energies

Review
Review of Single-Phase Bidirectional Inverter Topologies for
Renewable Energy Systems with DC Distribution
Meshari Alshammari 1,2 and Maeve Duffy 1, *

1 Power Electronics Research Centre, School of Engineering and Ryan Institute, University of Galway,
H91 HX31 Galway, Ireland
2 Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Jouf University, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Recent developments in renewable energy installations in buildings have highlighted

the potential improvement in energy efficiency provided by direct current (DC) distribution over
traditional alternating current (AC) distribution. This is explained by the increase in DC load types
and energy storage systems such as batteries, while renewable energy sources such as photovoltaics
(PVs) produce electricity in DC form. In order to connect a DC distribution system to the alternating
current grid (e.g., for backup, delivering energy storage to the grid) there is a need for a bidirectional
inverter, which needs to operate over a wide range of source and load conditions and is therefore
critical to the overall system performance. However, DC distribution in buildings is relatively new,
with much of the research focused on the control of the DC bus connection between sources and
loads, rather than on the grid connection. Therefore, this review aims to explore recent developments
in bidirectional inverter technologies and the associated challenges imposed on grid-connected DC
distribution systems. The focus is on small-scale building applications powered by photovoltaic
(PV) installations, which may include energy storage in the form of batteries. An evaluation of
existing inverter topologies is presented, focusing on semiconductor technologies, control techniques,
and efficiency under variable source and load conditions. Challenges are identified, as are optimal
Citation: Alshammari, M.; Duffy, M.
solutions based on available technologies. The work provides a basis for future developments to
Review of Single-Phase Bidirectional
Inverter Topologies for Renewable
address current shortcomings so that the full benefits of DC distribution can be achieved.
Energy Systems with DC
Distribution. Energies 2022, 15, 6836. Keywords: bidirectional inverter; DC distribution system; grid integration; single-phase inverter;
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186836 renewable energy integration

Academic Editors: Jelena Loncarski

and Diego Bellan

Received: 19 August 2022 1. Introduction

Accepted: 11 September 2022 1.1. Background and Motivation
Published: 19 September 2022
Renewable energy sources, including solar photovoltaics (PVs) and wind turbines,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral are considered the most dominant solutions to guarantee energy security, with solar PVs
with regard to jurisdictional claims in outweighing the advantages of other sources in terms of cost and environmental friend-
published maps and institutional affil- liness [1]. However, in order to maximize the supply of energy from renewable sources,
iations. the efficiency of the path from source to load needs to be optimized. For instance, the
integration of a photovoltaic (PV) system with a conventional alternating current (AC) dis-
tribution system requires an inverter to convert the direct current (DC) electricity produced
by PVs into a standard AC grid form. On the other hand, there is an ever-increasing range
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
of domestic appliances and equipment that operate from a DC supply, e.g., computing
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and audiovisual equipment, cordless vacuum cleaners, etc., but they require an AC/DC
This article is an open access article
rectifier stage to connect to the conventional AC distribution system (mains). In recogni-
distributed under the terms and
tion of the improved efficiency provided by DC distribution between a DC source and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
DC loads (through the elimination of two complementary stages of power conversion),
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
there has been significant growth in the range of appliances configured for supply from
4.0/).
a DC distribution system, e.g., cooling, heating, lighting, refrigerator, washing machines,

Energies 2022, 15, 6836. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186836 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 6836 2 of 23

etc. [2]. Indeed, standards are being developed for DC-configured products under the
EMerge Alliance [3], in which a high DC voltage level of 300–380 V is preferred in terms of
distribution capability, lower equipment cost, and simplicity of integration with existing
system infrastructure [4]. It is worth mentioning that such DC appliances correspond to
over 60% of the total electricity consumption of householders in the U.S. [5].
In order to determine the benefit provided by DC distribution, recent studies have
analyzed the relative efficiency of AC and DC systems [6,7]. Increased efficiency of up
to 16% has been predicted for DC vs. AC when a PV installation and energy storage are
utilized. A similar level of improvement was reported in [8] in which an additional energy
source, such as a gas engine, was included with PVs, providing increased efficiency of 15%.
Even in the absence of a PV source, in [9], the application of a DC distribution system in an
office building was predicted to have lower power losses by up to 14.9% compared to the
AC systems when only powered by the grid energy. In the case where renewable energy
and energy storage are integrated with the utility grid through DC, optimal efficiency of
up to 50% has been predicted for small-scale buildings [10,11]. This is encouraging for
residential buildings which are likely to achieve self-sustainability compared to commercial
buildings [10], thereby achieving the advantages of net-zero energy, such as resilience and
reliability, and sustainability in buildings can be optimized.
However, when a DC distribution system is implemented and integrated with the
AC grid, an inverter with bidirectional power flow is usually needed to feed the grid in
the case of excess power from the PVs and to supply power from the grid to maintain
the DC bus at a nominal voltage when the load demand is higher than PV generation.
This compares with standard unidirectional inverters, which are normally used to feed
PV energy into an AC distribution system. Bidirectional inverters have been widely used
in higher power applications such as energy storage batteries and plug-in hybrid or fully
electric vehicles. In electric vehicle (EV) applications, the bidirectional capability may be
required to facilitate vehicle-to-grid (V2G) between the grid and the DC bus, although
normally, only a unidirectional rectification stage is used to charge the EV battery. However,
since EV battery charging has its own specific requirements in terms of battery voltage and
charging algorithms, it is not considered further. Instead, this work concentrates on the
bidirectional inverters in DC distribution systems integrated into residential buildings.
Despite their importance, the design and implementation of bidirectional inverters
for DC distribution in buildings are relatively immature. As a result, there are several
approaches described in the literature, but they have not been widely compared or assessed.
This review takes the opportunity to address this gap so as to advance the understanding
of the impact of bidirectional inverters in DC distribution systems, while also identifying
technical challenges to be addressed in future research. The results will lead to the devel-
opment of more efficient DC distribution systems towards enabling net-zero buildings, as
predicted in the studies above.

1.2. Bidirectional Inverter Challenges

The interface between the DC bus and the AC grid is crucial because it can reduce the
operation efficiency and stability of the overall system performance. Therefore, methods
for increasing the efficiency of bidirectional inverters have received considerable attention
because they relate to the return on investment of the DC system. High efficiency over a
wide range of power levels has significant benefits for increasing DC system efficiency in
buildings, especially small-scale domestic installations, where there is usually a mismatch
between periods of PV production and energy consumption [12–14]. This is less relevant
for commercial buildings.
Transformerless topologies are widely used to reduce losses (and costs) associated
with transformers in isolated topologies. However, it is important to highlight that due to
dynamic coupling between the shared AC and DC ground in a transformerless solution, the
parasitic capacitance of PV panels causes a leakage current. This has a negative impact on
the inverter efficiency and needs to be minimized to avoid significant loss [15]. The effect
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 3 of 23

varies depending on the common mode voltage (CMV) across the parasitic capacitor, and
therefore, modulation strategies can alleviate the issue [16]. Other solutions are discussed
in more detail below.
High leakage current may lead to the additional distortion of the output grid current
caused by high-frequency operation, where the utility grid standardization needs to be
in compliance with the safety regulations of electrical equipment. On account of this, an
EMI filter is required to attenuate the grid current to an optimal level of quality on the
AC side in the case of inverter mode. However, while the ground of the AC and DC sides
are shared through the distribution plant in the building, the common-mode (CM) and
electromagnetic interference (EMI) noise-related issues will cause an impact on the DC
side. The DC-bus voltage, as well as differential-mode (DM) and (CM) noise, must be
kept within a small-voltage ripple to provide improved power quality, ensure reliable load
operation, and reduce significant loss in the system. Different filtering schemes to address
this are described later. It is shown that the additional number of passive components, as
well as the complexity of the associated control approach, would reduce the efficiency of
the design. As a consequence, a trade-off must be made in the development of a suitable
EMI filter in order to reduce the aforementioned concerns.
Given the strong correlation between the leakage current and the EMI filter, it should
be noted that the range of current that the filter inductor needs to support is another
challenge due to the potential nonlinear characteristic of its core material. As a result, the
tracking accuracy of the employed current controller to set the required grid current may
be influenced by the inductor current ripple. Moreover, errors in zero-crossing detection for
grid synchronization could be introduced due to insufficient magnetization of the inductor
core material which has an impact on the grid current. This effect is important for both
inversion and rectification modes in a grid-connected inverter. Indeed, in rectification
mode, power factor correction (PFC) is required to reduce the consumers’ load demand for
reactive power. In addition, the harmonic regulation has to be fulfilled according to the
required grid code. It is worth noting that the response to different weather conditions of
renewable energy sources such as PVs can cause a wide voltage variation on the DC side of
the bidirectional inverter. Under this circumstance, the authors of [17] offer buck/boost
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to mitigate the sudden change of voltage and
associated stress applied to the DC bus interfaced with a grid-connected inverter. This is
important to ensure that the bidirectional inverter supplies local load conditions as well as
to the grid, efficiently and reliably. The power flow of the bidirectional inverter needs to
be maintained based on the DC-bus voltage when subjected to variable source and load
conditions [18]. The control capability also has to assure the stability of the entire system
when subjected to a certain level of load demand due to shared power supply either from
renewable energy or the grid. Moreover, the DC bus needs to be regulated at a nominal
voltage to enable the operation of the battery charge controller and a reliable supply of DC
system. On the other hand, the power delivered by the DC-bus in case of excess power
from PVs has to meet the standard power regulations of the grid [19,20].
In addition to maintaining stable DC and AC voltage levels and grid synchroniza-
tion [21,22], the DC-side interaction with the AC grid must be decoupled and isolated in
the case of a fault or potential transient which can affect the dynamic operation of the sys-
tem [23]. Furthermore, the phase shift during the transition period between inversion and
rectification modes should not affect the DC system’s reliability. Considering that certain
bidirectional inverter types have two stages of power conversion, the control structure may
become more complex if the transition between modes is performed effectively to achieve
high performance levels. The control design of the DC-bus interface with renewable energy
is discussed in more detail in Section 5.

1.3. Paper Structure

The paper consists of five sections. A brief overview of DC distribution system config-
urations involving a bidirectional inverter is presented in Section 2. Section 3 begins by
 figurations involving a bidirectional inverter is presented in Section 2. Section 3 begins by
laying out the historical overview and theoretical implementation of bidirectional inverter
topologies and looks at how they are controlled with the utility grid. Section 4 presents a
comparison of the performance between different topologies to highlight the optimal de-
sign. Section 5 presents a comparison and classification of the various techniques and pa-
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 rameters used in different control systems for bidirectional inverters. Finally, a conclusion 4 of 23
summary is given in Section 6, which includes challenges and limitations associated with
the bidirectional inverter and suggestions to be considered for future implementation.

laying
2. out the historical
DC Distribution Systemoverview and theoretical implementation of bidirectional inverter
Configurations
topologies
With theand looks at how
development they are
of efficient DCcontrolled with
distribution the utility
systems grid. Section
in buildings in recent4 presents
years, it has commonly been assumed that the combination of different energy sources optimal
a comparison of the performance between different topologies to highlight the
design.
could Section
enhance 5 presents However,
performance. a comparison
it hasand
beenclassification
shown that the ofDC
thesystem
various techniques and pa-
performance
rameters used in different control systems for bidirectional inverters.
could vary in terms of efficiency depending on load profile, utilized renewable energyFinally, a conclusion
summary
sources, andisutility
givengrid
in Section 6, which
integration includes
[10]. Figure challenges
1 illustrates and limitations
a general associated with
schematic configu-
ration of DC distribution
the bidirectional invertersystems in buildings,to
and suggestions including renewable
be considered for energy
future sources (PV
implementation.
in this case), energy storage, and a mix of AC and DC loads [24–27]. The system contains
a2.power
DC Distribution System
optimizer known as a Configurations
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to maximize the
PV output power under different weatherDC
With the development of efficient conditions [28]. systems
distribution In addition, a step-up/down
in buildings in recent years,
DC/DC power converter is implemented for charging/discharging the energy storage and
it has commonly been assumed that the combination of different energy sources could
to control the power flow to regulate the voltage level of the DC bus.
enhance performance. However, it has been shown that the DC system performance could
The integration of grid power is required to assure the continuous operation of the
systemininterms
vary of efficiency
supplying depending
the DC loads onofload
in the case profile,power,
insufficient utilized renewable
either energy sources,
from renewable
and utility
energy grid
sources integration
or energy storage.[10]. Figurethere
However, 1 illustrates a general schematic
are some configurations configuration
of DC systems
of DC
that distribution
do not systemsenergy
employ renewable in buildings, including
sources, in renewable
which energy storage energy
and/or asources (PV in this
fossil fuel-
case),generator
based energy storage,
and grid and
power a are
mixutilized
of ACinstead.
and DC loads
Under [24–27].
these The system
circumstances, energycontains a
power could
storage optimizer knowntoasaddress
be beneficial a maximum
the peakpower
saving point tracking
and ensure (MPPT)ofto
the security maximize the
supply,
or
PVfor applying
output demand-side
power management
under different whenconditions
weather there are no[28].
alternative energy asources.
In addition, step-up/down
On the other
DC/DC hand,
power regardless
converter of the importance
is implemented of energy storage, it is the
for charging/discharging not energy
always in-
storage and
cluded in DC
to control thesystem
power configurations.
flow to regulate the voltage level of the DC bus.

Solar PVs
DC/AC
DC/DC
MPPT Converter
Bidirectional AC Grid
Inverter
DC/DC
Charge Controller DC/DC
Converter

Energy Storage DC Loads AC Loads

Figure
Figure1.1.Schematic configuration
Schematic of DC distribution
configuration systems integrated
of DC distribution systemswith a grid andwith
integrated a backup
a grid and a
system.
backup system.
Despite the progress and optimal efficiency of DC distribution system implementa-
The integration of grid power is required to assure the continuous operation of the
tion, there is still no consensus on standardization and regulation. The EMerge Alliance
system in supplying the DC loads in the case of insufficient power, either from renewable
has developed a standard for 24 Vdc distribution for low power loads within inhabited
areas, and severalorcertified
energy sources energyinfrastructure
storage. However, there
solutions haveare some configurations
successfully of DC systems
shown compliance
with this standard [2]. However, 24 V is not compatible with typical battery and inverter a fossil
that do not employ renewable energy sources, in which energy storage and/or
fuel-based
voltages. generatortheand
In addition, grid has
alliance power are utilized
recommended theinstead. Under of
implementation these
a 380circumstances,
Vdc
energy storage could be beneficial to address the peak saving and ensure
standard for use in higher power applications such as data centers and central telecom the security of
supply, or for applying demand-side management when there are no alternative energy
sources. On the other hand, regardless of the importance of energy storage, it is not always
included in DC system configurations.
Despite the progress and optimal efficiency of DC distribution system implementation,
there is still no consensus on standardization and regulation. The EMerge Alliance has
developed a standard for 24 Vdc distribution for low power loads within inhabited areas,
and several certified infrastructure solutions have successfully shown compliance with this
standard [2]. However, 24 V is not compatible with typical battery and inverter voltages.
In addition, the alliance has recommended the implementation of a 380 Vdc standard for
use in higher power applications such as data centers and central telecom offices [2]. This
standard might pave the way for DC distribution in residential and commercial applications
at voltages greater than 24 V, which would be advantageous for both sectors. As a result, the
academic literature on such systems integrated into buildings has revealed the emergence
of several contrasting themes in terms of DC bus configuration and voltage level [29–31].
The purpose of a DC-distribution system is to eliminate some of the integrated conversion
 type is that the DC bus has three lines, positive and negative lines, +Vdc, −Vdc, and the
middle line is a neutral line [32–34], to allow the supply of loads with two available volt-
age ranges, as depicted in Figure 2a. In addition, the system has robust reliability to guar-
antee that loads are fed when an electrical fault occurs in either line [35]. Moreover, with
a bipolar structure, the neutral point is grounded, which considerably reduces the line-to-
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 5 of 23
ground safety risk by significantly reducing the highest allowable DC-line voltage relative
to the ground.
Figure 2b shows the unipolar DC distribution system with one consistent voltage
stagesrepresented
level, to increase the overall
by the distribution
use of two lines, system efficiency.
one labeled “+Vdc” However, depending
and the other “−Vdc”. onThe
the
range of loads
unipolar structureto be
is supplied, therefor
more suitable are two dominating
systems with low powerDC bus structures,
loads due to thebipolar and
cost sav-
unipolar,
ing as presented
associated in Figure
with reduced wiring2.compared
The principle
to the of a bipolar
bipolar typeHowever,
type [36]. is that thethe DC bus
lower
has three lines, positive and negative lines, +Vdc, − Vdc, and the middle
voltage level of unipolar systems may limit the efficiency that can be achieved regardless line is a neutral
lineits[32–34],
of to allow
cost benefits the In
[37]. supply
termsofofloads
thesewith
DC two
bus available
structuresvoltage ranges,
integrating withas depicted
the grid
in Figure 2a. In addition, the system has robust reliability to guarantee
through a bidirectional inverter, there is one study implemented with a bipolar type that loads are(Fig-
fed
when
ure 2a)an electrical
[38]. fault occurs
This approach in either
usually line [35].
experiences Moreover,
additional with
costs inaterms
bipolar structure,
of control the
struc-
neutral
ture andpoint is grounded,
computation, which considerably
and ultimately the overallreduces
benefit the line-to-ground
is slightly safety
higher when risk by
unipolar
significantly
is used. reducing the highest allowable DC-line voltage relative to the ground.

AC grid Solar PV Energy Storage AC grid Solar PV Energy Storage

AC/DC DC/DC DC/DC AC/DC DC/DC DC/DC

Bidirectional MPPT Charge Bidirectional MPPT Charge
Inverter Converter Controller Inverter Converter Controller

+
+
DC-Bus N
DC-Bus
- -

DC/DC DC/DC DC/DC DC/DC

Converter Converter Converter Converter

DC Loads DC Loads DC Loads DC Loads

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. The
The structure
structure of
of (a)
(a) bipolar
bipolar DC
DC bus, (b) unipolar
bus, (b) unipolar DC
DC bus.
bus.

A comparison
Figure 2b shows of the
the unipolar
existing empirical literature
DC distribution on DC-bus
system voltage
with one versusvoltage
consistent power
integrated with a single-phase bidirectional inverter is illustrated in
level, represented by the use of two lines, one labeled “+Vdc” and the other “−Vdc”. Figure 3. Based on
the results, it may be observed that once the power level is high, the
The unipolar structure is more suitable for systems with low power loads due to the cost voltage typically
corresponds to thatwith
saving associated of the peak mains,
reduced wiringi.e., √2 timesto
compared thetheroot meantype
bipolar square (rms)
[36]. voltage.the
However, It
can
lowerbe voltage
seen thatlevel
the majority of the
of unipolar DC busmay
systems voltage
limitlevels fall somewhere
the efficiency that canin the
be region
achievedof
380 to 400 V.
regardless High-voltage
of its cost benefitsoperation (i.e., 600
[37]. In terms V) is applied
of these DC bus in cases where
structures two voltage
integrating with
levels (600
the grid V/300 V)
through may be required,
a bidirectional allowing
inverter, therefor the adaptability
is one of DC load
study implemented withconnection.
a bipolar
Nevertheless,
type (Figure 2a) it [38].
is possible to conclude
This approach thatexperiences
usually the high power and voltage
additional costs inlevel
terms(i.e., 10 kW
of control
structure and computation, and ultimately the overall benefit is slightly higher when
unipolar is used.
A comparison of the existing empirical literature on DC-bus voltage versus power
integrated with a single-phase bidirectional inverter is illustrated in Figure 3. Based on
the results, it may be observed that once the power level is high, the voltage typically
√
corresponds to that of the peak mains, i.e., 2 times the root mean square (rms) voltage.
It can be seen that the majority of the DC bus voltage levels fall somewhere in the region
of 380 to 400 V. High-voltage operation (i.e., 600 V) is applied in cases where two voltage
levels (600 V/300 V) may be required, allowing for the adaptability of DC load connection.
Nevertheless, it is possible to conclude that the high power and voltage level (i.e., 10 kW
and 600 V) is not appropriate for residential buildings from a safety perspective, despite
the fact that it provides a high level of efficiency.
 Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25

Energies 2022, 15, 6836 6 of 23

and 600 V) is not appropriate for residential buildings from a safety perspective, despite
the fact that it provides a high level of efficiency.

Figure
Figure 3. 3.
DC-bus voltage
DC-bus level integrated
voltage with a bidirectional
level integrated inverter. a—[39,40];
with a bidirectional b—[41];a—[39,40];
inverter. c—[42]; b—[41]; c—[42];
d—[43]; e—[44]; f—[45–50]; g—[51–55]; h—[38,56,57]; i—[58].
d—[43]; e—[44]; f—[45–50]; g—[51–55]; h—[38,56,57]; i—[58].
3. Single-Phase Bidirectional Inverter Topologies
3. Single-Phase Bidirectional
Single-phase inverters are generally Inverter
classifiedTopologies
into two types: voltage source (VS) and
current source (CS) inverters. The VS inverter is widely used for PV grid-connected appli-
Single-phase inverters are generally classified into two types: voltage source (VS)
cations due to its advantages of high efficiency, economical cost, and the size of imple-
and current
mentation [59,60]. source (CS)a good
It provides inverters.
solutionThe
when VS
theinverter is widely
required voltage needsused for PV grid-connected
to be main-
applications
tained regardlessdueof thetocurrent
its advantages of highthe
variation. Meanwhile, efficiency,
CS invertereconomical
is usually usedcost,
in and the size of
applications
implementation involved[59,60].
in controlling the torque,
It provides such solution
a good as electrical vehicles
when the(EVs), wherevoltage needs to be
required
the current needs to be controlled. This paper is mostly concerned with VS inverters.
maintained regardless of the current variation. Meanwhile, the CS inverter is usually used
Traditional inverters have unidirectional power flow, while in a DC distribution sys-
in applications
tem, a bidirectional involved
power flowin controlling
interfaced between thethetorque,
DC bus such as electrical
and utility vehicles (EVs), where
grid is usually
the current
required. needs to
A summary be controlled.
of the This paper
existing implemented is mostly
bidirectional concerned
topologies used in with
DC VS inverters.
distribution systems in
Traditional buildings is
inverters illustrated
have in Figure 4. These
unidirectional powermay flow,
be categorized
while intoin a DC distribution
transformer and transformerless
system, a bidirectional power inverters/converters.
flow interfacedInbetweenturn, the transformerless
the DC bus and topol-
utility grid is usually
ogy can be grouped into four sub-groups based on their functionality of (a) voltage stress
required. A summary of the existing implemented bidirectional
and decoupling between the DC and AC sides, i.e., common ground; (b) H-bridge; (c) H6;
topologies used in DC
distribution systems in buildings is illustrated in Figure
and (d) two-stage non-isolated topology [61,62]. In order to shed more light on each to-4. These may be categorized
into transformer
pology considering theand main transformerless
concerning factors inverters/converters.
such as leakage current (Icm) Inandturn, the transformerless
com-
mon mode voltage (CMV), the following sections provide an analysis of the
topology can be grouped into four sub-groups based on their functionality of (a) voltage topologies
utilized, illustrating the efficiency and control challenges and optimal design aspects.
stress and decoupling between the DC and AC sides, i.e., common ground; (b) H-bridge;
(c) H6; and (d) two-stage non-isolated topology [61,62]. In order to shed more light on
each topology considering the main concerning factors such as leakage current (Icm) and
common mode voltage (CMV), the following sections provide an analysis
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 25 of the topologies
utilized, illustrating the efficiency and control challenges and optimal design aspects.

Figure 4. Classification of single-phase bidirectional inverter topologies integrated with a DC dis-

Figure
tribution4. Classification
system. of single-phase
(We et al., 2009)—[63]; (Kim et al., bidirectional inverter
2012)—[51]; (Wu et topologies
al., 2010)—[52]; (Dong etintegrated
al., with a DC
distribution
2012)—[44]; (Leesystem. (We et al.,
et al., 2012)—[43]; 2009)—[63];
(Hwarg (Kim (Chen,
et al., 2014)—[39]; et al.,Burgos
2012)—[51]; (Wu et al., 2010)—[52];
and Boroyevich,
2015)—[56]; (Wang et al., 2019)—[53]; (Alshammari and Duffy, 2021)—[54]; (Ortiz et al., 2010)—[64];
(Dong et al., 2012)—[44]; (Lee et al., 2012)—[43]; (Hwarg et al., 2014)—[39]; (Chen, Burgos and
(Chen, Burgos and Boroyevich, 2018)—[57].

3.1. Transformer Topologies

To overcome the potential effects of leakage current caused by parasitic capacitance
between the PVs and the ground of the utility grid, a transformer may be used to provide
galvanic isolation [65]. However, if operating at the mains/line frequency (LF), a large
transformer size is needed to prevent saturation in the core, and that could decrease the
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 7 of 23

Boroyevich, 2015)—[56]; (Wang et al., 2019)—[53]; (Alshammari and Duffy, 2021)—[54];

(Ortiz et al., 2010)—[64]; (Chen, Burgos and Boroyevich, 2018)—[57].

3.1. Transformer Topologies

To overcome the potential effects of leakage current caused by parasitic capacitance
between the PVs and the ground of the utility grid, a transformer may be used to provide
galvanic isolation [65]. However, if operating at the mains/line frequency (LF), a large
transformer size is needed to prevent saturation in the core, and that could decrease the
efficiency and introduce further weight and cost to the system [66]. An alternative method
is to resort to a high-frequency (HF) transformer to reduce the transformer size. However,
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEWthis could lead to an increase in power loss and requires a relatively 8 of high
25 level of system
complexity, especially when integrating DC distribution systems, as the bidirectional power
flow and regulation of the DC bus are required to be balanced when multiple power sources
ofare applied,
current-fed in addition
inductors to thetransformers
and isolation bus being [69].subjected
However,to due
different load conditions.
to the existing res-
onant current of the capacitor
The study of [63] in hassome clamped circuits,
provided detailstheon
current
the stress on the of
adaption switches
the push-pull isolated
is significantly increased, resulting in higher power loss and a corresponding decrease in
topology for low-voltage DC bidirectional inverters integrated into the grid as shown in
efficiency. Therefore, a flyback snubber provided by the authors of [70] is used to recycle
Figure
the energy5a.
thatThis topology
the clamping provides
capacitor the
absorbs. ability the
Moreover, to step up capacitor
clamping or down, which is important in
voltage
applications
can be controlled where the DC
autonomously bus
by the voltage
flyback level
snubber. ischaracteristic
The less than the peak mains. However, the
of zero-voltage
transition
topology (ZVT) was applied
needs to a phase-shift
to be operated at a full bridge at high
relatively highfrequency
frequency to achieve
(20 kHz)high to ensure that the
efficiency
transformerfor bidirectional capability [71].
size is reasonable, Thethis
and topology
limits maintains a constant
its efficiency tooutput
somevolt-extent. The push-pull
age by decreasing the input voltage, which usually varies.
alsoTheprovides the function of PFC in the case of the rectification mode, while using phase-
bidirectional operation of an LLC resonant converter is introduced in [72] and
shift
has the control
ability to in the the
reduce inversion
switches’mode. A notable
voltage stress withoutfeature of this
any snubber topology
circuity. How- is the benefit of a
lowitnumber
ever, ofthat
is possible switches
the wideand associated
operating range ofdriver circuitry,
the converter which can
necessitates avoid additional power
a compro-
mise
lossesbetween the turnto
compared ratio of the
other transformer and the utilization
transformer-based of theinverters
bidirectional resonant charac-
[67]. However, it seems
teristics. Therefore, a high-efficiency isolated bidirectional inverter with two stages of
that the current harmonic in PFC mode is relatively high when the system is operated for a
power conversion was proposed by [51] to overcome the high switch conduction loss of
wide
the range ofboost
bidirectional power levels
rectifier, (1 kWintoFigure
as shown 5 kW5b.inHowever,
this case).
the Similarly, for the
overall efficiency of inversion mode, a
high current harmonic distortion
this topology tends to be low at light loads. is introduced when the load demand is higher than 1 kW.

L5 Iac
L1 L3
Idc
S3

S4

Co Vac

Rdc L2 L4
Cdc
S5

S6

S1 S2

(a)

S1 S2 S5 S6 S9 S10 Iac

+ L1
Vo Co CdL
- Vac
C1 C2

S3 S4 S7 S8 S11 S12

(b)
Figure
Figure 5. Illustration of bidirectional
5. Illustration transformer topologies:
of bidirectional transformer (a) push-pull topology
topologies: (a) [63] and (b)
push-pull topology [63] and
isolated bidirectional boost rectifier AC–DC converter [51].
(b) isolated bidirectional boost rectifier AC–DC converter [51].
3.2. Transformerless Topologies
TheInfull-bridge
recognition
(H4) of their superior
transformerless performance
topology, as shown inand efficiency,
Figure 6a, is most significant
com- research on
the application
monly of DC/DC
used for bidirectional topologies
conversion to isolated
in renewable energy bidirectional
applications, e.g.,converters
[52]. Since has recently been
there is no transformer,
published [68]. Thusit generally provides
far, the a smaller solution,
development and the issueisolated
of a high-power of trans- full-bridge boost
former
rectifierleakage
withcurrent is eliminated.
bidirectional However,isit proposed
capability has its own [69].
issues.However,
The fluctuation of
as with all transformer-
filter inductance due to non-linear core material properties over a wide current range
based solutions, leakage inductance causes high current spikes during switching and
causes current oscillation and significant current ripple, lowering current tracking accu-
significant
racy [52]. As a effort has been
consequence, directed
the DC-bus andat addressing
grid voltages willthis through
vary. In order snubber
to reduce circuits. Using an
this fluctuation in a single cycle, a closed-loop control system was designed that attenu-
ated the required duty cycle to provide the desired inductor current while also reducing
variations in the DC-bus and grid voltage. However, the efficiency of this topology is low.
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 8 of 23

RCD passive snubber to clamp the voltage is the most straightforward method; however,
the resistor dissipation adds to power loss, resulting in low efficiency. Alternatively, active
and passive clamping circuits may reduce voltage stress caused by the leakage inductance
of current-fed inductors and isolation transformers [69]. However, due to the existing
resonant current of the capacitor in some clamped circuits, the current stress on the switches
is significantly increased, resulting in higher power loss and a corresponding decrease in
efficiency. Therefore, a flyback snubber provided by the authors of [70] is used to recycle
the energy that the clamping capacitor absorbs. Moreover, the clamping capacitor voltage
can be controlled autonomously by the flyback snubber. The characteristic of zero-voltage
transition (ZVT) was applied to a phase-shift full bridge at high frequency to achieve
high efficiency for bidirectional capability [71]. The topology maintains a constant output
voltage by decreasing the input voltage, which usually varies.
The bidirectional operation of an LLC resonant converter is introduced in [72] and has
the ability to reduce the switches’ voltage stress without any snubber circuity. However, it is
possible that the wide operating range of the converter necessitates a compromise between
the turn ratio of the transformer and the utilization of the resonant characteristics. Therefore,
a high-efficiency isolated bidirectional inverter with two stages of power conversion was
proposed by [51] to overcome the high switch conduction loss of the bidirectional boost
rectifier, as shown in Figure 5b. However, the overall efficiency of this topology tends to be
low at light loads.

3.2. Transformerless Topologies

The full-bridge (H4) transformerless topology, as shown in Figure 6a, is most com-
monly used for bidirectional conversion in renewable energy applications, e.g., [52]. Since
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
there is no transformer, it generally provides a smaller solution, and the issue 9 of 25of transformer

leakage current is eliminated. However, it has its own issues. The fluctuation of filter induc-
tance due to non-linear core material properties over a wide current range causes current
To address
oscillation thesignificant
and challenge of current
maintaining a stable
ripple, DC bus voltage
lowering current under transient
tracking load
accuracy [52]. As a
conditions, the work of [64] offered an improvement in which the stability of the DC-bus
consequence, the DC-bus and grid voltages will vary. In order to reduce this fluctuation in
voltage is maintained and the DC-link capacitor is reduced by using a two-stage power
a single cycle,
conversion a closed-loop
scheme where the H4control system
is employed was designed
in series thatstage
with a DC/DC attenuated
as shownthein required duty
cycle to
Figure 6b.provide
As can bethe desired
seen, inductor
the DC/DC acts current
as a buckwhile
duringalso reducing
rectification variations
and as a boostin the DC-bus
and grid
during voltage. However, the efficiency of this topology is low.
inversion.

+
S1 S3 iL

L1
Vdc
Cdc C1 Vac

S2 S4

(a)
idc

Cdc S1 S3 S5 L1 iac

L2
Vac
+

Vdc Ro Co
S2 S4 S6
-

(b)
Figure
Figure6.6.Bidirectional inverter
Bidirectional (a) conventional
inverter H4 [52] and
(a) conventional H4 (b) two-stage
[52] and (b)topology [64].topology [64].
two-stage
A modified H4 topology with an EMI filter connected to the grid is proposed in [44],
as shown in Figure 7. The topology aims at reducing the leakage current on the DC side
caused by high-frequency unipolar PWM on the AC side. It includes an output LCL filter
with a common-mode choke in which the neutral point is connected directly to the mid-
point of the DC link. This involves a split-phase DC line employing two extra DC capaci-
 Cdc S1 S3 S5 L1 iac

Energies 2022, 15, 6836 L2 9 of 23

Vac
+

Vdc Ro Co
To address the challenge S2 of maintaining
S4 S6
a stable DC bus voltage under transient load
-
conditions, the work of [64] offered an improvement in which the stability of the DC-bus
voltage is maintained and the DC-link capacitor is reduced by using a two-stage power
(b)
conversion scheme where the H4 is employed in series with a DC/DC stage as shown in
Figure
Figure6.6b.Bidirectional
As can beinverter (a) DC/DC
seen, the conventional
actsH4 as[52] and (b)
a buck two-stage
during topologyand
rectification [64].as a boost
during inversion.
A
A modified
modified H4 H4 topology
topology with
with an
an EMI
EMI filter
filter connected
connected to to the
the grid
grid is
is proposed
proposed in in [44],
[44],
as
as shown in Figure 7. The topology aims at reducing the leakage current on the DC side
shown in Figure 7. The topology aims at reducing the leakage current on the DC side
caused
caused by byhigh-frequency
high-frequencyunipolar
unipolarPWMPWM onon thethe
ACACside. It includes
side. an output
It includes LCL filter
an output LCL
with
filter awith
common-mode
a common-mode chokechoke
in which the neutral
in which point point
the neutral is connected directly
is connected to theto
directly mid-
the
point of theofDC
mid-point thelink.
DC This
link.involves a split-phase
This involves DC lineDC
a split-phase employing two extra
line employing twoDC capaci-
extra DC
tors. Consequently,
capacitors. this AC
Consequently, filter
this ACstructure could add
filter structure couldadditional powerpower
add additional loss, which limits
loss, which
efficiency. Therefore,
limits efficiency. there is there
Therefore, a trade-off betweenbetween
is a trade-off CMV on theCMV DCon side
theandDChigh
sideefficiency,
and high
in which case
efficiency, the overall
in which case thesystem
overallperformance, particularly
system performance, at low consumption
particularly power,
at low consumption
could
power,becould
improved.
be improved.

Cdc_A S1 S3 iac
+
A
L1 L2 L5
C2
Vdc Cdc C1 Vac
L3 L4 C3 L6
B
-
Cdc_B
S2 S4
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25

Figure 7. Modified
Modified H4 bidirectional full-bridge topology with EMI structure [44].

Another
Another issue
issue with
with thethe H4
H4 topology
topology is is that
that it,
it, too,
too, suffers
suffers from
from power
power loss
loss due
due toto
leakage current through the parasitic capacitance of the PVs [73]. In order
leakage current through the parasitic capacitance of the PVs [73]. In order to overcome this to overcome
this effect,
effect, the authors
the authors of [43]ofpropose
[43] propose a solution
a solution that provides
that provides two additional
two additional current
current paths on
paths on the AC side, where the inverter output is driven into three levels
the AC side, where the inverter output is driven into three levels of VAB (Vdc, 0, and –Vdc), of VAB (Vdc,
0,
asand –Vdc),inasFigure
depicted depicted in Figure
8. Since 8. Since
the rate the rate
of change in of change
voltage in voltage
across across the
the parasitic parasitic
capacitance
capacitance (ground
(ground capacitor) capacitor)this
is reduced, is design
reduced, canthis design
limit can limit high-frequency
high-frequency components andcompo- reduce
nents and reduce leakage current. As a result, the inductor loss during
leakage current. As a result, the inductor loss during freewheeling is reduced, while injected freewheeling is
reduced, while injected reactive power from the grid is reduced in the case
reactive power from the grid is reduced in the case of zero crossing. Due to the fact that the of zero cross-
ing. Due to
topology the fact
operates asthat thein
a boost topology operates
rectification mode,asthe a boost
DC-linkin voltage
rectification mode,
limitation the DC-
is required
link
to bevoltage limitation
nearly twice as highis asrequired to be
the power nearly
grid’s peaktwice as high
voltage. as the there
However, power grid’s
is no peak
capacitor
voltage.
connected However,
to the AC there is no capacitor
terminals, connected
which impacts the to
EMItheperformance.
AC terminals,High which impactswas
efficiency the
EMI performance.
achieved in this caseHighbutefficiency
is partly was
owingachieved
to the inusethis
of case but is semiconductor
oversized partly owing to devices
the use
of oversized
relative to thesemiconductor devices relative to the design specification.
design specification.

S1 S3 iac
+
A
L1

Vdc Cdc Vac

L2
B -
+

-
S2 S4 S5 S6

Figure
Figure 8.
8. H4
H4 bidirectional
bidirectional inverter
inverter full-bridge
full-bridge topology with additional paths [43].

Loss analysis of the H4 topology found that high losses are contributed by large in-
ductor current ripple, in addition to the loss of the switches operating at high frequency
[39]. Therefore, an interleaved three-leg full-bridge inverter was proposed as shown in
Figure 9 in which high and low switching frequencies are applied for the middle and outer
 Vdc Cdc Vac
L2
B -

+
-
S2 S4 S5 S6
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 10 of 23

Figure 8. H4 bidirectional inverter full-bridge topology with additional paths [43].

Lossanalysis
Loss analysisofof
thethe
H4H4 topology
topology foundfound
thatthat
highhigh
losses losses are contributed
are contributed by in-
by large large induc-
tor current
ductor current ripple,
ripple,ininaddition
addition to
to the lossof
the loss ofthe
theswitches
switches operating
operating at high
at high frequency [39].
frequency
Therefore,
[39]. an interleaved
Therefore, an interleaved three-leg
three-legfull-bridge
full-bridgeinverter
inverterwas wasproposed
proposed as shown
shown in in Figure 9
Figure
in which9 in which highlow
high and and switching
low switching frequenciesare
frequencies areapplied
applied forforthethemiddle
middleandand
outer
outer legs,
legs, respectively,
respectively, where
where a predictive
a predictive control
control strategywas
strategy wasimplemented
implemented to to synchronize
synchronize the grid
the grid voltage
voltage and current.
and current. However,
However, leakage
leakage current
current stillstill presentsa achallenge
presents challenge in
in which
which the flow
the
of current during different parts of the cycle is discontinuous. No details ofofthe
flow of current during different parts of the cycle is discontinuous. No details theefficiency
efficiency were provided in this case.
were provided in this case.

idc

+
S1 S3 S5 L1 iL

L2
Vdc L2
Cdc C1 Vac

S2 S4 S6

Interleaved
Figure9.9.Interleaved
Figure single-phase
single-phase three-leg
three-leg of fullofbridge
full bridge topology
topology [39]. [39].

Thestudy
The study
of of [56]
[56] offers
offers probably
probably one
one of theofmost
the comprehensive
most comprehensiveempirical empirical
analyses analyses
of
ofthe
thetransformerless
transformerless H4H4topology when
topology employed
when in a two-stage
employed interfaceinterface
in a two-stage between between
the the
grid
gridand
andDCDCsources.
sources. TheThe
authors present
authors an analytical
present loss breakdown
an analytical for the H4
loss breakdown forand
the H4 and
propose
proposea amethod
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW method forfor
minimizing
minimizing losses caused
losses by theby
caused EMItheand
EMICM filters.
and CM 11Figure
of 25 10Figure 10
filters.
shows the proposed 2-level (2L) full bridge with LCL filter in (a), while a parallel
shows the proposed 2-level (2L) full bridge with LCL filter in (a), while a parallel versionversion is
is proposed in (b). The efficiency was highest when the 2L parallel structure was
proposed in (b). The efficiency was highest when the 2L parallel structure was employed
employed
due to the duereduction
to the reduction in conduction
in conduction lossesprovided
losses provided by byparalleling and the
paralleling anduse
the use of SiC
of SiC MOSFETs for decreasing the switching losses. Similarly, an emphasis
MOSFETs for decreasing the switching losses. Similarly, an emphasis on the on the per-
performance of
formance of semiconductors device such as SiC MOSFET provides potential performance
semiconductors device such as SiC MOSFET provides potential performance for enhancing
for enhancing the bidirectional inverter efficiency compared to ideal MOSFETs and IGBTs
the bidirectional
[41]. inverter does
However, this topology efficiency compared
not address the issuetoof
ideal MOSFETs
capacitive leakageand IGBTs
current and[41]. However,
this topology
associated CMV. does not address the issue of capacitive leakage current and associated CMV.

+
S1 S3 iL

L1 L2
Vdc
Cdc C1 Vac

S2 S4

(a)

+
S1 S3 S5 S7 iL

L1 L2
Vdc
Cdc C1 Vac

S2 S4 S6 S8

(b)
Figure
Figure10.10.Bidirectional inverter
Bidirectional topologies
inverter of (a) aof2L(a)
topologies full bridge
a 2L fullwith LCLwith
bridge filter,LCL
(b) afilter,
2L parallel
(b) a 2L parallel full
full bridge [56].
bridge [56].
Since solutions to the leakage current and associated CMV may require additional
components and increase the cost and size of the bidirectional inverter, a new H6 trans-
formerless inverter topology was proposed (firstly as a unidirectional inverter) in [74] that
eliminates the leakage current, reduces the inductor harmonics current, and prevents the
voltage spikes that occur in inductive loads. During the inductor free-wheeling interval
in the positive half-cycle, the current flows through D1 and diode S5. This not only dis-
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 11 of 23

Since solutions to the leakage current and associated CMV may require additional
components and increase the cost and size of the bidirectional inverter, a new H6 trans-
formerless inverter topology was proposed (firstly as a unidirectional inverter) in [74] that
eliminates the leakage current, reduces the inductor harmonics current, and prevents the
voltage spikes that occur in inductive loads. During the inductor free-wheeling interval in
the positive half-cycle, the current flows through D1 and diode S5. This not only discon-
nects the DC side from the grid but also prevents the high-frequency voltage from building
up in the parasitic capacitance, which lowers the leakage current. The same is applicable
for the path through S6 and D2 during the negative half-cycle of the grid. Furthermore, its
efficiency was improved in [75] with a modified PWM pattern when there is a phase shift
between output current and voltage. Therefore, these features of the H6 outweigh other
unidirectional transformerless topologies such as the H5, HERIC, etc.
The H6 was modified to operate with the capability of bidirectional power flow in [53],
as shown in Figure 11a. However, it is indicated that under light load conditions (roughly
1.2 kW for a 5-kW rated system), a reduction in inverter efficiency was observed. This
study also confirms that switches of the inverter could play an important role to maximize
the overall efficiency. Therefore, a study of [54] proposed the synchronous H6 topology,
as can be seen in Figure 11b, to reduce the greatest impact of the diode conduction loss
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 25
and its related switching ON losses under full loads. Similarly, these dominant losses were
reduced under rectification mode by using SiC MOSFETs instead of diodes D1 and D2.

Idc

+
S1 S2 Iac
L1

Vdc Cin S5
D1 D2
S6
Cout Vac

L2
_ S3 S4

(a)
+
S1 S2 L1
iac

Vdc Cdc S5 S8 S7 S6
Cac Vac

L2
_ S3 S4
iL1 & iL2
(b)
Figure
Figure 11. bidirectional
11. H6 H6 bidirectional inverter
inverter topology:
topology: (a) standard
(a) standard H6 [53]
H6 [53] andand (b) synchronous
(b) synchronous H6 [54].
H6 [54].

A small
A smallnumber
number of papers
of papersdiscuss
discussbidirectional
bidirectional inverters
invertersfor
fora abipolar
bipolarDCDCconfigu-
configura-
ration,
tion,ininwhich
whichthetheDCDCand low-frequency
and low-frequency CM CMvoltages
voltagesneed to be
need to beclosely regulated
closely regulatedto to
ensure symmetrical DC bus voltages and to reduce leakage current.
ensure symmetrical DC bus voltages and to reduce leakage current. The high-frequency The high-frequency
CMCM noise can can
noise be filtered out by
be filtered passive
out components,
by passive as withasunipolar
components, DC systems
with unipolar [23]. The[23].
DC systems
authors of [76] proposed a control solution for grounded unidirectional
The authors of [76] proposed a control solution for grounded unidirectional inverter inverter systemssys-
with power converters, which is based on an active common-mode
tems with power converters, which is based on an active common-mode duty cycle injec-duty cycle injection
approach. As a result,
tion approach. As aaresult,
reduction in voltage
a reduction ripple was
in voltage achieved,
ripple which minimized
was achieved, the
which minimized
ground leakageleakage
the ground current.current.
However, this control
However, technique
this control does notdoes
technique apply nottoapply
bidirectional
to bidirec-
operation.
tional operation. Therefore, the topology proposed in [57] and presented in 12
Therefore, the topology proposed in [57] and presented in Figure was 12
Figure de-was
signed for enabling bidirectional capability and high frequency. Moreover,
designed for enabling bidirectional capability and high frequency. Moreover, the leakage the leakage
current waswas
current reduced
reduced duedue
to the decoupling
to the decoupling of the CMCM
of the voltage, while
voltage, whilethe the
high-frequency
high-frequency
noise was eliminated by the filter. Moreover, an interleaved schematic of this topology
was introduced to mitigate the inductor choke ripple, which may lead to an additional
loss, resulting in low efficiency in both stages. Furthermore, this topology requires extra
switching devices and passive components to enable the converter to transition between
 The authors of [76] proposed a control solution for grounded unidirectional inverter sys-
tems with power converters, which is based on an active common-mode duty cycle injec-
tion approach. As a result, a reduction in voltage ripple was achieved, which minimized
the ground leakage current. However, this control technique does not apply to bidirec-
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 tional operation. Therefore, the topology proposed in [57] and presented in Figure 12 was 12 of 23
designed for enabling bidirectional capability and high frequency. Moreover, the leakage
current was reduced due to the decoupling of the CM voltage, while the high-frequency
noise was eliminated
noise by the filter.
was eliminated by theMoreover, an interleaved
filter. Moreover, schematic
an interleaved of this topology
schematic of this topology
was introduced to mitigate
was introduced the inductor
to mitigate choke ripple,
the inductor chokewhich
ripple,may leadmay
which to an additional
lead to an additional
loss, resulting in low efficiency
loss, resulting in both stages.
in low efficiency in bothFurthermore, this topology
stages. Furthermore, requires requires
this topology extra extra
switching devices and passive components to enable the converter to transition
switching devices and passive components to enable the converter to transition between between
the inverter
the and rectifier
inverter and operation while maintaining
rectifier operation DC-bus voltage.
while maintaining In addition,
DC-bus voltage. when when
In addition,
the activethe
damping method is implemented, the need for extra voltage and current
active damping method is implemented, the need for extra voltage and current sensors sensors
increasesincreases
the overallthecost of the
overall system.
cost of theTherefore, it is feasible
system. Therefore, it isthat an alternative
feasible solution solution
that an alternative
may be established
may be established to perhaps reduce the cost and size of the converter withtorespect
to perhaps reduce the cost and size of the converter with respect its to its
level of efficiency.
level of efficiency.

Lg_dc S1 S2 S5 S6
Lg_ac
+ Lc_dc LD_dc LD_dc Lc_ac
RGND Cdc CD_ac Cc_dc
DC Rd_ac
Rdc
-

S3 S4 S7 S8

Figure 12.Figure
Two-stage bidirectional
12. Two-stage converterconverter
bidirectional with CM with
decoupling [57].
CM decoupling [57].

4. Performance and Evaluation

The bidirectional inverter topologies considered in Section 3 are summarized and com-
pared in this section. Table 1 compares the topologies in terms of controller implementation,
switching frequency, and output filter.

Table 1. Control modulation and passive devices of transformer and transformerless bidirectional
topologies for DC distribution systems.

Power SPWM/ Switching DC-Bus DC Link

Ref. Topology Filter/EMI Line Voltage
Level (W) Implementation Frequency Voltage Capacitor
DsPIC30F2020
Push-pull
at dc side Cycle 20 kHz
[63] phase-shifted— 600 LC - Non 50 Vac/120 Hz
converter at the ac -
transformer
side bipolar
Full-bridge
[52,77] bidirectional inverter 5000 DsPIC30F2023 20 kHz LC 340–380 3760 F 220 Vac/60 Hz
transformerless
Full-bridge
20 kHz
[45] bidirectional inverter 5000 TMS320LF2406A LCL 360–400 560 F × 10 220 Vrms/60 Hz
IGBT
transformerless
Full-bridge
-
[78] bidirectional inverter - DsPIC30F2023 LC - - -
IGBT
transformerless
Full-bridge
TMS320LF2406A 20 kHz
[46] bidirectional inverter 5000 LC 360–400 560 F ×10 220 Vrms/60 Hz
Bipolar/Unipolar IGBT
transformerless
Full-bridge
-
[47] bidirectional inverter 5000 TMS320LF2406A LC 360–400 - -
IGBT
transformerless
Full-bridge
PWM 20 kHz
[44] bidirectional inverter 10,000 parallel LCL 600 360 F 240 Vrms/60 Hz
Unipolar IGBT
transformerless
13.8 kHz
AC–DC boost TMS320F28335
[55] 5000 MOSFETs LPF 380 2.7 mF 220 Vac/60 Hz
bidirectional rectifier Unipolar
IGBT
Full-bridge CLLC
TMS320F28335 58–65 kHz
[51] resonant bidirectional 5000 FIR 380 200 nF 220 Vac/60 Hz
PFM MOSFETs
converter
Full-bridge
16 kHz
[43] bidirectional inverter 3000 PI parallel L 360 2200 µF 220 Vrms/60 Hz
MOSFETs
transformerless
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 13 of 23

Table 1. Cont.

Power SPWM/ Switching DC-Bus DC Link

Ref. Topology Filter/EMI Line Voltage
Level (W) Implementation Frequency Voltage Capacitor
Full-bridge
D-Σ digital 20 kHz
[48] bidirectional 5000 LCL 360–400 - 220 Vrms/60 Hz
PWM rectifier IGBT
inverter transformerless
Bidirectional
50 kHz
transformerless PV
[79] 8000 Phase-shift IGBT LC 380 6 ×1.0 mF 220 Vrms/50 Hz
inverter based
MOSFETs
on HFLs
Two-stage
Pluggable phase-leg 40 kHz 380
[38,57] bidirectional 10,000 DM 100 nF 240 Vrms/60 Hz
module MOSFETs bipolar
AC–DC converter
Two-stage
20 kHz
bidirectional AC–DC
[41] 2000 Unipolar MOSFETs LCL 380 - 127 Vrms/60 Hz
converter—NPC
IGBT
and FB
H6 bidirectional
transformerless
20 kHz parallel
[53] inverter with 5000 Unipolar 380 - 220 Vac/50 Hz
MOSFETs L&C
bridgeless
PFC rectifier

What is notable is that digital rather than analog control is most commonly used. This
is due to the better control precision and dynamic reactions of digital compared to analog
implementations. According to Table 1, unipolar PWM is used for the majority of bidirec-
tional inverters. Given the fact that unipolar leads to lower DC current ripple, it is possible
to minimize the AC-side harmonics by a substantial amount in comparison to bipolar
PWM. Using unipolar outperforms bipolar, which requires a large inductor to minimize
current ripple due to the voltage peak value. However, PWM schemes create a high leakage
current at a high frequency on the DC side that flows to the ground in transformerless
topologies because of the different switching transitions and dead-times. Consequently,
when high-efficiency operation is needed, it is critical to take this into consideration.
Almost all bidirectional inverter topologies were operated at 20 kHz due to the good
trade-off between the inductor loss and switching loss of the employed semiconductor
devices. Among these are SiC MOSFETs, which have a lower switching loss compared to
Si MOSFETs. Conduction loss is a significant issue for IGBT switches, and they are not
recommended for use in these bidirectional inverter topologies.
Another trend that is evident in Table 1 is the fact that LC and LCL filters are most
common in transformerless topologies, which implies that the inductor design may con-
tribute to minimizing the converter power loss. However, current distortion may occur
at low power levels due to the impact of continuous inductor current flow, which may
increase conduction loss and reduce overall efficiency.
The majority of bidirectional converter topologies have a power rating of 5 kW, indi-
cating that they can be used in both commercial and residential buildings. While it is true
that residential buildings are typically operated at a lower power level, this results in low
efficiency for most topologies that are used.
A summary of semiconductor parameters implemented in the bidirectional topologies
considered is given in Table 2. In terms of the technologies used, it was noticed that Si
MOSFETs and IGBTs were the first to be developed, indicating that they were the primary
switching devices available during this period of time. Indeed, such technology, particularly
IGBT switches, is suitable for high voltage operation, which explains why they are the
mainstream switches. However, as a result of advancements in semiconductor technology,
SiC MOSFETs are capable of operating at higher voltages while also delivering higher
efficiency when compared to Si MOSFETs and IGBTs. Moreover, because the cost of SiC
MOSFETs is high, it is necessary to consider a trade-off between high efficiency and cost
when designing a bidirectional inverter. Similarly, the diode used in some topologies, such
as those in which the ideal Schottky diode can be replaced by an SiC Schottky diode due to
its low power dissipation, can be justified in the same way.
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 14 of 23

Table 2. Semiconductor components of transformer and transformerless bidirectional topologies for

DC distribution systems.

Year of Diode
Ref. Device Type Device Model Manufacture V Rated I Rated Diode Type
Publication Model
2010, 2011, Fairchild
[45,46,49,52] IGBT 40N60A4 600 V 75 A Ultrafast RURG5060
2012, 2016 Semiconductor
MOSFETs IXKR47N60C5 Littelfuse 600 V 75 A - -
[51] 2013
MOSFETs SPW47N60CFD Infineon 600 V 75 A
Schottky C3D20060D
Cool IXYS
FCA 75N60N 600 V 47 A
[43] 2014 MOSFETs Corporation
IGBT IGW75N60T Infineon 600 V 46 A
[48] 2014 IGBT G40N60A4 Gree 600 V 75 A Schottky C3D20060D
[38,57] 2017, 2019 SiC MOSFET C2M0025120D Wolfspeed 1200 V 90 A - -
SiC Schottky
[53] 2019 SiC MOSFET C3M0120090D Gree 900 V 23 A CVFD20065A
diode

The relative advantages and disadvantages of the different topologies are compared
in Table 3. As compared to other transformerless topologies, the H6 topology claims to
provide a high level of efficiency to support the premise that leakage current and high
current distortion are kept to a minimum.

Table 3. Main comparison summary of bidirectional single-phase inverters for integration with DC
distribution systems.

No.
Inverter Maximum Leakage Control
Ref. Topology Advantages Disadvantages Conversion
Size Efficiency Current Strategy
Stages
Push-pull High THD
Low DC
[63] transformer Hard switching Large 89% 2 High Simple
voltage ripple
based increase loss
Isolated
High level of
[51,55] AC/DC No CM effect Large 96% 2 High Complex
complexity
converter
High THD
Small filter.
Voltage and
Inductor
[52,77] Full-bridge current drop due Small 97.2% 1 Medium Complex
variation
to inductance
minimized
change
Oversized
switches High
Modified
[43] Low THD output voltage Medium 98.6% 1 Low Medium
full-bridge
and current
ripple
Medium THD
due to inductor
Interleaved
Low switching current ripple in
[39] three-leg Medium - 1 High Medium
loss respect invert
full-bridge
size Expected
CM fluctuation
High conduction
2L full-bridge loss Increased
[56] with paralleled Small filter switching loss as Small 93% 1 High Medium
SiC frequency
increases
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 15 of 23

Table 3. Cont.

No.
Inverter Maximum Leakage Control
Ref. Topology Advantages Disadvantages Conversion
Size Efficiency Current Strategy
Stages
Low output
current ripple
Diode
[53] Standard H6 and Icm Medium 97.5% 1 Low Medium
conduction loss
Constant CM
voltage

Finally, the efficiency of the different topologies is compared in Figure 13 for both
inversion and rectifier modes. These results have been extracted from the measurement
data presented in the publications. For a fair comparison, ref [63] was excluded since its
power is significantly lower (300 W). As can be seen, the majority of topologies provide
relatively high efficiency at full load. It is worth noting that the highest efficiency of [43]
comes from using 75 A oversized semiconductor devices at 3 kW. The
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
next highest efficiency
16 of 25
is achieved with a two-stage solution that includes CM decoupling, but it has high cost
and size due to additional components. Next comes the H6 topology [48], but its efficiency
drops rapidly at low power.

(a)

(b)
Figure 13. Bidirectional inverter efficiency comparison curves of (a) inversion mode, (b) rectification
Figure 13. Bidirectional inverter efficiency comparison curves of (a) inversion mode, (b) rectification
mode. a—[43]; b—[54]; c—[52]; d—[57]; e—[51]; f—[53]; g—[56].
mode. a—[43]; b—[54]; c—[52]; d—[57]; e—[51]; f—[53]; g—[56].
5. Smart Grid Control
However,
The a residential
control system building
is an important will generally
component operate
of grid-connected at aconverters
power lower load than its max-
imum
where itrated over
maintains thethe majority
system ofand
efficiency thestability.
time. Integrating
Therefore, bidirectional
a DC inverters with low
system into the
grid may cause
efficiency severalloads
at light issues,would
including grid instability
impact and disruption,
the overall so several control
system efficiency. The evaluation of the
solutions have been proposed to overcome grid distortions and fulfill the criteria of the
grid’s standard power [80,81].
The main control system requirement is as follows: phase estimation, which is known
as a phase-locked loop (PLL), voltage control loop (VCL), and current control loop (CCL),
as shown in Figure 14. The PLL is used to generate the grid reference current, which is
synchronous with the grid voltage, where the most implemented type is the basic PLL in
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 16 of 23

synchronous H6 using PSIM software with detailed analytic equations applied to predict
component power loss for suitably sized semiconductors shows that the light load efficiency
of the standard H6 can be addressed by replacing diodes with MOSFETs, as explained
in [54].

5. Smart Grid Control

The control system is an important component of grid-connected power converters
where it maintains the system efficiency and stability. Integrating a DC system into the
grid may cause several issues, including grid instability and disruption, so several control
solutions have been proposed to overcome grid distortions and fulfill the criteria of the
grid’s standard power [80,81].
The main control system requirement is as follows: phase estimation, which is known
as a phase-locked loop (PLL), voltage control loop (VCL), and current control loop (CCL),
as shown in Figure 14. The PLL is used to generate the grid reference current, which is
synchronous with the grid voltage, where the most implemented type is the basic PLL in
such applications. The DC-bus voltage is regulated by the use of a VCL that produces the
required grid current amplitude to be compared with the grid current reference obtained
from
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER the PLL. The inductor current needs to be compared with the grid current
REVIEW 17 of 25to determine

the duty cycle and track any sudden change through a CCL. The performance of the control
system can best be treated according to the following tasks:
determine the duty cycle and track any sudden change through a CCL. The performance
• Reactive power
of the control control
system can bestfor
besupplying the DC
treated according system.
to the following tasks:
• Active
• power control for feeding the grid.
Reactive power control for supplying the DC system.
• •
DC-bus voltage
Active power control.
control for feeding the grid.
• •
Grid DC-bus voltage control.
synchronization.
• Grid synchronization.
• Dynamic operational modes control (inverter/rectifier).
• Dynamic operational modes control (inverter/rectifier).

+ S1 S3 iac

Vdc Output Filter Vac

Cdc Bidirectional Inverter
Unit
-
S2 S4

α
PLL Vgrid
Grid voltage
+ Verror Im + Iref + Iref-error *Iref +
DC voltage Vdc - PI - - PI - SPWM
Inductor current

Vdc_ref I inductor Vgrid

Figure 14. General configuration of the bidirectional inverter control system.

Figure 14. General configuration of the bidirectional inverter control system.
There is a possible classification of bidirectional inverter control systems based on a
There is a possible
comparison classification
of the following of bidirectional
criteria: DC-bus inverter
voltage regulation, control
inductor currentsystems
control, based on a
comparison of the following
and bidirectional capability. criteria: DC-bus
This section voltage
provides a basis regulation,
for comparison inductor
to enablecurrent
the control,
identification of the control system structure and to distinguish different levels
and bidirectional capability. This section provides a basis for comparison to enable the iden-of perfor-
mance.
tification of the control system structure and to distinguish different levels of performance.
Controller Challenges
5.1. Controller Challenges
5.1.1. DC-Bus Voltage Regulation
5.1.1. DC-Bus Voltage Regulation
The integration of a DC bus with different types of energy sources such as renewable
energy
The and energyofstorage
integration a DC may
bus result in system instability;
with different therefore,sources
types of energy the bus such
voltage
as renewable
needs to be retained at a nominal level to enable the reliable operation of the grid, battery,
energy and energy storage may result in system instability; therefore, the bus voltage needs
and DC loads. Regulating a DC bus is challenging due to the wide range of load and
source conditions that it is expected to support, and the introduction of current harmonics
through the grid connection. This issue was examined in [45], where fast regulation con-
trol is suggested to track any sudden change of bus voltage every quarter cycle. Likewise,
the authors of [47,49] propose a quarter cycle approach (QLCRA) to regulate the variation
in DC-bus voltage in situations where the integrated grid interface causes AC current dis-
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 17 of 23

to be retained at a nominal level to enable the reliable operation of the grid, battery, and
DC loads. Regulating a DC bus is challenging due to the wide range of load and source
conditions that it is expected to support, and the introduction of current harmonics through
the grid connection. This issue was examined in [45], where fast regulation control is
suggested to track any sudden change of bus voltage every quarter cycle. Likewise, the
authors of [47,49] propose a quarter cycle approach (QLCRA) to regulate the variation
in DC-bus voltage in situations where the integrated grid interface causes AC current
distortion. The distorted line current was minimized when the inductor current was
adjusted each quarter cycle instead of the conventional line cycle approach (OLCRA). The
bus voltage also can vary when there are more input sources connected to the system.
The study of [42] applied predictive control to track an AC current reference by sensing
the inductor current to obtain the desired output bus voltage. The stability of the bus voltage
is achieved during both inversion and rectification modes. There is, however, a noticeable
current distortion during the phase shift transition between these two modes, particularly
at zero crossing, due to insufficient magnetizing inductor current. To achieve high power
quality, two switching schemes were compared: unipolar and bipolar for delivering and
consuming the utility grid power, respectively [46]. It was found that insufficient inductor
current causes current distortion in unipolar operation, whereas bipolar operation decreases
the distortion but induces higher current ripple and switching loss. The combined PWM
schemes reduced the current distortion and at the same time relatively decreased the
voltage ripple and switching loss. As a result, the unipolar system is deemed to be better in
terms of lower voltage ripple and switching loss in both inversion and rectification modes.
However, a particular frequency response for designing the AC filter is required to
eliminate the applied high frequency on switches, besides the switching loss when using a
bipolar scheme. Alternatively, half of the switches in the bridge may be operated at high
frequency, while low frequency is applied to the other switches with a hysteresis switching
scheme [82]. It is worth mentioning that the switching loss for the hysteresis scheme has
the same loss as the unipolar scheme [83].
Moreover, to ensure consistent frequency operation during zero-crossing, it is nec-
essary to consider the DC-link voltage ripple and inductor current harmonics. In fact,
high-frequency operation could result in a significant distortion of the delivered grid volt-
age caused by the dead time control aspect. As a result, the authors of [84] proposed a
single switch to operate during the transient period when mode switching occurs in which
a freewheeling path is provided to sustain the inductor current. This technique relies on the
idea of miniaturizing the leakage current, which is still not optimal. Since the employed
semiconductor devices were designed on the maximum operating current level, there is an
additional potential cost-related consideration.

5.1.2. Inductor Nonlinearity

Recent developments in bidirectional inverters have heightened the need for control-
ling the nonlinearity of the inductor current that might occur in one operational cycle due
to the inductance variation of different core materials over a wide range of currents. Conse-
quently, a high current ripple has an impact on the accuracy of tracking the inductor current
to generate the required duty ratio. Therefore, the authors of [52,77] proposed a predictive
control technique to mitigate this variation by sensing the inductor current and using the
grid and DC-bus voltage as iteration variables for determining the required duty ratio for
the next cycle. However, it is expected that the proposed control is almost certainly limited
when the system is subjected to a high load profile resulting in a voltage drop. In contrast
to the earlier study, however, no evidence of reducing the current distortion was reported.
According to [50,85] a fuzzy logic controller strategy is recommended to overcome the
mentioned issue by increasing the inductor voltage to enable the fast-tracking of the current
reference. It is believed that the fluctuation of the inductance current peak waveform was
minimized; however, there is still some spiking in the zero-crossing point due to the line
frequency operation. The strategies of applying low-frequency control to improve the
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 18 of 23

inductor current oscillation might involve current sharing between the switches’ parasitic
capacitor which leads to a decrease in efficiency. Therefore, high-frequency operation can
reduce the shared current in certain topology configurations that utilize middle switches
(floating switches). In addition, the controller’s bandwidth can be increased to enhance
load transient response.
Despite this, little progress has been made with regard to deploying a high-resolution
current for sensing the AC-side current during a rapid change of the inductor current.
Analog-to-Digital converters (ADCs) can be adapted to achieve the required accuracy
response under a wide range of the grid current. However, the implementation of ADCs
suffers from higher complexity and higher cost. As a result, it has been shown conclusively
that the continuous conducting mode (CCM) of the inductor current (rather than discon-
tinuous conducting mode (DCM)) is desirable due to the simplicity of implementation in
which the current measurement was replaced by a practical sensorless, average current reg-
ulation control algorithm model [86,87]. Nevertheless, it is important that other factors can
affect the sensing procedure of the inner current loop control, such as inductance, inductor
resistance, and related voltage conduction [88,89]. Therefore, the authors of [40] developed
a sensorless current control with bidirectional capability to enhance the functionality of
the PFC during the grid injection. It seems possible that a transient current is expected to
contribute to the associated dynamic decoupling between DC and AC sides, in which a
significant response time is required during a change of mode. Collectively, these studies
outline a critical role for inductance variation on the system performance, which potentially
needs to be taken into consideration.

5.1.3. Bidirectional Capability

The correlation of the inductor current and the DC-bus voltage has an influence on the
transition region between inversion and rectification, as depicted in Figure 15. As can be
seen, a linear relationship between the inductor current and DC-bus voltage determines the
operation mode of the power flow. It is important to note that the DC-bus voltage should
be operated in a range of ±10% Vdc in order to avoid frequent changes of mode during
a sudden heavy load. As a result, it is possible that current distortion occurs during the
transition period in the zero-crossing voltage. There is some evidence to suggest that PFC
compensation could be utilized when the magnetization current is inadequate to mitigate
the phase-shift region [46]. However, the time required to adjust the duty cycle for changing
the switching mode is considered relatively slow, where a fast control response is needed in
such conditions. This indicates a need to understand the various aspects of control ability
that exist in two-stage power conversion topology, especially in the isolated DC/DC stage.
This may lead to an inappropriate escalation in uncontrolled power conversion mode when
the load demand becomes negative, resulting in a significant increase
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 25 in the delivered
power to the output capacitor due to the combination of load and converter terminal.

(Vdc)

Max Inverter
Mode
Min

Min Max
(IL)
Min Max

Max
Rectification
Mode Min

± Vdc

Figure
Figure15.15.
TheThe
regulation technique
regulation of DC-bus
technique of voltage
DC-bus (Vdc) with associated
voltage (Vdc) with linearity of relation-
associated linearity of relationship
ship with the inductor current (IL).
with the inductor current (IL).
A comparison summary of the implemented control is presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Summary of control implementation of transformer and transformerless bidirectional to-

pologies for DC distribution systems.

Ref. Advantages Disadvantages Controller Type

Energies 2022, 15, 6836 19 of 23

The authors of [51] set out a proposal of employing a dead-band control algorithm to
smooth any abrupt state in performance where the DC-bus voltage is varying in two-stage
systems. However, the utilized controller is not autonomous because an additional slave
controller is required for the integrated power conversion stages. In contrast, the authors
of [90] offer a fly-back bidirectional control capability using a single power conversion
stage to overcome the complex implementation of controllers required in isolated two-stage
converters. This is suitable only for integration between the energy storage and utility
grid, which can be adapted for integration with DC distribution systems. Perhaps the most
serious disadvantage of this technique is that a significant voltage and current stress is
imposed on the converter semiconductors, which has been thought of as a key factor in
system efficiency and performance. The distinctions between single-stage and two-stage
bidirectional power conversion, with respect to which isolation’s value is evaluated, are
evidently a significant constraint on all the work discussed in this area.
A comparison summary of the implemented control is presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Summary of control implementation of transformer and transformerless bidirectional

topologies for DC distribution systems.

Ref. Advantages Disadvantages Controller Type

Fast dynamic response
[51,55] Complex control structure Hysteresis
Low THD
Fast dynamic response
[52,77] More calculation required Predictive
Easy implementation
Reactive power control Complex control structure
[45] Predictive
High dynamic High THD
No full PFC
[46] Simplicity -
Two controllers
Instantaneous current control
[47,49] Complex transfer function Predictive
Less circuitry
High dynamic
[42] Complex transfer function Fuzzy logic
Low THD
High THD
[50] Lower inductor current ripple Fuzzy logic
No full control of PFC
Slow tracking response
[40] One inductor filter Predictive
No full control of PFC
Fast tracking and dynamic
[58] Limited operational range Resonant
response High gain

6. Conclusions
In this review, the aim is to assess the performance of existing bidirectional inverter
topologies integrated with a DC distribution system in which renewable energy sources,
energy storage, and DC loads are used. It was found that transformerless topologies out-
weigh transformer-based topologies due to higher efficiency and smaller size of the power
converters. However, the primary issue with transformerless topologies is the connection
between the utility grid and the DC bus, which results in high leakage current and high
CMV, which have a negative effect on the overall efficiency. Freewheeling paths and two-
stage power conversion are the prominent solutions for the drawbacks of transformerless
topologies. It was found that the standard H6 topology provides the best performance in
terms of high efficiency and cost-benefit related to the semiconductor devices and passive
components required to eliminate leakage current and CMV. However, it is important to
note that the efficiency of this topology decreases significantly when operating at less than
20% of its maximum rated power (5 kW) compared to other transformerless topologies.
Energies 2022, 15, 6836 20 of 23

The present study adds to the growing body of research regarding DC distribution
systems that aim to enhance the system efficiency of power delivery between DC power
sources, loads, and energy storage devices over AC distribution. It was shown that there is
scope for further research on methods to improve the efficiency of bidirectional topologies
under light-load conditions, and the dynamic response of control systems in two-stage
bidirectional power converters. Furthermore, while the requirements of bidirectional
inverters integrated with DC distribution in buildings may not be compatible for use in
different applications such as (EV) and energy storage, the circuit topologies and control
methods described may be adapted for other bidirectional applications. In conclusion, it is
believed that this review will provide a reference for academics, engineers, manufacturers,
and end-users interested in implementing DC distribution systems using bidirectional
inverters with grid-connected and renewable energy systems.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A. and M.D.; methodology, M.A. and M.D.; software,
M.A.; validation, M.A. and M.D.; formal analysis M.A.; investigation, M.A.; resources, M.A. and M.D.;
data curation, M.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.; writing—review and editing, M.D.;
visualization, M.A. and M.D.; supervision, M.D.; project administration, M.A. and M.D.; funding
acquisition, M.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This review paper was invited by the editor of Energies to the corresponding author.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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