OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND ITS IMPACTS ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE: A

CASE STUDY OF HWANGE COLLIERY COMPANY LIMITED, ZIMBABWE.

BY

R142666J

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE HONOURS DEGREE IN GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES.

MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

OCTOBER 2017
 FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

APROVAL FORM:

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Midlands State University
for acceptance a dissertation entitled: Occupational stress and its impacts on employee
performance: A case study of Hwange Colliery Company Limited, Zimbabwe.

By

CHIKUMBINDI LENAH

R142666J

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science Honours
Degree in Geography and Environmental Studies.

Student: Chikumbindi Lenah Signature ………… Date ……/……./2017

Supervisor: Prof. S Jerie Signature ………… Date ……/……./2017

Chairperson: Dr T.Marambanyika Signature ………… Date ……/……./2017

External Examiner: Signature ………… Date ……/……./2017

Abstract

The study sought to assess impact of occupational stress on employee performance at Hwange
Colliery Company Limited. The study aimed at Identifying sources of occupational stress,
determining the impact of occupational stress on employee performance, as well as examining
the strategies to curb occupational stress on employee performance. The research employed
quantitative (Questionnaires) and qualitative (interviews) research methods. The research
established that job insecurity, safety issues, unhealthy work sites, delays in the payment of
salaries and benefits as well as lack of recognition for outstanding work done were the main
causes of stress. The research also established that workers who are married and divorced were
mostly affected by home pressure and recorded high levels of work stress. The study concluded
that occupational stress has negative impact to the organizational performance as it resulted in
lost time injuries, absenteeism, accidents, low morale and poor work relations. The study
recommends proactive interventions by implementing management strategies that aims on
elimination of occupational stress so that the organization may fully achieve optimum
organizational excellence. Institutional coping strategies were found to be fragmented, weak and
almost non-existent. Proper environmental management at the work sites, outstanding
performance recognition, down to top approach in decision making, provision of adequate PPE,
stress management training and adoption of employee wellness and assistance programs were the
main recommendations brought forward to improve the workers‟ welfare and reduce the levels of
occupational stress at Hwange Colliery Company Limited.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Almighty God for in him all things were made
possible. Great appreciation goes to Professor S. Jerie, my supervisor for his unwavering
support, constructive mentorship, patience and professional guidance he offered during my
study, it made my academic brackets widen. You pushed me to be a better person and I can never
repay for your kind heart. I also want to extent my gratitude to the Department of Geography and
Environmental Studies stuff who nurtured me for the four years I spent at Midlands State
University. I would also like to thank Hwange Colliery Company Limited for being cooperative
and patient during my research.

Special thanks to the most resilient and hardworking women I have ever known, thank you mom
for your inexorable support you offered for the completion of this project. I would also want to
thank my family and dearest friends for their moral support during the work of my research and
standing by me through the most difficult moments of my study. Special mentioning also goes to
my classmates for being there when I needed you and mostly for being humorous friends and a
dozen other things.

Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my mother Dorcus Nkompilo who believed in me all the way
and brought candles when my academic efforts seemed to be in dire darkness. Thank you mom
for inspiring me with your incredible audacity to survive in this world full of calamities and
backed me with unwavering emotional, spiritual and material support.
Table of Contents

APROVAL FORM:.....................................................................................................................................2
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................................3
Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................................4
Dedication...................................................................................................................................................4
Abbreviations............................................................................................................................................10
EMS- Environmental Management System...............................................................................................10
HCCL- Hwange Colliery Company Limited.............................................................................................10
HR. Human Resource................................................................................................................................10
LITFR- Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate.................................................................................................10
LITSR- Lost Time Injury Severity Rate....................................................................................................10
NSSA- National Social Security Association............................................................................................10
PPE- Personal Protective Equipment.........................................................................................................10
SHEM- Safety Health and Environment Manager.....................................................................................10
SHEQ- Safety, Health, Environment, and Quality.....................................................................................10
SHEQ REP- Safety, Health, Environment, and Quality Representative....................................................10
SPSS- Statistical Package for Social Sciences...........................................................................................10
WHO- World Health Organization............................................................................................................10
CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................................11
1.1 Background of study.....................................................................................................................11
1.2 Statement of the problem.....................................................................................................................12
1.3 Research objectives.............................................................................................................................14
General Objective..................................................................................................................................14
To analyse occupational stress and its impacts on employee performance at Hwange Colliery Company
Limited, Zimbabwe...............................................................................................................................14
Specific Objectives................................................................................................................................14
1.4 Justification of the study......................................................................................................................14
1.5 Study area............................................................................................................................................15
Figure1.0: Map showing Hwange Colliery Company Limited concession area.................................17
CHAPTER 2..............................................................................................................................................18
LITRETURE REVIEW.............................................................................................................................18
2.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................18
2.2 Defining Occupational Stress..............................................................................................................18
2.3 Types of Occupational Stress..............................................................................................................20
2.3.1 Acute stress...................................................................................................................................20
2.3.2 Traumatic stress............................................................................................................................21
2.3.3 Chronic stress...............................................................................................................................21
2.3.4 Acute episodic stress.....................................................................................................................21
2.4 Sources of Occupational Stress............................................................................................................22
2.5 Defining Employees Performance.......................................................................................................24
2.6 Impacts of Occupational Stress On Employee Performance................................................................25
Figure 2.1: The Relationship between Occupational Stress and Employee Performance...................27
Source: (Cox, 2001)...........................................................................................................................27
Table `2.1 Showing the Organic And Psychological Effects Of Stress..............................................28
2.7 Strategies to Manage Occupational Stress...........................................................................................28
2.8 Knowledge Gap...................................................................................................................................29
CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................30
3.1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................30
3.2 Research Design..................................................................................................................................30
3.3 Target Population................................................................................................................................31
3.4 Sampling and Sampling Procedure......................................................................................................31
3.5. Research Instruments..........................................................................................................................32
3.5.1 Questioner Survey............................................................................................................................33
3.5.2 Interviews.........................................................................................................................................34
Table 3.1 Interviewees and rationale for choosing them....................................................................35
3.5.3 Observations.....................................................................................................................................36
3.7 Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................................36
3.8 Validity and Reliability........................................................................................................................37
3.9 Ethical issues.......................................................................................................................................37
CHAPTER FOUR.....................................................................................................................................38
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................................................................................38
4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................38
4.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE..................................................................................................39
4.2.1 Safety Health Environment and Quality Section..............................................................................39
Figure 4.1: Organogram of the SHEQ Section...................................................................................40
4.3 Causes of Occupational Stress.............................................................................................................40
4.4 Occupational Stress and Gender..........................................................................................................40
Table 4.1: Showing Gender of Employee and Their Perceived Level of Occupational Stress...........41
4.5 Occupational Stress and Age...............................................................................................................41
Figure 4.2: Bar Graphs Showing Cross Tabulation of Level of Stress and Age of Employee...........42
4.6 Marital Status and Home Pressure.......................................................................................................43
Table 4.2: Showing Frequency Level Of Stress And Marital Status..................................................43
4.7 Perceived Levels of Occupational Stress and Job Experience.............................................................45
Figure 4.3: Bar Graphs Showing Employee‟s Perceived Levels of Occupational Stress and Job
Experience.........................................................................................................................................46
Table4.3: Chi-Square Test of Level of Stress and Job Experience.....................................................47
4.8 Occupational Stress and Salary Range.................................................................................................47
Figure 4.3: Showing Salary Range and Level of Stress.....................................................................48
4.9 Perceived Levels of Occupational Stress and Job Insecurity...............................................................49
Table 4.4: Chi-Square Test on Perceived Level of Occupational Stress and Job Insecurity..............49
Chi-Square Tests................................................................................................................................49
4.10 Occupational Stress and Promotion Prospects...................................................................................51
Table 4.5: Showing Cross Tabulation of Promotion Prospects and Levels of Occupational Stress. .52
Table 4.6: Showing Chi-Square Test between Occupational Stress and Poor Promotion Prospects. .52
4.11 Gender and Problems with Supervisor...............................................................................................53
Table 4.7: Showing Cross Tabulation of Gender and Problems with Supervisor...............................53
4.12 Stress and Accident Occurring...........................................................................................................54
Table 4.8: Showing Cross Tabulation Of Levels Of Occupational Stress And Accident Occurrence 55
Table 4.9: Showing Chi-Square Test between Occupational Stress and Accident Occurrence..........56
4.13 PERCEIVED STRESS FREQUENCY BY WORKER.....................................................................56
Figure 4.5: Showing Perceived Occupational Stress Frequency by Workers.....................................57
4.14 Work Related Factors........................................................................................................................57
Figure 4.6: Work Related Factors and Perceived Levels of Stress.....................................................58
................................................................................................................................................................ 60
Plate 4.1: High Dust Levels at the Crushing Station..........................................................................60
4.15 Impacts of Occupational Stress..........................................................................................................60
Figure 4.7: Bar Graphs Showing Classified Effects of Occupational Stress......................................61
4.16 Coping Strategies...............................................................................................................................63
4.16.1. Personal Coping Strategies........................................................................................................64
Figure 4.8: Personal Coping Strategy to Occupational Stress............................................................65
4.16.2 Institutional Coping Strategies....................................................................................................66
4.17 Occupational Stress and the Legal Frameworks................................................................................67
CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................................70
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................................................................70
5.1 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................70
5.2 Recommendations...............................................................................................................................71
5.2.1 Recommendations to the Company..............................................................................................71
5.2.2 Recommendations to the Employees............................................................................................73
Abbreviations

EMS- Environmental Management System

HCCL- Hwange Colliery Company Limited

HR. Human Resource

LITFR- Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate

LITSR- Lost Time Injury Severity Rate

NSSA- National Social Security Association

PPE- Personal Protective Equipment

SHEM- Safety Health and Environment Manager

SHEQ- Safety, Health, Environment, and Quality

SHEQ REP- Safety, Health, Environment, and Quality Representative

SPSS- Statistical Package for Social Sciences

WHO- World Health Organization

 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background of study

Fiabane, etal (2012) argues that stress is the inadequate copying with work environment which
lead to negative consequences on workers physical and psychological health, due to negative
emotions. This study aims on curbing negativity caused by work related stress. This important as
it helps the organisation to gain a competitive advantage over its rivals and practice good ethical
behaviour. Leung, Chan and Chong (2010), good performance can be achieved through having a
disciplined work culture this can attract talented employees (Malik, Saleen and Ahmad, 2010)

Occupational stress has been defined by Cox et al (2003) as the response people may have when
presented with work demands and pressure that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities
and which challenge their ability to cope. Stress is frequently considered as the most common
disease of modern age. Lagerveld et al (2010) postulates that participation depression can include
serious problems to enter the labour market, short-term disability such as episodes of
absenteeism, long term or permanent work disability and employment termination. This leads to
low productivity for the employer. Ferlie and Rosenberge (2011:171) states that major sources of
stress are caused by inequality at work staff, no payment and shortage lack of recognition and
job security. The more employees feel that their rights are being depressed they turn to be
demotivated which will lead to low production and even tarnishing the brand name of the
organisation. Mosadeghral (2013:169) states that imbalance between demands of the work place
and ability to cope, long working hours and difficult working condition are the cause of stress.
The organisation will suffer heavy loses of poor production, loss of customers and poor brand
name

The organisation should introduce training programs for its employees as a way of managing
occupational stress. Training of both physically, socially intellectually and mentally are very
essential in facilitating not only the level of production but also the development of personal in
the organisation and HCCL as an organisation has not been conducting such trainings due to
economic hardships.
In terms of managing stress in organizations, there has been number of diverse strategies used.
According to Mukhalipi (2014), a good employer should design and manage work in a way that
avoids common risk factors for stress and prevents problems as much as possible. This will allow
employees to be more productive at all times as they will feel appreciated and cared for. There
are basically three ways of managing stress. Mukhalipi (2014) insinuates that the first way is
primary prevention where stress is reduced through ergonomics, work and environmental design,
organizational and management development.

Large scale socioeconomic and technological changes in recent years along with increasing
trends in restructuring and downsizing has continued in many organizations, resulting in an
increase in subcontracting and outscoring that have affected workplaces considerably (Sparks, et
al 2001) from 2015, HCCL has been been going through a restructuring process which has led to
immense downsizing and subsequently retrenchment. This has left many workers job insecure as
the exercise is still going on (Chaeruka, 2014). According to Brickford (2005), stress in the
workplace is a growing concern in the current state of the economy, where employees
increasingly face conditions of overwork, job insecurity, low levels of job satisfaction and lack
of autonomy.

Poor communication has also been trivial as Lee (2000) postulates that one of the greatest
sources of employee stress is for employees not to be aware of changes taking place in the
company. This has generated visible low morale among workers as they drown in anxiety,
Nguwi (2014) postulates that 43% of Zimbabweans suffer from occupational stress which is a
figure way higher than of the average of developed countries at 1525%. The thrust of this
research is to explore the sources, impacts and coping strategies of occupational stress at HCCL.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Occupational stress, job performance and job satisfaction are reported to be interrelated,
contributing to development of diseases and high accidents (Moustaka and Teodoros, 2010).
Distress occurs when individual perceives a loss, challenge when levels exceeds for copying
abilities and resources available to an individual results in a detrimental to the organization and a
worker(Shropshire and Kadle, 2012).

Poor customer satisfaction made Colliery customers to opt for other coal mining companies such
as Makomo as they suffer from poor service being rendered leading to poor quality of coal and
failure to meet customer demands. Due to poor performance, Hwange Colliery Company
Limited has lost its competitive advantage over its competitors. There are stress indicators on
workers such as non attendance, work accidents and decrease in morale which are manifesting
within HCCL employees. These have been provoked by long working hours, unclear job
descriptions, poor working conditions, delay in payment of salaries and generally poor operating
environments. If no intervention strategies are adopted to manage and monitor the stress levels at
HCCL, the situation will get worse with more and more workers succumbing to the effects of job
stress.Mosadeghral (2013:169) states that imbalance between demands of the work place and
ability to cope, long working hours and difficult working condition are the cause of stress.
According to all that have been said one can be in support of Mosadeghral (2013) ,taking for
instance the HCCL context, the company is failing to perform due to inadequate resources,
machines are out dated and it will be difficult for the employee to meet the targets so as resulting
to stress at work place.

According to Herald of 23 June 2015, Zimbabwe is in a deep economic and social crisis
characterised by low industrial capacity operation, leading to the overall decline in gross
domestic product (GDP) by 50% in 2008. In light of such overwhelmed economic context, the
mining industries of Zimbabwe have not been out of danger, HCCL inclusive. The company has
been going through economic collapse for close to a decade now. This has resulted in the
company endlessly reorganizing, downsizing through retrenchment and massively embarking on
cost cutting measures at the expense of safety and health of workers. Thus justifying the reason
for partaking the research project
1.3 Research objectives
General Objective

To analyse occupational stress and its impacts on employee performance at Hwange Colliery
Company Limited, Zimbabwe.

Specific Objectives

 To identify the causes of stress among working employees.

 To assess the impact of occupational stress on job performance at HCCL
 To explore strategies that can be adopted in order to curb the negative impacts off stress
on working employees.
 To examine coping strategies adopted by HCCL in dealing with occupational stress.

1.4 Justification of the study

Occupational stress has been increasing in the recent years and there are studies of occupational
stress and its sources, but few ventured into impacts of occupational stress on employee
performance which shows that there is a clear gap existing in the availability of researched data
to understand the relationship between occupational stress and employee performance in the
mining sector of Zimbabwe.. The absence of such knowledge may seriously affect Mining
Companies ability to develop appropriate strategies for stress management and promotion of
employee performance. Hence that‟s the focus of this study is to examine the impacts of
occupational stress on employee performance of Mimosa Mining Company. This information
will be very critical since there is limited information concerning occupational stress at HCCL
and other mining companies such as Zimplants, Makomo, Mimosa, Unki and Murowa Diamond
mines as they might be also exposed to occupational stress and performance challenges. The
research findings as well as the recommendations will assist in lessening occupational stress
related costs to the company. The research will also help other stakeholders which are partners
with HCCL.
It was during her work related learning period (January 2016- December 2016) at HCCL that the
student recognized some of the symptoms of occupational stress among workers. As a
prospective future SHEQ practitioner in various industries, the study will add value to her
knowledge of comprehensive occupational health and safety management through the integration
of psychosocial issues.

1.5 Study area

Hwange Colliery Company Limited is listed on the Zimbabwe, Johannesburg and London stock
exchanges. The History of the Organisation ages back to the 1890‟s when a German Prospector
Albert Giese visited the Hwange area due to the discovery of the “stones that burn” (Coal) by the
Nambian people. In 1897, the first five shafts were sunk after two years of prospecting and
surveying. The Wankie Coal, Railway and Exploration Company was registered in 1898. After
acquiring the claims in 1901 and sinking further fifteen shafts, and completing the main incline
at No1 Colliery in 1902. During this period coal was transported by wagons to Bulawayo, the
completion of the 340km railway in 1904 allowed the first train to get to Wankie and exportation
of surplus coal to Kimberly in South Africa. High coal demand expanded the company
establishing its first beehive coke ovens in 1911. However, the company was running at a loss
and a new company Wankie Colliery Company was formed to take over. The company was
successfully rebranded to Hwange Colliery Company Limited in 2005 owing to the change of the
mining town.

HCCL is the country‟s major coal producer and also a significant player in the energy sector and
is located at the western part of Zimbabwe in the Matabeleland North Province. The coal at
Hwange occurs in the Karoo rocks of the Mid-Zambezi basin. HCCL has over the years
embarked intensive Safety, Health and Environmental (SHE) programs which have been of
paramount importance to the whole mining industry. HCCL is an ISO certified (ISO 9001;
2008).coal mining giant located in the Western slant of Zimbabwe. the company has a modern
and well equipped hospital which provides comprehensive medical care not only to workers and
their dependents but also to the whole of Matebeleland north province.
Figure1.0: Map showing Hwange Colliery Company Limited concession area.
 CHAPTER 2

LITRETURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The main aim of the chapter is to enlighten more on the already existing information pertaining
the research topic under study. It gives relevant information on occupational stress that has so far
been gathered by various scholars. The chapter describes theoretical framework in relation to
occupational stress and employee performance, and also highlights the research gap that gave
rise to the study to be conducted.

2.2 Defining Occupational Stress

Occupational stress is of growing concern as it leads to psychological and physical problems for
the employees. Researchers have argued that occupational stress, either as a result of its
detrimental effects on the health of the individual or directly, led to low productivity, high
absenteeism, tiredness, low enthusiasm for work, low creativity, and high dissatisfaction with
work as cited by Radha Damle (2012) from Cooper and Marshall, 1978; Matteson and
Ivancevich 1987). Pestonjee.1999 stated that the concept of stress was first introduced in the life
sciences by Hans Selye. Stress is described as force, pressure, strain or strong effort with
reference to an objector person.

WHO, 2003 defined occupational stress is defined as the response people may have when
presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities
and which challenge their ability to cope. Stress has been defined in different ways over the
years. Originally, it was regarded as pressure from the environment, then as pressure within the
person (kazmi Amjad and Khan, 2008). Selye 1964 in Fevre et al 2003 stated that stress is a set
of physical and psychological responses to adverse conditions or influences.

Occupational stress is also defined as a disruption of the emotional stability of the individual that
induces a state of disorganization in personality and behavior at work (Nwadiani 2006). Bridger
et al also referred occupational stress as job stressors which may refer to characteristics of the
workplace that poses a threat to the individual. The meaning of stress has transformed over the
ages. Originally it was considered as environmental pressure and strain within the person.
Occupational stress is a physical and psychological state that results when the resources or the
individual are not adequate to meet up with the demands of the situation. Hence stress is more
possible in some conditions than others and in some individuals than others (Michi 2002)

Merriam webster (1998) in (A0161150106) defined stress as a response to a demand that is

placed upon a person, or a condition where one experiences a gap between the present and
desired state. Stress is also defined as a chemical or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental
tension and may be a factor in disease causation; it is normal reaction when the brain recognizes
a threat.

Selye (1976) cited by Radha Damle (2012) explained stress as a reaction of an individual to a
stressor, thus the non-specific response of the body to any demand. Radha Damle (2012) noted
that Everly (1989) claimed that stress was a physiological response. Academics defined
occupational stress as the physical and emotional response that occurred when workers perceived
an imbalance between their work loads and their ability to tackle it. Scholars who supported that
stress is a response argued that stress was a response to biological and psychosocial stressors.

Habs Seyle (1956) cited in Sengupta (2007) noted that stress of exhilarating, creative, successful
work is beneficial while that of failure, humiliation or infection is detrimental. Habs Seyle
further classified stress into two types a) eustress b) distress

a) Eustress: this is positive, pleasant or curative stress. Stress is also seen to have beneficial
effect to ones behaviour. Eustress is also seen from events which led to a stimulating
effect that can result in personal growth.

b) Distress: Dysfunctional or negative stress. This type of stress affects one‟s concentration
and performance.it usually demotivates someone from working.
Simmons et al (2001) noted that eustress and distress could be distinguished based on affective
state. Thus hope, meaningfulness and positive affect were significant indicators of eustress.
Moreover the distressful or eustressful nature of any particular stimulus was also found to be
governed by how one interpreted it and chose to react to it. When an individual perceived stress
positively than the result was eustress, negative perception of stress led to distress. The above
two concepts suggested that along with the degree of demand the perception of the stimulus was
vital to bring a difference between eustress and distress (Fevre, M.L.,et.al.,2003).

All the definitions however agree on the fact that stress is an individual perception which implies
that other people are more vulnerable to it than others are and other situations are more likely to
have higher rates of occupational stress than others are. It is a transaction between the worker
(his/her abilities and knowledge) and work pressures or demands resulting in a mismatch or
inequality. Kendall et al (2000) agree with the notion that stress is a constantly changing and
circular process that raises significant implication for research and practise.

2.3 Types of Occupational Stress

Walt (1996), describe three types of stress; Neustress, Distress and Eustress. Neustress is neutral
stress; arousal is neither harmful nor helpful on the mind or body. When arousal is too high or
too low, distress ensues resulting in harm to mind and body. Eustress is a positive stress or
helpful arousal that promotes health, energy, satisfaction and peak performance. Eustress is
helpful in that it helps us to respond quickly, forcefully and physically in emergencies and also to
prepare for deadliness

There are 4 types of stress namely: acute, traumatic, chronic and episodic acute stress [Ekundayo
(2014) as cited by Sharon N (2015)]. The types are listed below:

2.3.1 Acute stress

Is the most common type of stress and is easily diagnosed. The causes of stress are very clear
and one can clearly state his/her problem. This type of stress is easy to handle. Effects are short
term and temporary damage to the body. Recovery is usually quick after the removal of the
stressor. Acute stress can happen to anyone and everyone at some point in their lives. Acute
stress is situational and is connected to passing/fleeting issues it‟s the kind of stress that‟s only
around for a little while, and it can actually be kind of fun. Facing a new and exciting challenge
can be thrilling, but still, the feelings associated with acute stress deserve our attention.

2.3.2 Traumatic stress

This is a very severe stress response originating from a devastating event or extreme
experience. Examples include events such as natural disasters (volcanoes, earthquakes), rape
or sexual assault. The victim slowly recovers after the problem has been solved or after a
series of counseling sessions. However the victim may face a problem of post trauma stress
disorder. Symptoms may include flashbacks, nightmares, irritability, tension and over
cautiousness.

2.3.3 Chronic stress

Chronic is the type of stress which wears down the individual daily and a normal working
day seems ridiculously perpetual. This goes for years without any interventions. It would
seem as if the is no visible escape because of the relentless demands and pressures. This
may result into physical damage or even death. Robert Maurer2014 cited by Sharon
Ngomana 2015 argues that for some workers, usually managers, stress is more like fear
in disguise. He goes on to explain that the symptoms we associate with stress some of
which he identifies as muscle tension, change in appetite, trouble sleeping.

2.3.4 Acute episodic stress

Acute episodic is usually experienced by people who are workaholic, very competitive,
impatient, always in a hurry and easily get angry and forceful in speech (Ekundayo,
2014). These kinds of people are always very chaotic, late and want to handle too much
 work than they can. These individuals will not know or admit that they are stressed.
These people also affect their co-workers

2.4 Sources of Occupational Stress

Stress is much more common in employees at lower levels of workplace hierarchies, where they
have less control over their work condition Beheshtifar and Nazarian (2013). Colquitt et al
(2011) asserted that during company restructuring it cause stress among employees because of
the fear to lose their job. Company restructuring is hard on workers and reduced productivity is
unavoidable due to stress. Jones et al (2008) negative reactions towards change occur because
change causes increased pressure, stress and uncertainty for employees hence affecting the
performance of the employees.

Pestonjee (1999) suggested three important sectors of life from which stress originated, i) job
and the organization, ii) social sector, and iii) intra-psychic sector. The job and organizational
sector referred to the work environment. The social sector referred to the social and cultural
context of one„s life. The intra-psychic sector encompasses those things which were intimate and
personal to an individual.

According to Mukhalipi (2014), occupational stress is due to excessive demands and pressures
which can be caused by poor work design, poor management and unsatisfactory working
conditions According to Leka et al (2003), having too much or too little to do, limited
opportunity for further study and training, scant promotion prospects, under and over promotion
and all the other factors that affect job security can be a source of occupational
Stress

Personal relationship with other co-workers can also contribute to occupational stress. Bickford
(2005) is of the view that poor relationships with subordinates, superiors and co-workers at work
may cause job related stress. Conflicts with colleagues/managers also contribute to occupational
stress. When people feel under pressure to achieve or feel there are high expectations related to
long hours, high volumes, or perceived pressure from management, tensions may run high and
the result is increased conflict in the workplace.
Leka et al (2003) believe unclear procedures for dealing with work issues as well as inadequate,
inconsiderate and unsupportive supervision at work may result in occupational stress. According
to Houtman and Jettinghoff (2007), individual differences of the worker such as age, education,
experience and coping style are most important in predicting whether certain job specifications
will result in stress.

Other causes of stress at work place are insecurity and slow career progression. Employees who
feel they have been promoted too slowly, feel insecure about their job future or feel their
ambitions are being thwarted are more likely to suffer from stress (Davis 2012).

Erkutlu and Chafra, (2006) aver that external controls from superior are other causes of stress at
the work. For example a chief commandant, may create stress to a member of his organisation
because it is only he or she who makes decisions. Lack of top to down approach within an
organisation is also cause occupational stress among workers. The employees feel like their
rights are being abused because they are not involved in the decision making whereas they are
the ones working. Delayed remuneration or salaries also cause stress among workers because the
employees will be unable to meet their needs as the bread winner. Participation and control may
sometimes be referred to as autonomy. It is where the worker has no ability to control his/ her
designated tasks or has no say in the decision making process that affects the way these tasks are
done. This often in many cases results in occupational stress (Bickford, 2005). The greatest
stressor in the workplace is lack of control. Employees are highly stressed when they feel like
they have no control over their participation or the outcome of their work.

Karl Max cited by Sharon Ngomana (2015) further pursued psychological issues as he explored
the horrendous ways industrial capitalism abused workers in his book Das Kapital (1867/1999).
According to Max, the causes for this situation lay in the growing specialization and division of
work in workplaces which further treated employees as commodities in a capitalist economic
system.

The treadmill syndrome is also another cause of occupational stress, employees who consistently
have too much or too little to do creates a lot of stress. Too much or too little work to do also
lead to occupational stress for it exerts certain pressure within an employee. If the volume of
work mismatches or surpasses the skills, knowledge and abilities of a worker, this causes stress
(Bickford, 2005).. Some employees are highly stressed because they simply have too many
responsibilities. Others work around the clock, not necessarily on the clock, but throughout the
day and at home. These are generally the employees who have too much to do and too many
responsibilities. Casual disruptions keep employees from getting their work done thus keeping
the worker behind schedule

Miners often work long hours which itself has been considered to be a source of stress. The
nature of the mining industry requires miners to work long hours often with rotating rosters
including night and twelve hour shifts. The pressure and strain of long hours can lead to stress
and impact on relationships and well-being, if not managed correctly. Most commonly reported
issues amongst mine workers include; anxiety, depression and substance abuse.

Dale collie 2004 noted that mistrust, unfairness, and office politics these situations keep
everyone on edge and uncertain about the future. Management of trust and fairness is just as
important as any other management tool. If people cannot trust management, performance goes
down. And, everyone is affected if even one employee is treated unfairly.

No feedback good or bad. People want to know how they are doing, and whether they are
meeting expectations. If you don't communicate your thoughts on their performance, they are
stressed about how well they are doing. Also failure to show appreciation for employee
participation generates stress that endangers future efforts (Dale collie 2004).

2.5 Defining Employees Performance

Scullen (2000) is of the notation that job performance comprises four aspects, thus 1) human
performance 2) administrative performance 3) general performance 4) technical performance.
These four aspects constitute different dimensions of job performance which are likely to be
affected by occupational stress.

Performance refers to the amount of useful work accomplished and can be likened to an
achievement. Performance is considered as high when, what is produced or services rendered is
much better than the expected. At organizational level, performance means achieving or
accomplishing goals of the organization and is often measured in terms of goods produced or
services rendered (Edvardsson, 2005).

Most organisations use key performance indicators (KIPS) to define and measure progress
toward organisational goal (Leboo and Nimalathasan, 2010). KIPS are financial and non-
financial metrics such as gross sale, production or profit for a given year that is used to assess
extent of achievement of organisations‟ goals. The success of an organisation is marked by the
level to which it achieves what it has set out to do (Glasser, 2005).

According to Richard, Devinney, Yip and Johnson (2009), business organisational performance
encompasses three specific areas of firm outcomes: financial, product market and shareholder
return. Other indicators of organization performance are quantity of goods produced and the
profit generated annually. Many factors have been identified to influence performance of
organisations. Jankingthong and Rurkkhum (2012), aver that transformational leadership,
resources, work environment, organisational justice and work engagement significantly affect
performance of firms.

2.6 Impacts of Occupational Stress On Employee Performance

Occupational stress affects organizational performance by reducing productivity and efficiency

which affect the organization negatively (Dua 1994 cited inReskin, 2008). Ahmed and ramzan
(2013) found a negative correlation between stress and job performance i.e. as the stress
increase the job performance goes down and vice-versa. Meneze. (2005) stated that occupational
stress has become a challenge for the employer organizations as it results in low productivity,
increased absenteeism and collection of other employee problems like alcoholism, drug abuse,
hypertension and host of cardiovascular problems

Stress has significant impact on company and people performance and it terribly affects health of
employees (Mimura and Griffiths, 2003 in Shah et al, 2012). Rubina et al. (2008) too found a
negative relationship between job stress and job performance. However the male employees
were found to be affected more than their female counter parts. Munir and Islam (2011) tested
relationship between work stressors like role ambiguity, workload pressure, home-work
interface, performance pressure, relationship with others and role conflicts on one side and job
performance on the other with motivation as mediator and found that „role conflict‟ and „role
ambiguity‟ have a positive relation with stressors against the common notion while the
relationship is found to be negative between other stressors and job performance.

Deshinger (2003) suggested that different aspects of employee job performance that are likely to
be affected by stress include Productivity, Job Satisfaction / Morale, Absenteeism, Decision
Making Abilities, Accuracy, Creativity, Attention to Personal Appearance, Organizational Skills,
Courtesy Cooperation , Initiative , Reliability, Alertness , Perseverance and Tardiness.
Cox 2001is of the view that When occupational stress upsurges, it reaches optimal level where
the output is higher thus there will be a positive impact of stress, but if stress increases further it
reduces output thus negative impact of stress. Figure 1 summarizes how occupational stress
affects performance of an employee

Optimum level
P
e
r
f
o
m
a
n
c
e

stress

Figure 2.1: The Relationship between Occupational Stress and Employee

Performance Source: (Cox, 2001)

Sengupta (2007) stated that stress may cause physiological, behavioural or even psychological
effects. Physiological effect of stress cause hormone release which triggers fight or flight
response in humans. There is increase heart rate, blood pressure, and sweating. Stress has been
tied to heart disease. Because of the increase in heart rate and blood pressure, prolonged stress
increases the tension that is put on the arteries. It also affects the immune system which is why
cold, flu illness and headaches usually show up during a challenge. Behavioural effects may
cause people to be jumpy, excitable, or even irritable. The effects of stress may cause some
people to drink or smoke heavily, neglect exercise or proper nutrition. Thus workers come to
work under the influence of alcohol. Psychological effects of stress may decrease the ability to
work or interact effectively with other people, and be less able to make good decisions. Stress
has also been known to play a part in anxiety and depression (Sengupat, 2007).
Occupational stress, also affects the quality of work of employees and that of the organizations
they work for (Maslach, 2003). Helman (1994), states that not all stress is harmful to an
organism; at moderate level it is an asset but at a higher level it is a liability to an individual.
Stress can help in growth and development of human potential; thus necessary in our daily
activities.Melgosa, (2010) noted that persistent stress is likely to cause serious organic and
mental disorder. The organic and psychological effects of stress are briefed in table 2.1.

Table `2.1 Showing the Organic And Psychological Effects Of Stress

Organic effects of stress Psychological effects of stress

Many organic diseases originated from mental Problems caused by excessive stress.
state, work and family pressure, financial Thought processes: difficulty to think logically,
problems, uncertainty about future and worries memory failure, lack of concentration, mistakes,
trigger stress, and the following diseases may Emotions: ongoing tension, fear of disease,
follow: gastric ulcer, irritable colon, impatience, irritability, inferiority feeling.
hypertension, stress can be behind so called Behavior: decrease in verbal fluency, risk use
psychosomatic reactions acne, allergy, of noxious substances, work absenteeism,
backache, asthma, impotence, obesity, migraine, sleeping difficulties, problem with relationships
anxiety, bronchitis
Source: Melgosa (2010)

2.7 Strategies to Manage Occupational Stress

Seibt et al., (2008) is of the view that stress is always present among employees however it can
be reduced by improving the working conditions and quality of benefits in the companies.
Several studies have examined the effectiveness of stress management programs

Maddi and Kobasa (1984) cited by Radha Damle(2012) talked about two forms of coping: (a)
Transformational, and (b) Regressive. Transformational coping involved altering the events so
that they were less stressful. Accordingly, one had to interact with the events, think about them
optimistically and act towards them decisively, thus changing them in a less stressful direction.
Regressive approach, on the other hand, included a strategy wherein one thought about the
events pessimistically and acted evasively to avoid contact with them.

According to Stoica and Buicu (2010), an Organizational approach involves the establishment of
a friendly work environment which has favorable job characteristics, labor relations, a healthy
organizational structure and culture. These may include things such as professional advice
(seminars on weight and substance abuse control) and provision of technical support (Ekundayo,
2014).

2.8 Knowledge Gap

The field of occupational stress has been researched by various scholars. Occupational stress has
not yet been completely researched in Africa. Most industrial occupations have been fully
studied. However there is limited information on occupational stress of the mining industry
especially in Zimbabwe to be specific. Few researches have been undertaken in Zimbabwe to
fully investigate the field of occupational stress in mining industry especially coal mines. As
such, this study seeks to avail the occupational stress and its impacts situation in such an industry
in Zimbabwe. This study reveals the impacts of occupational stress, examines its patterns and
establishes relationships amongst chosen variables as well as examining the coping strategies
employed at Hwange Colliery.
CHAPTER THREE

3.1. Introduction

The chapter focused on the research methodology that has been employed by the author in
coming up with this research project. Rajasekars et al (2013) postulate that research
methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem which essentially outlines the procedures by
which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena
gaining knowledge. The chapter is going to explain the research methodology used for the
project. The research design and some reasons for selected research design is highlighted in the
chapter. The population sample for the research project and reasons for chosen population
sample shall also be discussed. Preferred population sample is to be provided in this chapter. The
preferred methods of data collection shall be explained and their strength and weakness will be
highlighted

3.2 Research Design

Dooley (2003) defines research design as the plan for collecting and utilizing data so that desired
information can be obtained. Bryman and Bell (2007) view a research design as the framework
which provides for the collection and analysis of data. A research design can be defined as the
general plan of how to answer the research questions (Saunders et al, 2009). There are two types
of research design which are qualitative and quantitative (Creswell, 2012). According to
Creswell (2012:13) Quantitative describe a research problem through a description of trends or a
need for an explanation of the relationship among variables. Qualitative is exploring a problem
and developing a detailed understanding of a central Phenomenon. The cause for the use of both
designs was to come up with the magnitude of the problem and develop appropriate and viable
measures in line with the problem.

Qualitative techniques employed in this research include open ended questionnaires. This will be
used to identify sources and examining the coping strategies of occupational stress at HCCL. For
quantitative methods closed ended questionnaires will be used to examine the patterns and
establish relationships between stress and workers performance. The two approaches
complimented each other to result in a fully robust research.

The researcher engaged a qualitative research design since it provided an understanding and
description of people‟s personal emotions and behavior at work. This design is associated with
research gears such as interviews and field observations which were used to explore the
behavior, perspectives and performance of HCCL workers at work.

3.3 Target Population

Best and Kahn (1993), define target population as any group of individuals that have one or more
characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher . Target population refers to the
entire group of individuals which the researcher is interested in generalizing the conclusions.
Creswell (2012), postulates that target population is a group of individuals (or a group of
organizations) with some common defining characteristic that the researcher can identify and
study. Luck and Rubin, (2005), states that this population is very important in any research as it
determines how sampling is going to be done and drives the whole research methodology. The
target areas of the research were production department and services department. The researcher
focused on all workers at HCCL as they are all likely to be affected by stress. The total
population is 450 workers including the management stuff as it is responsible for introducing
coping strategies to deal with stressing situations at the work place. Above all, they are also
subjected to occupational stress as they will be in the spotlight trying to balance and meet targets
as well as respond to emerging issues affecting the company.

3.4 Sampling and Sampling Procedure

Sampling is the selection of a representative part of the population from which data for empirical
analysis is drawn (Stoker, 1989). A sample is a subgroup of the target population that the
researcher plans to study for generalizing about the target population. Melville and Goddard
(2005) stress the importance of sampling and further explain that if the population is very large,
it can be satisfactorily covered through sampling. Leedy, (1992) argued that in a bid to get a fair
and reasonable research information for a large population, the researcher has to use 10% to 20%
of the sample size so as to represent the whole population. Marvatsi (2004) notes that a 10%
sample gives more representation of the total population, so given the huge number of population
that needed to be covered only 10% was selected. In order to make inferences about the
distinctiveness of the population to gather information for the study from the targeted population,
the researcher considered 10% of the employees to represent the whole mine population of 450
workers production and services).The researcher considered 10% due to time constraints, as the
research targeted large population was too big; this was going to be difficult to complete the
research considering the time given to carry out the study. The researcher will use targeted
population of forty-five (45) from the line managers and general staff. Management will also be
targeted as it is the body which is responsible for introducing coping strategies to deal with
stressing situations and jobs.

The total number of mine workers and the total number of employees for each department was
used to calculate ratios for each department‟s contribution on the sample size. This was intended
to promote equal representation according to the department‟s number of employees. This also
allowed the researcher to have more time with the targeted population to acquire more
information of underlying issues or problems under study. This was also devised to reduce
problems of over and under representation of employees per department, thus promoting
accurate workers‟ representation in the study. The researcher is going to use probability and non
probability sampling. The researcher will select individuals from the population who are
representative of that population.

3.5. Research Instruments

This section outlines the methods which were employed to collect primary and secondary data
for the research. Creswell (2012) argues that data collection means identifying and selecting
individuals for a study, obtaining their permission to study them and gathering information by
asking people questions or observing their behaviors. Primary data is the data collected from
first-hand-experience and it has not been published yet and is more dependable, authentic and
objective (Churchill 1995). Hox and Boeije (2007:593) primary data is the data collected for a
specific research goal. This data will be collected through the use of questionnaires, field
observations and interviews. Secondary data for this research was generated from secondary data
sources such as historical documents (documentary analysis), published books and journals.
Secondary data is the data collected by someone other than the user (Moore, 2006). Cameron and
Schiphorst (2008:17) postulates that secondary data will be used to analyse health and safety
measures that can enhance good performance, past studies and case studies will be used and
surveys from all the available internet sources.

3.5.1 Questioner Survey

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for
the purpose of gathering information from respondents (Gillham, 2008). The questionnaire had
three sections; A, B, C and D. Section A comprised of personal details. Section B comprise of
the magnitude or severity of occupational stress among workers. Section C comprised of details
related to Sources of occupational stress whilst section D comprised of questions related to
impacts of stress and stress management. The researcher used closed ended questions mostly to
collect demographic data and on other questions which demanded the respondents to provide
specific answers. Questionnaires were administered to all the respondents who were sampled.
The convenience sampling technique was employed in choosing respondents. The researcher
personally administered the questionnaires to help in interpreting the questions in cases where
the respondent does not understand. The questionnaire was designed by first specifying clear and
unambiguous goals for the study. Secondly it was designed by providing a clear, concise and
unambiguous formulation of who the target population was and this allowed the researcher to ask
relevant background questions and to formulate the questions in such a way that it was
understood by the respondents
3.5.2 Interviews

According to Dooley (2003), an interview is a conversation between two people (the interviewer
and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the
interviewee. Face to face structured and semi structured interviews were used in this study. Face
to face interviews are vital in that they permit for more opportunity of detailed questions, further
questioning can be done during the interview to obtain more data, also the response rate is
usually higher as compared to administering questionnaires and non-verbal data can be collected
through observation.

The researcher designed short and precise interview guides with research questions which were
designated for experts in the field of study. The target group included the line managers, the SHE
manager and the workers. Questions asked where in relation to how stress is affecting workers
performance. Interviews were engaged so as to get in depth know how on the sources of stress
and the impacts being exposed to the workers performance. Another merit of using interviews
was that sensitive topics were discussed and probed further on which could have been difficult to
address in a questionnaire. This method allows the interviewer to alter questions depending on
how the interviewee is answering
The answers were later presented in Chapter 4. Face to face interviews enabled the researcher to
build solid relationships with the respondent because before and during the interview informal
discussions were held. This helped both parties to elucidate any fears and there was openness
during the interviews hence accurate information was obtained
Table 3.1 Interviewees and rationale for choosing them

Interviewee Rational for choosing them

Safety officer  This individual has in depth knowledge on the
changes taking place in the company that may
be potential sources of occupational stress.
Generally, he has an overall understanding of
what affects workers and why.
 Is responsible for company SHE policy, manuals and
procedures implementation.
 Is responsible for training employees on safe operating
procedures.
 Carries out daily plant inspections, monitors working
behaviours , Keeps record of workers OSH
 Receives complains from workers, Works hand in hand with
workers representatives

Workers representative  This individual is a representative of workers

and their rights
 Has better understanding on issues affecting fellow colleagues.
S/he also has an insight of what should be done to manage
occupational stress and its impacts.
Human resources  Receives workers complains and problems.
personnel  These know the challenges faced by workers
on a daily basis and sometimes know the
sources of these challenges
Nurse in charge  Attends to all occupational stress cases by conducting some
counselling and keeps all clinical records of the employees.
 Witnesses workers‟ burnout on a daily basis. Through
counselling sessions, s/he gets in-depth knowledge of the
sources of occupational stress.
3.5.3 Observations

Research connections, 2013 states that Field observations involve gathering data primarily
through close visual inspection of a natural setting. Harrell and Bradley (2009) suggested that
direct observation is a data collection method in which the researcher does not participate in the
interactions. Field observations offer data that is more accurate as compared to questionnaires as
people will not be under pressure to perform or act differently since they will not be aware that
they are being observed, it also assisted in gathering data left out by respondents. Direct
observations were carried out to back up and validate information obtained from questionnaires
and secondary data sources. Observations allow the study of people‟s behavior hence a better
understanding of how workers behave at work whilst stressed.

3.7 Data Analysis

Afsaw, Argaw and Bayissa (2015), states that data analysis is done to ensure completeness and
logical arrangements. Data analysis is the presentation of data obtained from the research
(Creswell, 2007). Creswell (2012), postulates that the researcher will analyze the data to address
the research questions. Data analysis is defined as a practice in which, unorganized or unfinished
data is ordered and organized, so that useful information can be highlighted. Data analysis is the
process of transforming raw data into useable information that is often presented in the form of a
published analytical article (Statistics Canada 2014). Some questions may call for describing
trends in the data, and the researcher will use descriptive analysis such as for the spread of the
scores and the relative ranking of the scores. Quantitative data was used to establish relationships
between occupational stress and workers performance at the work place. This study produce both
qualitative and quantitative data and each will be employed to a suitable technique.
Questionnaires establish relationship between and amongst variables of occupational stress.
Statistical data will be used to analyze data using statistical tools in SPSS.
3.8 Validity and Reliability

Creswell (2012:159) argues that the scores from an instrument are to be stable and consistent.
The scores should be nearly the same when the researcher administer multiple times at different
times. Scores should be consistent that when a person answers a certain question one way, the
next individual should consistently answer closely related in the same way. The researcher will
use Cronbach‟s alpha in-order to obtain reliable and is commonly used when the researcher have
multiple Likert questions in a survey questionnaires that form a scale to and wish to determine if
the scale is reliable. Cronbach‟s alpha is a measure used to assess the reliability, or internal
consistency, of a set of scale or test items (Tavakol and Dennick, (2011).

3.9 Ethical issues

Creswell, 2012 states that data collection should be ethical and it should respect individuals and
sites. Research Ethics is defined here to be the ethics of the planning, conduct, and reporting of
research and research ethics should include protections of human and animal subjects,
relationships between researchers and those that will be affected by their research and options for
promoting ethical conduct in research (Resources for Research Ethics Education 2013).
Permission was obtained before starting to collect data; it is not only a part of informed consent
process but also an ethical practice. During the data collection the researcher protected the
anonymity of individuals by assigning numbers to returned instruments and keeping the identity
of individuals, thus it offers confidentiality and privacy to participants. This research did not
falsify, misinterpret or fabricate any data so as to protect the respondents. It was also objective as
it avoided any bias in data presentation analysis. The researcher viewed data as confidential and
not to share it with other participants or individuals outside of the project.
CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the research findings and analysis of data that was gathered. The chapter
consists of data representation, reliability and ethical consideration between variables. The
researcher used SPSS in order to analyze the data. The discussion is guided by the research
objectives. The first part presents the findings that were gathered from primary and secondary
sources of data which included interviews, questionnaires and company documents. The second
part outlines the analysis of the findings and the meanings drawn from the study.
4.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

4.2.1 Safety Health Environment and Quality Section

Hwange Colliery Company‟s safety issues are handled by the SHEQ section. Hence in
this instance, occupational stress falls under the SHEQ section. This section is under Internal
Audit department, The Safety, Health, Environment and Quality Manager (SHEQM) is the head
of section, with five Safety and Training officers, one Environmental Officer, one Junior
Environmental Officer and three Environmental Assistants. The SHEQ department hierarchy is
illustrated by an organogram refer to fig 2 below. The department directly reports to the Mine
Managing Director pertaining to SHEQ issues and is the secretariat to the safety committee in
the Organisation. The main function of the department is to Advise, Assist and Audit the
Organisation on Safety, Health and Environmental Quality issues. The department is guided by
the SHEQ Policy which also falls in line with by the EMS 14001:2004 and OSHAS 18001:2007.
The SHEQ policy is reviewed annually to ensure that Safety, Health, Environmental and Quality
Sustainability are maintained to the highest standards. The organogram of the section is
illustrated in Figure 4.1.
 INTERNAL
AUDIT

SHEQ Manager

5 Safety and Trainning Environmetal officer

officers

SHEQ Reps Juniour Environmental officer

3 Environmental Assistance

Figure 4.1: Organogram of the SHEQ Section

4.3 Causes of Occupational Stress

The possible sources of occupational stress were grouped into two categories namely; personal
factors and work related factors. Personal related factors were analyzed from the data on age,
sex, academic qualifications, job experience, family size, salary range and home pressure. Work
related factors also contribute to sources of occupational stress. In this research, such factors
were examined to determine the level of its contribution to perceived levels of stress by workers
and the impacts encountered. The following aspects were analyzed; unfriendly work site,
conflicting work roles, preforming untrained task, workload, working hours and safety issues.

4.4 Occupational Stress and Gender

The gender of a person can make them more exposed to occupational stress or it can help them
cope with stress better. Table 4.1 reflects that there are a fewer number of women who are highly
stressed as compared to man. However, one thing is certain; either they are highly or moderately
stressed which translates to generally high levels of stress. This is because the working
environment at HCCL is very tough and the conditions are usually bad. HR officer postulated
that,” due to promotion of gender equality there has been fair distribution of work, most workers
no longer consider the gender of a person hence some women end up being tasked to perform
some duties beyond their ability and this has led to increase in occupational stress. The SHEQ
manager stated that, “The work environment is male invested and thus the competition for
survival becomes trivial with the possibility of resulting in work stress among women.” Women
are bound to be more stressed because of the work environment and the type of work they are
required to do.

Table 4.1: Showing Gender of Employee and Their Perceived Level of Occupational Stress.
levels of stress

not sure less Moderately highly

Count Count Count Count

sex of male 0 4 7 10
employe female 0 4 4 6
e
Source: Field survey (2017)

4.5 Occupational Stress and Age

The age of a person can determine his/her level of stress. Occupational stress tends to differ with
age group. Smith et al (2000) who found that the majority of workers under their study (20.8%)
were highly stressed were aged between 41 and 50 years. workers are in a „midlife crisis‟ where
by now after several years of hard work they feel they should be awarded for their labour.
Figure 4.1 clearly shows that the age group with the highest percentage of workers who are
highly stressed is 41-50 years. This is probably because the age group have high dependency
ratio. These include the spouse, children, and other family members dependent on the worker.
These need to be fed, clothed, sheltered, hence will require a lot of resources for their upkeep on
them and most of their children are now attending their tertiary level hence a lot of expenses. In
addition the HR officer stated that, “most workers around the age of 30-50 have served the
company for a number of years and by now they expect to be awarded for labor through
promotions.” These workers have spent a long time in the company and know how good the
working conditions were in the past years hence knows the difference. They have been worst
affected by change and a deteriorating working environment as most of the workers highlighted.
They are going through a transition and it will take time for them to adapt to the situation.

Figure 4.2: Bar Graphs Showing Cross Tabulation of Level of Stress and Age of Employee

In an interview the SHEQ manager said,” in the past years it was rare to hear of an old madala
failing to perform their duties due to stress, however now it has become a daily drum beat
because the company is no longer catering for the employees personal needs hence workers are
now forced to divert their salary to cover up other requirements. The company has also reduced
age of retirement to 55years, and this law is affecting employees in this age group. Some of them
have realized that in their years of toil they have not yielded much to improve their lives since
they have been staying in company houses.”

The next group which is considered to be affected by stress is 31-40 years age group. This is
probably due to high demands these workers have from their dependents. Some of the workers
are easily affected by changes occurring in the company. The workers in the age group of 51 and
above are less stressed. This is because these workers are just a footstep away from approaching
retirement. As such, they are not easily shaken with the changes in their working environment.
Also, in their age, they are most likely to have fewer dependents and more income earners hence
the burden is lessened. The 20-30 age group are less stressed because most of them are single
have little responsibilities hence their income is adequate for them. A few who are married are
still in their early years of marriage and have not yet encountered marriage problems.

4.6 Marital Status and Home Pressure

Some occupational stress does not originate from the work place but they actually originate from
home. People with cognitive distortions and negative thinking patterns may also be a source of
occupational stress. This is because sometimes at work there are no support systems designed for
domestic problems and or at home there won‟t be enough support for work problems yet work
and home overspill into each other‟s circles (Leka and Jain, 2010). This then weakens a
worker‟s ability to cope even with other stressors at work exposing him or her to stress, thus
leading to poor performance.

Table 4.2: Showing Frequency Level Of Stress And Marital

Status.
Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative
y Percent Percent
Valid single 8 22.9 22.9 22.9
 married 7 20.0 20.0 42.9
widowed 7 20.0 20.0 62.9
divorced 13 37.1 37.1 100.0
Total 35 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey (2017)

Table 4.2 show that married (20%) and divorcee (37.1%) employees are affected by home
pressures as they have agreed that they suffer from home pressures. Single employees also show
that they are not affected by home pressures as the results shows that majority have agreed to be
less stressed. Married employees at HCCL they suffer from home pressures as they are supposed
to cater for their children at home while there are said to have not received their salaries in full
for the past 37 months and poor work life balance. In an interview with the peer educator, he
revealed that most workers showed signs of frustration and even irritability during sessions of
counseling „most workers said they always got a bit angry with relatives and friends especially if
they wanted to probe into their lives. Some even went on to the extent of disassociating from
loved ones‟. From the above findings, it was concluded that indeed occupational stress affected
workers and their social and work lives. Vokic and Bogdanic (2007) stated that most married
employees will be fighting to balance work life and family as a way of reducing home pressures,
although these employees will have high levels of stress home pressures will affect both the
employer and employee as it will result in reduction on job performance.

The SHEQ rep of HCCL mentioned in an interview that “most of the workers are stressed
because the company is no longer catering for the employee’s needs, the company used to pay
school fees and buy stationery for our children but since they have stopped giving us our salaries
they have also stopped catering for our kids. Some employees have to pay maintenance because
we have a lot of divorcees in the company and we have witnessed a number of employees getting
arrested due to failure of paying maintenance.” The current situation of the company is also
contributing to the rise of home pressure. . Kossek et al. (2011), these authors argue that we need
to form a better understanding of informal workplace support and how it affects work-life
balance although it seems plausible that informal networks are equally as valuable in predicting
other, related outcomes (i.e., the experience of job satisfaction, commitment, and organizational
citizenship behaviors). Most married employees will be fighting to balance work life and family
as a way of reducing home pressures, although these employees will have high levels of stress.
Home pressures will affect both the employer and employee as it will result in reduction on job
performance.

4.7 Perceived Levels of Occupational Stress and Job Experience

Makasa (2013) stated that individuals with grater experience exhibit lower stress than those with
fewer years of experience. This statement is supported by the response HCCL workers gave,
employees with years experience between 0-5 have reported to be highly stressed followed by
those with 6-10 years. This could be because the workers in this group are failing to cope with
the work demands; they are failing to manage the pressure. However workers with higher years
of experience (16-20 years) at HCCL have contradicted with Makasa (2013) for they have
reported to be highly stressed. Vokic and Bogdanic (2007) postulates that Changes of technology
also result in stress as some still find it difficult to progress with that advanced technology
especially those that would have been working for the company for a long time . This was further
clarified by the HR officer when he said that, “job experience and occupational stress are being
affected by advancement in technology, most of the workers especially the old madalas are
struggling to catch up with the recent technologies which the company is introducing and this is
resulting to poor production as we are failing to meet up with monthly targets”. This results in
occupational stress to both the employee and employer.
Figure 4.3: Bar Graphs Showing Employee’s Perceived Levels of Occupational Stress and
Job Experience

From Figure 4.3 workers with only months to five years working for HCCL rated their level of
stress as highly stressed. This is because these workers joined the company when it was already
struggling and they are still trying to catch up with the rules and regulation of the company. They
know that anything can happen and they will have problems in finding employment anywhere
else due to little years of experience.

The two scholars that have been mentioned above are contradicting each other however, their
line of arguments are applicable to HCCL situation. Therefore in order to establish any
association between occupational stress and a workers job experience at HCCL, the Chi square
test was administered. Two hypotheses were tested as stated below:

H0 There is no association between occupational stress and job experience

H1 There is an association between occupational stress and job experience
Table4.3: Chi-Square Test of Level of Stress and Job Experience

Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 7.194a 6 .303
Likelihood Ratio 8.777 6 .186
N of Valid Cases 35
a. 9 cells (75.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected
count is .26.

The Chi square value is shown in table and its 0.303. The figure is greater than 0.05 hence we
reject H1 and accept H0 this means that there is no association between occupation stress and job
experience. Any worker can be stressed no matter years of experience at HCCL.
The results that were found from the research contradicted with Katon (2003). Katon (2003)
stated that there is a relationship between occupational stress and job experience , those who
developed occupational were chronically ill or died at a significantly higher rate than men who
remained well adjusted and free from occupational stress. When the correlation coefficients
between stress and levels of experience are compared, individuals with greater experience
exhibit lower levels of stress than those with fewer years of experience (Katon, 2003). The
results might have differed with katon (2003) due to different stressors which the workers might
be experiencing.

4.8 Occupational Stress and Salary Range

Salary range can affect stress levels of workers especially in workers with little salary range.
(Michie, 2002) stated that, low income deprive employees from higher standard of living, good
education, good health facilities, decent housing hence causing family dysfunctions and
occupational stress. Makasa (2013) is also of the view that, employees that receive low income
suffer from occupational stress when they compare their earnings in relation to the amount work
they do. Low income employees also tend to live in isolation and exclusion from the rest of
average employees as they fail to even to avoid decent housing
Figure 4.3: Showing Salary Range and Level of Stress

The workers who earn more are highly stressed than the workers who earn less. This could be
because when workers know they earn less, they deal with it and therefore are prepared for
anything. These are the kind of workers who are grateful that they have a job no matter how
stressing it may be. Smith et al (2000) who found that the majority of workers in their study
(90.8%) who were lowly stressed earned less. The SHEQ manager stated that,” we are facing a
challenge with employees who earn salaries more than 400 us dollars, this group is most
affected with stress because they have not been receiving their salaries for more than 30 months
hence failing to cope up with the current situation since they are used to a luxury life. Most of
them have borrowed loans from banks and they are failing to pay back the loans. Low class
employees are less affected with stress because they easily cope up with the situation and there
hasn’t been a great change in their social welfare.”
4.9 Perceived Levels of Occupational Stress and Job Insecurity

According to Michie, (2002) the prevailing economic environment can play a crucial role also on
job security as it may affect the stability of the workers and the organization they are working
for. The HR officer stated that, “due to economic hardships the company is in a process of
retrenching half of its employees. A number of employees who are reported to be stressed have
increased since the beginning of the company’s restructuring and production levels have
reduced because some workers are no longer coming to work as they are busy looking work
incase they get fired.” Colquitt et al (2011) asserted that during company restructuring it cause
stress among employees because of the fear to lose their job. Company restructuring is hard on
workers and reduced productivity is unavoidable due to stress. Job insecurity mainly affects
workers without enough paper work because if they happen to loose their current job it will be
difficult for them to find another job.

Chi square test was used to analyze the relationship between occupational stress and job
insecurity. The following test was tested:
H0- there is no association between occupational stress and job insecurity

H1- there is an association between occupational stress and job insecurity

Table 4.4: Chi-Square Test on Perceived Level of Occupational Stress and Job Insecurity

Chi-Square Tests
Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-
14.184a 6 .028
Square
Likelihood Ratio 14.401 6 .025

N of Valid Cases 35
a. 10 cells (83.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .23.
b.
The results presented in table 4.4 show that the chi square value is 0.028, a figure below 0.05.
Therefore we accept H1 and reject H0 thus meaning that there is strong association between
perceived levels of stress and job insecurity. Job insecurity results into occupational stress at
HCCL. Employees are having occupational stress emanating from fear of losing jobs and
especially with the recent labor law interpretation which allows the employer to terminate an
employee contract on three month notice without benefits. Research shows that from the period
of MARCH 2016 up to date a total of 430 low level employees and 13 managers lost their jobs
due to retrenchment in the organization and also one major contractor (MOTOR ANGILE)
contracts were terminated.

The results shown in figure 4.4 shows that are 54.29 workers are extremely stressed du to job
insecurity. SHEQ rep said,” Each time I see a messenger coming to me l get frightened of
receiving my retrenchment latter because daily some one is supposed to be sent back home.
Therefor retrenchment program which is on going has triggered job insecurity within workers.
From figure4.4, 34.29 % is very stressed due to job insecure8.571 and 2.857 are moderately and
less stressed respectively. Those who are moderately and less stressed it is because some people
have already been retrenched from their departments and also they have enough paper work
hence looking for a new job wont be a hustle ,so they are prepared for anything as they have
accepted the situation. They also feel that it‟s ok for them to leave the company since they have
not been receiving their salaries.
Figure 4.4: Bar Graphs Showing Perceived Levels of Stress and Job Insecurity

4.10 Occupational Stress and Promotion Prospects

Ahmadi and Alireza (2007) postulates that job dissatisfaction was predicted by lack of career
opportunities, poor promotion prospects, morale and lack of autonomy for outstanding work,
together with some domestic stressors. Promotions are one of the factors that boost workers
morale and employees tend to perform excellent work so as to get promoted. The HR officer
noted that,” One of the things we have failed to do as a company is to appreciate our employees
for all the good work and outstanding work they do. Therefore employee performance has been
demotivated and demoralized.” From table 4.5 employees with poor promotion prospects are
highly stressed, these employees feel that their hardworking effort is not being awarded any
reward. . Gallant (2013) argues that when employees never get any rewards or recognition for
their work, they quickly start to feel that no one cares. And if no one cares, why should they
bother putting in the extra effort. Managers are often quick to dole out the criticism or correction
when needed, but slow to dish out the praise. Employees are more engaged if their efforts are
recognized and rewarded by the employer.
Table 4.5: Showing Cross Tabulation of Promotion Prospects and Levels of Occupational
Stress
Promotion prospects * levels of stress Cross tabulation
Count
levels of stress Total
less moderately highly
High prospects 9 0 0 9
Moderate prospects 6 4 0 10
Promotion prospects
Poor prospects 2 4 10 16

Total 17 8 10 35

To determine the existence of any association between occupational stress and poor promotion
prospects the Chi square test was employed and the hypothesis were drafted as follows.
H0-there is no association between occupational stress and poor promotion prospects
H1- there is an association between occupational stress and poor promotion prospects.

Table 4.6: Showing Chi-Square Test between Occupational Stress and Poor Promotion
Prospects
Chi-Square Tests
Value Df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-
12.534a 9 .185
Square
Likelihood Ratio 16.836 9 .051
N of Valid Cases 35
a. 15 cells (93.8%) have expected count less than 5.
The minimum expected count is .71.
The results displayed in table 4.6 states that the Chi square value is 0.185 which is above 0.05
and this means that level of stress is not influenced by how workers are affected by poor
promotion prospects we reject H1 and accept H0. Any worker at HCCL can be stressed despite
their level of promotion prospects.

4.11 Gender and Problems with Supervisor

Work related stress also result to a negative impact of having conflicts and bullying at the
workplace (Netterstrom, Olsen, Rugulies and Stansfeld, 2008). The conflicts are not only
remaining between the employees themselves but also affecting the customers. “Stressed
employees render poor service which results in making the customers to shun to other
organizations such as MAKOMO”, said the SHEQ manager

Table 4.7: Showing Cross Tabulation of Gender and Problems with Supervisor

problems with the supervisor Total

Disagree Neutral agree Strongly
agree
gender of male 9 9 2 1 21
employee female 0 2 4 8 14
Total 9 11 6 9 35

The results in table 4.7 shows that females (8) strongly disagree, (4) agree, neutral (2), and (0)
disagree. On the male side (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (9) neutral and (9) disagree. Therefore,
the results shows that females are said to have problems with their bosses unlike males. This is
because females they easily misinterpret things and are bound to have problems with their boss.
According to Rampell (2015) all women are liars who will fabricate sexual harassment charges
at the slightest provocation. Some middle-aged man mentioned that he never joins a female
advisee for meals or drinks, at least not alone. Likewise, he said, “any in-office meeting had to
be conducted with the door wide open”. To avoid such incidence a policy was formulated to
protect both males and females that there should have a third person although the policy was in
favor of males, some females viewed it as violating anti-discrimination.

On the other hand, Thompson (2008) also postulates that women who had only one female boss
reported more psychological distress (such as trouble sleeping, difficulty focusing on work,
depression and anxiety) and physical symptoms (such as headaches, stomach pain or heartburn,
neck and back pain and tiredness) than women who worked for one male boss. Women who
reported to a mixed-gender pair of supervisors also reported more of these symptoms than their
peers who worked for a single male boss. Also men who worked for a single supervisor,
regardless of the supervisor's gender, had similar levels of distress. Men who worked for a
mixed-gender pair had fewer mental and physical symptoms than those working for a lone male
supervisor. In an interview with the HR officer he stated that most ladies prefer working with
male bosses than female ones. Therefore gender contributes to conflicts with the boss leading to
high stress levels and reducing job performance at HCCL. Bickford (2005) is of the view that
poor relationships with subordinates and superiors at work may cause job related stress. This is
because of the uncertainty and fear which may result from such which compromises the worker
to handle stressors. In that same manner, bullying, harassment and threats of violence may also
result in work stress. HCCL situation is in support of this statement.

4.12 Stress and Accident Occurring

Occupational stress is reported to be interrelated, contributing to development of diseases and

high accidents (Moustaka and Teodoros, 2010). Accident occurrence has been a nuisance at
HCCL. For the year of 2017 the organization has already recorded more than 20 accidents and
some of the accidents could have been avoided. These stressed employees are causing accidents
due to mental disorders and lack of concentration which is resulting to the suing of the
organization by NSSA (National Social Security Association) for it deals with the protection of
the employees‟ welfare. Therefore the company ends up experiencing unnecessary expenses.
Table 4.8 shows that workers who have accidents weekly are highly stressed than other workers.
Most workers experience accidents weekly and 14 employees are involved in accidents daily.
The results show that HCCL work place is not safe since the rate of accident occurrence is high.

Table 4.8: Showing Cross Tabulation Of Levels Of Occupational Stress And Accident
Occurrence
rate of accidence occurrence * levels of stress Cross tabulation
Count
levels of stress Total
less moderatel highly
y
daily 0 5 9 14
rate of weekly 1 6 11 18
accidence monthl
2 1 0 3
occurrence y
Total 3 12 20 35

To determine the existence of any association between occupational stress and accident
occurrence the Chi square test was employed and the hypothesis was drafted as follows.
H0-there is no association between occupational stress and accident occurrence
H1- there is an association between occupational stress and accident occurrence
The results displayed in table 4.9 states that the Chi square value is 0.004 which means there is
strong association between occupational stress and accident occurrence. Therefore we reject H 0
and accept H1.

Table 4.9: Showing Chi-Square Test between Occupational Stress and Accident
Occurrence
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 15.106a 4 .004
Likelihood Ratio 10.949 4 .027
N of Valid Cases 35
a. 6 cells (66.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count
is .26.

The results show that workplace accidents are caused by occupational stress within the
organization. The organization will be highly working on its downfall as workplace accidents
affects the organization‟s brand name and if the accidents continues ,the organization
performance can be disturbed through having investigations or even shutdown from NSSA
(National Social Security Association) which caters for the safety of employees. Jacinto and
Aspinwall (2009) argues that there is an implicit identification of accident scenarios as a
combination of work in process, physical activity, deviation and agent of deviation. On the other
hand Erven (2012) states that organizational and safety management are directly related in most
scenarios through causes as lack of training, inadequate work methods and lack of appropriate
preventive measures as personal protective equipment PPE and machines safeguards.

4.13 PERCEIVED STRESS FREQUENCY BY WORKER

In an aim to analyze severity of stress, the frequency of occupational stress was analyzed based
on four options given in the questionnaire as shown in figure 4.5. From the results in figure 4.5
the majority of the workers were sometimes stressed in a week. They said this was because they
have learnt to deal with stress though sometimes during the week they are just overwhelmed and
cannot help it but stress at work. 25.71% of workers indicated that they are stressed on a daily
basis. They revealed that it was because they had to provide for food everyday and cope up with
work demands every day. One plant operator stated that, “the employer is unsympathetic and
hence stress is inevitable on daily basis. The company claims that there is no money but the
managers are still living a luxuries life. They expect us to work whilst we are hungry. Only
25.75% indicated that they are stressed on month ends. This was attributed to the pressure
presented by unpaid bills such as maintenance, school fees, electrical bills and the anticipation
which came from the delay of payments. Occupational stress at the HCCL is definitely
something to be very serious about as most workers are affected by it. If problems are to go
unsolved, the situation could develop into a calamity

Figure 4.5: Showing Perceived Occupational Stress Frequency by Workers

Source: Field survey (2017)

4.14 Work Related Factors

Different scholars have found work related factors to be the major sources of occupational stress.
In this research, Safety issues, working hours, work site, performing untrained task, quarrels and
workload has been analyzed to asses the level of contribution to levels of occupational stress.
From Figure 4.6 the most highly rated aspect as extremely and very stressful is PPE. There is
inadequate critical PPE to mention; Respirators, rain and safety shoes. The Organization is
striving to provide the PPE, The last time employees were given PPE it was n 2015. The rate of
provision is slow leading to loss in production as some employees cannot carry out their duties
without PPE.

Work related factors and perceived

levels of stress
30
25
20
15
number of

Less stressful
10
Moderately stressful Very stressful
5
Extremely stressful
0

Figure 4.6: Work Related Factors and Perceived Levels of Stress

Figure 4.6 Indicates that 15 workers are very stressed due to long working. The research revealed
that most workers who are stressed have a schedule of 12 hour shift which is in excess of the
standard working time one is required to work. SHEQ manager stated that,” As a result long
working hours lead to fatigue, but because they are afraid of losing their jobs they will no
complain. It is an unhealthy shift and it affect them even mentally hence occupational stress will
develop.”

In figure 4.6 15 workers have reported to be extremely stressed due to excess workload. One
plant operator indicated that,” the work we are required to cover and the given time frame to
complete the task is unrealistic. Too much manual work and few workers carrying it out also
cause stress in workers” Ackerfeldt and Malhotra (2013) argue that role conflict happens when
job demand and expectations of employees are incompatible in terms of the set time frames and
this concurs with this study finding. The HR officer revealed that,” the ongoing retrenchment
process intensified workload on the remaining employees hence paving way for occupational
stress. Rubina et al,(2008) argue that work overload contributes to increase in stress amongst
employees more than other factors.

According to Rebecca (2010) employees don‟t preform in a vacuum which means they work in
an environment and has to be conducive. 20 workers at HCCL are very stressed due to the
worksite. Employees strongly believe that the working environment was not conducive for them
to perform their jobs efficiently and it‟s leading to occupational stress. During an observation,
the working environment of HCCL is too dusty and dust suppression is not being done. Dust is a
Safety and Health hazard which is of great concern in the mining area. SHEQ manager stated
that,” according to studies respirable dust which of 5µm to 10µm consists of more than 50
mineral that are harmful to human health, to mention quartz, kaolinite, silica and pyrites.
SIRDIC carried a dust audit at Chaba open cast pits with observed dust levels above the
recommended. Hence, there is need to comprehensively monitor dust levels be for the health and
safety of employees in the Plant. Moreso, there are challenges in the suppression of dust on the
conveyer system, along the roads and walkways in the plant, which is a breach of SI 109 of 1990
Mining (Management and Safety) Regulations Section 71 subsection 1(a) which states that, when
rock, ore, coal or other mineral or mineral compound is reduced in size, screened, moved, or
handling or otherwise subjected to any process, which may produce dust harmful to persons. The
workers are exposed to pneumoconiosis.”

The health of HCCL workers is at stake as the company is exposing them to high levels of dust
without any protection of dust musk. One miner indicated that,” the dust levels at our work place
are too much, the company is no longer suppressing dust and we do not have adequate PPE such
as dust musk. Now most of us are worried because we might get pneumoconiosis and TB. From
the previous pneumoconiosis test two of our guys were moved from this section to the security
section.” Parkh et al (2004), postulates that working conditions should be conducive and
favorable for the employees in order to bring out the best. This shows the environment should be
conducive for the worker since a poor working environment can result in poor organizational
performance.
Plate 4.1: High Dust Levels at the Crushing Station

Source: field survey (2017)

4.15 Impacts of Occupational Stress

Occupational stress amongst employees adversely affects employee performance and on a larger
scale company performance therefore there is need to manage and control it. Meneze. (2005)
stated that occupational stress has become a challenge for the employer organizations as it results
in low productivity, increased absenteeism and collection of other employee problems like
alcoholism, drug abuse, hypertension and host of cardiovascular problems. The effects of stress
shown in table below were highlighted by the workers of HCCL. The frequency rates of the
effects were analyzed so as to come up with the major effects which are affecting the workers at
HCC.
Figure 4.7: Bar Graphs Showing Classified Effects of Occupational Stress
Source: field survey (2017)

The research revealed that absenteeism rate is very high due to occupational stress. Figure 4.7
shows absenteeism statistics in detail, and 31.43% of the staff do not come to work for either
one or two days due to stress.as most employees are not aware of occupational stress its is only
after one does investigative work to establish the actual reasons why employees are absent from
work. Motowidlo and Van Scotter (2004) concur with these findings and goes on to say that
occupational stress results in substantial cost to organizations through sickness, absenteeism,
medical expenses and lost productivity. Occupational stress is the main reason workers don‟t
show to work and someone is expected to cover up for them. This has an impact on the
production because the available human labor won‟t be able to meet the target. Occupational
stress affects organizational performance by reducing productivity and efficiency which affect
the organization negatively (Dua 1994 cited inReskin, 2008). 20% of colliery workers believe
that occupational stress has a negative impact on production. In an interview with the HR officer,
he highlighted that „it is difficult to deal with workers who have their thoughts elsewhere. Stress
is a disease which is affecting performance because in the previous years, workers were often
beating targets but now they perform poorly and work stress is the paramount cause. Since last
year we have been failing to meet up with the target and that’s the other reason for retrenchment
because its useless to have lot of people who fail to meet up with the target goal’

HCCL‟s production is largely determined by lost time injury frequency rate (LTIFR). Figure 4.7
illustrates that 17.14 of the respondents believed that occupational stress is responsible for
LTIFR that occurs. The increase in lost hours due to injuries leads to a reduction in productivity
and hence organization‟s performance will also dwindle. Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate
(LTIFR) and Lost Time Injury Severity Rate (LTISR) are SHEQ performance indicators which
determine whether workers are working safely or not. LSISR show the impact of an accident in
terms of days lost per million man hours. Severe accident result in more days lost hence higher
the Severity Rate. LSIFR is an indicator of how safe and healthy workplaces are. A workplace
with a high LTIFR is unsafe. If workers suffer from occupational stress that means
psychologically they are not in the right set of mind to work and this results in accidents as they
are absent minded when carrying out their duties. According to Kelloway et al (2008)
occupational stress has fast become a growing concern if undetected and necessary measures are
not taken to assist the affected employee this usually results in increased accidents in the
workplace which in the mining set up will reduce productivity and it turns away potential
investors.

In figure 14.29% workers have highlighted that occupational stress is causing work accidents. Of
all the job factors related to the causation of accidents only one emerged as a common
denominator, high levels of stress at the time the accident occurred. A person under stress is an
accident about to happen Ekundayo (2014). Most accidents occurrence at HCCL can be traced to
occupational stress as revealed in the questionnaires by the respondents. Workers underperform,
make mistakes and are careless in their routine work behavior when they are experiencing stress.
Accident is both disruptive and costly to the organization as they result personal injury and
property damage, hence the company incur unplanned expenses. When a person is stressed they
tend to loose concentration. Reduced concentration also leads to unsafe acts which if unfortunate
will end up leading work accidents. 3 workers have reported to loose concentration when they
are stressed.

Figure 4.7 shows that there are poor industrial relations though to a marginal extent (8.571%).
Accorfing to Kelloway (2008) work poor climate can be noted by increase in staff grievances,
collective job action and increased in disciplinary hearings. If there are problems that require the
two parties to sit and solve this will take a lot of time as each end would want to prove their
worth to each other, as a result this can slow down organization efficiency.

When workers are stressed they tend to be slow in what ever they are doing thus they wont be
able to cover up required work on the specified time frame. In figure 4.7 8.571 employees have
indicated that occupational stress affects their concentration and personal morale. Where there is
low morale employees are generally not happy of their jobs and work place environment. This
attributes to high levels of occupational stress hence ones concentration is affected as they will
be thinking of other strategies. The worker will be at work physically but mentally he/she is
absent. In an interview the SHEQ manager stated that,” employees are forced to suppress their
problems and work resulting in low morale which leads to occupational stress.

4.16 Coping Strategies

To enable detailed investigation the coping strategies were categorized into personal and
institutional coping mechanisms. Personal coping strategies are the strategies employed by a
worker as an individual to deal with occupational stress and institutional strategies are those
strategies employed by HCCL as a company to deal with occupational stress. It forms the
organization‟s culture and traditions of helping its workers to reduce and minimize the sources
and severity of occupational stress.
4.16.1. Personal Coping Strategies
Personal coping mechanisms can be either negative or positive. Negative mechanisms are those
methods used by workers to cope with work stress which are destructive and harmful to health
and wellness of the worker and may destruct the worker from preforming expected duties.
Positive coping strategies are those mechanisms employed by workers which are beneficial to
the worker in the present as well as the long term basis and these may boost the workers
performance. When Sears (2000) examined occupational stress and coping strategies among
health workers, he found out that most of his participants used negative coping strategies such as
excessive alcohol intake and drug or substance abuse, alcohol reduce workers vision and
accuracy and accidents are bound to happen.

From Figure 4.8, it can be noted that majority of the workers (31.43%) generally respond to
work stress by going to taking in alcohol. This is a negative coping strategy. The workers either
come to work drunk or they bring their alcohol to work and drink it during working hours. In an
interview the SHEQ manager stated that,” mostly the workers are coming to work drunk, the
company does not allow workers to be under the influence of alcohol during working hours but
us as the SHEQ section we have failed to control the situation since the company does not have
any working breathalyzer. Hence it difficult for us to tell if one is drunk or not, however we have
resorted into checking workers behavior during working hours. These workers believe if they
take alcohol they will forget all their problems for that period. The rate of accident occurrence
has increased due to alcohol intake.” However, 25.71% of the workers relieve their stress by
smoking to ease up their stress, and 20% of the workers go for counseling.
Figure 4.8: Personal Coping Strategy to Occupational Stress

Counseling is a positive coping strategy and workers are bound to find solution to their
problems. At HCCL there is a counseling section which deals with counseling employees. In an
interview with the nurse in charge she said,” in the previous years workers were shy to come for
counseling, however, due to seminars we have been conducting there is now an improvement in
the number of workers who come for counseling. A problem shared is half solved, we have
realized that some of the things thus stressing our workers are petty issues hence we give them
some alternative solution. The SHEQ manger said,” here at HCCL we believe that counseling
involves two things. Its either one has to go through formal counseling or workers can discuss
issues during their leisure time. We found out that some workers are not comfortable with
discussing their issues with people they don’t know. Therefore discussing helps the worker as an
individual to feel that s/he is not alone and in many a times, some workers realize they have
better burdens than others thus they are motivated to be strong and fight off the effects of stress.
Figure 4.8 shows that 11.43% of the workers listen to music so as to ease up their stress. The
remaining 11.43 of the workers do nothing to respond to work stress. These are negative coping
mechanisms as in the long run workers are likely to suffer from adverse health impacts such as
lung cancer and liver problems.

4.16.2 Institutional Coping Strategies

HCCL has established a section which is responsible for counseling, by the time the research was
under taken the section had been established few months back. However there are no counseling
professionals hence for the mean time the nurses are the ones responsible for counseling. The
researcher observed that even in the SHEQ policy of the company occupational stress issues
were not specifically mentioned. To give more detail the SHEQ manager was interviewed ,he
said that,” after realizing that occupational stress is becoming an issue in the company and the
works performance is affected negatively we approached the medical department to formulate an
section which deals with counseling. However, l believe even though we do not have any
documented copping strategies for occupational stress the company has been trying to manage
stress indirectly. We have clubs which these workers can join so as to relax the mind. We also
participate in first aid competitions, marathon competitions and ball games competitions with
other mining companies; this has been helping in refreshing the mind of our workers. The HR
officer also highlighted that,” We do not deny our workers days off when they feel overwhelmed
by work., these workers get leave days of up to three months and when they come back they will
be fresh and ready to work .we have also introduced commemoration days such as the
Kamandama day and Colliery day, the workers don’t go to work but they will be celebrating and
food will be provided.” The company has a human check list which the workers believe its one
of the strategies which the company has put in place. In an interview one dump truck driver said
that,” when we got employed here at HCCL we were taught about the human check list and
that’s how the SHEQ department have been managing stress issues.

HUMAN CHECK LIST

I-ILLINESS
M-MEDICATION
S-TRESS
A-LCOHOL
F-ATIGUE
E-EATING
So if you are suffering from any one of the above mentioned you tell your SHEQ rep and the
SHEQ rep tells your immediate supervisor, he/she then will look for ways to handle your
situation. However the human check list is not fully practiced because sometimes the supervisor
thinks that people will be lying hence we are forced to work when stressed”

HCCL is yet to come up with coping strategies because the organizational coping strategies are
weak although the SHEQ section and HR department are willing to come up with strategies and
include them in the SHEQ policy. There is no proper drafted plan of action which addresses all
the issues of occupational stress.

4.17 Occupational Stress and the Legal Frameworks

Hwange Colliery Company Limited in Zimbabwe is required by law to follow certain

Occupational Health and Safety Legislation throughout its entire operations. Throughout the
interviews and field observations, it was noted that the company is aware of some of the
legislation governing OHS for instance their commitment to the Factories and Works Act
(14:08), Statutory Instrument 68 of 1990 and others. The company is required by law to establish
a SHEQ policy in Figure 4.9

As noted below in figure 4.9 the company policy does not clearly state the issue of occupational
stress. In an interview it was brought to light that the policy did not cover occupational stress
issues because it wasn‟t an issue to be concerned about back then but however they are willing to
include occupational stress in their new SHEQ policy which they are drafting and also the policy
was drafted as per NSSA requirements and that they are supposed to state five or six things as
required by NSSA as a result ergonomics is enshrined in other issues on the policy.
The company is complying with the EMS 14001:2004, OHSAS 18001:2007 and the Zimbabwe
Occupational Safety Health Policy of 2014. Training needs have been identified and relevant
programs drawn up to improve competence levels of employees in contributing to improved
safety, health and environmental performance. These include, on-the-job training, safety talks,
competence based training and induction training. More so, the Departments with in the sends its
trainees‟ to Training Centre, to attend various courses, to mention Supervisory Skills, Time
Management, Culture Change and a number of Behavior change courses, which the student
greatly appreciated.
Figure 4.9: Hwange Colliery Company Limited SHEQ policy
CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

The research findings revealed the levels and dimensions of occupational stress and its
relationship with employee performance particularly in the mining sector. The results of this
study support this notion that there is an inverse relationship between occupational stress and
employee performance meaning that high level of occupational stress influences employee
performance in a negative way.

Findings from the study revealed that the causes of stress amongst employees were lack of
adequate lack of job security, PPE, long working hours, poor work site, family problems and
work overload. Fiabane, (2012) argues that stress is the inadequate copying with work
environment which lead to negative consequences on worker„s physical and psychological
health, due to negative emotions and on the other hand, work overload, role ambiguity, role
conflict, and responsibility for people, participation and lack of feedback results in increasing
stress levels. Stress at HCCL is mainly caused by job insecurity, poor promotion prospects
conflicts at work, lack of PPE and home pressure. It became evident that every worker at HCCL
is vulnerable to occupational stress despite his or her job experience, age, academic
qualifications, home pressure, job insecurity and or poor promotion prospects.

Furthermore, the impacts of high levels of stress were quite varied. Results in figure 4.6 shows
that high levels of stress led to negative relations with workmates, reduced concentration and low
morale, absentiseem at work, work accidents due to unsafe acts, increased lost time injuries and
reduced productivity. Vandijk (2010) postulates that adverse consequences of depression on
work can be indexed by different work outcome measures, such as presenteeism, productivity
loss, decrease in work quality, mistakes and errors, work accidents, sickness absence, disability
pensions and unfavourable career perspectives. Work related stress leads to physical and mental
disorder due to the imbalance of work and rewards therefore stress greatly reduces quality of
work and this will affect the organization performance. From the findings employee engagement
can be achieved through conducting trainings, fair performance appraisals and promotions. This
increase job performance as employees feels that their input is being considered.

5.2 Recommendations

To enable the organization to improve and maintain high performance standards by reducing
occupational stress, the researcher recommends the following:

5.2.1 Recommendations to the Company

 The company should implement management measures that focus on eradication of

occupational stress, as it is far more rewarding to be proactive than treating manifested
health damage and deal with the impacts if occupational stress. For example providing
food hampers and giving cash advance to the employees. Biron (2012) concurs and
asserts that the negative costs associated with reducing performance, absenteeism,
sickness and turnover are substantially higher compared to the costs of keeping
employees present, well and healthy by implementing stress management interventions.

 Hwange Colliery Company Limited should reward hardworking and exceptional

employees. This can eliminate occupational stress amongst employees as it shows
recognition of employees` effort by the employer whilst stimulating commitment from
employees. It will also build employee satisfaction which eventually reduces
occupational stress in employees. The recognition and awarding of outstanding
contribution by employees keeps them highly motivated.

 Design jobs to provide meaning, stimulation (less monotony) and opportunities for
employees to use their skills. Giving employees more challenging tasks to perform which
make work more interesting, compared in doing one job over and over again being work
boring.
 The managers should give employees the opportunity to participate in the decision
making process. This allows employees to express their feelings about their different
tasks, how they can carry out their tasks. Moreover, it gives them the opportunity to say
how they feel about the organization. In doing so employees feel part of the organization
and valued by their superiors

 Management should improve the working relations and communication between

employees and their superiors or even top management as this allows employees to freely
air out their grievances or issues which if suppressed might lead to occupational or give
room for such conditions that lead to occupational stress.

 The organization should also focus on provision of recreational facilities, stress

management training and development programs so as to improve employee welfare at
the same time reducing occupational stress. This distracts workers from their mundane
work lives and reduces susceptibility to occupational stress related diseases and any other
illnesses.

 The human resources department should introduce Employee Assistance program to

increase social support to workers. Such a program could allow workers to reduce home
pressure as the program will aid workers to support their dependents with expenses like
school fees and medical aid when there are payment delays. The program could also help
workers who are tenants to buy residential stands and develop them thus reducing stress

 Safety Health Environment and Quality section should come up with a logical, properly
drafted stress management strategy and also include it in the SHEQ policy of the
company. This will cover the institutional loop holes in managing job stress.

 The medical services department needs to employ trained psychology counselors and
open counseling section within departments.
  Establish work schedules that are compatible with demands and responsibilities outside
the job. The company can increase number of shifts such that workers won‟t have long
working hours. This gives workers enough time and family matters as well as their work.

 HCCL needs to provide adequate PPE to reduce the impact of hazards such as inhalation
of dust. Also there is need for dust suppression. This reduces safety worries in workers
which may reduce the rate of occupational stress.

5.2.2 Recommendations to the Employees

 Employees should come up with their work social groups through the assistance of their
workers representatives. Through these groups they can engage organizations that
educate them on employee health and they will discuss topics such as to do with
occupational stress.

 Employees should also regularly visit the hospital for regular health checkup. This will
ensure that their health is in check and the health personnel can be able to pick
occupational stress signs and symptoms at their infancy stage, thereby allowing prompt
action to be taken by both the employee and the organization.

 Employees should look for someone they trust to discuss their problems with because a
problem shared is half solved. So that they can also get some help and advice from their
core workers.

 Employees are also recommended to come up with other sources of money such as
starting up a project, so that they won‟t relay on the salary only.

 Workers need to empower themselves by improving their academic qualification so as

they are marketable.
REFFERENCE LIST

Ackfeldt, A., and Malhotra, N. (2013) “Revising the role of stress-commitment relationship: can

managerial interventions help?” European Journal of Marketing, 47 (3), pp.-37

Ahmed and Ramzan (2003) effects of job stress on employee job performance: a study on

banking sector of Pakistan IOSR journal of business and management, vol.11, issue 6pp 61-68

Badra-UI Islam and Munir Kashif (2011) impact of stressors on the performance of employees,

Munich Personal RePEc Archive

Best, P. and Kahn, L. (1993).Quantitative research methods for business and economics, New

York: Random House.

Bickford, M. (2005), Stress in the workplace: A General Overview of the Causes, the effects and

the solutions, Canadian Mental Health Association: Newfoundland and Labrador

Division.

Churchill, D (1995).Qualitative research in work contexts, CA: Sage Publications. New York.

Colquitt, J, Jeffery, L and Wesson, M (2011) Organizational Behavior: Improving Performance

and Commitment in the workplace, New York, McGrawhill

Cox, E. (2001). Psychology for A levels. UK: Oxford University Press

Coxtel, K. and Alireza, K.(2007).Stress and Job satisfaction among Air Force Military

Pilots.Journal of social sciences .

Creswell, J. (2009), Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods

Approaches.Chelsea. UK: Lewis publishers

Creswell,J.W.(2012) Educational Research.Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Qualitativeand

Quantitative Research,University of Nebraska.

Dale collie (2004). Advising business leaders on cooperate stress control, improving

productivity, and increasing profits. Courage builder‟s internationals

Davis, R. C. (2012). Selected International Best Practices in Police Performance Measurement.

Rand Corporation Technical Report Series

Dooley, D. (2003).Social Research Methods, 3rd Edition, New Delhi, Prentice Hall.

Edvardsson, J. P. (2005). Services portrait in service research: a critical review‟. International

Journal of Service Industry Management,16(1):107-121

Ekundayo, A.J. (2014) Occupational Stress and Employee productivity. International Journal of

Scientific Research in Education June, Vol. 7(2), 157165

Erven, B. L. (2012). The role of HRM in Risk Management. The Ohio State University

Ferlie,U. and Ramay,M.I.(2010).Impact of stress on employees job performance. A study on

banking sector of Pakistan. International journal of marketing studies,Vol.2(2)pp.122-126

Gallant, M. (2013). How lack of motivation is killing your company. Engagement parent

Management.

Glasser, M (2005). On Violence; A Preliminary Communication. International Journal of

Psycho-Analysis, Vol. 79:887-902.

Glenn, A. (2009), Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. Western Carolina

University: Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Gillham, B. (2008). Developing a questionnaire (2nd ed.). London, UK: Continuum

International Publishing Group Ltd.

Head, C. W. (1997) Beyond cooperate transformed, Oregon, Productivity Press

Helman, G. C.(1994), Culture, health and illness. USA. Heinemann.

Houtman, I. and Jettinghoff, K. (2007) Raising awareness of stress at work in developing

countries: A modern hazard in a traditional working environment, Geneva: WHO.

Jacinto, C., Canoa, M., and Guedes, S. C. (2009). Workplace and organizational factors in

accident analysis within the Food Industry. Saf Sci 47(5): 626-635.

Jankingthong, K & Rurkkhum, S. (2012). Factors Affecting Job Performance: A Review of

Literature. Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts. Vol.12 (2),

115-127.

Jones, Watson, Hobman, Bordia, Gallois and Callon. (2008) Altitudes Formation.

Kazmi, R, Shehla, A. & Delawar, K. (2008 ). Occupational Stress and its Effect.

Kelloway, E. K.., Teed, M and Kelly, E. (2008) “The psychosocial environment towards an

agenda for research”, International Journal of Workplace Health Management, 1, 1 pp. 50-64

Kossek, E., Pichler, S., Bodner, T., & Hammer, L. B. (2011). Workplace social support and

work–family conflict: A meta‐analysis clarifying the influence of general and work– 37 family ‐

specific supervisor and organizational support. Personnel Psychology, 64(2), 289- 313.

Lee. D. (2000) Managing Employee stress and safety: A guide to minimizing stress related cost

while maximizing employee product, MEMIC.

Leedy, P. (1992). Practical Research, Planning and Design. Macmillan Publishing Company,

New York.

Leka, S., Griffiths, A., and Cox, T. (2003) Work Organization and Stress, Protecting

Workers Health, Series No. 3. Switzerland: WHO

Malik,J. &Schiphorst,F.(2008) Motivation and Work Performance. Institute of social studies

,Uganda

Maslach, C. (2003). Job burnout: new directions in research and intervention. Current

Directions in Psychological Science, 12(5), 189-192

Melgosa, J, (2010). Positive mind, A practical for any situation, 2nd ed. Safeliz. Madrid, Spain.

Menez, M.M. (2005) The impact of stress on productivity at education training and development

practices: sector education and training authority.

Michie, S. (2002). Causes and Management of stress at work. Journal of Occupational

Environmental Medicine, 59: 6772

Mosadeghrad,M.A. ,Ferlie,E. &Rosenberge,D.(2011). A study of relationship between job stress,

quality of workers life and turnover intention among hospitals employers. London

Motowidlo, S.J., & Van Scotter, J. R. (2004). “Evidence that task performance should be

distinguished from contextual performance”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 475–480.

Moustaka, A. & Theodoros, C.(2010).Sources of effects of work –related stress in nursing,

Health Science Journal ,Vol.4(4)pp.210-216

Mukhalipi. A. (2014) Healthy Workplaces Managing stress. Africa Newsletter on Occupational

Health and Safety 24(1):78

Nachmias C and Nachmias D. (2008), Research Methods in the Social Sciences.New York:

Worth Publishers

Netterstrom, B., Conrad, N., Bech, P., Fink, P. and Stansfeld, S. (2008). The Relation between

Work-related Psychosocial Factors and the Development of Depression. Johns Hopkins

Bloomberg School of Public Health.

Pestonjee, D. M., Stress and coping: The Indian experience (2nd edition). Sage Publications

India Pvt. Ltd.(1999) New Delhi, Page 216-229.

Punch, K. (1998), Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches.

London: Sage Publications

Rampell, C. (2015). Commentary when women cannot be alone with their male bosses. Capitol

Hill offices

Rebecca M (2010): Factors That Affect Employee Performance in an Organization

http://www.ehow.com/list_5923847_factors-affect-employee-performance-organization.

(Accessed on 18 September 2017)

Research connections. (2013) Field research, Available at www.researchconnections.org ,

Accessed on 20 April 2017

Seibt, et al (2008) Predictors of work ability in occupants with psychological

Simmons, B. L., & Nelson, D. L., Eustress at work: The relationship between hope

and health in hospital nurses. Health Care Management Review, (2001) 26(4), 7-18.

Smith. A., Brice, C., Collins, A., Matthews, V. and Mcnamara, R. (2000) The scale of

occupational stress: A further analysis of the impact of demographic factors and type of job,

Cardiff University Publications

Stoica, V. and Buicu, F. (2010). Occupational Stress Management. Management in Health,

14(2): 79

Stoker , D.,J. (1989).Basic Sampling methods in HSRC: Survey methods and practice. Modulez ,

HSRC: Opinion Survey Centre

Thompson, A. (2008). Boss’ gender can affect workers’ stress. Live science culture.
Vander,B.E.,Shanock,L.R. &Miller,L.R.(2012).Advancing Organisational Support Theory into

which Twenty-First Century World of work,Vol.27(2)pp.123-1

Vokic, N. P. and Bogdanic, A. (2007). Individual differences and stress perceived: a Croatian

survey, Zagreb

World Health Organization (2003). Psychological Harassment at Work Protecting workers.

Health series 4.