the ball:
the kinetic energy (orange), the gravitational potential energy (blue), and the elastic potential energy (green). Restart.
a. There are three important time intervals during the animation. What are they? Briefly describe what is happening during these
intervals.
b. Draw energy diagrams, that is, find the values and plot a bar graph for the kinetic energy of the ball.
c. Draw the graph of momentum vs. time. Describe what is happening to the momentum during the three important time intervals.
If the momentum of the ball is changing, explain why.
d. Draw the graph of the net force vs. time. Describe what is happening to the net force on the ball during the three important time
intervals. If the net force of the ball is changing, explain why.
Olaf College.


11.1.8.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.8.3.1: Determine momentum and its conservation
A 1.5-kg box (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds) slides on ice for 1.5 seconds and then encounters a
rough surface. Restart
a. Find the momentum at the start of the animation.
b. Is the momentum of the box constant during the first 1.5 seconds?
c. Is the momentum of the box constant during the next three seconds?
d. Is momentum conserved during the first 1.5 seconds?
e. Is momentum conserved during the next three seconds?
Exercise 11.1.8.3.2: Determine Δp for two collisions
A flower pot and a basketball collide with a table (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Each has exactly
the same mass. Restart.
a. Which object undergoes the greater change in momentum after colliding with the floor?
b. Which object undergoes the greater change in kinetic energy after colliding with the floor?
c. Is the force of the floor on the flower pot greater or less than the force of the floor on the basketball?
Exercise 11.1.8.3.3: Determine Δp for two collisions
Two carts collide with a wall as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Assume
the two carts are identical. Restart.
a. Is kinetic energy constant for either collision?
b. Which cart, top or bottom, undergoes the greater change in kinetic energy due to colliding with the wall?
c. Is this the same cart that undergoes the greater change in momentum?
d. Explain how carts can change their momentum but not their kinetic energy.
Exercise 11.1.8.3.4: Determine mass of blue cart
Two carts on an air track collide as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). If the
mass of the red cart is 0.8 kg, what is the mass of the blue cart? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.8.3.5: Determine mass of small car
A large 2500-kg truck (blue) collides with a small car (brown) as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). After the collision, the vehicles move at constant velocity. What is the mass of the small
car? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.8.3.6: Two carts: determine if momentum is conserved
Two identical carts are shown colliding on a frictionless air track (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
Which animation(s), if any, correctly models the laws of classical physics? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.8.3.7: Three carts: determine if momentum is conserved
Three identical carts, two of which are attached, are shown colliding on a frictionless air track (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). Which animation(s), if any, correctly models the laws of classical physics? Restart.

Exercise 11.1.8.3.8: An explosive collision
A spring that is attached to the end of a cart is compressed, and the cart is placed next to another cart on a low-friction track.
The spring is released such that the two carts are "pushed" apart as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). The mass of the green cart is 1.35 kg, and the mass of the orange cart is 0.9 kg. Restart.
a. What is the magnitude of the momentum of the green cart after the collision?
b. What is the magnitude of the momentum of the orange cart after the collision?
c. What is the change in momentum of the system due to the release of the spring?
d. What is the change in kinetic energy of the system due to the release of the spring?
Exercise 11.1.8.3.9: Is the collision elastic or inelastic?
A collision occurs between two pucks on a frictionless surface (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Is
the collision elastic or inelastic? Note that the masses of the pucks are not necessarily the same. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.8.3.10: Is the collision elastic, inelastic, or explosive?
The color-coded graphs show the velocities of the red and black balls, respectively (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). Would you define the collision shown as elastic, inelastic, totally inelastic, or explosive? Assume both balls
have the same mass. Restart.
Example 11.1.8.3.11: Determine Δp
Two carts undergo a perfectly inelastic collision (the carts stick together) as shown in the animation. Also shown is a velocity
vs. time graph for each cart. You can see the acceleration vs. time graph by clicking the check box (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). The two carts have equal speed before the collision. You may vary m from 0.5 kg to
1
2 kg . Restart.
a. For which values of m is the magnitude of the change in momentum, |Δp|, of the yellow cart greater than, less than, or
1
equal to the magnitude of the change in momentum, |Δp|, of the bluish cart? Why?
b. For which values of m is the magnitude of the change in acceleration, |Δa |, of the yellow cart greater than, less than,
1 max
or equal to the magnitude of the change in acceleration, |Δa |, of the bluish cart? Why?
max
Example 11.1.8.3.12: Analyze several two-d collisions
Several two-dimensional collisions between two balls (the green ball is ball 1 and the blue ball is ball 2) are shown (position is
given in meters and time is given in seconds). Also shown is a protractor, which you can drag around (by the little circles on
its legs) to measure angles. Restart.
For each animation:
a. Determine the initial momentum of each ball
b. Determine the final momentum of each ball.
c. Calculate and compare the initial momentum to the final momentum for the two-ball system.
Exercise 11.1.8.3.13: Determine the center of mass
Four spheres are shown in the animation. A blue sphere is half as massive as a red one and a purple sphere is twice as massive
as a red one. Where should the purple one be placed in order for the center of gravity to be at the location of the black
dot (position is given in meters)? Restart.

Exercise 11.1.8.3.14: Using center of mass
A spring that is attached to the end of a cart is compressed, and the cart is placed next to another cart on a low-friction track.
The spring is released such that the two carts are "pushed" apart as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and
a. Find the ratio of the green mass to the red mass.
b. Find the position of the center of mass.
c. Find the distance from each mass to the center of mass at time t = 0 s .
Olaf College.




11.1.9: Reference Frames
The subject of moving reference frames is of importance in the study of forces, energy and momentum (Chapters 4-8). Since both
kinetic energy and momentum depend on the velocity, observers who disagree on the value of an object's velocity also will not
agree on the value of the momentum or the kinetic energy. They are said to be viewing the motion from two different frames of
reference. So who is measuring the correct value for the momentum and energy?
Topic hierarchy
11.1.9.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Newton's First Law and Reference Frames
On first glance it may seem like Newton's first law (an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion
unless acted on by a net force) is contained within Newton's second law. This is actually not the case. The first law is also a
statement regarding reference frames. This is the information NOT contained in the second law. Sometimes the first law is also
called the law of inertia. It defines a certain set of reference frames in which the first law holds, and these reference frames are
therefore called inertial frames of reference. Put another way, Newton's first law states that if the net force on an object is zero, it is
possible to find at least one reference frame in which that object has no acceleration.
A ball popper on a cart (not shown to scale) is shown moving on a track in five different animations (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). In each animation, the ball is ejected straight up by the popper mechanism at t = 1 s . Restart.
Let us first consider Animation 1. In this animation the cart is stationary. But is it really? We know that we cannot tell if we are
stationary or moving at a constant velocity (in other words in an inertial reference frame). Recall that if we are moving relative to
Earth at a constant velocity, we are in an inertial reference frame. So how can we tell if we are moving? How about the cart? We
cannot tell if there is motion as long as the relative motion with respect to Earth can be described by a constant velocity. In
Animation 1 the cart could be stationary. In this case, we expect—and actually see—that the ball lands back in the popper.
However, if the cart was moving relative to Earth, and we were moving along with the cart, the motion of the ball and the cart
would look exactly the same!
What would the motion of this ball and cart look like if it moved relative to our reference frame (or if we move relative to its
reference frame)? Animations 2, 3, 4, and 5 show the motion from different reference frames.
First look at Animations 2 and 3. What do these animations look like? Both animations resemble projectile motion. The motion of
the ball looks like motion in a plane as opposed to motion on a line. Does the ball still land in the popper? Would you expect this?
Sure. There is nothing out of the ordinary going on here. Since there are no forces in the x direction, the motion of the ball (and
cart) should be described by constant velocity in that direction. Therefore the ball and the cart have the same constant horizontal
velocity.
Now look at Animations 4 and 5. What do these animations look like? Neither animation resemble projectile motion. The motion
of the ball and cart look like they are being accelerated to either the right or the left (depending on the animation). Notice that the
ball still lands in the popper as seen from this reference frame. Why do the ball and cart accelerate? There is nothing that we can
see to explain why the ball and cart accelerate. Since Newton's laws must be correct, we must invent a force to describe why the
cart and ball are accelerating (a fictitious force, since it really does not exist). Animations 4 and 5 depict motion as seen from
noninertial reference frames.
Illustration 2: Reference Frames

In the two animations, we are given an example of a moving reference frame relative to Earth's (stationary) reference frame. The
motion of the orange ball as seen in Earth's reference frame is depicted in the animation by the time, position, and velocity
measurements, t, x , and v , respectively (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). An observer is in another
1 1
reference frame that is moving with a constant velocity with respect to the surface of Earth. The observer also takes down time,
position, and velocity measurements as shown in the table and represented by t, x , and v respectively. Animation 1 shows
2 2
position and Animation 2 shows velocity. Restart.

How do we know that the observer in frame two is moving with respect to Earth's reference frame? At t = −2 s , the observer in
Earth's frame sees the orange ball at −4 m and moving to the right at a constant velocity of 2 m/s. What does the observer on the
other reference frame see? She sees the ball start at the same position, but the ball moves with a different velocity in her frame. She
sees it move to the right with a velocity of 3 m/s. Therefore, relative to Earth, our observer in frame 2 is moving with a velocity of
1 m/s.
But in what direction does the observer move? Consider the following question first. What if the observer-in her frame of
reference-saw the ball as stationary? We would conclude that the observer was traveling at the same velocity as the ball as seen
from the reference frame of Earth. When we move in the direction of the motion of the ball, the ball's relative velocity decreases.
Thus, when we move in a direction opposite to the motion of the ball, the ball's relative velocity increases. Therefore the observer
is moving to the left, relative to the reference frame of Earth, at 1 m/s!

When a reference frame is moving uniformly (at a constant velocity) with respect to a non-accelerating (inertial) reference frame,
the moving frame of reference is also called an inertial reference frame.
Illustration 3: The Zero-Momentum Frame

Is physics different when viewed in different reference frames? Well, it can certainly look different. Consider the collision in the
animation as seen initially in the reference frame of Earth (the relative velocity between this frame and Earth's stationary frame is
zero). Here both the red ball and the blue ball have the same mass equal to 1 kg . Note that energy and momentum are conserved in
the collision with kinetic energy = 2 J and p = 2 kg ⋅ m/s before and after the collision. Restart.
x
Change the velocity from zero to 2 m/s (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). How does the collision
change? The red ball is now initially stationary and the blue ball is moving to the left at 2 m/s. Note that, in the original collision
with v = 0 m/s , the red ball was initially moving to the right and the blue ball was initially stationary. In the new frame the
momentum of the two-ball system is different. However, the kinetic energy happens to be the same and energy and momentum are
conserved.
Now try v = −2 m/s . Are energy and momentum still conserved? Even though the values of the kinetic energy and momentum
change, the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum still hold.
Now try v = 1 m/s . What is the new momentum for the two-ball system? This frame of reference is appropriately called the zero-
momentum frame. In this frame the momentum of the system is zero. This frame is also called the center-of-mass frame. The center
of mass is a coordinate that is a mass-weighted average of the positions of the objects that make up the system. In a two-object
system the center of mass is always somewhere in between the two objects. Since the center of mass is a mass-weighted average,
the center of mass will always be closer to the object that is more massive. In the case of this animation, where both balls have the
same mass, the center of mass is always at the midpoint between the two masses. This point does not move in the zero-momentum
frame, but does move in other frames.
Illustration 4: Rotating Reference Frames

In an inertial reference frame, momentum and energy are conserved even though observers may disagree on total momentum or
total energy. As a consequence, if two observers were in inertial reference frames, the two observers would agree on the forces
acting. Restart.
Consider a green mass at the end of a spring (position is shown in meters and time is shown in seconds). If the mass is not
moving, the net force on it is zero, and therefore the gray shell represents the equilibrium position of the spring.
Now imagine that someone has given the green ball a brief push making it rotate with a constant speed as seen in the laboratory
frame. We know that the spring must be stretched as shown. Why? Well, we need a force toward the center of the circle because
this force is necessary for uniform circular motion. This force is the spring force.
Imagine you (the woman in the animation) are riding on the green mass. From your point of view, mass's reference frame, what is
the motion of the green ball? It is stationary. In this reference frame the ball does not move. It is not, however, an inertial reference
frame because it is accelerating. What happens to the spring in this frame? The spring is stretched from its equilibrium position as
before. How would you explain this? From your point of view riding with the rotating mass, since you are not accelerating, the net
force on the green ball is zero, and someone or something has stretched the spring by pulling it outward. This force is purely a
figment of your imagination. This fictitious force—also called the centrifugal force (no more real because it has a name!)—must be
invented by an observer on the green ball if she is going to keep Newton's laws as a fact of Nature. Whenever you are in a rotating
reference frame, like a merry-go-round, for example, you are in an accelerating reference frame, and therefore you must invent
fictitious forces to make Nature obey Newton's laws.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Compare Momentum in Different Frames
How does the momentum of a particle change when viewed from a different reference frame? The momentum of each ball in the
animation is shown in the table (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The graph displays color-coded plots
of the velocities of the two particles. Restart.
You can view the collision in another inertial reference frame by entering a new value into the frame velocity text box,
−10 m/s < v < 10 m/s , before you start the animation. Consider the two particles to be an isolated system and answer the
following questions using at least two different inertial reference frames for each animation.
a. Does the total momentum depend on your choice of reference frame?
b. Does the change in momentum depend on the reference frame?
c. Is the total momentum conserved in different reference frames?
d. Find the mass and the ratio of the masses of the two balls. Does this result depend on the reference frame?
e. Is there a reference frame in which the total momentum is zero? If so, observe the change in velocity in this reference frame and
explain why analysis of the collision is particularly simple in this reference frame.
Exploration 2: Compare Energy in Different Frames

How does the energy of a particle change when viewed from a different reference frame? The energy of the two balls in the
animation is shown in the table and on the bar graphs to the right. The graph displays the velocity (position is given in meters and
You can view the collision in another inertial reference frame by entering a new value into the frame velocity text box,
−10 m/s < v < 10 m/s , before you start the animation. Consider the two particles to be an isolated system and answer the
following questions using at least two different inertial reference frames for each animation.
a. Do the kinetic energies of the individual particles depend on your choice of reference frame?
b. Does the change in total kinetic energy due to the collision depend on the reference frame?
c. Is the total kinetic energy constant in different reference frames? (Be sure to answer for both animations.)
d. Find the mass and the ratio of masses of the two balls. Does this result depend on the reference frame?
e. What is special about the reference frame in which the total momentum is zero? Is the kinetic energy zero in this frame?
Exploration 3: Compare Relative Motion in Different Frames

An object may appear to have one motion to one observer and a different motion to a second observer, depending on how the two
observers are moving relative to one another. This Exploration lets you view objects from different frames of reference.
There is a river (shown in green) in the center of the screen (the yellow dots are stationary with respect to the water) and
two red boats are moving with respect to the river. There is a rectangular barge that is stationary with respect to the river and
changes color based on your reference frame. There is also a person (shown in blue) walking on the ground (shown in gray with
black dots stationary relative to the ground) near the river.
You can easily change your frame of reference by moving the mouse to different regions and to different objects. For example, if
you move the mouse within the river, YOU will become an observer moving with the water. The long thin rectangle (the barge) in
the water moves with the water and changes color to represent the reference frame you are in. In addition,
If you the "Show Information" check box, velocity vectors for your frame of reference will be shown with numbers (position is
given in meters and speed is given in m/s). Each vector's color corresponds to the color of the object whose reference frame
you are in.
If you click the "show ball" check box, a blue ball is thrown upward from the barge on the river. When you change reference
frames you can see how the projectile motion of the ball looks different in different reference frames. Deselect the "show ball"
check box to clear the ball's trajectory.
You can press the mouse button to suspend the animation. If you press with left mouse button, the animation will resume when
you release it. If you press with right mouse button, you need to click it again to resume the animation.

To change the velocity vectors, it is easier to first suspend the animation. Then click anywhere in the animation to bring up the
vectors. Now click near the tip of the arrow and drag it to the left or right.
There are two numbers near the person. Those are the vertical and horizontal speeds of that person in your frame of reference.
While the animation is suspended, click near the left leg of the person and drag the mouse up and down. You are changing her
vertical speed. Click with the right mouse button to resume the animation. The person will now move toward the river, and then
swim across it. (The horizontal speed with respect to the ground will increase due to river current).
a. Suspend the animation and then turn on "show information." Change the horizontal and vertical speeds of the person so that she
swims straight across the river (as seen from the ground). Once you are satisfied with your choice of velocity, deselect the
"show information" check box, click in the animation (things are easier to see this way), and resume the animation.
b. What ground velocity do you have to give her to accomplish this task?
c. Now move the mouse around to change reference frames. Does the person still swim straight across the river in other reference
frames? If not, what velocity must you give her (relative to the ground) to accomplish this as seen from the boats? What
velocity must you give her (relative to the ground) to accomplish this as seen from the river?
Exploration authored by Fu-Kwun Hwang and Mario Belloni.
Applet authored by Fu-Kwun Hwang, National Taiwan Normal University.
Exploration 4: Compare Motion in Accelerating Frames

Is physics different when viewed in different reference frames? The momentum of each ball is shown in the table, and the kinetic
energy of each cart is shown in the bar graph in joules (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). You can change
2 2
your reference frame using the text box, −2 m/s < a < 2 m/s . Answer the following questions. Restart.
a. Does the total momentum depend on the reference frame?
b. Does the change in momentum depend on the reference frame?
c. Is the total momentum conserved in all reference frames?
d. Find the ratio of the two masses. Is this result the same in all reference frames?
e. Is there a reference frame in which the total momentum is zero?
Exploration 5: Two Airplanes with Different Land Speeds

Two airplanes (not shown to scale) travel the same round-trip distance between two cities (position is given in kilometers and
time is given in hours). Both airplanes have the same air speed (200 km/hr), but one airplane (the top airplane with
the blue wingtip) travels faster or slower relative to the ground because it is subject to a headwind and tailwind. A positive wind
velocity means a tailwind on the outbound part of the trip and a headwind on the inbound part of the trip. The wind velocity can be
changed by entering a value (−199 < v < 199 ) in the text box and registering the value. Restart.
wind
a. Before entering a nonzero value in the text box, predict which airplane will reach its destination first if the top (blue) airplane is
subject to a head/tail wind.
b. Once you have made your prediction, play the animation to see if you were right.
c. If you were incorrect, can you now see why you were incorrect? Explain.
Olaf College.


11.1.9.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.9.3.1: Determine velocity in another frame
Two objects approach each other as shown in the animation. Before they collide, what is the speed of the green object as
measured in the reference frame of the red object (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds)? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.9.3.2: You are rowing a boat across a river
You are rowing a boat across a river (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The river current flows from
left to right in the animation. Your goal is to reach your favorite mooring spot on the opposite river bank (shown in red). By
rowing, you control the (constant, vertical) velocity of the boat with respect to the water. Restart.
a. What is the (horizontal) velocity of the water with respect to the banks?
b. What is the magnitude of the velocity of the boat with respect to the banks?
c. What angle, θ , does the boat's velocity vector make with the lower bank?
Problem authored by Steve Mellema and Chuck Niederriter.
Exercise 11.1.9.3.3: Which is an inertial frame?
Two space aliens measure the position of an orange star from different space ships. Alien 1 records data as x and alien 2
1
records data as x (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). You are viewing the same star from an inertial
2
reference frame. Assume that you and the aliens have agreed to use the same distance and time units. You suspect that one of
your alien friends is in a noninertial reference frame. Restart.
a. Which alien is in an inertial reference frame and which alien is in a noninertial frame?
b. Find the Galilean transformation from your frame into the inertial reference frame.
Exercise 11.1.9.3.4: Determine relative velocities
Two physics coworkers measure the position of the object shown from different inertial reference frames (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). Coworker 1 records data as x and v and coworker 2 records data as x and v .
1 1 2 2
Assume both coworkers have agreed to use meters and seconds to measure distance and time. Restart.
a. What is the relative speed of coworker 1 with respect to coworker 2?
b. Find the Galilean transformation that transforms the measurements of coworker 1 into those of coworker 2.
Exercise 11.1.9.3.5: Two carts connected by a spring
Two physics coworkers measure the position of the object shown from different inertial reference frames (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). Coworker 1 records data as x and v and coworker 2 records data as x and v .
1 1 2 2
Assume both coworkers have agreed to use meters and seconds to measure distance and time. Restart.
a. What is the relative speed of coworker 1 with respect to coworker 2?
b. Find the Galilean transformation that transforms the measurements of coworker 1 into those of coworker 2.
Exercise 11.1.9.3.6: Determine the equation describing relative motion of a cart
Two carts start at rest on similar air tracks as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart. Write an equation for the x position of the green cart as seen from the orange cart.

Exercise 11.1.9.3.7: Determine the relative velocities of the boats
Assume you are sitting on the shore of a lake and observe two boats (not shown to scale) drifting in the lake. Another student is
riding in one of the boats (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. For each of the animations, find the velocity of each boat as seen from the shore.
b. Determine the velocity of the red boat as seen by the student riding in the green boat for each of the animations. This is the
relative velocity between the two boats.
You can simulate running along the shore by typing a velocity, −15 m/s < v < 15 m/s , into the input field before you select
an animation.
c. Does changing the reference frame, i.e., running along the shore, change the relative velocities of the two boats? Try
reference frame velocities of +2 m/s and −2 m/s.
d. For each of the animations, what velocity should you enter so that the red boat appears stationary?
e. For each of the animations, what velocity should you enter so that the green boat appears stationary?
Exercise 11.1.9.3.8: Determine the transformation between frames of reference
A physics student measures the position and velocity of the ball shown in the animation and reports the results to you in the
table shown. You are viewing the same experiment from another reference frame (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). Your values are shown next to the ball in the animation. Assume that your reference frame is an inertial
reference frame and that both you and the other student use the same units for time and distance. Restart.
Do the following for each of the animations:
a. Determine if the other student is in an inertial reference frame.
b. Determine the transformation that transforms the x and v data from your frame to her frame.
Exercise 11.1.9.3.9: Two airplanes; one experiences a head/tail wind
Two airplanes (not shown to scale) travel the same round-trip distance between two cities (time is given in hours). Both
airplanes have the same air speed, but one airplane (the top airplane with the blue wingtip) travels faster or slower relative to
the ground because it is subject to a headwind and a tailwind. A positive wind velocity means a tailwind on the outbound part of
the trip and a headwind on the inbound part of the trip. What is the ratio of the wind speed to the air speed for the top
airplane? Restart.
Olaf College.




11.1.10: Rotations about a Fixed Axis
Many everyday objects undergo motion in a circle including: a spinning compact disk, the wheels (and other components) of a car,
and a ceiling fan to name just a few.
While motion in a circle occurs in two dimensions, it turns out that this motion has a lot in common with motion on a line. We will
analyze this motion using all of the techniques we have developed in one-dimensional and two-dimensional motion.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.10.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Coordinates for Circular Motion
How would you describe the motion of the object shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds)? Restart. The
object is moving in a circle about x = 0 m and y = 0 m , but the object's x and y coordinates vary with time. They vary in a
special way such that x and y are always between −1 m and 1 m. To see this, look at Animation 2 and watch the x and y values
change in the table. This is called the component form. We can also describe the motion in terms of the vector form. In this case,
the radius vector, r , always has a magnitude of 1 m. but it changes direction. Look at Animation 3. We describe the direction of
this vector in terms of the angle it makes with the positive x axis. Therefore the angle-when measured in degrees-varies from 0 to
360. It is often convenient to give the angle in a unit different than degrees. We call this unit a radian. The radian unit is defined as
2π radians = 360 . Notice that both units are defined in terms of one full revolution. To see the angle given in radians look
∘
at Animation 4.
So why use radians? Well, it turns out that there is a really nice relationship between angle in radians (θ ), the radius (r), and the arc
of the circle (s ). This geometric relationship states that: θ = s/r . Why is this useful? It allows us to treat circular motion like one-
dimensional motion. The arc is the linear distance traveled, which is s = vt when the motion is uniform. This means that
θ = (v/r)t , since s = rθ . We call v/r by the name omega, ω, and it is the angular velocity. Therefore, θ = ωt , for motion with a
constant angular velocity. When there is a constant angular acceleration, we call it by the name alpha, α , and it is related to the
tangential acceleration by a /r. So when we are using radians we can use our one-dimensional kinematics formulas with x → θ ,
t
v → ω , and a → α .
Illustration 2: Motion about a Fixed Axis

Many objects rotate (spin) about a fixed axis. Shown is a wheel of radius 5 cm rotating about a fixed axis at a constant
rate (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
Consider the various points on the surface of the rotating wheel. By watching the line rotate, we can see that the wheel is rotating at
a constant rate. In fact, if we watch a point on the surface of the wheel (a radius of 5 cm), we would say it has a constant speed.
What about a point halfway out (a radius of 2.5 cm)? It also has a constant speed. But how does this speed compare to the speed of
a point on the surface of the wheel?
We can determine this by first considering a quantity that is not related to the radius, the angular speed, ω. The angular speed is the
angular displacement divided by the time interval (in this Illustration, since there is no acceleration, the average speed and the
instantaneous speed are the same). So what is the wheel's angular speed? From one revolution of the wheel, the angular
displacement is 2π and the time interval (called the period, T ) is 5 seconds. Therefore the angular speed is the angular
displacement over the time interval (ω = 2π/T ) 0.4π radians/s = 1.256 radians/s.
How do we relate the angular speed to the linear (tangential) speed of a point on the wheel? First consider the speed of a point on
the surface of the wheel. It is again easiest to measure the speed by considering one rotation of the wheel. In this case, the distance
traveled by that point is 2πr, and therefore the average (and in this case instantaneous) tangential speed is
2πr/T = 2π cm/s = 6.28 cm/s. The relationship between the angular speed and the tangential speed must be ω = v/r . (Recall
that we found above that ω = 2π/T .)

This works because there is a relationship between the angular displacement and the tangential displacement (the arc length s ),
namely that Δθ = Δs/r . This also must be the case for an angular displacement of one revolution: 2π = 2πr/r.
Since linear velocity is a vector we might expect that angular velocity is a vector as well. This is indeed the case. So in which
direction does the angular velocity point for the rotating wheel? We use the right-hand rule (RHR) to determine the direction of the
angular velocity. Using your right hand, curl your fingers in the direction of the rotation of the wheel: the direction your thumb
points is the direction of the wheel's angular velocity. Here, ω is into the page (computer screen). This may seem weird; after all
you might say that the wheel is rotating clockwise. Clockwise is not a good description, as it does not imply a vector-like quantity
and the description is not unique. Why is it not unique? If you were on the other side of the page or computer screen, you would
say that the wheel is rotating counterclockwise instead!
Can you guess what the relationship between the angular acceleration and the tangential acceleration is? Well, given that
acceleration is change in velocity for a given time, Δv/Δt, you have probably guessed that angular acceleration, called α , is the
change in angular velocity for a given time, Δω/Δt. Given how v and ω are related to each other, it must be that a = αr .

Script authored by Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter, and Mario Belloni.
Illustration 3: Moment of Inertia, Rotation Energy, and Angular Momentum

Many objects rotate (spin) about a fixed axis. Shown is a wheel (a disk) of radius 5 cm and a mass of 200 grams rotating about a
fixed axis at a constant rate (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
In Illustration 10.2 we discussed how linear speed (velocity) was related to angular speed (velocity), and in the process how angular
acceleration is related to the angular velocity (α = Δ ω/Δt). In this Illustration we will discuss kinetic energy of rotation, KE ,rot
and angular momentum, L .

The easiest way to remember the forms for the kinetic energy of rotation and the angular momentum is by analogy with the kinetic
energy of translation and the linear momentum. We recall that KE = 1/2mv and p = mv . Can you guess what the rotational
2
kinetic energy and angular momentum will look like?

First, what will play the role of v and v in the rotational expressions? If you said ω and ω you are right. Next we must consider
what plays the role of m, and we will be all set. The property of mass describes an object's resistance to linear motion. Therefore,
what we are looking for is a property of objects that describes their resistance to rotational motion. This is called the moment of
inertia. The moment of inertia depends on the mass of the object, its extent, and its mass distribution. It turns out that for most
simple objects the moment of inertia looks like I = C mR , where m is the object's mass, R is its extent (usually a radius or
2
length), and C is a dimensionless constant that represents the mass distribution.

Therefore, we have that KE = 1/2I ω and L = I ω. What are this disk's KE and L ? Well, from Illustration 10.2 we know
rot
2
rot
that ω = 1.256 radians/s. Since the wheel is a disk, C = 2 . Therefore, we can calculate the moment of inertia as:
kg ⋅ m . Finally, we have that K E J and L = 3.14 × 10 J ⋅ s (into the page or computer screen).
−4 2 −4 −4
2.5 × 10 = 1.97 × 10
rot
Note that these are small values because I for this disk is small. A 1-m radius and 2-kg mass disk would have a moment of inertia
of 1.0 kg ⋅ m .
2

Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Constant Angular Velocity Equation
By now you have seen the equation: θ = θ + ω ∗ t . Perhaps you have even derived it for yourself. But what does it really mean
0 0
for the motion of objects? This Exploration allows you to explore both terms in the equation: the initial angular position by
changing θ from 0 radians to 6.28 radians and the angular velocity term by changing ω from −15 rad/s to 15 rad/s. Restart.
0 0
Answer the following questions (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
a. How does changing the initial angular position affect the motion?
b. How does changing the initial angular velocity affect the motion?
Exploration 2: Constant Angular Acceleration Equation

By now you have seen the equation: θ = θ + ω ∗ t + 0.5 ∗ α ∗ t . Perhaps you have even derived it for yourself. But what does
0 0
2
it really mean for the motion of objects? This Exploration allows you to explore all three terms in the equation: the initial angular
position by changing θ from 0 radians to 6.28 radians, the angular velocity term by changing ω from −15 rad/s to 15 rad/s,
0 0
and the angular acceleration by changing α from −5 rad/s to 5 rad/s . Restart.

2 2
Answer the following questions (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
a. How does changing the initial angular position affect the motion of the object?
b. How does changing the initial angular velocity affect the motion of the object?
c. How does changing the angular acceleration affect the motion of the object?
d. Can you get the object to change direction?
Exploration 3: Torque and Moment of Inertia

A mass (between 0.01 kg and 1 kg ) is hung by a string from the edge of a massive (between 0 kg and 2 kg ) disk-shaped pulley
(with a radius between 0.1 and 4 meters) as shown (position is given in meters, time is given in seconds, and angular velocity is
given in radians/second). Restart.
Set the hanging mass to 0.25 kg, the radius of the pulley to 2 m, and vary the mass of the pulley.
a. How does the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the pulley depend on the mass (and therefore moment of inertia) of the
pulley?
b. How does the magnitude of the acceleration of the hanging mass depend on the mass (and therefore moment of inertia) of the
pulley?
c. How are your answers to (a) and (b) related?
Set the mass of the pulley to 0.5 kg, the radius of the pulley to 2 m, and vary the hanging mass.
d. How does the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the pulley depend on the hanging mass?
e. How does the magnitude of the acceleration of the hanging mass depend on the hanging mass?
f. How are your answers to (d) and (e) related?
Set the hanging mass to 0.25 kg, the mass of the pulley to 0.5 kg, and vary the radius of the pulley.
g. How does the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the pulley depend on the radius of the pulley?
h. How does the magnitude of acceleration of the hanging mass depend on the radius of the pulley?
i. How are your answers to (g) and (h) related?
Set the mass of the pulley to 0.5 kg, the hanging mass to 0.25 kg, and the radius of the pulley to 2 m.
j. Determine the acceleration of the hanging mass and the angular acceleration of the pulley.
k. From Newton's second law, determine the tension in the string.
l. How much torque does this tension provide to the pulley?
Exploration by Chuck Niederriter and Mario Belloni.

Exploration 4: Torque on Pulley Due to the Tension of Two Strings
Shown is a top view of a pulley on a table. The massive disk-shaped pulley can rotate about a fixed axle located at the origin. The
pulley is subjected to two forces in the plane of the table, the tension in each rope (each between 0 N and 10 N), that can create a
net torque and cause it to rotate as shown (position is given in meters, time is given in seconds, and angular velocity is given in
radians/second). Restart. Also shown is the "extended" free-body diagram for the pulley. In this diagram the forces in the plane of
the table are drawn where they act, including the force of the axle.
Set the mass of the pulley to 1 kg , the radius of the pulley to 2 m, vary the forces, and look at the "extended" free-body diagram.
a. How is the force of the axle related to the force applied by the two tensions?
b. How do you know that this must be the case?
Set the mass of the pulley to 1 kg , the radius of the pulley to 2 m, and vary the forces.
c. What is the relationship between F and F that ensures that the pulley will not rotate?
1 2
d. For F > F , does the pulley rotate? In what direction?

1 2
e. For F < F , does the pulley rotate? In what direction?

1 2
f. What is the general form for the net torque on the pulley in terms of F , F , and r
1 2 ?
pulley
Set the mass of the pulley to 1 kg , F to 10 N, F to 5 N, and vary the radius of the pulley.
1 2
g. How does the angular acceleration of the pulley depend on the radius of the pulley?
Set the radius of the pulley to 2 m, F to 10 N, F to 5 N, and vary the mass of the pulley.
1 2
h. How does the angular acceleration of the pulley depend on the mass of the pulley?
i. Given that the pulley is a disk, find the general expression for the angular acceleration in terms of F , F , m
1 2 pulley , and r
pulley .
Olaf College.


11.1.10.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.10.3.1: Determine angular displacement
A child sits on a merry-go-round at the position marked by the red circle (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). What is her angular displacement in radians after 0.44 seconds? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.2: Determine angular and tangential speeds and velocity
seconds). Restart.
a. What is her average speed and instantaneous velocity?
b. What is her angular speed and angular velocity?
For the instantaneous velocity and angular velocity, you should give a value for the speed and a description of the velocity's
direction for any point in time.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.3: A quarter and a penny are on a turntable
A quarter and a penny are on a turntable as shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. Which coin has the greater angular speed?
b. What are their angular speeds?
Exercise 11.1.10.3.4: Determine angular acceleration
seconds). What is her angular acceleration? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.5: Determine tangential acceleration
A boy sits on a merry-go-round at the position marked by the red circle. A girl gives the merry-go-round a constant tangential
push for 0.2 seconds as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). What is the
magnitude of the tangential acceleration of the boy while the girl is pushing the merry-go-round? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.6: Determine angular acceleration of the wheel
A grinding wheel is rotating at constant speed when an object makes contact with the outer edge as shown in the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Friction causes the wheel to stop. What is the angular
acceleration of the wheel? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.7: What is the average torque on the turntable?
A turntable (a flat disk) of mass 5.0 kg is rotating at a constant speed when your finger makes contact with the outer edge, as
shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Friction between your finger and the
turntable causes the turntable to stop. What is the average torque on the turntable caused by the frictional force? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.8: Which vector represents the acceleration of the object?
A car starts from rest and accelerates until it is halfway around a circular track. After that time it moves at constant
speed (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Which animation correctly shows the acceleration
vector? Restart.

Exercise 11.1.10.3.9: What is the ratio of the kinetic energy?
The animation depicts an idealized drive train for a bicycle. A large green disk (i.e., a flat cylinder) is used to rotate a small
green disk of the same density and thickness via a massless chain that does not slip (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). What is the ratio of the kinetic energy of the green disk to the kinetic energy of the red disk (
KE /K E
green red)? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.10: Two identical masses are hung over two different pulleys
Two identical black masses, m, are hung via massless strings over two pulleys of identical mass M and radius R , but different
mass distributions as shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). The bearings in
the pulleys are frictionless, and the strings do not slip as they unwind from their pulleys. Restart.
a. Which mass has the greater acceleration?
b. Which pulley has the greater moment of inertia?
c. Which pulley has the greater tension acting on it?
d. Which pulley has the greater torque acting on it?
Answer the following in terms of a general formula for either pulley using the following variables:
a (the acceleration of the black mass), g, m, M , and R .
e. What is the tension in the string?
f. What is the torque acting on the pulley?
g. What is the moment of inertia of the pulley? Remember that we do not know the pulley's mass distribution.
Problem authored by Aaron Titus and Mario Belloni.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.11: A modified Atwood's machine with a real pulley
A 1.0-kg cart (not shown to scale) on a low-friction track is connected to a string and a 0.5-kg hanging object as shown in the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The pulley has a uniform mass distribution in the shape
of a disk and therefore affects the motion of the system. Restart.
a. What is the acceleration of the system?
b. What is the tension in the string? (There are two regions of the string to consider.)
c. What is the mass of the pulley?
d. What is the moment of inertia of the pulley?
Exercise 11.1.10.3.12: Two masses are attached with a massless string over a pulley
Two masses, one on a table, M = 2.5 kg , and one hanging, m = 1.0 kg , are attached with a massless string over a pulley as
shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The table is frictionless, the bearings in the
pulley are frictionless, and the string does not slip on the pulley. What is the moment of inertia of the pulley? You may use
either torque/force or energy methods. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.10.3.13: A red disk is connected by a string to a hanging mass
A 2.5-kg rotating red disk is connected by a string over a pulley of mass m = 1 kg to a black hanging mass as shown in the
animation (position is given in centimeters, time is given in seconds, and velocity is given in centimeters/second). The post
the red disk sits on is massless and has frictionless bearings. The string is wrapped around the post and does not slip. The
bearings in the pulley are frictionless and the string does not slip. What is the black block's mass? You may use either
force/torque or energy methods. Restart.

Exercise 11.1.10.3.14: Calculate the angular momentum of several rotating objects
Each animation shows an object rotated about a fixed axis through the center (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Every object has the same mass, m = 2 kg . Every animation has a black dot in the center indicating the origin of the
coordinate system. You are to calculate the angular momentum about this point for each animation. Calculate and rank (from
greatest to least) the angular momentum (about the origin) of the objects in each animation. Restart.
Olaf College.




11.1.11: General Rotations
In the last chapter we studied rotational kinematics, rotational energy, and moment of inertia for objects rotating about a fixed axis.
In this chapter we will begin by discussing the mathematical description of torque as a vector or cross product. We will also focus
on general rotations such as when objects roll (rotate and translate).
Topic hierarchy
11.1.11.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Cross Product
We talk about the magnitude of the torque as the amount of force perpendicular to the radius arm on which it acts. No radius arm,
no torque. Torque is positive (out of the page) if F acts to rotate the object counterclockwise via the right-hand rule (RHR) and
negative if F acts to rotate the object clockwise (again, via the RHR). Restart.
In order to mathematically describe torque, we must use the mathematical construction of the vector or cross product. Torque is the
vector product of the radius vector and the force vector, r × F . The magnitude of the torque is rF sin(θ) , and the direction of the
torque is determined by the RHR. θ is the angle between the two vectors, and A and B are the magnitudes of the vectors r and F,
respectively. Drag the tip of either arrow (position is given in meters). The red arrow is r and the green arrow is F. The
magnitude of each arrow is calculated as well as the cross product.
The direction of the torque, r × F , is determined by the RHR (point your fingers toward r , curl them into the direction of F, and
the direction that your thumb points is the direction of the torque. Therefore,
τ = r × F = rF sin(θ) with the direction prescribed by the RHR,
where r is the moment arm on which the force acts and F is the force.
Illustration 2: Rolling Motion

Many everyday objects roll without slipping (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). Restart. This motion
is a mixture of a pure rotation and a pure translation. The pure rotation is shown in Animation 1, while the pure translation is
shown in Animation 2. So how might we combine the two motions together so that the disk rolls without slipping?
First consider the various points on the surface of the rotating wheel. Since it has a constant angular velocity, every point has the
same speed but a different velocity. Consider three special points: the top of the wheel, the wheel's hub, and the bottom of the
wheel. The top of the wheel has a velocity v = ωR , and the velocity points to the right. The hub has zero velocity. And the bottom
of the wheel has a velocity v = ωR to the left.
Now consider the pure translation. Every point on the wheel has a velocity v to the right.
So how do we combine the two motions together to get rolling without slipping? If the velocity of the point at the bottom of the
wheel—the point that touches the ground—has a velocity of zero with respect to the ground, the wheel will not slip.
Consider the three special points again: the top of the wheel, the wheel's hub, and the bottom of the wheel. We will add the
translational velocity to the rotational velocity and see what we get. The top of the wheel has a rotational velocity v = ωR to the
right, which when combined with the translational velocity of v to the right gives us 2v to the right. The hub has zero rotational
velocity, which when combined with the translational velocity of v to the right gives us v to the right. And finally, the bottom of the
wheel has a velocity v = ωR to the left, which when combined with the translational velocity of v to the right gives us 0!
Therefore, as long as the angular velocity gives us a v that is the same v as the translation, we have rolling without slipping as
in Animation 3.
Illustration 3: Translational and Rotational Kinetic Energy

How do we describe rolling without slipping from an energy standpoint? We already know how to represent the kinetic energy of
translation: (1/2)mv . We also know how to represent the kinetic energy of rotation: (1/2)I ω . But what if we have both? Restart.
2 2
As the ball rolls down the incline, the gravitational potential gets transformed into kinetic energy, but how much of each? With
rolling without slipping, we found that there is a relationship between the linear velocity and the angular velocity: v = ωR . Given
this relationship we know that KE = (1/2)m v , while K E
trans
2
= (1/2)I (v / R ) . But the moment of inertia always looks
rot
2 2
like C mR , so we find that KE = (1/2)C mv . Therefore, we find that KE

2
rot
2
= (1 + C )(1/2)m v . The gravitational
total
2
potential energy gets transformed into the total kinetic energy, and what fraction goes into KE or KE is determined by the
trans rot
constant C . Specifically,

K Etrans /K Etotal = 1/(1 + C ) and K Erot /K Etotal = C /(1 + C )
A ball of radius 1.0 m and a mass of 0.25 kg rolls down an incline, as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). The incline makes an angle θ = 20 with the horizontal. Watch the graph of gravitational potential energy and rotational
∘
and translational kinetic energy vs. time or position.

Why do you think that the energy vs. time graphs curve, while the energy vs. position graphs are straight lines?
Illustration authored by Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter, and Mario Belloni.
Illustration 4: Angular Momentum and Area

One of the strangest ideas regarding angular momentum is that an object moving in a straight line can have angular momentum.
Angular momentum for a particle is given by the cross product L = r × p . Given this, we see that the origin matters for the
calculation of angular momentum for a particle.
In the absence of a net external torque acting on a system, a particle's angular momentum remains constant. For this discussion, the
particle is free, so angular momentum should be conserved. Is there a different way to state the concept of angular momentum
conservation? There may be. Consider the statement, Does a particle sweep out equal areas in equal times (with respect
to any origin)?
Specifically, in this Illustration does a free particle moving in a straight line sweep out equal areas in equal times?
Press "start" to begin the animation, and let the show begin: A black dot will move freely from left to right. Different colors show
the area the particle sweeps out with respect to some fixed point (the origin). Do all the areas have the same size? Click within each
area and see what will happen. Certainly from mathematical equations we know the area of a triangle = width ∗ height/2. All of
the areas have the same height and the same width (= v ∗ dt ).x
Note
Kepler's second law (see Chapter 12 on gravitation for more details) states, during equal time intervals, the radius vector from
the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas. What does this tell you about the angular momentum of the planets?
Illustration authored by Fu-Kwun Hwang and Mario Belloni.

Illustration 5: Conservation of Angular Momentum

A red mass (1 kg ) is incident on an identical black mass (1 kg ) that is attached to a massless rigid string so that it can rotate around
the origin as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). At t = 2.6 s the red mass undergoes a completely
elastic collision with the black mass. Restart.
Consider the beginning part of the animation in which a 1-kg red ball is incident on a 1-kg black ball that is constrained to move in
a circle. From which point should we measure the red ball's angular momentum? The best place, given the collision with the
pendulum, is the point (0, 0), the pivot. This is because we can easily measure the angular momentum of the pendulum about this
point. What then is the angular momentum of the red ball before the collision? Certainly it must be changing, since r changes. No!
The angular momentum for a particle is given by the cross product: L = r × p , which means we can consider the part of r that is
perpendicular to p (rp sin θ, where θ is the angle between r and p ). Since p is in the negative x direction, the part of r that is
perpendicular to p is y . Therefore, |L| = 50 kg ⋅ m /s . Note that even though r changes, y does not. The direction of the angular
2
momentum is found with the RHR and is into the page (which is the negative z direction).
Now what happens to the angular momentum after the first collision? Given that only the black ball moves, we find that
|L| = mvr = I ω = 50 kg ⋅ m /s (again, into the page). The angular momentum is the same as before the collision. Given that
2
there are no external torques (The pendulum string does not create a torque. Why?), angular momentum is conserved.
What about after the second collision? Well, this is a bit harder. The radius vector r changes (before the first collision the radius
changed, but the part of the radius perpendicular to the momentum was constant). We must use a better definition of the magnitude
of r × p than rp sin θ. In general we get for the z component of the angular momentum: L = (x p − y p ) . At t = 16 seconds,
z y x
we have (−5.06)(−1.73) − (−12.51)(−4.69) = −50 = 50 kg ⋅ m /s (again, into the page).

2

Note
Note that in general, A × B = (A y Bz − Az By )i + (Az Bx − Ax Bz )j + (Ax By − Ay Bx )k .
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Torque
Drag the tip of the force arrow (position is given in meters and force is given in newtons). The red arrow is the radius, on
which the force acts, and the dark green arrow is the force. The light green arrow also represents the force and is there to help
illustrate the angle between r and F . Restart.
a. When is the cross product zero?
b. What is the angle between r and F that goes in rF sin(θ) ?
c. Is there anything missing in this representation of the torque?
d. Does the assignment of r and F matter? In other words, if r was F and F was r, would the torque be the same?
Exploration 2: Nonuniform Circular Motion

In this Exploration you are looking down at a black ball on a table top. Drag the crosshair cursor (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds) to within 5 m of the 0.2-kg black ball. The cursor will then exert a constant force on the black ball. You
may choose either an attractive or a repulsive force. In addition, the black ball is constrained to move in a circle by a very long
wire. The blue arrow represents the net force acting on the mass, while the bar graph displays its kinetic energy in joules. Restart.
For attraction and repulsion, drag the cursor around to see the net force.
a. At the beginning of the animation (after you press "play" but before you move the cursor), in what direction does the net force
point?
b. With this force, does the black ball move? Why or why not?
c. Where must you apply the force in order to make the ball acquire a tangential velocity?
d. Describe the direction of the force that makes the ball acquire the maximum tangential velocity for the force applied.
e. How does the magnitude of the torque relate to the force applied?
f. How does the direction of the torque relate to the force applied?
Exploration 3: Rolling Down an Incline

A solid ball of radius 1.0 m rolls down an incline, as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The
incline makes an angle θ with the horizontal. Adjust the mass (100 g < m < 500 g ) and/or the angle (10 < θ < 40 ) and watch
∘ ∘
the graph of gravitational potential energy and rotational and translational kinetic energy vs. time or distance. Restart.
Change the angle and the mass of the ball to determine the answers to the following questions.
a. What percent of the initial gravitational potential energy is converted into translational kinetic energy at the bottom of the hill?
b. What percent of the initial gravitational potential energy is converted into rotational kinetic energy at the bottom of the hill?
c. What is the ratio of KE /KE
rot ? What does this number correspond to?
trans
d. How does the ratio of KE /KE rot depend on the mass of the ball? On the angle of the incline?
trans
e. How would the animation change if the ball were replaced by a disk of the same radius?
Exploration authored by Wolfgang Christian and Mario Belloni.
Exploration 4: Moment of Inertia and Angular Momentum

A 1-kg red mass is incident on an identical black mass that is attached to a massless rigid string so that it can rotate around the
origin as shown (position is shown in meters and time is shown in seconds). At t = 2.6 s the red mass undergoes a completely
elastic collision with the black mass. Restart.
Watch the animation. You may vary the radius of the pendulum between 2 and . Answer the first three questions before
10 m
clicking the "see other variables" check box.

a. As you reduce the length of the pendulum, does the angular speed of the pendulum increase or decrease?
b. From what you know about conservation laws, state whether you think linear momentum, angular momentum, and kinetic
energy are conserved during the animation. Why?

c. Set R = 5 m . Calculate the linear momentum, angular momentum (about the origin), and kinetic energy of the system at
t = 1, 2, 4 , and 5 s.
You may now click the check box.

d. If your answers differ from what you thought, explain why they differ.
Exploration 5: Conservation of Angular Momentum

A man is standing beside a 150-kg merry-go-round and suddenly drops a red object onto the merry-go-round (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). You may change the mass of the object dropped on the merry-go-round and assume that the
merry-go-round is a solid, uniform disk. Restart.
a. What happens to the final angular velocity of the merry-go-round when a heavier object is dropped onto it?
b. Is there a mass that you can add to make the final angular velocity exactly half of the initial angular velocity? If so, what is it?
c. How do your answers to (a) and (b) relate to the conservation of angular momentum?
Olaf College.


11.1.11.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.11.3.1: Velocity of a rolling wheel
A wheel rolls as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). What is the velocity (with
respect to the floor) of a point on the edge of the wheel when it is at the highest point? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.11.3.2: A wheel pulled by a string rolls without slipping
A wheel rolls without slipping while being pulled by a string wrapped around its circumference, as shown in the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Which animation properly depicts the physical
situation? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.11.3.3: Determine whether an object rolls without slipping or slides down an incline
A 1-kg object moves down the blue incline and onto the black table as shown in the animation (position is given in meters
a. Determine from the motion of the object whether it rolls without slipping or slides without rolling down the blue incline.
b. If the object rolls without slipping, determine if it is a disk, a hoop, or a sphere.
Exercise 11.1.11.3.4: Determine whether an object rolls without slipping or slides down an incline
A 1-kg object moves down the blue incline and onto the black table as shown in the animation (position is given in meters
a. Determine from the motion of the object whether it rolls without slipping or slides without rolling down the blue incline.
b. If the object rolls without slipping, determine if it is a disk, a hoop, or a sphere.
Exercise 11.1.11.3.5: Determine the torque on a yo-yo
A giant 2.5-kg green yo-yo, made of two solid green disks and a massless red hub, is shown (position is given in meters and
time is given in seconds). Determine the torque that the string exerts on the yo-yo. Restart.
Problem authored by William Junkin and modified by Mario Belloni.
Exercise 11.1.11.3.6: A rolling wheel is attached via a string to a hanging mass
A wheel rolls without slipping while being pulled by a massless string wrapped around its circumference. The string is also
attached to a 0.11-kg hanging mass via a massless pulley as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). If the wheel closely resembles a uniform disk, what is the mass of the wheel? Hint: use energy. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.11.3.7: Calculate the angular momentum of several systems
Several objects are rotating as shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Every object, or collection of
objects, has the same mass, m = 2 kg . All mass distributions are uniform and all strings are massless. Every animation has a
black dot representing the origin of the coordinate system. You are to calculate the angular momentum about this point for each
animation. Calculate the angular momentum (about the origin) of the systems shown. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.11.3.8: A red disk is dropped onto a rotating yellow disk
A red disk is dropped onto a rotating yellow disk that has a mass of 20 kg as shown in the animation (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). What is the mass of the red disk? Restart.

Exercise 11.1.11.3.9: A puck sliding on an air table collides with another puck
A puck sliding on an air table collides with another puck of equal mass that is attached to a string as shown in the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). What quantities are conserved? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.11.3.10: A puck sliding on an air table collides with another puck
A 100-gram projectile is incident on a tethered mass on a tabletop (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
You are viewing the tabletop from above. Assume only conservative forces are acting. Determine the total angular momentum
before and after each collision as measured from the pivot point of the pendulum (which is also the origin of
coordinates). Restart.
Olaf College.




11.1.12: Gravitation
Gravitational forces describe how massive objects are attracted to each other. As a consequence of its range, the gravitational force
is an extremely important force for massive objects. But is the force responsible for the motion of the planets (a celestial
gravitational force) the same force responsible for the motion of objects near the surface of the earth (terrestrial gravitational
force)? Yes! In 1685 Newton proposed the idea of universal gravitation, a unification of celestial and terrestrial gravity.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.12.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Projectile and Satellite Orbits
Newton, in his consideration of gravity, realized that any projectile launched from the surface of Earth is, in a sense, an Earth
satellite (if only for a short time). For example, in this animation a ball thrown from a tall building sails in a modest orbit that soon
intersects Earth not far from its point of launch.
If the ball were fired with a greater initial velocity, it would travel farther. Further increasing the speed would result in ever larger,
rounder elliptical paths (they would be elliptical if Earth was not in the way) and more distant impact points. Finally, at one
particular launch speed the ball would glide out just above Earth's surface all the way around to the other side without ever striking
the ground. At a greater speed the orbit of the ball will be a circle.
At successively greater launch speeds the ball would move in an ever-increasing elliptical orbit until it moved so fast that it would
sail off in an open parabolic or (with an even faster launch speed) into a still flatter, hyperbolic orbit, never to come back to its
starting point.
This Illustration lets you change the launch speed (but maintain the launch direction) by mouse click. Click "+" to increase launch
speed and click "-" to decrease launch speed. Press "Start" to fire the ball. Press "Reset" to change parameters back to default
values. The red arrow represents the velocity vector. Click the left mouse button near the tip of the arrow and drag the mouse to
change the ball's initial velocity (both direction and speed). Click the right mouse button to stop the animation; press it again to
resume. When will the ball start to go around without striking the ground? When will the motion become a circular motion? Try
clicking the "full" checkbox and find out what happens.
Illustration 2: Orbits and Planetary Mass

When we consider the elliptical orbits of the planets (Kepler's first law), we assume that the Sun is stationary at one focus of the
ellipse. Why does this happen? The mass of the Sun must be much, much greater than the mass of the planets in order for the
motion of the Sun to be ignored. But how large does the mass of the Sun need to be in order to achieve this idealized planetary
motion? For reference, the Sun is about 1000 times heavier than Jupiter (the most massive planet) and about 100 million (10 ) 8
times more massive than the least massive planet, Pluto. Restart.
As you vary the mass ratio in the animation, the mass of the system changes such that the product of the masses, m ∗ m , remains
1 2
the same. Therefore as you change the mass ratio, the force will remain the same for the same separation between the masses.
The 1000:1 Mass animation closely resembles the Sun and Jupiter system (the distance is given in astronomical units [A.U.] and
the time is given in 108 seconds). The green circle is like the Sun, while the red circle is like Jupiter. The force of attraction due to
gravity is shown by the blue arrows (not shown to scale), and the relative kinetic energies are shown as a function of time on the
graph (note that for this animation the unit for the kinetic energy is not given since we are comparing the relative amount for each
object). Also note that the eccentricity of the orbit e = 0.048, the perihelion and aphelion distances, and the planet's period closely
match those of Jupiter.
In the 100:1 Mass animation does the "Sun" remain motionless? What about the 10:1 Mass animation? The 2:1 Mass animation?
The 1:1 Mass animation? What do you think this means for planetary dynamics in our solar system?
For elliptical orbits, the force due to gravity changes magnitude since the separation changes. But at every instant, the forces of
gravitational attraction (the force of the green circle due to the red circle and the force of the red circle due to the green circle) are
always the same. This is Newton's third law. It is not too surprising that the law of universal gravitation (described by Newton)
contains the third law (also described by Newton).
At the same time, what happens to the kinetic energy of the system as a function of time? It too changes. But why? As the
separation between the "Sun" and the "planet" changes, the gravitational potential energy of the system changes too. While the
kinetic energy of the system changes, the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of the system must—and does—
remain a constant throughout the motion of the objects.

Illustration 3: Circular and Noncircular Motion
A planet (green) orbits a star (orange) as shown in the two animations. Restart. One animation depicts the Uniform Circular
Motion of a planet and the other one depicts the Noncircular Motion of a planet (position is given in 10 km and time is given in
3
years). This Illustration will compare the two motions by focusing on the velocity and the acceleration of the planet in each of the
animations.
Start the Uniform Circular Motion animation of the planet and watch its motion. How would you describe the motion of the planet
(consider velocity and acceleration)? The speed of the planet is certainly a constant since the motion of the planet is uniform. But
using our usual xy coordinates, the velocity certainly changes with time. Recall that the term velocity refers to both the magnitude
and direction. However, if we use the radial and tangential directions to describe the motion of the planet, the velocity can be
described as tangential, and the acceleration is directed along the radius (the negative of the radial direction). Click here to view the
velocity vector (blue) and a black line tangent to the path. Click here to view the acceleration vector (red), also. Notice that the
acceleration vector points toward the center star.
Start the Noncircular Motion animation of the planet and watch its motion. How would you describe the motion? How would you
now describe the motion of the planet (consider velocity and acceleration)? The speed of the planet is certainly no longer a
constant, as the motion of the planet is no longer uniform. Again using our usual xy coordinates, the velocity certainly changes
with time; now both the direction and the magnitude change. However, if we use the radial and tangential directions to the path of
the planet, the velocity can be described as tangential and the acceleration is directed along the radius. Click here to view the
velocity vector (blue) and click here to view the acceleration vector (red), also. Notice that the velocity and the acceleration are no
longer perpendicular for most of the orbit of the planet.
Notice that between points A and C the planet is speeding up, and between points C and A the planet is slowing down. This means
that at points A and C the tangential component of acceleration is zero. It turns out that for a planet orbiting a star, if there are no
other planets or stars nearby, the acceleration of the planet is directed exactly toward the star whether the motion of the planet is
uniform or not.
Illustration 4: Angular Momentum and Area

In the absence of a net external torque acting on a system, a particle's angular momentum remains constant. For this discussion, the
particle is free, so angular momentum should be conserved. Is there a different way to state the concept of angular momentum
conservation? There may be. Consider the statement, Does a particle sweep out equal areas in equal times (with respect
to any origin)? Specifically, in this Illustration, does a free particle moving in a straight line sweep out equal areas in equal times?
Press "start" to begin the animation, and let the show begin: A black dot will move freely from left to right. Different colors show
the area the particle sweeps out with respect to some fixed point (the origin). Do all the areas have the same size? Click within each
area and see what will happen. Certainly from mathematical equations we know the area of a triangle = width ∗ height/2. All of
the areas have the same height and the same width (= v ∗ dt ).x
Kepler's second law states, During equal time intervals, the radius vector from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas. What
does this tell you about the angular momentum of the planets? What does this tell you about the motion of the planets?
Illustration 5: Kepler's Second Law

A planet orbits a star under the influence of gravity (distance is given in astronomical units [A.U.] and time is given in years;
the total area swept out by the planet's orbit is given in A.U. ). The animation begins from the point of aphelion, the point
2
where the planet is farthest from the star. The planet's orbit is elliptical, and its trail is shown as it orbits the star. Kepler's second
law states that the planets sweep out equal areas in their orbits in equal times. What does this mean for the planet's orbit? If the
planet had a circular orbit, the planet would undergo uniform circular motion and Kepler's second law is just a statement of equal
speed; it confirms the statement of uniform circular motion. For elliptical orbits, therefore, the planet's motion must not be
uniform. Restart.
Starting at t = 0 , run the animation for 3 years (not real time, animation time!). How much area has been swept out by the planet in
this time interval? There is 28.43 A.U. swept out. What about from 3 to 6 years? Again 28.431 A.U. is swept out. Does it
2 2

matter where you are in the orbit? No. Try it for yourself. While the planet is closer to the star, its speed increases; when the planet
is farther away from the star, its speed decreases.
So what does Kepler's second law really tell us? The sweeping out of equal areas is equivalent to telling us that angular momentum
is conserved! We know that if angular momentum is conserved (see Chapter 11), there is no net torque. Here the only force on the
planet is gravity, and gravity cannot create a torque because the radius arm and the force are always in the same direction.
Illustration authored by Steve Mellema, Chuck Niederriter, and Mario Belloni.
Script authored by Steve Mellema and Chuck Niederriter.
Illustration 6: Heliocentric vs. Geocentric

Does Earth orbit around the Sun or does the Sun orbit Earth? For a very long time people thought that Earth was stationary (as the
argument goes, otherwise the birds would be ripped from their perches!) and the Sun orbited Earth. This belief is where we get the
terms sunrise and sunset. But the Sun does not orbit Earth; it is the other way around. In addition, the motion of the planets, as seen
from the reference frame of the Sun (the heliocentric reference frame) is rather simple. But from the perspective of each individual
planet (the geocentric reference frames of the Inner Planet and the Outer Planet) the motions of the other planets are rather
complicated. The geocentric view is exactly what we see on Earth when we look at the sun and the other planets of the Solar
System.
In this Illustration two planets (the red circle is the inner planet and green circle is the outer planet) orbit a central star (the black
circle) as shown in the animation. Along with the animation from the star's reference frame, the heliocentric point of view, two
other animations show the motion as seen from each of the planets' reference frames, the geocentric points of view.
As you view the animation, keep in mind that in the Inner Planet animation, if Earth is the red planet, the green planet behaves like
Mars as seen from Earth, while in the Outer Planet animation, if Earth is the green planet, the red planet behaves like Venus as seen
from Earth.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Different x or v for Planetary Orbits
0 0
This Exploration shows 10 identical planets orbiting a star. The initial position of the planets can be set at t = 0 time units when
the planets are on the x axis. The difference in orbital trajectory, therefore, is due to the planets' initial velocities (in this animation
GM = 1000 ). Restart.
a. As you vary the initial positions of the planets, how do the orbital trajectories change?
b. Find a planet with circular motion. What is the period for this motion?
c. What happens to the orbit when x gets really small?
d. What happens to the orbit when x gets really large?
This part of the Exploration shows 10 identical planets orbiting a star. The initial velocity of the planets can be set at t =0 time
units when the planets are on the x axis.
e. As you vary the initial velocities of the planets, how do the orbital trajectories change?
f. Find a planet with circular motion. What is the period for this motion?
g. What happens to the orbit when v gets really small?
h. What happens to the orbit when v gets really large?
Exploration authored by Mario Belloni and modified by Emmy Belloni.
Exploration 2: Set Both x and v for Planetary Orbits

0 0
This Exploration shows a planet orbiting a star. The initial position in the x direction and the initial velocity in the y direction of
the planet can be set at t = 0 time units when the planet is on the x axis. The difference in orbital trajectory, therefore, is due to
the planet's initial position and velocity (in this animation GM = 1000 ). Restart.
a. As you vary the initial velocity of the planets, how do the orbital trajectories change?
b. What happens to the orbit when x gets really small (keep v = 10 )?
0 0y
c. What happens to the orbit when x gets really large (keep v = 10 )?

0 0y
d. What happens to the orbit when v0y gets really small (keep x = 5 )?
0
e. What happens to the orbit when v0y gets really large (keep x = 5 )?
0
f. Find the condition for circular motion.

g. For circular motion, what is the period?
h. During each of your investigations, what was happening to the angular momentum as time passed? Why?
i. Make x = 10 . Then for small v , what type of orbit occurs?
0 0
j. For x = 10 , what v makes the orbit circular?

0 0
k. As you increase v (x = 10 ), the orbit changes shape. What shape does it have just beyond the speed required for circular
0 0
orbit?
l. As you increase v (x = 10 ) even further, you eventually reach a condition of "escape." Use energy considerations to predict
0 0
what this escape velocity should be.

m. For any circular orbit, predict (and then check on the graphs) how the magnitude of potential energy compares to kinetic.
Likewise for escape velocity.
n. For a given orbit, you should note that the angular momentum remains constant. How does this relate to the other quantities in
the table (under the simulation window), and discuss what is meant by the angle "theta."
Exploration 3: Properties of Elliptical Orbits

A planet (green) orbits a star (yellow) as shown in the animation. Restart.
On a piece of paper sketch vectors for the velocity, radial component of acceleration, and tangential component of acceleration for
the planet. The length of the vectors should be indicative of the magnitude of the vectors.
a. Rank the points, A–E, according to the speed of the planet at that point.
b. Rank the points, A–E, according to the gravitational potential energy of the planet.

c. Rank the points, A–E, according to the kinetic energy of the planet.
d. Rank the points, A–E, according to the total energy of the planet.
e. At which of the points, A–E, is the planet's acceleration in the same direction as the velocity?
f. What can you say about the direction of the planet's acceleration at any point on its path? Would you call this acceleration a
tangential acceleration or a radial acceleration?
Click here to view the velocity vector (blue) and acceleration vector (red). Compare what you see to your answers (a)–(f).
Exploration 4: Angular Momentum and Energy

A planet (with a mass equal to that of Earth) orbits a star as shown in the animation (position is given in astronomical units
[A.U.] and time is given in years). Along with the animation is a graphical depiction of the energy of the planet. Three curves are
shown: in black, the total effective potential energy; in blue, the gravitational potential energy; and in red, the effective rotational
potential energy represented by the term: L /2mR . The teal line represents the total energy of the planet as a function of distance
2 2
to the central star, R . Restart.

a. What happens to the red curve as the initial speed of the planet is changed?
b. What happens to the blue curve (the gravitational potential energy) as the initial speed of the planet is changed?
c. What happens to the teal curve (the total energy) as the initial speed of the planet is changed?
Now consider the total energy and angular momentum calculated in the table. Look at the circular, bound, and unbound cases.
d. How do the values for total energy and angular momentum change when the type of orbit is changed?
e. Can you find a general rule for whether an orbit is bound?
f. Feel free to explore different values of the initial velocity.
Olaf College.


11.1.12.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.12.3.1: Determine the unknown mass
A 100-kg mass can be moved around (by click-dragging it) near an unknown mass as shown in the four animations (distance
is given in meters and force is given in newtons). The table shows how the force on the unknown mass changes due to the
position of the 100-kg mass. Restart.
a. Which animation is physical? Why?
b. For that animation, what is the mass of the unknown mass?
Exercise 11.1.12.3.2: Determine the mass of the star
A planet orbits a star (yellow) as shown in the animation (position is given in R Earth Sun and time is given in Earth days).
Determine the mass of the star. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.12.3.3: Determine the mass of the orbiting planets
Two planets orbit a star (red), whose mass is M 25

= 7 × 10 kg as shown in the animation (position is given in 6
10 km and
time is given in Earth years). Restart.
a. What is the net force on the central star? Write an expression, not a numerical answer.
b. What is the net force on each planet? Write an expression, not a numerical answer.
c. Determine the mass of the orbiting planets.
A planet has an initial velocity in the y direction that gives it a slightly elliptical orbit around a star as shown in the animation
(position is given in 10 km and time is given in years). Restart.
6
a. Determine the mass of the star.

b. What is the correct orbital radius to give circular motion? Drag the planet at t = 0 to determine this radius. You may also
drag the gray blocks around to use them as temporary or permanent markers.
Exercise 11.1.12.3.5: Could this animation of a planetary orbit depict a physical situation?
The animation purports to model a solar system. However, the planet shown is not in a circular or an elliptical orbit (position is
given in 10 km and time is given in years). Restart.
4
a. Could this represent a physical situation?

b. Why or why not?
Exercise 11.1.12.3.6: Kepler's laws
The animation purports to model a solar system. However, one of the planets does not obey all of Kepler's laws for this solar
system (position is given in 10 km and time is given in Earth years). Identify that planet. (The sun is yellow.) Restart.
6
Exercise 11.1.12.3.7: Determine the speed for circular orbit
A satellite orbits a planet as shown in the animation (position is given in 10 km and time is given in Earth days). If the
3
satellite's orbit above the planet were doubled, what would its speed have to be in order for it to stay in a circular orbit? Restart.

The animation shows a comet orbiting a star (position is given in 10 6

km and time is given in Earth years). Determine the
mass of the star. Restart.
Exercise 11.1.12.3.9: Determine the acceleration
A rocket accelerates upward while a ball is fired into the opening in the rocket as shown in the animation (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). The rocket and the ball are far from any massive object. For an observer in the rocket,
what acceleration does the ball appear to have? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.12.3.10: Tunnel through the earth
A very wealthy individual proposes to dig a hole through the center of Earth and run a train (the small black circle) from one
side of Earth to the other as shown in the animation (position is given in Earth radii and time is given in seconds). Which of
the animations correctly depicts the motion of the train? Ignore frictional effects and treat Earth as a uniform mass
distribution. Restart.
Olaf College.




11.1.13: Statics
Statics is primarily the study of bodies in static equilibrium. There are two conditions necessary for static equilibrium: the net force
on a body equals zero and the net torque on a body equals zero. This is why we have waited until after discussing rotations to
consider statics. Although any body with a constant velocity (of its center of mass) and a constant angular momentum is in
equilibrium, the conditions of static equilibrium are most often applied to bodies that are at rest and not rotating. In many
disciplines, especially mechanical engineering, understanding principles of statics is essential. After all, we hope that our buildings,
bridges, cranes, etc., always maintain static equilibrium.
Topic hierarchy
11.1.13.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Equilibrium on a Ramp
A uniform block of wood sits in equilibrium on a ramp as shown in the animation (position is given in meters). The slider allows
you to control the height of the ramp and therefore the angle of the ramp. The red vector represents the weight of the block and the
blue vector represents the normal force of the ramp on the block (Note: The normal force is shown with a fatter arrow so you can
see it better). The force of static friction is an important feature of this problem, but its vector is not shown so we can focus on the
weight and the normal force. Restart.
Consider the ramp when it is flat. Animation 1. All parts of the ramp are touching the bottom surface of the block. Therefore, the
normal force does not act at just one point; actually, it is distributed across the bottom surface of the block. This is known as a
distributed load. Despite this fact, we draw one vector, the normal force, to represent the resultant perpendicular component of the
force of the ramp on the bottom surface of the block. But where should we draw the normal force of the ramp on the block? We
draw the normal force at a location such that the torque due to this one force vector is equal to the net torque due to the distributed
load of the ramp on the block. Therefore, when the ramp is flat, we draw the normal force of the ramp on the block as if it acts at
the middle of the base of the block.
Before increasing the height of the ramp, predict what will happen to the location of the normal force of the ramp on the block.
Will it stay in the same place or will it shift? If it shifts, will it shift toward the front edge or toward the back edge of the block?
Now, increase the height of the block to 0.35 m. Notice the position where the normal force is drawn. Is this what you predicted?
There is a certain angle of the ramp that is too steep for the block to remain in equilibrium. If static friction is great enough to keep
the block from sliding, then at this angle the block will tip; there will be an unbalanced torque to cause the block to "rotate." Where
will the normal force on the block act when the ramp is at this angle? Increase the height of the ramp to its maximum value. Is this
what you predicted?
At this angle the block would tip over. However, in Animation 2, you can increase the height of the ramp past the point where the
block should tip. The animation will show you the normal force needed to keep the block from tipping. You can see how ridiculous
this looks. Physicists would say that this animation is unphysical.
What do you notice about the point where the line of action of the normal force intersects the line of action of the weight? Try
proving that the point where the line of action of the weight intersects the base of the block will be the same point where the normal
force acts. Be sure to consider the conditions for static equilibrium.
Illustration authored by Aaron Titus.
Illustration 2: Center of Mass and Gravity

The first animation shows two blocks of equal mass (position is given in meters). The center of mass of the system is shown by a
red dot and its position is calculated for you. Drag the right-hand green block to the right or to the left. What do you notice about
the location of the center of mass as you change the block's position? Restart.
Now suppose the two blocks have unequal masses as shown in Animation 2. Is the center of mass at the center of the system? By
viewing the location of the center of mass, you know which block is more massive. So which one is more massive?
How can we calculate the ratio of the mass of the blue block to the mass of the red block? If you only have two blocks, then the
ratio of the distances of each block from the center of mass is related to the ratio of their masses. Therefore, by measuring the
distance from each block to the center of mass, you can calculate the ratio of their masses.
In terms of the location of the two objects, the center of mass is located at:
Xcm = (x1 m1 + x2 m2 )/(m1 + m2 )
for a one-dimensional, two-object system.

A concept similar to that of the center of mass is that of the center of gravity. In fact the two are often used interchangeably. The
center of mass is defined above; the center of gravity is defined as the point on a system where gravity can be considered to act.
The center of gravity takes into account the fact that the force of gravity—and therefore the acceleration due to gravity—is
different for different heights above the surface of Earth. For this Illustration the center of mass is equivalent to the center of

gravity. Only if the system is really large might the acceleration due to gravity be different at different parts of the system, thereby
causing the center of gravity to differ from the center of mass.
Illustration 3: The Force and Torque for Equilibrium

A rigid rod of uniform mass is shown on top of a frictionless table as shown in Animation 1. The black circle is the location of the
center of mass (position is given in meters and torque is given in newton meters). Restart.
Click Animation 2 to see the forces acting on the rod (the weight and normal force cancel each other out and are not shown; they
are into and out of the page, respectively). Assume that the lengths of the force vectors are indicative of the magnitudes of the
forces in newtons. If these are the only forces acting on the rod, is the rod in equilibrium?
If these are the only forces acting on the rod, then it is not in equilibrium because adding up the force vectors shows that the net
force on the rod is not zero. Since the net force is not zero, the center of mass of the rod will have an acceleration, and therefore its
velocity will change. In addition, adding up the torques on the rod shows that the net torque on the rod about the center of mass is
not zero. The rod will have a changing angular velocity out of the page.
Suppose that we want the rod to be in equilibrium. What additional force must we apply to the rod?
Consider the conditions of static equilibrium. The net force on the rod must equal zero. If you add up all of the forces presently
acting on the rod (as shown in Animation 2), the sum is not zero. Therefore, we must apply another force to the rod that is the
negative of the sum of the other forces on the rod.
At what location should this additional force be applied?
To be in static equilibrium, the net torque on the rod must equal zero. Therefore, the torque due to this additional force on the rod
must equal the negative of the sum of the torques of the other forces presently acting on the rod. Knowing the torque and the force
needed for the rod to be in equilibrium, you can calculate the location where the force should be applied to the rod.
Now, in Animation 3 you get to add a force to get the rod into equilibrium. Adjust the magnitude and direction of the blue force
vector and place it at the correct location on the beam. Then check your answer. You will see a red vector for the net force and a
green calculation of the net torque (this is in the z direction, which is positive out of the page). If the net force is zero, then its
vector will be zero and will not be seen. If the rod is in equilibrium, the net force vector will vanish and the torque calculation will
be zero, and you calculated your answers correctly. If not, recheck your calculations, adjust the magnitude, direction, and location
of the blue force vector and check your answer again.
Illustration authored by Aaron Titus.
Script authored by Aaron Titus and Mario Belloni.
Illustration 4: The Diving Board Problem

A 2-kg box sits 0.3 m from the right end of a board of negligible weight in Animation 1 and a board of weight 10 kg in Animation
2. Two supports (support 1 and support 2) exert forces on the left and right ends of the board, as indicated by the two force
vectors (position is given in meters). The arrows represent the relative sizes of the force vectors, but their length does not
represent their actual magnitudes (the actual value of the forces, as well as the separation between the supports, is shown in the
table). The board is 6 m long and support 1 is 0.3 m in from the left edge. Restart.
Consider the situation in Animation 1 in which the board has a negligible weight. How does the force of each support on the board
(F corresponds to the right support and F corresponds to the left support) depend on where the box is located? You can drag the
1 2
second support from left to right to view the forces of the supports on the board. When the board is of a negligible mass, there are
three forces that act on the board: the weight of the box, and the forces of the supports. As you move support 2 around, what do you
notice? When the movable support is as far right as it can go, the force of the first support is zero and the force of the second
support cancels the force of the box. This seems logical, but why this force? An F = 10 N and an F = 9.6 N , would work too,
1 2
right? Well, yes and no. It would certainly make the sum of the forces on the board equal to zero, but what about the sum of the
torques? This sum would not be equal to zero no matter where you measured the torques from. Only an equal and opposite force
acting at the same position as the weight of the box will keep the board in equilibrium. As you move the second support to the left
note that both forces exerted by the supports get bigger, and that the force that the first support exerts is negative. We can

understand this effect by measuring the torque on the board from the first support. Since the force is in the y direction and the
radius arm is in the x direction, the magnitude of the torque is rF . The radius arm for the weight of the box is always 5.4 m. The
radius arm for the second support changes as you drag it to the left. Therefore, as you drag it to the left the force the support exerts
must increase in order to keep rF the same magnitude as (and in the opposite direction of) that of the box. Once the right force is
determined from the torque, the force due to the first support can be determined by requiring the sum of the forces on the board to
be zero.
Now, consider the situation in Animation 2 in which the board has a weight of 10 kg. How does the force of each support on the
board depend on where the box is located? You can drag the second support from left to right to view the forces of the supports on
the board. When the board has a mass, there are four forces that act on the board: the weight of the box, the weight of the board,
and the forces of the supports. Much of the same analysis described above still is valid here; you just need to factor in one more
force and therefore one more torque. Again drag the support around and pay close attention to the forces. What happens to the
forces when the separation between the supports is 3.15 m? How about 2.7 m?
Illustratron authored by Aaron Titus.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Balance a Mobile
The center of gravity is at the same location as the center of mass for systems in which the acceleration due to gravity is virtually
equal for all points in the system. Therefore, in this Exploration we will talk about and calculate the center of mass. Restart.
The goal when making a mobile is for the center of mass to be below the string attached to the ceiling. Otherwise, there will be a
net torque on the mobile about its center of mass until this condition is met. Consider a mobile made of two blocks as shown in the
animation. The mass of the blue block is 0.050 kg. Assume that the rods and string connecting the blocks are light enough to be
neglected (position is given in meters).
a. What is the mass of the green block in order for the mobile to be balanced in Animation 1?
To answer this question, consider the conditions of equilibrium. The net torque on the horizontal rod about the point where it is
attached to the string connected to the ceiling must equal zero. Therefore, the magnitude of the torque on the rod due to the tension
in the right string must be equal to the magnitude of the torque on the rod due to the tension in the left string.
b. Suppose you want to replace the green block with another two-block system just like the first one, but with less massive blocks
as shown in Animation 2. What are the masses of the red and orange blocks?
This is very similar to the previous question, except that you are applying the conditions of equilibrium to the rod connecting the
red and orange blocks. However, when you solve the equation, net torque = 0 , you have a problem. The masses of BOTH the red
and orange blocks are unknown. Before, for the green and blue blocks, you knew the mass of the blue block and could solve for the
mass of the green.
c. You need another relationship between the red and orange blocks to help you out. Since we replaced the green block with the
red and orange ones, how are the masses of these three blocks related?
d. Ok, this is getting fun. Suppose that you now replace the orange block with another identical two-block system as shown
in Animation 3. What are the masses of the yellow and purple blocks?
e. Where is the center of mass of the system of four blocks?
Since you know the masses of the blocks, measure the x, y coordinates of each block and calculate the coordinates of the center of
mass.
f. Now click on the animation to locate the point that you just calculated. Is it directly beneath the string that connects the mobile
to the ceiling? It should be!
Note
Note that adding a new system of blocks to the left end each time did not change the x coordinate of the center of mass;
however, it did cause the y coordinate to decrease since each system of blocks hung lower and lower. However, shifting the y
coordinate of the center of mass did not change the equilibrium status of the mobile.
Exploration 2: Static Friction on a Horizontal Beam

You hold a piece of wood by pushing it horizontally against a wall as shown in the animation (position is given in
meters). Restart.
a. What forces act on the wood? Draw a free-body diagram for the wood showing the forces at their proper locations. Compare
your diagram to the one shown in Animation 2.
b. What is the force in the +y direction that counteracts the weight of the wood in this example? Note that this force is parallel to
the surface of the wall and wood where they are in contact.
c. In this case, do you know if the static frictional force of the wall on the wood is equal to its maximum value?
In Animation 3 you can adjust the magnitude of the push by clicking and dragging on the white circle at the tip of the vector
representing the force of your hand on the wood. The maximum frictional force (shown as a red vector) adjusts accordingly. At
the instant where the actual frictional force (black vector) equals the maximum frictional force (red vector), the beam will still be

in equilibrium. In this case this is the least force that you can push the wood and have it remain in equilibrium. If you push it with
less force, the meter stick will fall.
In Animation 4 you can adjust the magnitude of the push so that it is less than the minimum push required for the wood to remain
in equilibrium. If the maximum possible static frictional force is less than the actual frictional force needed for equilibrium, the
piece of wood will fall. In the animation, if you adjust f < f , the resulting situation depicted in the animation
s max s
is unphysical since the piece of wood will actually fall.

Exploration 3: Distributed Load

A box sits on a board of negligible weight. Two supports exert forces on the left and right ends of the board (position is given in
meters). The arrows represent the relative sizes of the two force vectors, but their length does not represent their actual
magnitudes. Restart.
a. How does the force of each support on the board depend on where the box is located? You can drag the box from left to right to
view the forces of the supports on the board.
Suppose the box is exactly halfway between the center and the right support.
b. What is the ratio of the magnitude of the force of the right support on the board to the magnitude of the force of the left support
on the board?
Consider a situation in which the board has significant weight.
c. What then might the force vectors look like when the box is sitting above one of the supports, say for example the left support?
Check using Animation 2.
d. What is the ratio of the weight of the board to the weight of the box in this case?
Exploration 4: The Stacking of Bricks

How can you stack four uniform bricks (or blocks or meter sticks) one on top of another so that they extend as far over a table as
possible and yet remain stable? Rules: You can drag and move bricks horizontally with your mouse (position is given in tenths of
inches; hence each brick is a foot long). The stability of each brick is color coded:
green: the brick is in stable equilibrium
yellow: the center of gravity of the brick, or a group of bricks, is right above the edge of the supporting brick
red: the brick is unstable; it will fall in real life.
The center of gravity for each brick is shown as a small blue dot. The current mouse position (relative to the top left edge of the
table) is shown in the upper part of the animation in the Text Field. If you press the "show c.g." button, the center of gravity for the
brick subsystems (top brick, top two bricks, top three bricks and all four bricks, respectively) will be shown as a small circle with
an arrow. The length of the arrow is proportional to the gravitational force for each balanced subsystem. In addition,
The left edge of each brick is in red
The position of the center of gravity of each brick is in blue
The position of the center of gravity is in black when "show c.g." is selected
a. What is the stability condition for an object overhanging a table?

b. How should each brick be positioned relative to the brick underneath it? Be explicit and refer to the center of gravity. Hint: Start
at the top and work down.
c. Can the top brick have its entire length beyond the edge of the table?
d. Challenge: Come up with a mathematical description for the overhang of each individual brick and the total overhang.
Exploration authored by Fu-Kwun Hwang and Mario Belloni.
Olaf College.


11.1.13.3: Problems
Exercise 11.1.13.3.1: Calculate the angle for a box on an inclined plane to tip
A box of uniformly distributed mass sits in equilibrium on a ramp as shown in the animation (position is given in
meters). Restart.
a. Suppose you wish to increase the angle of the ramp. What is the maximum angle of the ramp so that the box does not tip?
b. What is the minimum coefficient of static friction between the box and ramp in order for the box to not slide when the ramp
is at the angle measured in part (a)?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.2: Calculating supporting tensions in a suspended load
A steel block sits on a board that is held by two strings. The strings are attached to a crossbar that is held by two ringstands on
a laboratory table. Assume that all objects have uniformly distributed mass, which means that the center of mass of each object
is at its geometric center. The masses are as follows: The block has a mass of 2.0 kg, the board has a mass of 0.50 kg, and the
crossbar has a mass of 1.0 kg (position is given in meters). Restart.
a. What is the tension in each string?
b. What is the force of each ringstand on the crossbar?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.3: Calculate the normal forces on the front and rear tires of a truck
The side view of a truck on a level road is shown in the animation. The mass of the truck is 1230 kg. Suppose the resultant
force of the road on the front set of tires is 4000 N, in the upward direction of course (position is given in meters). Restart.
a. What is the resultant force of the road on the rear set of tires?
b. What is the horizontal distance from the front axle to the center of mass of the truck?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.4: Analyze a box pulled by a rope
A 10-kg box sits on a table as shown in the animation. A rope is attached to the box, and you pull the rope to the right with a
certain force. Assume that the coefficient of static friction is great enough so that the box doesn't slip first (position is given in
meters). Restart.
a. What minimum force will make the box tip?
b. What is the minimum value of the coefficient of static friction for the box NOT to slide before tipping?
c. If you would like to apply a greater force to the box, yet minimize the risk of tipping, what should you do?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.5: Analyze a bicycle wheel suspended on the edge of a curb
The rear wheel of a bicycle is in equilibrium as it rests against the corner of a curb as shown in the animation. For purposes of
this problem, neglect the force of the bicycle frame on the wheel. The wheel is not touching the ground, and its mass is
0.40 kg. Neglect the mass of the bicycle chain (position is given in meters). Restart.
a. Assuming that the top and bottom chain tensions are equal, what is the tension in the chain?
b. What is the magnitude and direction of the force of the curb on the wheel?

Exercise 11.1.13.3.6: Analyze a beam attached to a wall and wire
A string is attached between the end of a narrow uniform beam and the wall. Friction on the beam keeps the left side from
falling. The magnitude of the weight of the beam is w (position is given in meters). Restart.
a. What is the ratio of the tension in the string to the weight, T /w?
b. What is the magnitude and direction of the force of the wall on the beam?
c. What is the minimum coefficient of static friction required for the left end of the beam not to slip?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.7: Analyze a system of two rods, each attached to hinges
Two uniform rods are hinged to a wall and screwed to each other as shown in the animation. The mass of the blue rod is 2.0 kg
and the mass of the black rod is 1.5 kg (position is given in meters). Restart.
a. What are the magnitude and direction of the force of the top hinge on the black rod?
b. What are the magnitude and direction of the force of the bottom hinge on the blue rod?
c. What are the magnitude and direction of the force on each rod due to the screw attaching the rods? Your answer should
include two forces, the force of the screw on the blue rod and the force of the screw on the black rod.
Exercise 11.1.13.3.8: Apply equilibrium conditions to a see-saw
A seesaw, usually in equilibrium, is shown in the animation. A little girl named Melody sits on the seesaw and thereby applies
a force of 200 N to the seesaw as indicated by the red vector labeled F . The seesaw weighs 500 N (position is given in
M
meters). Restart.
a. Where should her dad sit on the seesaw in order to keep the system in equilibrium if he applies a bulky 900 N to the seesaw
when sitting on it?
b. What is the force of the axle on the seesaw, assuming that the only other force applied to the seesaw besides Melody and
her dad is the force of the axle?
c. When Melody's dad wants to practice a circus act by applying a 900 N force to the far right edge of the seesaw, Melody's
mom immediately rushes to her aid by applying a downward force on the seesaw to keep the system in equilibrium. If the
force of Mom on the seesaw has a magnitude of 750 N, at what location on the seesaw is it applied?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.9: Analyze a pendulum held at some angle in equilibrium
A long pendulum is made of a pendulum bob of mass 10.0 kg attached to a lightweight cable. By pushing horizontally on the
pendulum bob, you keep it in equilibrium. Note: The hand is not drawn to scale; it appears larger than its actual
dimensions (position is given in meters). Restart.
a. What is the force of your hand on the pendulum bob?
b. What is the force of the cable on the pendulum bob (i.e., tension)?
c. Suppose you wish to make it easier on yourself by applying the minimum force necessary to keep the pendulum bob in
equilibrium, while maintaining its position as shown in the animation. In this case, what are the magnitude and direction of
the minimum force of your hand on the pendulum bob, and what would then be the tension in the cable?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.10: Calculate reaction forces and torques on a stuck lever
An emergency lever (the red, sideways, L-shaped object) is designed to rotate clockwise about an axle in a hinge (the gray half
circle) as shown in the animation. Assume the lever is rigid, is made of uniform material, and has a mass of 0.20 kg. The axle
(the black circle) exerts a frictional force on the lever (position is given in meters). Restart.

a. What are the magnitude and direction of the torque on the lever due to friction between the lever and axle?
b. What are the magnitude and direction of the net force of the axle on the lever?
c. In trying to turn the lever, you apply a force of magnitude 5.0 N in the direction shown in the following animation. Show
Animation with Applied Force Vector. But the lever remains in equilibrium. What is the torque on the lever due to friction
between the lever and axle, and what are the magnitude and direction of the net force of the axle on the lever?
d. Suppose you keep the magnitude of the applied force the same (5.0 N) but wish to apply a greater torque to the lever. What
could you do differently?
e. Suppose the maximum torque on the lever due to friction at the axle is 10.0 N ⋅ m. You decide to apply a force straight
downward at the left end of the lever. What is the minimum value of the magnitude of the force in order to just barely turn
the lever?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.11: Determine where the normal force acts on a box on a ramp
A wood block of uniformly distributed mass sits in equilibrium on a ramp as shown in the animation. Its mass is
0.20 kg (position is given in meters). Restart.
a. If you replace the "load" of the ramp on the bottom surface of the block with a single normal force acting at a certain
distance from the front edge of the block, what are the magnitude and direction of this force and at what location does the
force act?
b. What is the force of static friction on the block?
Exercise 11.1.13.3.12: Calculate center of mass
Four spheres are shown in the animation. A blue sphere is half as massive as a red one, and a purple sphere is twice as massive
as a red one. Where should the purple one be placed in order for the center of gravity to be at the location of the black
dot (position is given in meters)? Restart.
Exercise 11.1.13.3.13: Determine the mass of the board
A 2-kg box sits 0.3 m from the right end of a board of unknown weight. Two supports exert forces on the board (position is
given in meters). You can drag the second support from the left to the right to view how that force changes with its position.
The arrows represent the relative sizes of the force vectors for the movable support and the box, but their length does not
represent their actual magnitudes (the actual value of the forces, as well as the separation between the supports, is shown in
the table). The board is 6 m long and support 1 is 0.3 m in from the left edge. Determine the mass of the board. Restart.
Olaf College.




CHAPTER OVERVIEW
11.2: FLUIDS
11.2.1: STATIC FLUIDS

11.2.1.3: PROBLEMS
11.2.2: FLUIDS IN MOTION
11.2.2.3: PROBLEMS
1 3/24/2022
11.2.1: Static Fluids
The study of fluids brings us to an application of Newton's Laws and Conservation of Energy that does not involve rigid bodies and
point particles. Instead of mass and force we use density and pressure, but the laws do not change. We simply apply them in a
different context. This chapter focuses on fluids that are static, i.e., stationary. The basic concepts allow us to understand pressure
variations in fluids and objects that float (or sink) in fluids.
Topic hierarchy
11.2.1.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Pressure in a Liquid
With fluids, instead of discussing forces, we usually talk about pressure, which is defined as the force per unit area or P = F /A .
This is because the direction of the force a liquid exerts on its container depends on the shape of the container (force is normal to
the surface of the container) and the size of the container. Pressure is not a vector (no direction) and does not depend on the size of
the container (position is given in meters and pressure is given in pascals). Restart.
Move the pressure indicator in the tube and note the pressure readings (the pressure is only measuring the effect of the liquid
asdescribed below). Let's discuss why pressure increases as a function of depth. Assume the blue liquid is water (density
1000 kg/m ). Pick a point to measure the pressure somewhere in the upper tube. If the dimension of the container into the screen
3
(the dimension you cannot see) is 1 m, what is the volume of water above the point you picked? What is the mass and thus the
2
weight of the water at that point? For example, consider a depth of 3 m. The pressure is 29, 400 N/m . The volume of water above
this point is a cylinder of volume 9.4 m . The mass of the water is the volume times the water's density, or 9, 400 kg, and therefore
3
the weight of the water is 92, 120 N.

What is the force downward at that point? Well take the weight and divide by the cross-sectional area of the column of water at that
point, which is 3.14 m . This pressure should be equal to the pressure reading. The units of pressure are N/m = pascals
2 2
(abbreviated Pa).
Strictly speaking, this is the gauge pressure, not the absolute pressure, because we assumed P = 0 at the top of the water column
when the pressure (due to the atmosphere) is actually around 1 × 10 Pa . The absolute pressure then would be the pressure at the
5
top due to the atmosphere added to the pressure due to the weight of the water. All of this comes together in the equation:
P = P0 + ρgy
where P is the pressure at the top, ρ is the density of the liquid, g is acceleration due to gravity and y is the depth of the liquid.
0
What will be the pressure at point A? Add a second pressure indicator to check.
Illustration authored by Anne J. Cox.
Illustration 2: Pascal's Principle

The animation shows a model of a hydraulic lift (position is given in centimeters, force is given in newtons, and time is given in
seconds). A gas or liquid, usually oil (yellow in this animation), fills a container with pistons. Restart.
Notice that because the pressure is the same at the same height in the fluid, the force required for the hand to support the mass is
much less than the weight of the mass (10 times less). This is because the areas of the gray circular "lids" on the top of the oil are
different by a factor of 10. Now calculate the pressure exerted by the green mass and the pressure exerted by the force arrow. They
should be the same. The ratio of the areas is the ratio of the forces required for equilibrium. Enter a new value for the mass
(between 100 and 300 kg) and try it.
Now, play the animation. As the arrow moves down, the mass moves up (but the motion is too small to accurately measure how far
it moves up). How far up should the mass move and why? The volume of fluid pushed out of the left tube must be the same amount
that goes into the right cylinder.
What is the work done by the force arrow? What is the work done on the mass? The work done by the force arrow is exactly the
work done on the mass. So what is the advantage of this lift? The advantage is that it allows a small force to raise something much
more massive (e.g., lifting up a car in a repair garage). One can think of this as a small force over a large displacement doing the
same amount of work as a large force over a small displacement. The force arrow could not directly lift the green mass, but using
the hydraulic lift, it can.
In this setup we neglected the change in pressure as a function of depth in the liquid. We assumed the pressure was still the same at
the two gray lids on top of the oil at the end of the animation as it was at the beginning of the animation. At the end of the
animation, however, the force arrow should actually be larger than that listed because it is some distance below the liquid level of
the right side at the end of the animation.

Illustration 3: Buoyant Force
The buoyant force on an object (whether or not it floats) is due to the pressure difference between the bottom of the object and the
top of the object. If the object is going to be buoyed up, the bottom of the object is subjected to a greater pressure than the top of
the object. Remember that pressure is force/area and so, if the pressure at the bottom of an object (submerged under a liquid) is
greater than the pressure on top (still in air), there is a net upward force.
This animation shows a block lowered into a liquid and then floating. The density of the block can be changed by click-dragging in
the block on the upper left of the animation (click-drag at the white-gray interface of the box). The graph in the lower right of the
animation shows the pressure difference (P ) as a function of depth (Y ). When the net upward force, the buoyant force, is equal to
the weight of an object (the white and gray striped block), it floats in the gray liquid. In addition, the amount of fluid displaced
when the block is in the fluid is shown in the block to the left.
3
Assume that the gray liquid is water (density 1000 kg/m ). The density of the block is a fraction of the density of water. So, to
start with, the block has a density of 0.4 × 1000 kg/m = 400 kg/m . Note that approximately 40% of the block is submerged
3 3
when it is floating. Assume the dimensions of the block are 1 m (and it is a cube). First, let's find the net force on the block when it
is floating by finding the pressure on the block.
Since pressure as a function of depth in a liquid is ρ gy (where ρ is the density of liquid, g is the acceleration due to gravity,
liquid
and y is the depth in the liquid), what is the pressure at the bottom of the block? It is P +ρ gy where y = 0.4 m. What is
atm liquid
the pressure at the top of the block? It is just P . Therefore, the liquid exerts a total force of ΔP A = ρ
atm gy A = 400 N ,
liquid
which must also be the block's weight if it is in equilibrium. Why do we neglect the force on the sides of the block due to water
pressure?
The animation also shows the spillover of water into a second container (to the left). What is the volume of water in this second
container? Using the density of water, what is the weight of the water? Note that this is equal to the buoyant force because, if the
block were removed and the water in the spillover tray (to the left) were put back into the main water container, that water would
be supported, so the pressure difference supports that weight of water. This means that although the buoyant force is due to the
pressure difference at different depths, it is also equal to the weight of the water displaced by the object, as expressed in the
equation below:
FB = ρliquidgVliquid displaced = ρliquidgVsubmerged part of object
If the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the object, the object floats. Change the density of the object by click-dragging the
mouse on the base of the red arrow in the top left-hand box and then let the animation run. Repeat the calculations to show that the
buoyant force is equal to the weight of the object.
What happens if the object is pushed into the water below where it would naturally float (away from equilibrium)? Try using the
mouse to drag the floating block farther down in the water. What type of motion do you observe, and why? Think about the forces
acting on the block.
Illustration 4: Pumping Water up from a Well

Why can't you pump water up out of a well deeper than 10.3 m? You may not have even known of this limitation! We can answer
this question by considering the change in pressure in a liquid as a function of depth (position is given in meters). Restart.
First, what is the pressure at the top of the water in the well (the dark blue line)? It is just atmospheric pressure. Measure the
pressure of the water in the tube at the pump by dragging the pressure gauge there. Change the well depth by dragging down the
dark blue line and see what happens. Varying this level increases the height to which the pump must pump the water. When the
well is deeper than 10.3 m (i.e., when the height of the water column up to the pump is greater than 10.3 m), what is the problem?
Can the pump pressure ever be less than zero? No. The best a pump could do is to create a vacuum, which would be P = 0 Pa . In
reality, the pump could never reach P = 0 Pa since there would be vapor pressure in the top of the tube.
Note that this animation is exactly how you use a straw to get liquid out of a glass. You reduce the pressure in your mouth (from
atmospheric pressure) and the liquid goes up the straw and into your mouth.

What would happen if you tried to pump out a less dense material (like oil)? (Remember that P = P0 + ρgy ). Could you have a
deeper well or would it require a shallower well? Try it.
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Floating and Density
How can a boat made out of a material more dense than water float? The block has a mass of 0.185 kg (position is given in
centimeters). If this block is a cube, what is the density of the block? Note that since it is greater than water (1000 kg/m ) the 3
block sinks as shown in the animation. Restart.

We reshape the block so that it has the same depth into the screen, but is wider and taller with walls that are 0.21-cm thick.
a. When the animation runs, what is the volume of water displaced (the dimension of the water container into the screen that you
cannot see is 10 cm)?
b. Using the density of water (1000 kg/m ), find the mass of the water displaced. Show that it is equal to the mass of the
3
reshaped block. Thus the block floats.

c. Another way to think about this is that in its new shape the block has an effective density (total mass/total volume) less than that
of the water. Divide the mass (0.185 kg) by the new volume to find the new effective density of the block.
d. How does the effective density compare to the density of water?
2
The weight (mass ∗ 9.8 m/s ) of the water displaced (even if the displaced water leaves the container) is equal to the buoyant
force on the block. In the case of a floating object, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the floating object.
Exploration authored by Anne J. Cox.
Exploration 2: Buoyant Force

When an object is put into a liquid, it experiences a buoyant force that is equal to the weight of the liquid the object displaces. The
force on the wire is given as the block is slowly lowered into the liquid (position is given in centimeters and force is given in
newtons). You can change the mass of the block between 0.125 kg and 0.375 kg and the density of the liquid between
500 kg/m and 1000 kg/m . The object is in static equilibrium when the clock stops. Restart.
3 3
a. What is the weight of the block and the tension in the string when the block is in the liquid? Therefore, what is the value of the
buoyant force? The buoyant force and the tension in the string (as the force on the support wire) act upward and the weight acts
down.
b. What is the volume of the block in the liquid—either the submerged part of the block if the block is partially submerged when
you paused it or the entire block if it is completely submerged (the dimension of the block that is into the screen is 5 cm )?
c. What is the volume of the water that is displaced by the block (the dimension of both water containers into the screen is
10 cm )? Verify that this is equal to the answer in (b).
d. What is the mass of the liquid displaced? What is the weight of the liquid displaced? Check that this is equal to the buoyant
force.
e. Pick two different masses and densities and verify that the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the water displaced.
Exploration 3: Buoyancy and Oil on Water

This Exploration will address the buoyant force in more depth (pun intended). Specifically, what happens if we put an object in two
"layers" of fluids? Assume the brown block is a cube (position is given in meters and pressure is given in pascals). Restart.
Note: The format of the pressure is written in shorthand. For example atmospheric pressure, 5
1.01 × 10 Pa , is written as
1.01e + 005.
Move the pressure indicator and measure the pressure at the bottom of the wooden block and at the top of the block.
a. If the block is a cube, what is the force on the block due to the water (buoyant force)?
b. What, then, is the weight of the block? What is the density of the block?
c. Another method: How much (what percentage) of the block is submerged? Check that the density of the block is that same
3
percentage of the density of water (1000 kg/m ).
Now consider what would happen if we put the block in an oil with a different density.

d. Predict what you expect will happen if we put the block in an oil with a density of 700 kg/m . 3
e. Try it. Was your prediction correct? Explain.

f. What is the pressure at the bottom of the block and at the top of the block? What is the buoyant force on the block in the oil?
Now, suppose the wood block is put in a mixture of water on the bottom with oil on the top (the oil floats on the water and doesn't
mix with the water).
g. What do you expect will happen? Why?
h. Try it. Is more or less of the block submerged in water in this case compared with the block simply floating in water (without
oil)? Why?
i. One way to look at what happened is to measure the pressures. Find the pressure at the bottom of the block and at the top of the
block.
j. What is the pressure difference and thus the net buoyant force on the block?
k. In order for a block to float only in water (with air on top), to get the same pressure difference to support the block, why does
the block need to be lower in the water? (Think about the density of air compared with the density of oil and, therefore, the
change in pressure with depth in air and in the oil.)
Another way to look at this is to compare the buoyant forces.
l. In comparison with the block floating in water only, has the buoyant force increased, decreased, or stayed the same?
m. What is the volume of water that the block displaces?
n. What is the weight of that water?
o. What is the volume of oil that the block displaces?
p. What is the weight of the displaced oil?
q. How do those two compare with the weight of the block?
Olaf College.


11.2.1.3: Problems
Exercise 11.2.1.3.1: Hydraulic lift
The animation shows a model of a hydraulic lift. The gray areas are circular lids on top of the yellow fluid inside the
lift (position is given in centimeters). Restart
a. What force is required on the left side to support the 40-kg mass?
b. If the mass is lifted up 1 cm, how far down does the fluid on the left need to be pushed?
Problem authored by Anne J. Cox.
Exercise 11.2.1.3.2: Mercury barometer
A tube contains a column of mercury while the bottom container of mercury is open to the atmosphere to form a mercury
barometer (position is given in tenths of meters and pressure given in pascals). What is the atmospheric pressure? Restart.
Exercise 11.2.1.3.3: Find the density of object in water
Find the density of the object being immersed in the water bucket. The initial reading on the spring scale is 19 N . One full
revolution of the spring scale represents a change of 10 N. Restart.
Problem authored by Peter Sheldon and Mario Belloni.
Exercise 11.2.1.3.4: Pressure and buoyant force of block suspended in water

3
The blue liquid is an oil with ρ = 850 kg/m (position is given in centimeters and the dimension of the oil containers into
the screen is 20 cm). Restart.
a. If the mass is 150 g, what is the tension on the wire at the following times: 0.4 s, 1.5 s and 4 s?
b. What is the gauge pressure at the top of the mass at t = 1.5 s and t = 4 s ?
c. Some students find the answers to questions (a) and (b) (the tension in the wire and the gauge pressure) inconsistent.
Explain why they are consistent with each other.
Note that gauge pressure is the difference in pressure due to the surface of the water (the absolute pressure would be the
pressure due to the atmosphere at the surface plus the pressure due to the water).
Exercise 11.2.1.3.5: How much weight will a boat hold?
How much more mass can this "boat" sitting in water hold and still float? The dimension of the "boat" into the screen is
8 cm (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
Problem authored by Anne J. Cox
Exercise 11.2.1.3.6: Find the density of a fluid
A block is lowered into a liquid as shown (position is given in centimeters, time is given in seconds, and force is given in
newtons). The dimension of both containers into the screen is 20 cm. The dimension of the block into the screen is 10 cm.
What is the density of the liquid? Restart.

Exercise 11.2.1.3.7: Wood floating in water on an elevator
Shown is a block of wood floating in a bucket of water. The bucket is placed in an elevator as shown in the animation (position
is in meters and time is in seconds). Restart.
a. Elevator in free fall: If the picture on the left represents the orientation of the wood when the elevator is stationary, which
animation correctly depicts the new orientation of the wood while the elevator is in free fall as shown (assume a broken
cable)?
Animation 1a | Animation 2a | Animation 3a
b. Elevator rising: If the picture on the left represents the orientation of the wood when the elevator is stationary, which
animation correctly depicts the new orientation of the wood while the elevator is moving as shown?
Animation 1b | Animation 2b | Animation 3b
Problem authored by Mario Belloni and Anne J. Cox.
Exercise 11.2.1.3.8: Hot-air balloon fight
As the air inside a hot-air balloon is heated, the density of the air inside the balloon decreases and the balloon expands
(see Chapter 20 and the Kinetic Theory and Ideal Gas Law Illustrations for a detailed explanation). The animation shows a hot-
air balloon ascending with constant acceleration (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). If the balloon
fabric and basket have a combined mass of 300 kg, what is the density of the air inside the balloon? (Neglect the volume of the
3
basket). The density of the air outside the balloon is 1.3 kg/m . Restart.
Exercise 11.2.1.3.9: Ice melting
An ice cube melts in a glass of water as shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
minutes). Which animation correctly shows what the final water level will be? Explain. Restart.
Exercise 11.2.1.3.10: Water-oil mixture
The animation is color coded as follows: Blue is water, red is oil, and brown is a wood block initially floating at the interface.
A pump, which starts at t = 1 s , removes the oil. Which animation is physical? (In other words, which animation obeys the
laws of physics?) Explain. Restart.
Problem authored by Peter Sheldon and Mario Belloni.
Olaf College.


https://www.compadre.org/Physlets/fl..._worksheet.pdf


11.2.2: Fluids in Motion
Fluid dynamics is a rich and complex field of study with turbulence and chaos in its wake. For our purposes, however, just as in the
case when we first introduced Newton's laws where we learned how to describe motion on "frictionless" surfaces, we will focus
primarily on ideal fluids (fluids without friction (no viscosity) and fluids that do not rotate). The two main equations we will use
are the continuity equation (what flows in must flow out) and Bernoulli's equation (conservation of energy). As a result, we will be
able to understand the connection between fluid motion and pressure.
Topic hierarchy
11.2.2.3: Problems


Illustration 1: The Continuity Equation
A continuity equation is simply a way to express that "what goes in must come out." This simply means that as a fluid goes from a
pipe of one diameter to another, the fluid flow changes. Restart. Assume an ideal fluid (position is given in meters and pressure
is given in pascals). The dark blue in the animation is a section of water as it flows through the pipes from left to right (assume
they are cylindrical, that is, the vertical distances in the animation correspond to the diameter of a circular cross section). Notice
that as the water enters the narrower pipe, it goes faster. How long does it take the dark blue region to cross a line in the wide
region and a line in the narrow region? The volume of the dark blue region divided by this time is the volume flow rate for each
region. It should be the same for both regions because whatever goes in (per second) must come out (per second). We express this
with the continuity equation Av = constant, where A is the cross-sectional area and v is the speed of the fluid flow (What are the
units of Av? They should be volume/time). When we couple this with Bernoulli's equation (conservation of energy),
2
P + (1/2)ρv + ρgy = constant
where P is the pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the speed of the fluid flow, and y is the height of the fluid (you can, of
course, pick any point to be y = 0 m ), we find a change in pressure as well. In this case, because the pipe is horizontal, y is the
same, so we simply use P + (1/2)ρv = constant , so as the speed increases, the pressure decreases. Note the pressure readings
2
by sliding the pressure indicator along the center of the pipe.
Note
The format of the pressure is written in shorthand. For example, atmospheric pressure, 5
1.01e + 005.
Illustration 2: Bernoulli's Principle at Work

A reservoir of water has a hole in it at a height that you can adjust (position is given in meters). Notice what happens to the water
flow out of the opening. Restart. Assume an ideal fluid. How do you describe what happens to the initial speed of the water
depending on the height of the hole? The velocity of the water out of the opening can be determined according to Bernoulli's
equation, which compares two points in the fluid:
2 2
P1 + (1/2)ρv + ρgy1 = P2 + (1/2)ρv + ρgy2 = constant
1 2
where P is the pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the speed of the fluid flow, and y is the vertical position from y = 0 m
(you can, of course, pick any point to be y = 0 m ---this is equivalent to picking any spot to be the zero of potential energy, but
once you have picked the y = 0 m spot you must be consistent).
Consider point 1 to be the top of the fluid and point 2 to be the point where the fluid leaves the hole. Given this assignment, we can
easily see that P = P = P
1 2 . At the top of the reservoir the water is essentially stationary, so v1 = 0 m/s there. This means that
atm
Bernoulli's equation simplifies to

2 2
ρgy1 = (1/2)ρv + ρgy2 or that v = 2g(y1 − y2 ) = 2gΔh
2 2
where Δh is the height of the water above the hole (not the height of the opening, although the two are related).
Illustration authored by Anne J. Cox and Mario Belloni.
Illustration 3: Ideal and Viscous Fluid Flow

Bernoulli's equation describes the conservation of energy in an ideal fluid system such as the one shown in this animation (position
is given in tenths of meters and pressure is given in pascals). Restart. The vertical tubes are open to the atmosphere. Notice that
the water level is lower to the right, indicating a lower pressure. Why is the pressure lower in the narrower tube? Notice also that
the pressure only changes when going from a wider to a narrower tube. The pressure indicator measures the gauge pressure, not the
absolute pressure (gauge pressure is pressure above atmospheric pressure). When there is viscosity (that is the fluid sticks together
a bit so there is some friction), but still a smooth (laminar) flow, the pressure drops along the length of a pipe. Try it. For viscous

flow, notice that, to get the same volume per unit time (Av = volume/time, where A is the cross-sectional area and v is the speed
of the fluid flow), the pressure drops more in the narrower tube than in the wider tube. The equation governing the flow is
Poiseulle's equation, Av = π R ΔP /8ηL, where R is the radius of the tube, L is the length of the tube, ΔP is the pressure
4
difference and η is the viscosity of the fluid.
Note
1.01e + 005.
Illustration 4: Airplane lift

The animation shows the cross section (side view) of a model airplane wing with air moving past the wing (position is given in
centimeters and time is given in seconds). Restart. Where is the speed of the air greatest? Where will the pressure be higher?
How does this explain the lift on an airplane? Using Bernoulli's principle we can find the pressure difference between the top and
the bottom wing and it is
2 2
ΔP = ρ(v −v )/2
above below
First, find the speed of the air above (once above the wing, the air speed is constant) and below the wing. We can find the average
speed easily as the displacement over the time interval, and we find that v = 950 cm/s = 9.5 m/s
below and
vabove = 990 cm/s = 9.9 m/s .
3
Now we can calculate the pressure difference using our results for the air speed and the density of air, ρ = 1.3 kg/m . We find that
in this case ΔP = 5 Pa . If the surface area of the wing is 0.1 m , what is the net force (lift) on this wing? Since P = F /A , we
2
find that the net force will be the pressure difference times the area or 0.5 N.
The reason an air flow pattern develops that yields different speeds on the top and the bottom is that the air flowing around the
wing moves into nonideal fluid flow. Initially, since the air on top has farther to travel, the air on the bottom of the wing gets to the
back of the wing and moves up to "fill" this space, but this instability causes a turbulent wake that eventually allows a new, more
stable, air-flow pattern such as the one shown, where air-particles that travel across the top go faster. For a greater difference in
pressure, the wing is tilted up (the angle of tilt is called the angle of attack), and this increases the lift.
Note
The format of the time is written in shorthand. For example, a time of 6.00 × 10 −3
s , is written as 6.00e − 003.

Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Blood Flow and the Continuity Equation
Blood flows from left to right in an artery with a partial blockage. A blood platelet is shown moving through the artery. How does
the size of the constriction (variable from 1 mm to 8 mm from each wall) affect the speed of the blood flow? Restart Assume an
ideal fluid (position is given in millimeters and pressure is given in torr = mm of Hg). We can use the continuity equation and
Bernoulli's equation to understand the motion:
2
Continuity: Av = constant Bernoulli: P + (1/2)ρv + ρgy = constant
With a 2.0-mm constriction,

a. What is the platelet's speed before and after it passes through the constriction?
b. What is the platelet's speed while it passes through the constriction?
Set the constriction to 8.0 mm.
c. Does the speed of the platelet before it reaches the constriction increase, decrease, or not change?
d. With the 8-mm constriction, is the speed of the platelet in the constriction faster, slower, or the same as with the 2-mm
constriction?
e. Assume the blood vessel and the blockage are cylindrical (circular cross-sectional area for both). Measure the radius of the
artery and the radius of the flow area where the blockage is. Verify the equation of continuity to compare the 2-mm and 8-mm
cases.
Now compare the 2-mm and 8-mm cases.
f. What is the pressure inside of and outside the constriction (use the white box to measure pressure)?
g. Does the pressure decrease or increase in the region where the blockage is?
h. This result, (g), is surprising to many students, so let's figure out why: At the instant the platelet travels from the wide region to
the narrower constricted region, what is the direction of acceleration?
i. What, then, is the direction of the force that the platelet feels?
j. What region should have a larger pressure?
k. Do the same analysis for the platelet as it leaves the constricted region and goes back to the unblocked artery (sketch a diagram
to show the direction of acceleration and force).
l. Verify that Bernoulli's equation holds inside and outside the constricted region for the 2-mm and 8-mm cases (
760 Torr = 760 mm of Hg = 1.01 × 10 Pa ). The density of blood is 1050 kg/m .
5 3
Exploration authored by Anne J. Cox and Chuck Niederriter. Script authored by Chuck Niederriter and Anne J. Cox.
Exploration 2: Bernoulli's Equation

Bernoulli's equation describes the conservation of energy in an ideal fluid system. Assume an ideal fluid (position is given in
meters and pressure is given in pascals). The dark blue in the animation is a section of water as it flows into the region marked
by the horizontal line and the corresponding water that must move out of the region in the top right. We will explore the connection
between Bernoulli's equation and conservation of energy. Restart.
Note
1.01e + 005.
The relationship between the speed and dimensions of the water going in compared with the water leaving is governed by the
continuity equation (what flows in must flow out unless there is a leak in the pipes!): Av = constant, where A is the cross-sectional
area and v is the speed of the liquid. Assume the pipes are cylindrical.
a. What is the volume of both blue regions (should be the same)?
b. What is the speed of the water in the left pipe?
c. What is the cross-sectional area of the left pipe?

d. What is the speed of the water leaving the region (in the right pipe)?
e. What is the cross-sectional area of the right pipe?
f. Does the continuity equation hold?
As the water travels through this pipe system, work must be done on the fluid to raise it up and to increase its speed. The work done
must be equal to the change in kinetic plus potential energy.
g. Given the pressure (you can move the red pressure indicators), find the force (from the water behind it) on the lower left dark
blue region.
h. What is the work done by that force for the duration of the animation?
i. Similarly, find the force on the upper right dark blue region that opposes the motion.
j. What is the work done by that force for the duration of the animation (note that the displacement and force are in opposite
directions, so this is negative work)?
k. What is the net work done, then, during the duration of the animation, on the water in the middle region?
l. Calculate the difference in kinetic energy of the dark blue regions. Note that since the volume is the same, the mass is the same.
(The density of water is 1000 kg/m .) 3
m. Calculate the difference in potential energy of the center of mass of the dark blue regions. Does the net work equal the
difference in kinetic energy plus the difference in potential energy?
This is all described by Bernoulli's equation.
n. Show that the net work is equal to (P − Pleft )Avt .
right
o. Show that the net change in kinetic energy is (1/2)ρAvt(v 2

right
−v
2
left
) .
p. Show that the net change in potential energy is ρgAvt(y right − yleft ) .
P is the pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the speed of the fluid flow, A is the cross-sectional area, t is the time, and y is
the height of the fluid. Combining these three terms, we get
2 2
(Pleft − Pright ) = (1/2)ρ(v −v ) + ρg(yright − yleft )
right left
or Bernoulli's equation, P + (1/2)ρv

2
+ ρgy = constant , so that Bernoulli's equation is simply another way to restate
conservation of energy.
Exploration 3: Application of Bernoulli's Equation

Adjust the height of the water in the reservoir and notice what happens to the water flow out of the opening. Assume an ideal
fluid (position is given in meters). We can use Bernoulli's equation (i.e., conservation of energy for fluids) to understand what
happens, P + 1/2ρv + ρgy = constant , where P is the pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the speed of the fluid flow,
2
and y is the height of the fluid (you can, of course, pick any point to be y = 0 m ). Restart.
The amount of water leaking out is small during the animation. So the height effectively stays constant during the time this
animation is running (to a good approximation).
a. Use Bernoulli's equation to find the pressure at the bottom of the reservoir. Pick a height of water in the reservoir. The pressure
above the water is atmospheric pressure (1.0 × 10 Pa ). What is the pressure of the water at the bottom of the reservoir? (Note
5
that for both of these cases, v = 0 m/s ).

b. Use Bernoulli's equation at the bottom of the reservoir to find the speed of water flow out of the reservoir. Equate Bernoulli's
equation somewhere in the middle of the bottom of the reservoir (where v = 0 m/s ) to the water flowing out of the opening
(where P is atmospheric pressure) and note that the value of y is the same for both cases.
c. Using this value for the initial x velocity of the water, calculate where the water will land and verify that it does land at the
proper spot. Repeat this procedure for another value of the reservoir height.
Olaf College.


11.2.2.3: Problems
Exercise 11.2.2.3.1: Blood flow through partially blocked artery
Blood flows in an artery with a partial blockage as shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given
in seconds). Assume the blood can be treated as an ideal fluid. A blood platelet is shown moving through the artery. Which of
the animations properly represents the motion of the platelet as it moves through and past the blockage? Explain. Restart.
Exercise 11.2.2.3.2: Density of liquid flowing through pipes
Assume an ideal fluid (position is given in meters and pressure is given in pascals). The dark brown in the animation
represents a section of liquid as it flows into a region marked by the horizontal line and the corresponding water that must
move out of the region in the top right. What is the density of the liquid? Restart.
Note
1.01e + 005.
Exercise 11.2.2.3.3: Water level in a leaky container
A wooden tank of water whose top is open to the atmosphere is shown (position is given in meters). Assume an ideal fluid.
What is the water level in the tank? Restart.
Exercise 11.2.2.3.4: Pressure inside a leaky container
A tank of water is under pressure. What is the pressure at the top of the tank? Assume an ideal fluid (position is given in
meters). Restart.
Exercise 11.2.2.3.5: Density of liquid in a leaky container
What is the density of the fluid in this reservoir? Assume an ideal fluid (position is given in meters and pressure is given in
pascals). Restart.
Exercise 11.2.2.3.6: Liquid flowing through narrower pipes
Assume an ideal fluid (position is given in meters and pressure is given in pascals). The dark blue in the animation is a
section of water (density 1000 kg/m ) as it flows through the pipes (assume they are cylindrical; that is, the vertical distances
3
in the animation correspond to the diameter of the circular cross section). The pressure indicator can slide along the center of
the pipes. Restart.
a. What will the length of the dark blue region be in the narrowest tube?
b. How fast will it go in the narrowest tube?
c. What is the pressure in that tube?

Note
1.01e + 005.
Exercise 11.2.2.3.7: Identify the correct animation for liquid flowing through pipes
Which of the animations, if any, depicts a possible physical situation for ideal fluid flow? Explain what is wrong with the
animations that are not physically possible. Assume an ideal fluid in each case (position is given in tenths of meters). The
vertical tubes are open to the atmosphere. Assume all tubes are cylindrical. Restart.
Exercise 11.2.2.3.8: Boats in a flowing river
The animation shows an overhead view of two boats loosely moored to the banks of a river (position is given in
meters). Restart.
a. Explain why the boats move together as seen in the animation.
b. If instead of a left-to-right flow of the river, the river water flowed from right to left, how would the animation change?
Exercise 11.2.2.3.9: Water fountain pump
What is the gauge pressure of the pump of this water fountain in order for it to pump the water as shown? Treat the water as an
ideal fluid. Assume the exit of the pump is where the water leaves the fountain (position is given in centimeters). The density
3
of water is 1000 kg/m . Restart.
Exercise 11.2.2.3.10: Viscous flow

3
What is the viscosity of the fluid? The density of the fluid is 900 kg/m (position is given in tenths of meters). The vertical
tubes are open to the atmosphere. Assume the pipes are cylindrical. Restart.
Olaf College.




CHAPTER OVERVIEW
11.3: WAVES
11.3.1: PERIODIC MOTION

11.3.1.3: PROBLEMS
11.3.2: WAVES AND OSCILLATIONS
11.3.2.3: PROBLEMS
11.3.3: SOUND
11.3.3.3: PROBLEMS
1 3/24/2022
11.3.1: Periodic Motion
Any motion that repeats (think of a position vs. time graph), no matter how complex, is called periodic. This type of motion is
important to study since many natural systems are periodic.
When the cause of motion is a linear restoring force, the periodic motion is particularly simple and is called simple harmonic
motion. This motion has the remarkable property that the period of oscillation is independent of the amplitude of the motion.
Complicated periodic motion is rather remarkable as well, but for a different reason. Complicated periodic motion can always be
described in terms of a sum of sines and/or cosines. This is Fourier's theorem.
Topic hierarchy
11.3.1.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Representations of Simple Harmonic Motion
In 1610 Galileo discovered four moons of Jupiter. Each moon seemed to move back and forth in what we would call simple
harmonic motion. What was Galileo really seeing? He was seeing the essentially uniform circular motion of each moon, but he was
looking at the motion edge-on. We can use what Galileo was experiencing to hand-wave some properties of simple harmonic
motion by using an analogy with uniform circular motion. Consider the above animation (position is given in meters and time is
First, let us look at position as a function of time. The point on the circle marked by the red ball is always at the same radius, R . If
we look at the y position as a function of time we see that y = R cos(ωt) , and the x position is x = R sin(ωt) . How do we know
this? We can decompose the radius vector into components.
What about the velocity? Well, we know it is tangent to the path of the ball and, since the motion is uniform, the magnitude of the
velocity is constant and equal to ωR. We can break up the velocity vector into components. We get that v = ωR sin(ωt) and
y
v = −ωR cos(ωt) and that both are functions of time. Watch the animation to convince yourself that this decomposition is correct
x
as a function of time. If we know a bit of calculus, we can take the derivative of the position with respect to time. We again get that
v = −ωR sin(ωt) and v = ωR cos(ωt) .
y x
We also know that the acceleration is a constant, v /R, and points toward the center of the circle. We can again decompose this
2
acceleration as a = −ω R cos(ωt) and a = −ω R sin(ωt) . Again, if we know a bit of calculus, we can take the derivative of
y
2
x
2
the velocity with respect to time. We again find that a = −ω R cos(ωt) and a = −ω R sin(ωt) . Note that since this is simple
y
2
x
2
harmonic motion there must be a relationship between the position and the force. Since force must be a linear restoring force and,
since force is also mass times acceleration, we must have that ma = −kx or that a(t) = −(k/m) and a(t) = −ω x(t) , which is 2
the case if we compare our functions for y(t) and x(t) to a (t) and a (t).
y x
For simple harmonic motion we change two things, R → A where A is called the amplitude, and we only consider one direction,
in this example the y direction. This yields: y = A cos(ωt) , v = −ωA sin(ωt) , and a = −ω A cos(ωt) . Simple harmonic motion
2
requires a linear restoring force, an equilibrium position, and a displacement from equilibrium.
Illustration 2: The Simple Pendulum and Spring Motion

When we think about simple harmonic motion we think about a mass on a spring. This is the prototype motion and is the easiest to
deal with since k , the spring constant, is the proportionality factor between F and −x. However, there is another standard example
of simple harmonic motion that is all around us, that of pendulum motion. Restart. A pendulum is nothing more than a heavy object
(the pendulum bob) hanging from a very light string (if the string's mass is large enough, we have a compound pendulum and the
string must be considered). Consider Animation 1. Here the length of the string is 15 m and the mass of the pendulum bob is 1 kg
(position is given in meters, angle is given in radians, and time is given in seconds). When we analyze the forces acting on the
pendulum bob (drag the pendulum bob from its equilibrium position and press "play"), we find that the force of gravity and
the force of tension act. The simplest way to analyze these forces is to consider their effect in the radial direction and the direction
tangent to the circular path of the pendulum. The part of the gravitational force opposite to the tension must cancel the force of the
tension in the string when the pendulum is at rest. However, when the pendulum bob is moving, the tension must be greater to
provide the centripetal force required. This leaves the component of the force of gravity perpendicular to the tension and tangent to
the path of the pendulum. Show Animation 1 with pendulum bob path. When we do the calculation, we find that the net force on
the pendulum bob goes like
Ftan = −mg sin(θ)
which at first glance does not look at all like simple harmonic motion. But what happens when the angle θ is small? Well,
sin(θ) ≈ θ for small enough θ ; therefore, F = −mgθ .
tan small angles
Drag the pendulum bob to a large angle and see how the two tangential forces (any angle vs. small angle) deviate at large angles.
The motion of the pendulum is shown according to the actual force, F = −mg sin(θ) , and not the small angle approximation,
tan
Fnet= −mgθ , although both are shown on the graph. Therefore the period of the pendulum is the actual period. When you get a
good-looking graph, right-click on it to clone the graph and resize it for a better view.

Since we are using radians, x = θL , and the tangential force for small angles can be written as F = −(mg/L)x , tan small angles
where the proportionality factor between F and −x is now mg/L. For small enough angles (when sin(θ) ≈ θ ) we have simple
harmonic motion.
Now consider both the motion of a pendulum and the motion of a mass attached to a spring by looking at Animation 2. In this
animation the pendulum is the same as Animation 1 (the net force on the bob is shown as a green arrow), the spring has a spring
constant of 1.30666 N/m, and the mass of the red ball attached to the spring is 2 kg (the net force on the red ball is represented by
the blue arrow). It may seem strange that we have chosen such an oddly precise value for the spring constant. Drag the pendulum to
about 0.15 radians and drag the mass on the spring to some initial amplitude (it does not matter what this value is, but for
simplicity chose 2.3 m) and play the animation. What do you notice about the graph? Do you see why the spring constant was
carefully chosen? These values were chosen to tune the motion of the two systems to be the same:
0.5 0.5 0.5
ωmass-spring = (k/m ) = ωpendulum = (keffective /m ) = (g/L)
Now reset this animation and drag the pendulum bob to 0.75 radians and the mass on the spring to 10.3 m and play the animation.
What happens now? By looking at Animation 1 can you say why this is? Notice as time goes on, that the two motions now deviate
from each other. Large-amplitude pendulum motion is no longer simple harmonic motion.
Illustration authored by Morten Brydensholt, Wolfgang Christian, and Mario Belloni.
Script authored by Morten Brydensholt, Wolfgang Christian, and Mario Belloni.
Illustration 3: Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion

In this Illustration we shall look at energy and simple harmonic motion of both a pendulum and a mass on a spring. We shall
consider small-amplitude motion for the pendulum since this will yield simple harmonic motion (see Illustration 16.2 for details).
In addition, like Illustration 16.2, we have chosen the mass of the pendulum bob to be 1 kg and the length of the pendulum to be
15 m, while choosing the mass of the ball on the spring to be 2 kg and the spring constant to be 1.30666 N/m (position is given
in meters, angle is given in radians, and time is given in seconds). Restart. These values tune the motion of the two systems to
be the same:
0.5 0.5 0.5
ωmass-spring = (k/m ) = ωpendulum = (keffective /m ) = (g/L)
In the following animations we will show graphs of the kinetic and potential energy of the mass-spring system but will not show
the kinetic and potential energy of the pendulum. However, the kinetic and potential energy of the pendulum will look the same
with exactly half the kinetic and potential energy (and therefore half the total energy) of the mass-spring system. Why half? For the
mass-spring system, kinetic energy is (1/2mv ) and the potential energy is (1/2kx ), and for the pendulum the kinetic energy of
2 2
the bob is (1/2mv ) and the potential energy is (1/2k

2
x ). In this Illustration, since the mass on the spring is twice the mass
effective
2
of the pendulum bob, the mass-spring system will always have twice as much kinetic energy as the pendulum bob. Since the spring
constant for the mass-spring system is twice the effective spring constant for the pendulum (
k =m
effective pendulum g/L = 0.6533 N/m ), the mass-spring system will always have twice as much potential energy as the
pendulum bob.
Consider Animation 1, which shows the graph of kinetic and potential energy vs. position. What can you say about the total energy
of the system? It is a constant and about 1.89 J. The energy starts out all potential and at the equilibrium position the energy is all
kinetic. At maximum compression the energy is all potential again. Given that the total energy is kinetic plus potential, we have
that
2 2 2 2
E = 0.5m v + 0.5kx = 0.5kxmax = 0.5m vmax
Now consider Animation 2, which shows the graph of kinetic and potential energy vs. time. Notice how the two graphs are
different in their functional form.
The graphs in Animation 1 have the form of 0.5kx (the potential energy) and the form of A − 0.5kx (the kinetic energy), where
2 2
A is a constant, the total energy. In this animation the total kinetic energy is 1.89 J. The form of the kinetic energy can be
understood from the energy function shown above. The potential energy is 0.5kx , which is proportional to x . The kinetic energy
2 2
can be written in terms of the total energy and the potential energy as E − 0.5kx . 2

The graphs in Animation 2 have the form of cos (the potential energy) and the form of sin (the kinetic energy) since both
2 2
trigonometric functions are a function of time. Why? We know from simple harmonic motion that if the object is initially displaced
from equilibrium with no initial velocity that
x = x0 cos(ωt) and v = −ωx0 sin(ωt)
Given the form of the kinetic energy and the potential energy, we have that
2 2 2 2
KE(t) = 0.5kx sin (ωt) and P E(t) = 0.5kx cos (ωt)
0 0
where we used ω 2
= k/m to simplify the kinetic energy. Therefore the total energy will always add up to 0.5kx 2
0
= 1.89 J.
Illustration 4: Forced and Damped Motion

A 1-kg mass on a spring is shown (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds) initially at its equilibrium position.
Various parameters related to the spring and the initial conditions of the motion are also given. Restart. Once a variable or the
velocity box is changed, you must reinitialize your choice by clicking the "set values, then drag the ball" button. Once you have
clicked this button, drag the ball to the initial position you desire (by default it starts at its equilibrium position) and then press
"play." When you get a good-looking graph, right-click on it to clone the graph and resize it for a better view.
We have thus far considered ideal motion of a mass on a spring: a perfect spring obeying Hooke's law and no additional varying
force or damping. This Illustration will discuss what happens to a mass on a spring subject to a varying additional force and/or a
damping force. Specifically, the damping force is −bv and the driving force is F cos(ωt).0
First, what is the natural frequency of oscillation of the mass? Look at the animation with no additional forces or damping. Drag the
ball to 3 m and let go. Pause the animation and measure the period (about 4.45 seconds from peak to peak). The frequency is one
over this, or 0.225 Hz. The angular frequency is 2πf or 1.41 rad/sec. Since the angular frequency squared (here 2) is equal to the
ratio of k/m, we know that k = 2 N/m .
What happens to the motion of the mass when a driving force is turned on? Try it and find out. Vary the angular frequency of the
driving force. What happens when the angular frequency of the oscillation is close to or far from that of the driving force? How
sensitive is the motion to this parameter? When the natural and driving frequencies are the same, it is called resonance.
There are three types of damped motion you should also investigate:
Under Damped: the damping is so small there are many oscillations before motion is stopped.
Over Damped: the damping is rather large; the motion takes a long time to get back to equilibrium.
Critically Damped: a special case in which the time to get back to equilibrium is minimized.
Illustration 5: The Fourier Series, Qualitative Features

We have thus far only looked at simple periodic motion that can be described by a single sine or cosine. This may seem like a
horrible mistake. Most periodic functions are tremendously complicated. Have we been doing something wrong by focusing on
only sines and cosines? Well, actually not. ANY periodic function can be represented as a sum of sines or cosines! We find that
sometimes we may need an infinite number of them, but nonetheless we are able to describe any periodic phenomena, no matter
how complicated, in this way. Restart.
Consider a sawtooth (position is given in meters) function that is periodic with L = 1 (it is shown over two periods since it is
easier to see the function this way). In the animation the amplitude is a function of x, but it could have been a function of time.
Select "play the Fourier series of the sawtooth." The gray function is the actual sawtooth, while the red function is the total
approximate sawtooth from a Fourier series (if you did not change n, the animation shows the n = 1 term only). Change n , the
number of sine functions that will be added together to approximate the sawtooth, and see how the red function changes. The green
sine function is the current term that is added to get the total red function. On the right is a representation of the relative amount of
each sine function as it is added to the total. You may add as many as 35 terms. Also note that at the point where the sawtooth
kinks, there is always overshoot (this is called the Gibbs phenomenon).
Now look at the square wave. It turns out that the n = 2, 4, 6, … terms do not contribute to the sum. Verify this by watching the
animation for n = 35 .

Illustration 6: Fourier Series, Quantitative Features

Fourier's theorem states that any periodic function (whether periodic in position or time) can be represented as a sum of sine waves.
We find that sometimes we may need an infinite number of sines, but nonetheless we may describe any periodic phenomena this
way. In this animation we investigate odd periodic functions in position with Fourier's theorem. Restart.
ANY odd periodic function of x (a period of L between 0 and L as opposed to between −L/2 to L/2) can be described in terms of
a Fourier series as:
f (x) = ∑ An sin(n ∗ 2 ∗ n ∗ x/L)
where in this animation L = 1 . A is the result of an integral that represents the overlap between the original function and a
n
particular Fourier component (one term in the Fourier series represented by the integer n ). In order to get this to exactly work out,
there must be a 2/L (in our case just a factor of 2 since L = 1 here) included in the integral. Verify that this is necessary by
predicting A for the function sin(3 ∗ 2 ∗ pi ∗ x) and then use the animation as a check.
3
Remember to use the proper syntax, such as −10 + 0.5 ∗ t , −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∗ t , and −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∧ 2 . Revisit Exploration 1.3.3 to
Try various odd functions to see the result of the integral, A . Consider the following functions (you may copy and paste them in
n
directly):
the Sawtooth Wave in Illustration 5 the Square Wave in Illustration 5
(1 − 2 ∗ x) ∗ step(1 − x) + (1 − 2 ∗ (x − 1)) ∗ step(x − 1) step(0.5 − x) − step(x − 0.5) ∗ step(1 − x) + step(x − 1)
Table 11.3.1.1.1
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Spring and Pendulum Motion
The animations depict the motion of a mass on a spring and a pendulum, respectively. Restart.
a. For Animation 1, plot the period of the motion vs. amplitude. Drag the ball from equilibrium, varying the amplitude from 1 m
to 10 m in 1-m steps.
b. For Animation 2, plot the period of the motion vs. amplitude. Drag the ball from equilibrium, varying the amplitude from 0.1
radian to 1.0 radian in 0.1-radian steps.
c. What can you say about the period's dependence on amplitude for each animation?
Exploration authored by Mario Belloni.
Exploration 2: Pendulum Motion and Energy

A 4-kg mass is a pendulum bob and undergoes periodic motion (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Also
shown are bar graphs representing the kinetic and gravitational potential energies in joules. Restart.
Use the animation and the bar graphs to guide your answers to the following questions.
a. What is the period of the motion?
b. What is the amplitude of the motion (in radians)?
c. From the motion and the bar chart, how do you know energy is conserved?
d. Is this simple harmonic motion?
Exploration 3: Simple Harmonic Motion With and Without Damping

Enter a value for the damping coefficient, the spring constant of the restoring force, or check the "show velocity" box, then press
the "set parameters, then drag the ball" button. When you have done this, drag the ball into position and press "play" to run the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. When you get a good-looking graph, right-click on
it to clone the graph and resize it for a better view.
a. Find the mass of the ball by using your knowledge of simple harmonic motion.
b. Enable the velocity graph. Does the velocity lead or lag the position graph during simple harmonic motion?
c. How do the frequencies compare if the restoring force is −2 ∗ y , −4 ∗ y , and −8 ∗ y N/m ? You may right-click on the graph to
create a copy at any time.
Now focus on the damping coefficient and how it affects the motion.
d. Set the restoring force to −2 ∗ y and the initial displacement from equilibrium to 5 m. Vary b from 0 to 2 N ⋅ s/m in steps of
0.25 N ⋅ s/m. What can you say about the frequency of motion as a function of b ?
Exploration 4: Pendulum Motion, Forces, and Phase Space

A 1-kg pendulum bob is attached to a 9.8-m massless string to form a pendulum (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). A graph of angular velocity (rad/s) vs. angle (rad) is shown. This graph is sometimes called a "phase space"
representation of the motion. Restart. In addition,
the red arrow represents the total force
the blue arrow represents the force of gravity
the green arrow represents the velocity
The phase-space representation of motion is just another way to describe an object's motion (like a position vs. time graph). For
example, when would the phase-space representation of the motion be circular? Well, x and v would have to have the same
frequency, be out of phase with each other by π/2 radians (or 90 ), and x
∘
and v
max would have to have the same magnitude.
max
This occurs with simple harmonic motion when ω = 1 rad/s .

You must first select the "drag pendulum" button, drag the pendulum bob into place, and then press "play" to begin the animation
for a different initial angle.

a. Given the information above and the information depicted in the animation, when does the pendulum motion approximate
simple harmonic motion?
b. Determine the maximum angle for approximate simple harmonic motion from the animation.
c. We have considered a special case of simple harmonic motion, ω = 1 rad/s . What would the phase-space diagram look like for
simple harmonic motion with a general ω?
Exploration 5: Driven Motion and Resonance

Enter a value for the magnitude of the driving force and its frequency, the spring constant of the restoring force, or check the "show
velocity" box, then press the "set parameters, then drag the ball button. When you have done this, drag the ball into position and
press "play" to run the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. When you get a good-
looking graph, right-click on it to clone the graph and resize it for a better view.
a. Find the mass of the ball by using your knowledge of simple harmonic motion.
b. Enable the velocity graph. Does the velocity lead or lag the position graph during simple harmonic motion?
Set the restoring force to −2 ∗ y and the initial displacement from equilibrium to 0 m. Also set the magnitude of the driving force
to −1 N . Vary the driving frequency between 0.10 Hz and 0.20 Hz in 0.01-Hz steps. You may want each animation to run a while
before determining the maximum amplitude.
c. Draw a graph of the maximum amplitude of motion as a function of the frequency.
d. What frequency gives the maximum amplitude?
Note that the mass is not allowed to oscillate past about 22 m.
Exploration 6: Damped and Forced Motion

A mass can be driven by an external force in addition to an internal restoring force and friction. Restart. Specifically,
F =F
net +F
restore +F , where the default values are
friction driving
Frestore = −2 ∗ y, Ffriction = −0.2 ∗ vy and Fdriving = sin(t)
You can change these default values as you see fit. Remember to use the proper syntax such as −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ,
−10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∗ t , and −10 + 0.5 ∗ t ∧ 2 . Revisit Exploration 1.3 to refresh your memory.
a. Find the mass. Hint: consider a linear restoring force.

b. Change the restoring force to −y − 0.1 ∗ y ∗ y . Is the motion periodic? Is it harmonic? What about −y − 2.0 ?
c. Design your own force that produces periodic, but not necessarily harmonic, motion.
d. Drive the mass at resonance and explain the behavior of the position graph. How does the behavior change with and without
friction?
Drive the system (use a linear restoring force of −1 ∗ y and initially no friction) with a function that switches a constant force on
and off. This can be achieved with the step function: step(sin(t/4)). The step function is zero if the argument is negative and one
if the argument is positive. The given function, step(sin(t/4)), will therefore produce a square wave with amplitude of one and an
angular frequency of one quarter. Note that the total force you should use is −1 ∗ y + step(sin(t/4)) . Start the mass in its original
position; do not drag it.
e. Draw a graph of the force vs. time superimposed on the position vs. time graph.
f. Why does the system oscillate, stop, and oscillate again?
g. Does this behavior occur at any other frequencies? For example, notice that the function step(sin(t/4.5)) produces
qualitatively different behavior. Why is this?
Note that the mass is not allowed to oscillate past about 22 m.
Exploration 7: A Chain of Oscillators

Twenty-nine damped harmonic oscillators are driven by an external force, sin(t). Each oscillator can be thought of as a mass
connected to the floor with a spring. The masses are not connected to each other in any way. One spring has been shown for
demonstration purposes. Restart.

The center oscillator, shown in red, is in resonance with the external force. It has a natural frequency of oscillation of ω = 1 rad/s .
Oscillators to the left have a spring with a lower spring constant, while those on the right have a larger spring constant. This
animation shows how this collection of oscillators responds to the driving force.
The animation starts with all oscillators at rest. The oscillators then begin to move up and down in phase with the driving force
during the first few cycles. This motion is, however, transient; and differing amplitudes and phases soon manifest themselves. Since
oscillators to the right of the center have a higher resonance frequency, they begin to lead the driving force; while those to the left
of center begin to lag. Although the above oscillators are not connected, this phase shift gives the appearance of a traveling wave.
After a few hundred oscillations the transient behavior has dissipated; and a resonance curve appears since the amplitude and phase
of each oscillator approach their steady state behavior.
a. Find an example of a resonance curve (amplitude vs. frequency) in your textbook. How does the motion of the masses relate to
the resonance curve you found in your book? Hint: Look at both amplitude and phase.
b. What effect does the damping coefficient have on the motion of the masses?
c. Assume that the mass of each ball is 1 kg and that the spring constant for the center spring is 1 N/m. By how much does the
spring constant change between neighboring springs?
Olaf College.


11.3.1.3: Problems
Exercise 11.3.1.3.1: Hooke's law and simple harmonic motion
The spring can be stretched by click-dragging the blue ball as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). Once you have dragged the blue ball into position, click the "play" button to show the motion of the blue
ball. Restart.
a. Over what range of compression and stretching is Hooke's law valid?
b. Find the elastic limit of the spring.
c. Determine the spring constant of the spring.
d. Determine the mass of the blue ball.
e. Over what range of compression and stretching is the motion of the spring simple harmonic?
Exercise 11.3.1.3.2: A ball attached to a spring: position vs. time graph
A ball on an air track is attached to a compressed spring as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is
a. Determine which graph properly shows the position of the ball as a function of time.
b. Determine the frequency and period of the motion.
c. Write down the equation for x(t).
d. If the mass of the ball is 2 kg , what is the spring constant?
Exercise 11.3.1.3.3: A ball attached to a spring: velocity vs. time graph
A 1-kg ball on an air track is attached to a compressed spring as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time
is given in seconds). Restart.
a. Determine which graph properly shows the velocity of the ball in the x direction as a function of time.
b. Write down the equation for v (t) .
x
c. What is the total mechanical energy of the system?
Exercise 11.3.1.3.4: A ball attached to a spring: simple harmonic motion
A ball on an air track is attached to a compressed spring as shown in the animations (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). Restart. Each of the five graphs CORRECTLY shows a different property of the motion of the ball.
Determine whether the red ball undergoes simple harmonic motion, and state which graph(s) tell you this.
Exercise 11.3.1.3.5: Determine the spring constant of the spring
A 500-gram red ball on an air track is attached to a compressed spring (at x = 0 m the spring is unstretched) as shown in the
animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Determine the spring constant of the spring (assume
v = 0 m/s at the beginning and end of the animation). Restart.
Exercise 11.3.1.3.6: Determine several properties of the mass-spring system
A 200-gram mass is vibrating at the end of a spring as shown (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. What is the spring constant?
b. What is the total mechanical energy of the system?
c. What is the maximum velocity of the ball?

Exercise 11.3.1.3.7: Which graph properly denotes position versus time?
The animation shows the analogy between circular motion (coin on a turntable) and simple harmonic motion (hanging mass on
a spring). Restart. Given the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds), which graph properly
denotes position vs. time for a horizontal spring synchronized with the turntable?
Exercise 11.3.1.3.8: What is the maximum speed of the hanging mass?
The animation shows the analogy between circular motion (coin on turntable) and simple harmonic motion (hanging mass on a
spring). Given the above animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds), what is the maximum speed of
the hanging mass? Restart.
Exercise 11.3.1.3.9: Which graph properly shows the position/velocity/acceleration?
A ball on a string oscillates as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. Determine which graph properly shows the position of the ball in the x direction as a function of time.
b. Determine which graph properly shows the velocity of the ball in the x direction as a function of time.
c. Determine which graph properly shows the acceleration of the ball in the x direction as a function of time.
Take data from the graph and answer the following:
d. Write down the equation for x(t).
e. Write down the equation for v(t) .
f. Write down the equation for a(t) .
g. Write down the equation for v(x).
Exercise 11.3.1.3.10: Determine the effective acceleration due to gravity
A pendulum is allowed to oscillate in an accelerating elevator as shown in the animation (position is given in meters and time
is given in seconds). Determine the effective acceleration due to gravity by analyzing the motion. Restart.
Exercise 11.3.1.3.11: Dig a hole through the center of the Earth
A very wealthy individual proposes to dig a hole through the center of Earth and run a train (the small black circle) from one
side of Earth to the other, as shown in the animation (position is given in Earth radii and time is given in seconds). Which of
the animations correctly depicts the motion of the train? Ignore frictional effects and treat Earth as a uniform mass
distribution. Restart.
Exercise 11.3.1.3.12: A block floating in water is displaced from equilibrium
Two identical cubes (l = 10 cm ) are floating in water (ρ = 1000 kg/m ). The one on the left is in equilibrium. The one on the
3
right is initially displaced from equilibrium. Restart.

a. What is the condition for equilibrium?
b. For the oscillating cube, what is the net force acting on the cube?
c. For the oscillating cube, what is the period of oscillation?
d. Determine the mass of the cubes.
Olaf College.


https://www.compadre.org/Physlets/wa..._worksheet.pdf


11.3.2: Waves and Oscillations
We have just considered general oscillatory behavior. We noticed that the common theme was that the motion could be described as
periodic. We now consider a different type of periodic or oscillatory motion called wave motion. We begin with waves traveling in
one dimension, but we will then consider waves in two and three dimensions, such as sound, in the next chapter.
Topic hierarchy
11.3.2.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Wave Types
The four animations represent a particle description of three waves on a string and a wave on a spring (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). For the waves on a string the motion of the red circle is shown as a function of time. Restart.
Animation 1 and Animation 2 depict transverse waves (Animation 1 shows a wave pulse and Animation 2 shows the creation of a
sinusoidal traveling wave). The waving is in the y direction, while the wave propagation (the direction of the wave velocity) is in
the x direction. If you have ever done "the wave" at a football or a basketball game you have been a part of a transverse wave!
("The wave" is a special example of a traveling wave called a pulse, in that every part of the medium that supports the wave does
not always wave.) Note that the individual particles that make up the string go up and down, yet do not move in the x direction
(just as during the wave you just stand up and then sit down). Watch the red particle in each animation and also view the graph
showing the red particle's motion in the y direction.
Animation 3 represents a longitudinal wave. An example of a longitudinal wave is sound. In a longitudinal wave, the waving of the
medium (here the string particles) is in the direction of the propagation of the wave. Watch the red particle in this animation and
also view the graph showing the red particle's motion in the x direction. Notice that it oscillates back and forth instead of up and
down. Animation 4 represents a wave on a spring. Is it a transverse or longitudinal wave? It is both! Can you tell why this is so?
In Animation 5 water waves are depicted by showing the individual motion of the water molecules (position is given in meters
and time is given in seconds). What type of wave is depicted by the animation?
Illustration 2: Wave Functions

A traveling wave is shown in black at time t = 0 seconds (position is given in meters). Three sliders are given that change certain
properties of the wave. Restart. In general, we would write the wave function for a right-moving wave as
y(x, t) = A cos(kx − ωt + ϕ) = A cos((2π/λ)x − (2π/T )t + ϕ)
However, we are looking at the wave at t =0 and we cannot determine the wave speed or frequency (where v = λf = ω/k ), so
we just have:
y(x, t) = A cos(kx + ϕ) = A cos((2π/λ)x + ϕ)
Which slider changes which quality of the wave? Well, there are three sliders and three parameters in the wave function. Try each
slider and see what happens. Slider A controls the phase shift, ϕ , since it shifts the function to the left or right. Slider B controls the
wavelength of the wave and therefore the wave number k , since k = 2π/λ. Clearly Slider C controls the amplitude, A , of the wave
function.
If what was discussed above has made sense, you should be able to identify the wave parameters (find the value of the phase shift,
wavelength and amplitude) using the sliders for this wave function (shown in red).
Illustration 3: Superposition of Pulses

One of the most interesting phenomena we can explore is that of a superposition of waves. In this Illustration we consider a
superposition of two traveling pulses, while in Illustration 17.4 and Illustration 17.7 we consider the superposition of two traveling
waves. (In Illustration 16.5 and Illustration 16.6 we considered the addition of multiple periodic functions in a Fourier
series) Restart.
A superposition of two waves is nothing more than the arithmetic sum of the amplitudes of the two underlying waves. We can
represent the amplitude of a transverse wave by a wave function, y(x, t). Notice that the amplitude, the value y , is a function of
position on the x axis and the time. If we have two waves moving in the same medium, we call them y (x, t) and y (x, t), or in
1 2
the case of this animation, f (x, t) and g(x, t). Their superposition, arithmetic sum, is written as f (x, t) + g(x, t) .

This may seem like a complicated process, so we often focus on the amplitude at one point on the x axis, say x = 0 m (position is
given in meters and time is given in seconds). So now let's consider Animation 1, which represents waves traveling on a string.
The top panel represents the right-moving Gaussian pulse f (x, t), the middle panel represents g(x, t), the left-moving Gaussian
pulse, and the bottom panel represents what you would actually see: the superposition of f (x, t) and g(x, t). As you play the
animation, focus on x = 0 m . Until the tail of each wave arrives at x = 0 m , the amplitude there is zero. Watch what happens
during the time that the two waves overlap. They add together in the way you would expect. As time goes on, the waves "separate"
and move along the string as if they had not "run into" each other.
What does the superposition in Animation 2 look like at t = 10 s ? The two waves add together and exactly cancel there. As time
goes on, the waves "reappear" (they were always there) and move along the string as if they had not "run into" each other.
Illustration 4: Superposition of Traveling Waves

In Illustration 17.3 we considered the superposition of two traveling pulses. In this Illustration we consider a superposition of two
traveling sinusoidal waves. (In Illustration 16.5 and Illustration 16.6 we consider the addition of multiple periodic functions in a
Fourier series). Restart.
Let's begin by considering Animation 1, which represents two waves traveling on a string (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). As you play the animation, focus on x = 0 m . Until each wave arrives at x = 0 m , the amplitude there is zero.
Watch what happens during the time that the two waves overlap, t ≥ 8 s . They add together in the way you would expect. Given
that the two waves always have the opposite amplitude at x = 0 m , the superposition of the two traveling waves at x = 0 m will
always be zero. This point that never moves is called a node. The resulting wave is called a standing wave. It is created when we
have two identical waves traveling in opposite directions in a particular medium (here the medium is a string, but we can set up
standing waves in air as well).
What does the superposition in Animation 2 look like at t ≥ 8 s ? The two waves add together and exactly cancel at x = 0 m . As
time goes on, the waves "reappear" (they were always there) and move along the string as if they had not "run into" each other.
Given that the two waves always have the same amplitude at x = 0 m , the superposition of the two traveling waves at x = 0 m
will always be changing. This point is called an anti-node. The resulting wave is still a standing wave. Note that it is shifted in
comparison to Animation 1.
In Animation 3, we have a traveling wave that is incident on a wall located at x = 15 m. The wave travels and is then reflected by
the wall. By reflected we mean that the direction of propagation of the wave changes (the right-moving wave is now a left-moving
wave) and its amplitude is now the negative of what it was before. So we now have a right-moving wave and a left-moving wave
that resemble the superposition shown in Animation 1. In that animation, the node was at x = 0 m ; here in Animation 3 the node is
at x = 15 m.
Illustration 5: Resonant Behavior on a String

Thus far we have considered either a traveling wave or a traveling pulse. The wave traveled off to infinity unencumbered by any
barrier. Here we consider a pulse on two strings, but the strings are pulsed multiple times. To complicate matters the two pulse
frequencies are different. Run the animation and consider the results (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
How can we understand what is happening? First we notice that the pulse is reflected at the wall. Second we notice the effect of
good and bad timing. Which animation has the good timing and which one the bad timing?
In the bottom animation the timing is awful! The waves add up in a way that does not yield a maximum wave amplitude. All we get
is a jumbled-up mess.
The top animation shows the effect of good timing. All of the pulses add constructively to the returning reflected wave to give the
largest wave amplitude possible. Whenever we get successive contributions to the wave adding in this way, we call it a resonance.
It is like pushing a swing. If you push a swing at just the right frequency (good timing), large amplitude motion will result. If you
apply the same force, but at a different frequency (bad timing), not a lot usually happens. In order to get a large amplitude you must
push at the same frequency as the natural frequency of the swing.

Illustration authored by Morten Brydensholt, Wolfgang Christian, and Mario Belloni. Script authored by Morten Brydensholt,
Wolfgang Christian, and Mario Belloni.
Illustration 6: Plucking a String

A green string of length L = 28 cm (position is given in centimeters) is shown plucked to x = 6 cm and y = 3 cm . The
unstretched position of the string is shown in gray. Changing the slider changes this plucking point along the length of the string in
the x direction (the y point of the pluck remains the same). You may also look at the Fourier components that make up the green
stretched string by clicking on an n value. The relative size of these sine waves is depicted by the graph on the right. Restart.
We have thus far looked at using a Fourier series to describe an arbitrary periodic wave (see Illustration 16.5 and Illustration 16.6).
For the plucked string, we must consider a different way to add up waves to get the Fourier series. Here we must consider any wave
that is zero at the ends of the string (since the plucked string, like a standing wave, has ends that are tied down). Therefore, we find
that our plucked string can be described in terms of a Fourier series as
f (x) = ∑ An sin(n ∗ π ∗ x/L)
where in the animation L = 28 cm (see Illustration 16.5 and Illustration 16.6 for more details on the periodic case).
Illustration 7: Group and Phase Velocity

So what do we mean by the velocity of a wave? This may seem like a simple question. When we talk about a wave on a string (or a
sound wave) we can talk about the velocity as v = λf . We can rewrite this expression in terms of the wave's wave number, k , and
angular frequency, ω, given that λ = 2π/k and that f = 2π/ω. We therefore find that v = ω/k . We note here that the velocity of
the wave is also fundamentally related to the medium in which the wave propagates.
But what happens when we want to add several traveling waves together? In this case we are interested in several waves traveling
in the same direction. We can change the wave number and angular frequency for each wave, but we must ensure that the wave
speeds are identical. In this animation we add the red wave to the green wave to form the resulting blue wave (position is given in
Consider what happens when we change k to 8 rad/m and ω to 8 rad/s. Note the interesting pattern that develops in the
1 1
superposition. Notice that there is an overall wave pattern that modulates a finer-detailed wave pattern. The overall wave pattern is
defined by the propagation of a wave envelope with what is called the group velocity. The wave envelope has a wave inside it that
has a much shorter wavelength that propagates at what is called the phase velocity. For these values (of k and ω), the phase and
group velocities are the same.
Now consider k = 8 rad/m and ω = 8.4 rad/s. What happens to the wave envelope now? It does not move! This is reflected in
1 1
the calculation of the group velocity. The finer-detailed wave has a phase velocity of 1.02 m/s. Now consider k = 8 rad/m and
1
ω = 8.2 rad/s . The group velocity is now about half that of the phase velocity (certain water waves have this property). Now
1
consider k = 8 rad/m and ω = 7.6 rad/s. The group velocity is now about twice that of the phase velocity.
1 1
For a superposition of two waves the group velocity is defined as v = Δω/Δk and the phase velocity as v
group phase = ωavg / kavg .
In general, the group velocity is defined as v = ∂ω/∂k and the phase velocity as v
group = ω/k . phase
So what velocity do we want? The physical velocity is that of the wave envelope, the group velocity. For waves on strings we got
lucky: the phase and group velocities are the same (these are harmonic waves).
Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Superposition of Two Pulses
One of the most interesting phenomena we can explore is that of a superposition of waves. Each panel shows an individual wave
that is traveling on a string. Restart.
If these two waves are traveling on the same string, draw the superposition of the two pulses between t =0 and t = 20 s in 2-s
intervals for each animation (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
When you have completed the exercise, check your answers with the animations below.
Exploration 2: Measure the Properties of a Wave

Shown in black is a traveling wave (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). Measure the relevant
properties of this wave and determine the wave function of the wave. Once you are finished, check your answer by importing a
f (x, t) and look at the red wave to see if it matches. Restart.
Exploration authored by Morten Brydensholt, Wolfgang Christian, and Mario Belloni.

Exploration 3: Traveling Pulses and Barriers

A string can be approximated by many connected particles as shown in the animations (position is given in meters and time is
given in seconds). Restart. This Exploration considers a pulse on a string and looks at the motion of the individual particles that
make up such a string. Pulse 1 shows a Gaussian pulse incident from the left, while Pulse 2 shows a Gaussian pulse incident from
the right. Notice how the particles never really move in the x direction, yet the information in the pulse does travel across the
screen.
In the other two animations the pulse is incident from the left and hits either a Hard or a Soft barrier. The hard-barrier example is
depicted by the hand that represents a string whose end is tied down; the soft-barrier example represents a string with one end free
to move in the y direction only.
a. During the hard-barrier example, what is the direction of the force that is exerted on the hand?
b. During the hard-barrier example, what is the direction of the force that is exerted on the string?
c. Describe the differences between the waves reflected at the two barriers (Hard or Soft). Explain those differences.
Exploration 4: Superposition of Two Waves

The top two windows display waves that are traveling simultaneously in the same nondispersive medium: string, spring, air
column, etc. (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). The wave in the bottom window is
the superposition (algebraic sum) of the two component waves in the upper windows. The superposition is what you would actually
see. You wouldn't see the component waves. Restart. You can adjust the amplitude, wavelength, and wave speed for g(x, t) (the
middle window). For the waves described (traveling in the same medium), the two waves could have different amplitudes and
wavelengths, but they must have the same speed (you will need to adjust the wave speed of g(x, t) appropriately).
a. Why must the two waves have the same speed? (Think in terms of what influences wave speed in the medium.)
b. For each f (x, t), determine the amplitude, wavelength, frequency, and wave speed of the wave. Check your answer by making
g(x, t) identical to f (x, t).
c. Determine the amplitude, wavelength, and wave speed of the wave, g(x, t), that will make f + g a standing wave.
Exploration 5: Superposition of Two Waves

The top two windows display waves that are traveling simultaneously in the same nondispersive medium: string, spring, air
column, etc. (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. Note that the two waves are traveling at the same
speed in opposite directions and that they have the same amplitude and wavelength. It is, of course, possible that the two waves
could have different amplitudes and wavelengths. However, the waves that we are studying must have the same speed.

The wave in the bottom window is the superposition (algebraic sum) of the two component waves in the upper windows. The
superposition is what you would actually see. You wouldn't see the component waves.
a. Why must the two waves have the same speed? (Think in terms of what influences wave speed in the medium.)
b. Stop the top wave and measure its wavelength in units of divisions along the horizontal axis. Sketch the wave, showing the two
points between which you measured the wavelength.
c. Now measure the period of the top wave in time units. Describe your method for doing this.
d. Calculate the speed of the top wave. Show your work.
e. Assume that the bottom wave shown represents the displacement of a string. What is the longitudinal speed of a point on the
string?
f. Assume that the bottom wave shown represents the displacement of a string. Is there a time when the transverse speed of the
string is zero?
g. What relationship, if any, do the speeds in (d), (e), and (f) have to one another?
Illustration 6: Make a Standing Wave

Find a wave function, g(x, t), that will produce a standing wave with a node at x = 0 m , i.e., at the center (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). You may want to pause the animation before you click-drag the mouse to read position
coordinates. Restart.
Olaf College.


11.3.2.3: Problems
Exercise 11.3.2.3.1: Find the frequency of the wave
Find the frequency of the wave shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
Exercise 11.3.2.3.2: Find the velocity of the wave
Find the velocity of the wave shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
Exercise 11.3.2.3.3: Determine the tension in the string
The animation shows disturbances on two identical strings (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds).
What is the tension in the second string if the tension in the first string is 500 N? Restart.
Exercise 11.3.2.3.4: Properties of the superposition of two waves
The animation shows disturbances on two identical strings (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
At t = 2.5 seconds, which of the following, if any, statement(s) is (are) true regarding the superposition of the two waves?
a. Their sum adds up to zero.
b. Their sum adds up to twice that of the original waves.
c. Their sum is as if only one of the original waves is there.
d. Their sum has a large peak, a depression, and then another large peak.
The animation shows disturbances on two identical strings (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
At t = 2.0 s , which of the following, if any, statement(s) is (are) true regarding the superposition of the two waves?
a. Their sum adds up to zero.
b. Their sum adds up to twice that of the original waves.
c. Their sum is as if only one of the original waves is there.
d. Their sum has a large peak, a depression, and then another large peak.
The animation shows how two waves can add together to produce a standing wave on a string (position is given in
centimeters and time is given in seconds). The third panel represents the string. The waves in the first two panels have been
superimposed to produce the wave in the third panel. Restart.
Which of the following, if any, statement(s) is(are) true?
a. Waves never pass through the point x = 0 cm on the string since this point never moves.
b. The string is perfectly straight when the maxima in the first two panels overlap.
c. There is an instant in time when the string does not move.
d. The string is moving fastest when the maxima in the first two panels overlap.

Exercise 11.3.2.3.7: With what speed do waves propagate on a string?
The animation shows a standing wave on a string (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). With what
speed do waves propagate on this string? Restart.
Exercise 11.3.2.3.8: Determine the mass of the string
The animation shows a standing wave on a string (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). If the tension in
the string is 4 N, determine the mass of the string. Restart.
Exercise 11.3.2.3.9: Determine the properties of the wave
Shown in black is a wave (position is given in meters). Three sliders are given that change certain properties of the
wave. Restart.
a. Which slider changes which property of the wave?
b. Use the sliders to identify the wave parameters for this wave function (shown in red).
Exercise 11.3.2.3.10: Determine the properties of the traveling wave
1. Measure the frequency, wavelength, and period of the wave (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds)
2. Verify that the speed of the wave crest is wavelength times frequency.
3. Write down a formula for the wave as a function of both distance and time. That is, write a formula for y(x, t).
Restart.
Exercise 11.3.2.3.11: Determine the properties of the standing wave
The animation shows a standing wave on a string (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds). Restart.
a. What is the speed of waves traveling on this string?
b. Assume you are standing at the point x = 2 m . Sketch the height of the wave at this point as a function of time.
c. Write an equation for the height of the wave as a function of time at the points x = 0 m and x = 2 m .
d. Write down a formula for the wave as a function of both distance and time. That is, write a formula for y(x, t).
Exercise 11.3.2.3.12: Determine the properties of the standing wave
Two traveling waves (the top two panels) are depicted on a string (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
They are traveling in opposite directions and add to a standing wave as depicted in the bottom panel. Restart.
a. What are the wavelength, frequency, and velocity of the initial two waves?
b. What are the wavelength, frequency, and velocity of the resulting standing wave?
Exercise 11.3.2.3.13: Determine the wave function
Shown in black is a traveling wave (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). Measure the relevant
properties of this wave and determine the wave function of the wave. Restart.
Exercise 11.3.2.3.14: Determine the properties of a standing wave on a taut string
The animation shows a portion of a standing wave on a taut string (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. What is the speed of a wave traveling to the right on this string?

b. Write an equation for the height of the string as a function of both position and time. That is, write a formula for y(x, t).
Exercise 11.3.2.3.15: Determine the properties of a standing wave on a taut string
The animation shows a portion of a standing wave on a taut string (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. Measure the frequency, wavelength, and period of the wave in the animation.
b. Write a formula for the position as a function of time for a small section of string located at x = 0 cm and a formula for
x = 2 cm .
c. Write a formula for the velocity as a function of time for a small section of string located at x = 0 cm and a formula for
x = 2 cm .
d. Sketch the velocity of the string as a function of x at t = 0 cm . That is, show how each small section of string is moving at
t = 0 s .
Exercise 11.3.2.3.16: Consider a traveling sinusoidal wave on a string
The animation marks sections of a taut string with small circles. You can change the number of small circles (the wave
markers) by dragging the slider. Consider a traveling sinusoidal wave on this string. Restart
a. Describe the motion of a small section of this string. Does a section of string ever move to the right or left?
b. Write an equation, f (t), that describes the motion of a small section of the string shown.
c. Compare the motion of two different small sections of string. What is the same and what is different?
d. If the wave function is not shown, how many markers are needed to clearly discern the sinusoidal nature of the wave
function? What mistake are you likely to make if you use too few markers?
e. Write an equation, f (x, t), that describes this wave.
Exercise 11.3.2.3.17: Sketch the displacement of the point x = 0 cm
a. Sketch the displacement of each wave at the point x = 0 cm as a function of time (position is given in centimeters and
time is given in seconds).
b. How do your sketches change if you measure the waves at x = 2 cm ?
Restart.
Olaf College.




11.3.3: Sound
We have just considered general wave behavior in one-dimension. However, most waves propagate in two and three dimensions.
The added complexity comes with an added richness of phenomena that we can describe. This includes sound waves and the
phenomena of interference, beats, and the Doppler effect.
Topic hierarchy
11.3.3.3: Problems


Illustration 1: Representations of Two-Dimensional Waves
When we have an oscillating source on the surface of a body of water, a wave is generated that travels out in circular wave fronts in
two dimensions. The amplitude of the wave (the actual direction of the waving) is in a direction that is perpendicular to the surface
of the water. So how do we represent such a wave?
One way to represent such a wave is in two dimensions where the amplitude of the wave is represented by grayscale. When the
wave has a positive amplitude, the color is white, when the amplitude is zero the color is light gray, and when the amplitude is
negative the color is black. This is shown in the animation (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
Another way to represent a traveling wave in two dimensions is in three dimensions. After all, there are three dimensions to
consider: the propagation (which accounts for two dimensions) and the direction of waving. Click the "check to see three-d mode"
check box, then click the "set values and play" to see the three-dimensional representation of the wave.
Which representation do you like? In which one is it easier to "see" the wave's motion? While the three-dimensional representation
is the more realistic representation, the pure two-dimensional representation that uses grayscale is certainly easier to view and
determine the properties of the wave phenomena.
Illustration 2: Molecular View of a Sound Wave

A sound wave is a longitudinal wave. Restart. In a longitudinal wave, the waving of the medium (here the air molecules) is in the
direction of the propagation of the wave. In show wave/hide molecules mode, we see a speaker, which is the source of the sound
wave, and wave fronts propagating toward the detector (the man's ear). This is the way we usually think of sound waves:
originating from a source and propagating toward a detector. But what is really going on in the medium as the sound wave goes by?
In show wave/show molecules mode, we see the individual air molecules, which are the medium in which the wave travels, and the
waving of the medium. Consider the motion of the red air molecule. The molecule oscillates back and forth about its equilibrium
position. If we were describing the sound wave in terms of the individual molecules, we would call the wave a displacement wave.
It turns out that the amplitude of the displacement wave is only on the order of 10 m ! The other way to describe the sound wave
−6
is in terms of the pressure wave that travels to the right. The pressure wave fluctuates ever so slightly about atmospheric pressure.
Illustration 3: Interference in Time and Beats

This animation depicts the superposition of two sound waves. A red wave with λ = 3.43 m and a frequency of f = 100 Hz is
added to a green wave, and the resulting wave is shown in blue (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
Now change the frequency of the green wave to 120 Hz. What is the new wavelength of the green wave? You should right-click on
the graph to clone it and resize the graph to make it easier to make measurements. The result is 2.86 m. Did you really need to
make a measurement to get the wavelength? Since the speed of sound is a constant and v = λf , we also know that λ = 343/f .
Notice the animation always does the right thing: As you change the frequency of the green wave, the wavelength also changes to
maintain the wave speed of 343 m/s.
Now consider what happens when the two waves add together to create the blue wave. Enter several frequencies for the
green wave and see the resulting blue waves. What do you see? When the two frequencies are the same, the resulting blue wave
looks like the original waves but with twice the amplitude. But the resulting wave is more interesting when the frequencies (and
therefore the wavelengths) do not quite match. Consider the resulting wave when the green wave's frequency is 120 Hz. If you
were at x = 20 m, you would hear the sound wave getting louder and softer, louder and softer with time. When you hear this
pattern, you are hearing beats. The time in between the loud sounds (or conversely the soft sounds) can be measured and is 0.05
seconds. This corresponds to a beat frequency of 20 Hz. This is precisely the difference in the frequencies! What happens when the
green wave's frequency is now 80 Hz? We get the same period and therefore the same beat frequency of 20 Hz. Therefore we find
that the beat frequency is f = |f − f | .
beat 1 2

So what is going on? Look at the underlying waves. They go in and out of phase with each other as a function of time. At one
instant they exactly add together (constructively interfere) at another time they exactly cancel (destructively interfere). We therefore
can say that the phenomenon of beats is due to an interference in time.
Try this out for yourself. You may vary the green wave's frequency between 50 and 150 Hz.
Illustration 4: Doppler Effect

In this Illustration we consider what happens when the source of sound is moving either toward or away from a detector at
rest (position is given in meters and time is given in milliseconds). At the same time we can consider what happens when the
detector is moving toward a sound source at rest. Restart.
What we notice from everyday experience is that if the source of the sound is moving toward us, the frequency we hear increases.
If it is moving away, the frequency we hear drops. If we are moving toward a source, the frequency we hear increases and if we are
moving away the frequency we hear drops. The reason for the difference between when the observer is moving and the source is
moving is due to how the detected sound waves change in each case.
Animation 1 depicts what happens when the source of the sound wave and the detector of the sound wave are both stationary.
Notice that the wavelength of the sound wave is 1.7 m and its period is 0.5 ms, which corresponds to a frequency of 200 Hz.
When the observer is moving, as in Animation 2, the sound waves emitted from the source are undisturbed. The wavelength does
not change as observed from the moving observer. He/she just comes across more/less wave fronts per time ([vt ± v t]/λt) when
D
moving toward/away from the source, and consequently sees a change in frequency.
For the case in which the source is moving, shown in Animation 3, the frequency (time in between wave fronts) and wavelength
change. The wave fronts are emitted much closer together/farther apart (λ = vT − / + v T = [v − / + v ]/f ) as the source is
′
S S
moving toward/away from us. Animation 4 represents the sound wave of a source moving according to a linear restoring force
(simple harmonic motion).
We may write both these cases together, with v as the velocity of the source and v as the velocity of the observer or detector, as
S D
′
f = f [v ± vD ]/[v − / + vS ]
Hence when the source is stationary and the observer/detector is moving f = f [v ± v ]/v , and when the detector/observer is
′
D
stationary and the source is moving f = f v/[v − / + v ] . Here the upper signs indicate a velocity towards and the lower signs
′
S
represent a velocity away.

When the source is moving at the speed of sound, the emitted wave travels forward at the same speed as the source. The sound
waves build up, causing a sonic boom as shown in Animation 5. For things like supersonic airplanes, we get a double boom-a
boom from the front of the plane and a boom from the back. The resulting waves pile up, all on top of each other, and create at first
a huge increase in pressure and then a huge decrease in pressure before the return to normal atmospheric pressure.
Illustration 5: The Location of a Supersonic Airplane

If an airplane is flying faster than the speed of sound, it will produce a shock wave called a sonic boom. In the animation, consider
an airplane that is flying from point A to point B . A listener, the ear, is located at point C . We consider how the airplane's speed
and the position of the listener affect when the sound from the airplane's engines is heard by the listener. Restart.
In the animation, you can change the airplane's speed, which we call v . The speed of sound is fixed at 343 m/s and we will
represent it as v (shown as v in the animation). Press "play" to begin the animation. In addition,
S s
You can drag the ear across the screen to change its location.
The program draws sound wave paths to the listener.
The animation pauses when the sonic boom arrives at the listener; the animation can be resumed by clicking the right mouse
button.
The color of the paths of the sound waves changes to blue when those sound waves reach the listener. The order in which the
sound from different paths arrives at the listener is shown as numbers located at the point that the sound was produced.
Press "reset" for default values.

Figure 11.3.3.1.1
Consider a sound generated by the airplane when it is at some point A traveling toward some point B along the straight path AB.
The listener hears the sound as the airplane flies toward point B (AB > AC ) . DC is the path of a subsequent sound generated at
some point D and traveling to the listener at point C .
Consider a few time intervals (Δt = |Δx|/v) . The time it takes sound to travel from A to C is AC /v , the time it takes the plane
S
to move from A to D is AD/v, and the time it takes sound to travel from D to C is DC /v . S
Now, how does the time interval AC /v compare to the time interval AD/v + DC /v ? In other words, which event happens
S S
first: the sound emitted at A reaches C or the sound emitted at D reaches C ?

First consider an airplane traveling at less than or equal to the speed of sound. AD/v + DC /v > AC /v because the path
S S
ADC is longer than the path AC . The best you can do is when the time interval for AD is the smallest it can be, which is when
v = v . In this case comparing the two time intervals is equivalent to comparing the two paths. Clearly, ADC > AC . When
S
v << v , the situation is worse and the time interval for the path ADC is even longer. Therefore, you would hear the sound from
S
the airplane when it was at A before you heard it from when it was at point D.
Now consider what you will hear if a supersonic airplane flies over you (v > v ) . Again, what you hear is dependent on whether
S
AD/v + DC /v S is greater than, less than, or the same as AC /v . If v is large enough, the extra path difference, AD, accounts for
S
a smaller and smaller time interval, and since DC < AC we may hear the sound emitted at D before hearing the sound emitted at
A . Try it in the applet above. Set v and move the ear around. Notice when you "hear" the sounds from the airplane by looking at
the numbers that show the ordering of the events.

Olaf College.


Exploration 1: Creating Sounds by Adding Harmonicas
Begin by choosing the first harmonic (represented by the H#, with H1 being the fundamental or first harmonic) and drag the slider
to add that harmonic to the total wave. As you do this, note that the frequency remains the same, but the amplitude slowly
decreases. Continue to decrease the value of H1 so that it is negative. Notice that the negative sign simply inverts the shape of the
sound wave. Therefore, the slider controls the amplitude and phase (0 or π only) of the harmonic of the sound wave. In addition to
the overall wave form, the relative size of the components of the wave is shown in the graph on the right. Restart.
a. Measure the fundamental's period.
b. What is the fundamental frequency?
Consider the following values for the harmonics:
H Case A Case B Case C Case D
1 1.000 1.000 1.000
2 0.500 0.500
3 −0.111 0.333 0.333
4 0.250 0.250
5 0.040 0.20 0.20
6 0.166 0.166
7 −0.020 0.142 0.142
8 0.125 0.125
9 0.0123 0.111 0.111
10 0.100 0.100
Table 11.3.3.2.1
c. What wave patterns develop from these values?
d. Can you write down a mathematical formula describing each case? (Hint: it is a sum.)
Exploration 2: Creating Sounds by Adding Harmonics

Begin by setting the slider for H 5 (Harmonic 5) to the value of 1. You should hear a pure tone. Restart.
a. What is the frequency of the fifth harmonic?
Now slowly decrease the value of H 5 to zero. As you do this, note that the frequency remains the same, but the amplitude slowly
decreases. Continue to decrease the value of H 5 so that it is negative. Notice that the negative sign simply inverts the shape of the
sound wave. Therefore, each slider controls the amplitude and phase (0 or π only) of the harmonic of the sound wave.
b. What happens to the sound you hear as the slider value goes from +1 to zero?
c. What happens to the sound as the slider goes from 0 to −1?
d. Can you hear a difference in the sound at +1 and −1?
At this point you should have determined that loudness is related to amplitude. Now let's figure out what determines the pitch
(musical note). Set H 5 to zero. (You can do this using the slider or by typing zero into the text box beside the slider.) Use the slider
to turn on some other harmonics. The sound you will hear is the sum of all harmonics that are on, so if you want to hear an
individual harmonic, you will need to set all other values to zero.
e. Based on your experimenting, what determines the pitch of a tone? Specifically, is this quantity larger or smaller for high vs.
low notes?

Now comes the really cool part. How does an electronic keyboard mimic the sounds of individual instruments? To understand this,
we first need to understand why (mathematically) a trumpet sounds different from a clarinet. When you had only one harmonic
turned on, you heard a pure tone. When you play a note on a trumpet, you do not create a pure tone. You set the trumpet vibrating,
and this sets up resonant standing waves (pure tones). More than one resonant standing wave can exist at any one time. All of the
resonant standing waves (harmonics) will add together, and what you hear is the sum of all these individual pure tones. The relative
magnitudes of the individual harmonics are different for the clarinet and the trumpet, which is why the two instruments sound
different even when they play the same note.
Try the following values for the harmonics.
H Clarinet Trumpet
1 0.91 0.53
2 0.51 1
3 0.71 0.94
4 0.86 0.95
5 1 0.66
6 0.71 0.58
7 0.54
8 0.2
9 0.18
10
Table 11.3.3.2.2
Do the resulting tones sound like the clarinet and trumpet? Well, sort of. You should be able to hear some similarities to the
instruments they are supposed to represent, and you should be able to tell that the sounds are different, but it does not exactly sound
like the real thing.
f. Can you think of some reasons why the sound you produced is not exactly like the real thing?
Exploration authored by Melissa Dancy.
Exploration 3: A Microphone between Two Loudspeakers

A microphone is placed between two loudspeakers (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). The speakers
are connected to two sources of sound that have variable frequencies, f and f . The graph shows the sound waves arriving at the
1 2
microphone, as a function of time, from each speaker and also shows the sum of the two waves. Change the frequency of either
sound source (25 Hz < f , f < 30 Hz) , and watch the changing interference between the two sound waves.
1 2 Study the
phenomenon of beats and verify that the beat frequency is correct. Restart.
a. What happens as the two frequencies get closer together?
b. What happens as the two frequencies get farther apart?
c. Does it matter which speaker has the higher frequency?
d. What happens if the two frequencies are identical?
Remember that it is the difference between the two sound frequencies that determines the beat frequency.
Exploration authored by Steve Mellema and Chuck Niederriter.
Exploration 4: Doppler Effect and the Velocity of the Source

This example shows the Doppler effect. The black dot represents the source of the sound wave and travels with a speed set by the
slider. That speed is given in terms of the speed of sound: hence v = 1 corresponds to the speed of sound. Restart.

Vary the speed of the source from zero to the speed of sound and then to the maximum value allowed by the slider. Watch the
animation and answer the questions below.
a. How does the pattern of the wave fronts change according to v ?
source
b. For v >v
source (slider values > 1 ) how does the V-shaped shock wave vary according to v
sound source ?
Exploration 5: An Ambulance Drives by with Its Siren On

When the ambulance is moving (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds), use the animation to guide your
answers to the following questions. Restart.
a. How does the wavelength of the sound wave change in relation to the woman at the right?
b. How does the frequency of the sound wave change in relation to the woman at the right?
c. How does the wavelength of the sound wave change in relation to the man at the left?
d. How does the frequency of the sound wave change in relation to the man at the left?
e. How does the wavelength of the sound wave change in relation to the patient in the ambulance?
f. How does the frequency of the sound wave change in relation to the patient in the ambulance?
Script authored by Morten Brydensholt, Wolfgang Christian, and Mario Belloni
Olaf College.


11.3.3.3: Problems
Exercise 11.3.3.3.1: A slow-motion representation of a sound wave propagating in Lucite
The animation is a slow-motion representation of a cross section of a sound wave propagating in Lucite. A detector, the orange
square, is placed in the pipe and properly measures the pressure (position is given in meters and time is given in seconds).
What is the speed of the sound wave? Note: The animation runs for 0.1 s. Press "reset" to reload the animation. Restart.
Exercise 11.3.3.3.2: The animation represents a sound wave propagating in a very long pipe
The animation represents a cross section of a sound wave propagating in a very long pipe. Restart. A detector, the orange
square, is placed in the pipe and properly measures the pressure (position is given in meters and time is given in
milliseconds). Which of the graphs properly represents the displacement of the air molecules in the pipe?
Exercise 11.3.3.3.3: Why are there no dead spots?
Why are there no dead spots in the sound distribution (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds) when
either the left or the right source is transmitting, but there are multiple dead spots when both sources are transmitting?
Exercise 11.3.3.3.4: A standing wave on a string
The animation shows a standing wave on a string (position is given in centimeters and time is given in seconds). If this
string is on a musical instrument, what wavelength sound is produced by the standing wave? Restart.
Exercise 11.3.3.3.5: A standing wave on a stringed musical instrument
The animation shows a standing wave on a stringed musical instrument (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). If the tension in this string is doubled and the string stays in its fundamental mode, what frequency sound is
produced by the new standing wave? Restart.
Exercise 11.3.3.3.6: What is the difference in frequency between the two waves?
The animation shows a superposition of two waves on identical strings (position is given in meters and time is given in
seconds). What is the difference in frequency between the two waves? Restart.
Exercise 11.3.3.3.7: A man and woman in front of the White House hear a siren as an ambulance drives by
A man and a woman are in front of the White House as an ambulance drives by with its sirens on (position is given in meters
The three animations play the possible siren sound heard by three individuals: the man, the woman and the ambulance driver.
a. The sound in Animation 1 is heard by whom?
b. The sound in Animation 2 is heard by whom?
c. The sound in Animation 3 is heard by whom?
Exercise 11.3.3.3.8: In which of the animation(s) does the source travel slower than sound?
The animation represents a cross section of a three-dimensional sound wave propagating away from a moving source (time is
a. In which of the animation(s) does the source travel slower than the speed of sound?
b. In which of the animation(s) does the resulting sound wave travel the fastest?

Exercise 11.3.3.3.9: Which of the following animations represents what you would hear?
You are standing beside a highway as a police car with its siren on drives by, as shown in the animation (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). Restart. Which of the animations represents what you would hear?
Exercise 11.3.3.3.10: Determine the change in frequency you will hear as the police car goes by
You are standing beside a highway as a police car with its siren on drives by, as shown in the animation (position is given in
meters and time is given in seconds). If the frequency of the siren is 800 Hz, determine the change in frequency you will hear
as the police car goes by. Restart.
Exercise 11.3.3.3.11: Using a speaker, a standing sound wave has been set up inside a tube
Using a speaker, a standing sound wave has been set up inside a tube. A movable microphone lies inside the tube (position is
given in meters and time is given in seconds). The graph shows the sound recorded by the microphone as a function of time.
Move the microphone back and forth to study the changing amplitude of the sound it receives. Restart.
a. For what microphone position(s) does the amplitude of the sound go to zero? What is such a location called?
b. For what microphone position(s) is the amplitude of the sound a maximum? What is such a location called?
c. From the locations of the nodes, determine the wavelength of the sound waves.
d. From the graph, determine the frequency of the sound waves.
e. Using the wavelength and the frequency, find the velocity of the sound waves in the tube.
Problem authored by Steve Mellema and Chuck Niederriter.
Exercise 11.3.3.3.12: A standing wave in an open pipe
This animation shows a standing wave in an open pipe (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. In which harmonic, n , is the air in the pipe oscillating?
b. Determine the frequency of the musical tone produced by the pipe in this situation.
c. Determine the fundamental frequency of the pipe (lowest frequency of resonance).
Exercise 11.3.3.3.13: A standing wave in an open pipe
The animation shows a standing wave in an open pipe (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
b. Determine the frequency f of the tone produced by the pipe in this situation.
n
c. Determine the frequency of the eighth harmonic f . 8
d. Determine the speed of sound v .

Exercise 11.3.3.3.14: A standing wave in a half-open pipe
The animation shows a standing wave in a half-open pipe (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. In which harmonic, n , does the air in the pipe oscillate?
b. Determine the frequency f of the tone produced by the pipe in this situation.
n
c. Determine the fundamental frequency f (the lowest frequency of resonance in the pipe).
1

d. Determine the speed of sound v .
This animation shows a standing wave in a half-open pipe (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
a. Determine the frequency f of the tone produced by the pipe in this situation.
n
b. Now the pipe is cut into two pieces of equal length. Determine the fundamental frequency of each of the two pieces.
This animation shows a standing wave in a half-open pipe (position is given in centimeters and time is given in
seconds). Restart.
b. Determine the wavelength for this oscillation.
Olaf College.




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11: PHYSLETS -

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox,

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

This text was compiled on 03/24/2022

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

BEFORE YOU START

Copyright and Conditions of Use

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

Preface to the Second Edition

Copyright and Conditions of Use

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

Preface to the First Edition

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H. Dancy,

11.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSLETS

Contributions and Attributions

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Figure 11.1.1.1.1: Image from Isaac Newton's Principia (1687).

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Contributions and Attributions

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Contributions and Attributions

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Animation 1 | Animation 2 | Animation 3 | Animation 4

Problem authored by Morten Brydensholt, Wolfgang Christian, and Mario Belloni.

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Contributions and Attributions

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Contributions and Attributions

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Exploration 2: Determine the Correct Graph

Exploration 3: A Curtain Blocks Your View of a Golf Ball

Exploration 4: Set the x(t) of a Monster Truck

Exploration 5: Determine x(t) and v(t) of the Lamborghini

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Exploration 6: Toss the Ball to Barely Touch the Ceiling

"set velocity and play" button. Restart.

Exploration 7: Drop Two Balls; One with a Delayed Drop

Exploration 8: Determine the Area Under a(t) and v(t)

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Exercise 11.1.2.3.6: Playing constant velocity putt-putt golf

Exercise 11.1.2.3.8: The purple truck is catching up to the yellow truck

Exercise 11.1.2.3.9: The animation simulates the motion of a helium balloon

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Exercise 11.1.2.3.11: A golf ball is putted on a level, but wet, green

Exercise 11.1.2.3.13: A golf ball is putted up a steep hill on a green

Exercise 11.1.2.3.14: A putted golf ball rolls on a green

Wolfgang Christian, Mario Belloni, Anne Cox, Melissa H.

Exercise 11.1.2.3.15: Playing constant acceleration putt-putt golf

Exercise 11.1.2.3.16: Playing constant accerlation putt-putt golf

Exercise 11.1.2.3.17: Drag the black rectangle into position