The Smart Grid - Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response - C5
The Smart Grid - Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response - C5
The Smart Grid - Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response - C5
was down. And because initial power systems were devoted to lighting
loads and systems only generated power at times of high usage, the
cost of energy was high—often more than $1 per kWh when adjusted
for inflation to present dollars (2005)—compared to an average cost for
residential electricity today of 8.58¢ per kWh.
Engineers wanted to Interconnect systems to improve reliability
and overcome the economic limitations of DC electrical systems. If one
area’s power were out because of a problem at the generator, then the
adjacent town would be available to pick up the load. In addition, by
interconnecting isolated systems, a greater diversity of load was ob-
tained, which would improve load factor and enable more economical
operation of the generation plants.
Another major driver was the desire to make use of hydroelectric
power sources located far from urban load centers, which made long
distance transmission essential, and therefore made alternating current
essential.
transmission lines that carried alternating current. Now cities and towns
could be interconnected, and power could be shared between areas.
During this period, transmission voltages as high as 150 kV were being
introduced, and so relatively large amounts of power could be transmit-
ted efficiently over long distances.
In addition to technical and market forces, the government also
played a role in development of centralized power systems and thus
reliance on AC transmission. Public policy and legislation encouraged
the movement to larger centralized systems, and by the 1970s, more
than 95% of all electric power being sold in the U.S. was through large
centralized power systems.
As a result, alternating current (AC) distribution was far superior
for the needs of a robust electrical infrastructure. Unlike DC power, the
voltage of AC could be stepped up with relatively simple transformer
devices for distance transmission and subsequently stepped down for
delivery to appliances and equipment in the home or factory. And Nikola
Tesla’s invention of a relatively simple AC induction motor meant end
users needed AC, which could be generated at large central plants for
high-voltage bulk delivery over long distances. (See the section AC versus
DC: An Historical Perspective for more on the attributes of AC and DC
power, and why AC originally prevailed.)
Despite a vigorous campaign against the adoption of alternating
current, Edison could not overcome the shortcomings of his DC system.
AC won out, and today utilities generate, transmit, and deliver electric-
ity in the form of alternating current.
Although high-voltage direct current (HVDC) is now a viable
means of long-distance power transmission and is used in nearly a 100
applications worldwide, no one is advocating a wholesale change of the
infrastructure from AC to DC, as this would be wildly impractical.
But a new debate is arising over AC versus DC: should DC power
delivery systems displace or augment the AC distribution system in
buildings or other small, distributed applications? Edison’s original vi-
sion for a system that has DC generation, power delivery, and end-use
loads may come to fruition—at least for some types of installations.
Facilities such as data centers, campus-like groups of buildings, or build-
ing sub-systems may find a compelling value proposition in using DC
power.
Several converging factors have spurred the recent interest in DC
power delivery. One of the most important is that an increasing number
98 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
Due, in part, to the interest in the smart grid, the specter of several
potential benefits are driving newfound interest in DC power delivery
systems:
Increasingly, equipment operates on DC, requiring conver-
sion from AC sources. All microprocessors require direct current and
many devices operate internally on DC power since it can be precisely
regulated for sensitive components. Building electrical systems are fed
with AC that is converted to DC at every fluorescent ballast, computer
system power supply, and other electronic device. As one specialty
electronics manufacturer put it, “DC is the blood of electronics.”
Equipment Compatibility
EPRI Solutions examined the compatibility of some common de-
vices with DC power delivery in 2002:
power over a wide range, motor speed can be adjusted to best match
the mechanical process, such as circulating air with a fan. This ability
to adjust speed can translate into significant energy savings, as a CEO
for a major manufacturer explains:
Since a variable frequency drive converts 60 Hz power to DC and
then converts the DC to variable frequency AC that is fed to the motor,
a DC supply can be readily accommodated, further increasing energy
efficiency.
Greater adoption of energy-efficient variable speed motors, now
underway for heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems and
other applications, represents a greater opportunity for deploying DC
power. In addition, several manufacturers now offer DC variable fre-
quency drives for solar-powered water and irrigation pumps.
1. How DC-powered servers and server racks can be built and oper-
ated from existing components.
Table 5-1a. Energy savings estimate for one rack of servers with high-efficiency
power conversion
*The efficiencies for the AC system are based on typical, rather than best-in-class systems.
If a best-in-class AC system is compared to a DC best-in-class system, the savings from
use of DC power would be reduced. For instance, yearly energy savings might be about
$873 rather than $3428. However, gains in reliability from DC power (not shown in this
table) would not be achieved.
Only energy-related savings are considered; other savings such as size and heat sink cost
not considered. Calculations are based on typical power budget for a dual 2.4 GHz Xeon
processor based 1U server rack
1U = TK
Energy cost = 12¢/kWh; project life = 4 years; discount rate = 6%; Overall cooling system
efficiency = 1,200 Watts/ton; number of 1U servers per rack = 40
hightech.lbl.gov/DC-server-arch-tool.html).
Intel has estimated that power consumption can be reduced by
about 10%, and others have projected even higher reductions. Less heat
would therefore be generated, lowering the cooling load of the facility.
Other benefits of a DC power delivery system are also possible. For ex-
ample, Baldwin Technologies, which does system design, has promoted
benefits of a DC power delivery system for data centers. These estimated
benefits are based on vendor claims, rated performance of components,
as well as improvements that Baldwin anticipates will derive from its
own DC power delivery system design. The benefits and estimated
performance improvements include the following:
• Grounding is simplified.
Tomorrow’s homes may be blissfully cord free, enabling people to charge portable elec-
tronics using an inductive charging pad fed by rooftop solar cells
From the kitchen inductive charger to the PC to the air conditioner, appliances throughout
the house could be DC powered.
CONCLUSION
References
DC Power Production, Delivery and Utilization: An EPRI White Paper,
The Electric Power Research Institute, June 2006.
Galvin Electricity Initiative: Transforming Electric Service Reliability and
Value for the 21st Century, 2005, www.galvinpower.org.