Lesson 3

 Nervous System and the Brain

This section presents the basic structure of the nervous system. Note the
main divisions and the parts that belong here along with the functions of each.
When describing features of a structure as complex as the brain, terms
denoting directions are used. Directions in the nervous system are normally
described in terms of the neuraxis, an imaginary line drawn through the spinal
cord up to the front of the brain. Figure 3.1 shows an alligator and two humans.
The front end of the alligator is called the anterior. The tail end is called the
posterior. The term “rostral” (toward the beak) and “caudal” (toward the tail)
are also employed when referring specifically to the brain. The top of the head
and back are part of the “dorsal” surface, while the “ventral” or front surface
faces the ground.
Two other useful terms are “ipsilateral” and “contralateral”. Ipsilateral
means surfaces that belong to the same side (when the left olfactory bulb
sends axons to the left hemisphere of the brain) while contralateral means
surfaces on opposite sides of the body (when a particular region of the left
cerebral cortex controls movements of the right/contralateral hand.

To study the brain, cutting it three ways: 1. transversely, like a salami,

giving us cross sections (frontal sections when referring to the brain); 2.
Parallel to the ground (giving us horizontal sections); and 3. perpendicular to
the ground (giving us sagittal sections). The midsagittal plane divides the brain
into two symmetrical halves. See Figure 3.2 below.
 The nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, making up the
central nervous system. The cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and the peripheral
ganglia make up the peripheral nervous system. The brain is covered by the
skull and the spinal cord is encased by the vertebral column. Figure 3.3 shows
the relation of the brain to the rest of the body.

The brain consists of a large mass of neurons, glia, and supporting cells.
It is the most protected part of the body, floating in a pool of cerebrospinal
fluid. The brain receives a copious supply of blood and is chemically guarded by
the blood-brain barrier. The brain is very soft and jelly-like. It is approximately
1400 g, with a net weight of 80 g. It consists of a series of hollow,
interconnected chambers called ventricles. Figure 3.4 shows the ventricles.
 The largest chambers are called the lateral ventricles, which are
connected to the third ventricle. The third ventricle of located at the midline
of the brain, its walls divide the surrounding part of the brain into symmetrical
halves. A bridge of the neural tissue called massa intermedia crosses through
the middle of the third ventricle and serves as a convenient reference point.
The cerebral aqueduct, a long tube, connects the third ventricle to the fourth
ventricle. The lateral ventricles constitute the first and second ventricles but
they are never referred to as such.

Development of the Central Nervous System

The development of the central nervous system begins early in

embryonic life as a hollow tube, and it maintains this basic shape even after it
is fully developed. During development parts of the tube elongate, pockets and
folds form, and the tissue around the tube thickens until the brain reaches its
final form. The development begins around the eighteenth day after
conception. Part of the ecloderm (outer layer) of the back of the embryo
thickens and forms a plate. The edges of this plate form ridges that curl toward
each other along a longitudinal line, running through a rostral-caudal direction.
By the twenty-first day, these ridges touch each other and fuse together
forming a tube, the neural tube that gives rise to the brain and spinal cord. By
the twenty-eighth day of development, the neural tube is closed, and its
rostral end has developed three interconnected chambers. These chambers
become ventricles and the tissue that surrounds them becomes the three major
parts of the brain: the forebrain, midbrain, and the hindbrain. As development
progresses, the rostral chamber (forebrain) divides into three separate parts,
which become the two lateral ventricles and the third ventricle. The region
around the lateral ventricles become the telencephalon and the region around
the third ventricle becomes the diencephalon. In its final form, the chamber
inside the midbrain (mesencephalon) becomes narrow, forming the cerebral
aqueduct, and two structures develop in the hindbrain: metencephalon and the
myelencephalon. See Figure 3.5.
Details of Brain Development

The cells that line the inside of the neural tube, the ventricular zone,
give rise to the cells of the CNS. The cells divide producing neurons and glia,
which then migrate away from the center. Ten weeks after conception, the
brain of the human fetus is about 1.25 cm (.50 in) long. By 20 weeks the brain
is about 5 cm (2 in) long and has the basic shape of a mature brain.
The cerebral cortex is 33 mm thick, surrounds the cerebral hemisphere
like the bark of a tree. Corrected for body size, the cerebral cortex is larger in
humans than in other species. Circuits in the cerebral cortex play a vital role in
cognition and control of movement. The cerebral cortex develops from the
inside out. The first cells to be produced by the ventricular zone migrate a
short distance and establish the first layer. The next cells pass through the first
layer and form the second one. The last cells to be produced must pass through
all the ones born before them. A special form of glial cells, called radial glia,
provide pathways that neurons follow during their migration.
The cells in the ventricular zone that give rise to neurons are known as
founder cells. During the first phase of development, founder cells divide,
making new founder cells, and increasing the size of the ventricular zone. This
phase is called the symmetrical division because the division of each founder
cell produces two identical cells. Then, seven weeks after conception, founder
cells receive a signal to begin a period of asymmetrical division. During this
phase founder cells divide asymmetrically, producing another founder cell
which remains in place, and a neuron which travels outward into the cerebral
cortex, guided by the fiber of a radial glial cell. Neurons crawl along radial
fibers like amoebas, pushing their way through neurons that were born earlier
and finally coming to rest. See Figure 3.6 below. The period of asymmetrical
division lasts about three months since the human cerebral cortex contains
about 100 billion neurons migrating along radial glial fibers on a given day. The
end of cortical development occurs when the founder cells receive a chemical
signal that causes them to die (apoptosis). Molecules of the chemical that
conveys this signal bind with receptors that activate killer genes within the
cells. Once neurons have migrated to their final locations, they begin forming
connections with other neurons. They grow dendrites, which receive the
terminal buttons from the axons of other neurons, and grow axons of their own.
 The ventricular zone gives rise to more neurons than are needed. These
neurons must compete to survive. The axons of approximately 50% of these
neurons do not find vacant postsynaptic cells of the right type with which to
form synaptic connections, so they die by apoptosis. This phenomenon, also
involves a chemical signal; when a presynaptic neuron establishes synaptic
connections, it receives a signal from the postsynaptic cell that permits it to
survive. The neurons that come too late do not find any available space and
therefore do not receive this life-sustaining signal.
During development, thousands of different pathways, groups of axons
that connect one brain region to another, develop in the brain. Within many of
these pathways the connections are orderly and systematic. For example, the
axons of sensory neurons from the skin form orderly connections in the brain;
axons from the little finger from synapses in one region, those of the ring
finger form synapses in a neighboring region, and so on. In fact, the surface of
the body is mapped” on the surface of the brain.
Researchers believe that neurogenesis (production of new neurons) does
not take place in the fully developed brain. However, recent studies have
proved this incorrect. The adult brain contains some stem cells that can divide
and produce neurons. See Figure 3.7
Evolution of the Human Brain

The human brain is larger than that of any other primate (3x larger than
the chimpanzee, 10x larger than the rhesus macaque monkey, and 1.2 %
different). Three and four symmetrical divisions of founder cells would account
for the difference in the size of these two brains. It takes two days longer in
humans for symmetrical divisions to take place, which allows time for three
more divisions. The period of asymmetrical divisions is longer, which accounts
for the fact that the human cortex is 15% thicker.

The Forebrain

The forebrain surrounds the rostral end of the neural tube. It has two parts:
the telencephalon and the diencephalon.

The telencephalon includes most of the two symmetrical cerebral hemispheres

that make up the cerebrum. The cerebral hemispheres are covered by the
cerebral cortex and contain the limbic system and the basal ganglia. The latter
two sets of structures are primarily at the subcortical regions of the brain
beneath the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex in humans is greatly
convoluted. These convolutions, consisting of sulci, fissures, and gyri, greatly
enlarge the surface of the cortex, compared with a smooth brain of the same
size. The cerebral cortex consists mostly of glia and cell bodies, dendrites,
interconnecting axons of neurons. The cerebral cortex has a grayish brown
appearance and it is called grayish matter. See Figure 3.8. The large
concentration of myelin around these axons gives this tissue an opaque white
appearance, hence the white matter. Different regions of the cerebral cortex
perform different functions. Three regions receive information from the
sensory organs. The primary visual cortex, which receives visual information, is
located at the back of the brain, on the inner surfaces of the cerebral
hemispheres, in the calcarine fissure. See Figure 3.9
The primary auditory cortex, which receives auditory information, is located on
the upper surface of a deep fissure in the side of the brain, the lateral fissure.
The primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the body senses.

The region of the cerebral cortex that is most directly involved in the control
of movement is the primary motor cortex. Neurons in different parts of the
primary motor cortex are connected to muscles in different parts of the body.
The connections, like those of the sensory regions of the cerebral cortex, are
contralateral wherein the left primary motor cortex controls the right side of
the body and vice versa.

The cerebral cortex is divided into four areas or lobes: frontal lobe, parietal
lobe, temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. The frontal lobe includes
everything in front of the central sulcus. The parietal lobe is located on the
side of the cerebral hemisphere, just behind the central sulcus, caudal to the
frontal lobe. The temporal lobe juts forward from the base of the brain,
ventral to the frontal and parietal lobes. The occipital lobe lies at the very
back of the brain, caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes. See Figure 3.10

Each primary sensory area of the cerebral cortex sends information to adjacent
regions, called the sensory association cortex. Circuits in the neurons in the
sensory association cortex analyze the information received from the primary
sensory cortex; perception takes place there, and memories are stored there.
If people sustain damage to the somatosensory association cortex, their deficits
are related to somatosensation and to the environment in general (having
difficulty perceiving the shapes of objects that they can touch but not see,
they may be unable to identify the parts of their body, or having difficulty
drawing maps; perceiving speech, reading or writing).

The motor association cortex (premotor cortex) is located just rostral to the
primary motor cortex. This region controls the primary motor cortex, thus it
directly controls behavior. The rest of the frontal lobe, rostral to the motor
association cortex, is known as the prefrontal cortex. This region of the brain is
less involved with the control of movement and more involved in formulating
plans and strategies.

Although the two cerebral hemispheres cooperate with each other, they do not
perform identical functions. Some functions are lateralized (located primarily
on one side of the brain). In general, the left hemisphere participates in the
analysis of information or serial functions. Examples are talking, understanding
the speech of other people, reading and writing. The right hemisphere is
specialized for synthesis. Examples are drawing sketches, read maps, and
construct complex objects. The separate functions of the two cerebral
hemispheres result in a unified nature of our perceptions and memories,
performed by the corpus callosum, a large bond of axons that connects
corresponding parts of the association cortex of the left and right hemispheres.

Figure 3.11 shows the midsagittal view of the brain. The brain has been sliced
down the middle, dividing it into two symmetrical halves. The cerebral cortex
that covers most of the surface of the cerebral hemispheres is called the
neocortex. Another form of the neocortex is the limbic system, located at the
medial edge of the cerebral hemispheres. The cingulate gyrus is also an
important region of the limbic cortex.

The most important parts of the limbic system are the hippocampus and
amygdala, located next to the lateral ventricle in the temporal lobe. The fornix
is a bundle of axons that connects the hippocampus and other regions of the
brain, including the mammillary bodies. The parts of the limbic system
(hippocampal formation and region of limbic cortex are responsible for learning
and memory). The amygdala and some regions of the limbic cortex are
specifically involved in emotions. See Figure 3.12
The basal ganglia are a collection of subcortical nuclei in the forebrain that lies
beneath the anterior portion of the lateral ventricles, involved in the control of
movement. The parts of the basal ganglia are the caudate nucleus, the
putamen, and the globus pallidus (Parkinson’s Disease results in the
degeneration of certain neurons located in the midbrain that send axons to the
caudate nucleus and the putamen). See Figure 3.13

The diencephalon is the second major part of the brain located between the
telencephalon and the mesencephalon. The thalamus makes up the dorsal part
of the diencephalon. It is situated near the middle of the cerebral hemispheres,
immediately medial and caudal to the basal ganglia. The thalamus has two
lobes, connected by a bridge of gray matter called, the mass intermedia, which
pierces the middle of the third ventricle. The massa intermedia is not an
important structure because it is absent in the brains of many people. However,
it serves as a useful reference point in looking at diagrams of the brain. The
thalamus contains nuclei that project information to specific regions of the
cerebral cortex and receive information from it.

The hypothalamus lies at the base of the brain, under the thalamus. Although
the hypothalamus is relatively a small structure, it is important one. It controls
the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system and organizes
behaviors related to survival of the species, the so-called 4 Fs: fighting, feeding,
fleeing, and mating. See Figure 3.14. The pituitary gland is attached to the
base of the hypothalamus via the pituitary stalk, and in front of this is the optic
chiasm.

Much of the endocrine system is controlled by hormones produced by cells in

the hypothalamus. A special system of blood vessels directly connects the
hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary gland (master gland). The
hypothalamic hormones are secreted by specialized neurons called
neurosecretory cells. These hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to
secrete its hormones. The posterior pituitary gland is an extension of the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus produces the posterior pituitary hormones
and directly controls their secretion. These hormones include oxytocin, which
stimulates ejection of milk and uterine contractions at the time of childbirth,
and vasopressin, which regulates urine output by the kidneys. See
Figure 3.15

The Midbrain

The midbrain (mesencephalon) surrounds the cerebral aqueduct and consists of

two major parts: the tectum and the tegmentum.

The tectum is located in the dorsal portion of the mesencephalon. Its principal
structures are the superior colliculi and the inferior colliculi, which appear as
four bumps on the dorsal surface of the brain stem. They brain stem includes
the diencephalon, midbrain, and the hindbrain. See Figure 3.16
The tegmentum consists of the portion of the mesencephalon beneath the
tectum. It includes the rostral end of the reticular formation, several nuclei
controlling eye movements, periaqueductal gray matter, the red nucleus, the
substantia nigra, and the ventral tegmental area. The reticular formation is a
large structure consisting of many nuclei. It receives sensory information by
means of various pathways and projects axons to the cerebral cortex, thalamus,
and spinal cord. It plays a role in sleep and arousal, attention, muscle tonus,
movement, and various vital reflexes. The periaqueductal gray matter consists
of mostly cell bodies of neurons that surround the cerebral aqueduct as it
travels from the third to the fourth ventricle. It contains neural circuits that
control sequences of movements that constitute species-typical behaviors, such
as fighting and mating. The red nucleus and substantia nigra are important
components of the motor systems. A bundle of axons that arises from the red
nucleus constitutes one of the major fiber systems that bring motor
information from the cerebral cortex and cerebellum to the spinal cord. The
substantia nigra contains neurons whose axons project to the caudate nucleus
and putamen, parts of the basal ganglia.

The Hindbrain

The hindbrain, which surrounds the fourth ventricle, consists of two major
divisions: the metencephalon, and the myelencephalon.

The metencephalon is made up of the pons and the cerebellum. The

cerebellum resembles a miniature of the cerebrum. It is covered by the
cerebellar cortex and has a set of cerebellar nuclei. These nuclei receive
projections from the cerebellar cortex and themselves send projections out of
the cerebellum to other parts of the brain. Damage to the cerebellum impairs
standing, walking, or performance of coordinated movements. The pons is a
large bulge in the brain stem. It lies between the mesencephalon and the
medulla oblongata.

The myelencephalon contains one major structure, the medulla oblongata

(medulla). It contains part of the reticular formation, including nuclei that
control vital functions such as regulation of the cardiovascular system,
respiration, and skeletal muscle tonus.

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a long, conical structure, approximately as thick as an adult’s

little finger. Its function is to distribute motor fibers to the effector organs of
the body (glands and muscles) and to collect somatosensory information to be
passed on to the brain. It has also an autonomy from the brain. See Figure 3.17

The Peripheral Nervous System

The cranial nerves and spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system,
which conveys sensory information to the central nervous system and conveys
messages from the central nervous system to the body’s muscles and glands.

Spinal Nerves

The spinal nerves begin at the junction of the dorsal and ventral roots of the
spinal cord. The nerves leave the vertebral column and travel to the muscles
or sensory receptors they innervate, branching repeatedly as they go. See
Figure 3.18
The pathways by which sensory information enters the spinal cord and motor
information leaves it. The cell bodies of all axons that bring sensory
information into the brain and spinal cord are located outside the CNS. These
incoming axons are referred to as afferent axons. The axons that leave the
spinal cord are referred to as the efferent axons. See Figure 3.19

Cranial Nerves

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves attached to the ventral surface of the brain.
Most of these nerves serve sensory and motor functions of the head and neck
region. One of them, the vagus nerve, regulates the functions of organs in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities. See Figure 3.20

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is concerned with the regulation of smooth

muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. It consists of two anatomically separate
systems: the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.

The sympathetic division is most involved in activities associated with

expenditure of energy from reserves that are stored in the body. When an
organism is excited, the sympathetic nervous system increases blood flow to
skeletal muscles, stimulates the secretion of epinephrine (resulting in
increased heart rate and a rise in blood sugar level), and causes piloerection
(erection of fur in mammals that have it and production of goose bumps in
humans).

The cell bodies of sympathetic motor neurons are located in the gray matter of
the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. The fibers of these neurons
exit via the ventral roots. After joining the spinal nerves, the fibers branch off
and pass into the sympathetic ganglia.

The parasympathetic division supports activities that are involved with

increases in the body’s supply of stored energy. These activities include
salivation, gastric and intestinal motility, secretion of digestive juices, and
increased blood flow to the gastrointestinal system. See Figure 3.21
 THINK
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