Types of SQL statements

There are various types of SQL statements that are used for various different processes. These are:

•DDL

•DML

•DCL

•TCL

•Data Retrieval
DDL - Data Definition Language

Data Definition Language or DDL is used to define the database structure or schema. Some of the
DDL commands are CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME, COMMENT.

DML - Data Manipulation Language

Data Manipulation Language or DML is used to manage the data within some schema objects like
inserting some data in the table or deleting some value from the table. Some of the DML commands
are INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, MERGE.

DCL - Data Control Language

Data Control Language or DCL is used to grant and remove access of schema objects to some users.
Some of the DCL commands are GRANT, REVOKE.

TCL - Transaction Control Language

Transaction Control Language or TCL is used to manage the changes that are made by the DML
commands. So, the changes made by the DML commands can be controlled by the DCL statements.
Some of the DCL commands are COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT.

Data Retrieval
Data Retrieval is used to retrieve or get data from the database. The SELECT statement is used to
retrieve data from the database.

Transaction : A transaction is a single logical unit of work formed by a set of operations. the
operations which are between the beginning and the end of the transaction are counted as a single
logical unit. The database is inconsistent during the transaction. It goes into a consistent state only
when the transaction has occurred successfully. It is very important to have a successful transaction.

For example, if you are sending $100 from your account to your friend's account, then the money
deducted from your account should be reflected to your friend's account.

States Of Transaction
A transaction goes through any different states throughout its lifecycle. These states also known
as transaction state are as follows:

1.Active State: This is the first state of the transaction and any transaction which is being
executed is in this state. The changes made are stored in the buffer in the main memory.

2.Partially Committed: After the last operation is executed the transaction enters into the
partially committed state. This is said partially committed because the changes made are still
in the buffer in the main memory.

3.Failed State: A transaction enters into the failed state if some checks fail in the active
state, some error occurs in the active or partially committed state and the transaction cannot
be executed further.

4.Aborted State: If any transaction has reached the failed state, then the recovery manager
rollback the database to its original state from where the execution had started.

5.Committed State: A transaction from the partially committed state enters into the
committed state if all the operations are executed successfully. It is not possible to roll back
from this state and it is a new consistent state.
ACID Properties
For maintaining the integrity of data in the database the certain properties are followed by all the
transactions that take place in the database. These properties are popularly known as ACID
properties where A is for Atomicity, C for Consistency, I for Isolation and D for Durability.

Atomicity
This property states that the transaction should either occur completely or doesn't occur at all. The
transaction should not occur partially. Each transaction is treated as a unit and the execution is
completed else the transaction is aborted. If any transaction is aborted all the changes made are
reversed back. If the transaction occurs completely then only it is committed.

Example: Suppose there are two accounts A and B having a balance of Rs 1000 and Rs 500
respectively. Now, if you have to transfer Rs 200 from Account A to Account B then this transaction
involves two operations. First, debiting Rs 200 from Account A and second, crediting Rs 200 to
Account B.

Now, let's consider a situation where the first operation has occurred successfully i.e., Rs 200 was
debited from Account A and the balance in Account A is now Rs 800. But, the second transaction
failed. So, the Rs 200 was not added to Account B. This can lead to inconsistency in the database.
So, either the transaction should fail or both the operations should occur if the transaction has to be
successful. The atomicity thus helps in ensuring the correctness of the database.

Consistency
This property ensures that the integrity of the database is maintained before and after the
transaction. It ensures that when any transaction is executed then the database should move from
one consistent state to another consistent state.

Example: In the above example, Account A and Account B have Rs 1000 and Rs 500 respectively.
So, the total amount is Rs 1000+ Rs 500 i.e., Rs 1500 before the transaction. When any transaction
is executed then the total amount should also be Rs 1500. If the transaction occurs then Rs 200 will
be deducted from Account A and added to Account B. So, the total amount after the transaction
will Rs 800 + Rs 700 i.e., Rs 1500. So, this property ensures the consistency of the database. If any
operation in the transaction fails it will produce inconsistency in the data.

Isolation
This property tells that each transaction is executed in the system such that it is the only transaction
in the system. If more than one transaction is taking place in parallel, then the occurrence of one
transaction will not affect the other transaction. If any transaction is using a data item, then it can’t
be used by other transactions until the first transaction ends.

Example: Suppose we have two transaction T1 and T2 which is defined as follows.

Transaction 1: T1
BEGIN
Read(X)
X=X+50
Write(X)
Read(Y)
Y=Y-10
Write(Y)
END

Transaction 2: T2
BEGIN
Read(X)
Read(Y)
Z=X*Y
Write(Z)
END

Let X = 40, Y = 20.

Now, consider a situation where T1 has been executed until Read(Y) and then T2 starts. Due to this,
the transaction T2 reads the incorrect value of Y. It reads the value as 20 and the operations which
it should have been performed by taking the value as 10, T2 will perform by taking the value as 20.
This leads to inconsistent results. The output of the transaction T2 should have been X*Y i.e.,
90*10(=900) but it will produce the output as 90*20 i.e., 1800 as T2 has read the incorrect value of
Y. This problem happened because of the transaction result of T1 was made available for T2. So, to
avoid any such problem the transactions take place in isolation.
Durability
This property ensures that once the changes are made in the database these changes persist in the
database even if any system failure occurs. These changes are saved permanently in the non-volatile
memory. It is the responsibility of the recovery manager to ensure the durability in the database.

A cloud can be described as a term used to describe a group of services either a global or individual
network of servers, which possesses a unique function. Cloud is not a physical entity, but they are a
group or network of remote servers which are arched together to operate as a single entity for an
assigned task.

Types of Cloud: Businesses use different methods of cloud resources, mainly there are four of
them:
•Public Cloud: It is a cloud methodology that is open to all with the Internet on the pay-per-
usage method.
•Private Cloud: It is a cloud methodology used by organizations to build their data centers that
are accessible only with the permission of the organization.
•Hybrid Cloud: It is a cloud methodology that is a combination of public and private clouds. It
serves the different needs of an organization for its services.
•Community Cloud: It is a cloud methodology that provides services to a group of people in an
organization or a single community.

Data Center
A Datacentre can be described as a facility/space of networked computers and associated
components (like telecommunications and storage) which helps business and organisations to
function a large amount of data. These Data centers allow the data to organise, process, store and
disseminate upon the application used by businesses.
Types of Data Center: Businesses use different types of data centers which include:
•Telecom Data Center: It is a type of data center which are operated by telecommunications or
service providers. It requires high-speed connectivity to function.
•Enterprise Data Center: It is a type of data center which is built and owned by a company that
may or may not be onsite.
•Colocation Data Center: It is a type of data center that consists of one data center owner place
which provides cooling to multiple enterprises and hyper-scale their customers.
•Hyperscale Data Center: It is a type of data center which are owned by and operated by the
company itself.
Difference between Cloud and Data Center:

S.No Cloud Data Center

Cloud is a virtual resource that helps Data Center is a physical resource that
1. businesses to store, organize, and operate helps businesses to store, organize, and
data efficiently. operate data efficiently.

The scalability of the cloud required less The scalability of Data Center is huge in
2.
amount of investment. investment as compared to the cloud.

The maintenance cost is high because

The maintenance cost is less than service
3. developers of the organization do
providers maintain it.
maintenance.

Third-Party needs to be trusted for the The organization’s developers are trusted
4.
organization’s data to be stored. for the data stored in data centers.

Performance is huge as compared with Performance is less than compared to

5.
investment. investment.

It is easily customizable without any hard

6. It requires a plan to customize the cloud.
plan.

It requires a stable internet connection to It may and may not require an internet
7.
provide the function. connection.

Data Centers require experienced

Cloud is easy to operate and is considered a
8. developers to operate and are considered
viable option.
not a viable option.

Here, data is collected from the

9. Data is generally collected from the internet
Organization’s network.

It finds use in scenarios where security is not

It finds use in scenarios where the project
10. a critical aspect. Hence, small web
requires a high level of security.
applications can be hosted easily.