CS103 Negations:

If n is an even number, then n² is an even no Parentheses show scope ∃x ∈ N. (...) p ↔ q: (p^q) ∨ ¬(p ∨ q) Midterm 1 Predict: 1. ∀p. (Person(p) → ∃c. (Cat(c) ∧ Loves(p,
Antecedent Consequent e.g. ∀n. (n ∈ N→(Even(n) p ∨ q: ¬(¬p ^ ¬q) An elem may be a set, might need c) ∧ ∀r. (Robot(r) → ¬Loves(c, r)) ) )
Proposition: a statement that is either ↔Even(n²))) ⊤: ⊥→⊥ to take elem of elem x. where x ∃p. (Person(p) ∧
true or false. e.g. n is an integer ∃ is paired with ∧ and ∀ is ¬p: p→⊥ ∈ A. ∀c. (¬Cat(c) \/ ¬Loves(p,c) \/ ∃r. (Robot(r)
Negation of a proposition that is always paired with → p ∧ q: (p→q→⊥)→⊥ ∧ Loves(c,r)) ) )
true whenever X if false & false when x is
¬(A→B) = A ∧ ¬B CHECK RIGHT ASSOCIATIVE 2. (∀x. (Person(x) ↔ ∃r. (Robot(r) ∧
true. (e.g. N(x<3) = x>=3. Negation of
¬(A↔B) = ¬A↔B or A↔¬B “There is a set S where every element ¬(p→q→r) = ¬(p→(q→r)) !!! Loves(x, r)))) → (∀r. ∀c. (Robot(r) ∧ Cat(c)
Existential Statements: universal
Remember DOT after ∀x. or ∃x ∈ S. of S is also a subset of S”:∅. because → Loves(r, c)))
statement. (there is no P that is Q) ∃ p ∧ ¬(q→r) = p ∧ q ∧ ¬r
SETS: ∀x (x∈ S→x⊆S). Satisfied as (∀x. (Person(x) ↔ ∃r. (Robot(r) ∧ Loves(x,
Universal Statements: existential ¬(A∧B) = A →¬B
¬∀x. A = ∃x. ¬A r)))) ∧ (∃r. ∃c. ((Robot(r) ^ Cat(c)) ^
statement. (there is a P that is not Q that F->F=T.
¬∃x. A = ∀x. ¬A
disproves it) ∀ And {∅}, {∅, {∅}} ¬Loves(r, c)))
¬∀x ∈ S. A = ∃x ∈ S. ¬A Negate Biconditional
Implication: For every x, if P(x) is true,
¬∃x ∈ S. A = ∀x ∈ S. ¬A 3. ∀c. (Cat(c) → ∃r. (Robot(r) ∧ ∀x.
then Q(x) is true. (there is an x where P(x) The Aristotelian Forms: ¬( ((p∧q)∨r) ↔ ((q∨r)→p))
Focus that all rational numbers: p/q (Loves(c, x) ↔ r = x) ) )
is true and Q(x) is false) “All As are Bs” : ∀x. (A(x)→B(x)) ¬A↔B and A↔¬B. REVERSE
where q≠0 ∃c. (Cat(c) ∧ (∀r. (¬Robot(r) \/ ∃x.
Proof by contrapositive: “Some As are Bs” : ∃x. (A(x)∧B(x)) ORDER, so easier
(Loves(c,x) ↔ r ≠ x) ) ))
P->Q : N(Q) -> N(P) “No As are Bs” : ∀x. (A(x)→¬B(x)) ( (p∧q)∨r) ↔ (q∨r) ∧ ¬p )
Biconditional: P if and only if Q “Some As aren’t Bs”: ∃x. (A(x)∧¬B(x)) Pick arbitrary rational numbers a and b. 4. ∃x. (Cat(x) ∧ (∀r. (Loves(r, x) →
P->Q and Q->P need to be proven We want to show that a²+b² is rational. Robot(r)) ∨ ∀p. (Loves(p, x) → Person(p))) )
Proof by Contradiction: assume “Every person loves someone else” ∀x(¬Cat(x) ∨ (∃r. ( Loves(r,x) ∧ ¬Robot(r)))
Since a is rational, we know there exist Thm: For all sets A and B, if A ⊆
consequent is false, show that is not ∀p. (Person(p)→ ∧ ∃p. (Loves(p,x) ∧ ¬Person(p)) )
integers p and q such that a=p/q, and B, then ℘(A ∪ B) ⊆ ℘(B). Prf:
possible. Conclude we must know it’s ∃s. (Person(s) ∧ (s≠p) ∧ Loves(p,s)) ) This but not that:
q≠0. Similarly, since b is rational, we Pick arbitrary sets A and B where
true. (¬p→⊥) → p “There is a person that everyone else loves” ∀y. ∃x. Loves(x, y), but not ∃x. ∀y.
∃p. (Person(p) ∧ know there exist integers s and t such A ⊆ B. We want to show that ℘(A Loves(x, y): Empty world
(∀q. (Person(s) ∧ (q≠p) → Loves(q,p))) ) that b=s/t, and t≠0. We can substitute ∪ B) ⊆ ℘(B). First, we will show ∀x. (Person(x) ∨ Cat(x)), but not (∀x.
“The empty set exists” these into the sum of squares of and as that since A ⊆ B, A ∪ B = B. By Person(x)) ∨ (∀x. Cat(x)): Cat(A); Person(B)
∃S. (Set(S) ∧ ∀x. (x∉S) ) follows: a²+b²= (p²t²+s²q²) / q²t². So we the definition of the union (∃x. Robot(x)) ∧ (∃x. Loves(x, x)), but not
see that a²+b² can be written as c/d, operator, every element of B is an
Operator Precedence ∃x. (Robot(x) ∧ Loves(x, x))
where c=p²t²+s²q² and d=q²t². We element of A ∪ B. Now, we show
1. ¬ 1 is highest Robot(A); Person(B); Loves(B,B)
2. ∧ further observe that because p,q,s,t ∈ that ev- ery element of A∪B is an (∀x. Cat(x)) → (∀y. Loves(y, y)), but not ∀x.
3. ∨ Associate Z, and integers are closed under element of B. Consider an ∀y. (Cat(x) → Loves(y, y))
4. → right most addition and multiplication, then . arbitrary element x ∈ A∪B. Cat(A); Person(B)
5. ↔ first Finally, because q≠0 and t≠0, d≠0. So There are two possibilities: Case ∃x. (Robot(x) → ∀y. Robot(y)), but not (∀x.
“p if q” = q→p. “but” = “and” a²+b² is rational. 1: x ∈ A. Since A ⊆ B, x ∈ B. Robot(x)) ∨ (∀x. ¬Robot(x))
De Morgan’s Law: Case 2: x ∈ B. In either case, x
¬(p∧q) = p→¬q ¬(p→q) = Robot(A); Person(B)
¬(p→q) = p∧¬q Y(p,q,r): T,T,F,…,F,T:
p∧¬q ∈ B, so (A ∪ B) ⊆ B. Since (A # set true statement antecedent to false (there
(p→q) = ¬p∨q Y(p,q,r) = (p∧q) ∨ (¬p∧¬q∧¬r)
Negate “there exists a puppy who is ∪ B) ⊆ B and B ⊆ (A ∪ B), we exists a no robot)
First-order Logic ¬p = Y(⊥,⊥,p)
predicates: describe properties cute. see that A ∪ B = B. Thus, ℘(A ∪ Translating into Logic
¬(∃x. (Puppy(x) ∧ Cute(x))) = p→q = Y(Y(⊥,⊥,p) ,Y(⊥,⊥,p) ,Y(⊥, B) = ℘(B). Since every set is a
of objects (function that returns "Robots do not love."
bool) ∀x. (Puppy(x)→¬Cute(x)) (If puppy, ⊥,q)) subset of itself, ℘(A ∪ B) ⊆ ℘(B), ∀x. (Robot(x) → ¬(∃y (Loves(x,y))))
functions: map objects to one cannot be cute) is easier to read than as required. "Each robot loves every cat, but no cat loves
another ∀x. (¬Puppy(x)∨¬Cute(x))
Expressing Uniqueness: any person."
Quantifiers allow us to reason ∃a. ((WaytoFindOut(a) ∧ ¬(∃b. (WaytoFindOut(b) ∧ (a≠b))))
(∀x. (∀y. (Robot(x) /\ Cat(y) → Loves(x,y))))
about multiple objects = ∃w. ((WaytoFindOut(a) ∧
Connections work on predicates ∀x. (WaytoFindOut(b) → (a=b)) ) /\ ¬(∃x. (∃y. ((Cat(x) /\ Person(y)) /\
(∧,¬,→,...) Loves(x,y))))
Contradiction Sandwich: contradiction, prove using same
Equality: (a special predicate) method as without contradiction reached and reverse. "Each cat only loves itself."
states whether 2 objects are ∀x. (Cat(x) → (¬(∃y (Loves(x,y) /\ (x ≠ y))) /\
equal to one another. 1. Assume, for the sake of contradiction that he theorem
is false. Loves(x,x)))
Numbers are constant terms
2. Prove the theorem using a direct proof. "if you pick a person, you’ll find that they love
Type-Checking 3. This contradicts that the theorem is false, so the a cat if and only if they also love a robot."
theorem is true. ∀x. ( Person(x) → ( (∃r(Robot(r) /\
The set of all committees you can make from Stanford Loves(x,r))) ↔ (∃c (Cat(c) /\ (Loves(x,c)))) ) )
students and faculty that contain at least one student and at "No two robots love exactly the same set of cats." = Every two "Each person loves exactly two cats and
least one faculty member. You can assume no one is both a robots have at least one cat one likes and the other does not ∀a. nothing else."
student and a faculty member: ℘ (S ∪ F ) \ (℘ (S) ∪ ℘ (F )) ∀b. ( ( Robot(a) /\ Robot(b) /\ (a ≠ b) ) → (∃c. ( Cat(c) /\ ∀x. ( Person(x) → (∃c. (∃d. ((c ≠ d) /\ Cat(c)
((Loves(a,c) /\ ¬Loves(b,c)) \/ (¬Loves(a,c) /\ Loves(b,c))) ) ) ) /\ Cat(d) /\ Loves(x,c) /\ Loves(x,d) /\ ¬(∃e. ((e
≠ c) /\ (e ≠ d) /\ Loves(x,e))) )) ) )
 {{}} Thm: Prove for all natural numbers n that if ⌊n/2⌋· Thm: For all integers n, if n is odd, then n² is odd. Prf:
/* True or false: S and T are sets, and S is a subset
{ } ⌈n/2⌉ is odd, then n is even. Prf: We will prove the Pick an odd integer n. We want to show that n² is odd.
of P(P(T))? [P=PowerSet)*/ contrapositive of this statement, namely, for all natural Since n is odd, there is an integer k where n = 2k +
{{},{{}}}
{} bool isSubsetOfDoublePSet(Object S, Object T) numbers n, if n is odd, then ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ is even. To do 1.Then we see that n² = (2k + 1)² = 4k²+4k+1 =2(2k² +
{{},{{}}} { if (!isSet(S) || !isSet(T)) return false; so, pick an odd natural number for n. We want to 2k)+1. Therefore, there is an integer m (namely, 2k² +
for (Object x: asSet(S)) { // loop across x in S show that ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ is even. Since n is an odd 2k) such that n²=2m+1, so n² is an odd number, as
{ {}, { {} }, { { {} } }, { {}, { {} } } } natural number there exists a non-negative number k required.
if (!isSet(x)) return false;// is x is not a set, stop
/* True or false: S in T? */ for (Object y: asSet(x)) { // everything in x should such that n = 2k+1.Thus, ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ = ⌊(2k+1)/2⌋· Thm: For all integers a, b, and c, if a²+b²=c², then at
bool isElementOf(Object S, Object T) { ⌈(2k+1)/2⌉ = ⌊k+(1/2)⌋·⌈k+(1/2)⌉ = k·(k + 1) = k²+k.
Be a subset of T -> equivelant to double set least one of a, b, and c is even. Prf: We will prove
There are two cases to examine. One in which k is
if (!isSet(T)) return false; return (asSet(T).count(S)); if (!isSubsetOf(y,T)) return false; the contrapositive of this statement, namely, for all
even and the other in which k is odd. Case 1: k is
} } } return true; } integers a, b, and c, if a, b, and c are odd, then a²+
even and, thus, exists an integer a so that k=2a.
/* True or false: S is a subset of T? */ /* ∃ x. Cat(x) */ bool a( b² ̸ =c². To do so, pick odd integers for a, b, and c.
Through substitution, we see that ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ = k² + k
bool isSubsetOf(Object S, Object T) { We want to show that a²+b² ̸ =c². Since a, b, and c
std::set<Entity> world) { = (2a)²+(2a)=4a²+2a=2(2a² + a). Case 2: k is odd
are odd numbers, we know by our result from the
if (!isSet(S) || !isSet(T)) return false; for (Entity x: world) { if (Cat(x)) return true; } and, thus, exists an integer b so that k=2b+1.Through
previous problem that a²,b², and c² are odd.
std::set<Object> large = asSet(T); return false;} substitution, we see that ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ = k²+k= (2b+1)²
Because a² and b² are odd, there exist integers p
for (Object x: asSet(S)) { if (!large.count(x)) return + (2b+1) = 4b²+4b+1+2b+1 =2(2b²+3b+1). In either
/* ∀ x. Robot(x) */ bool b(std::set<Entity> world) { and q such that a² = 2p+1 and b² = 2q+1. This
case, both are shown to be even in the form 2m (m=
false; } return true; for (Entity x: world) { if (!Robot(x)) return false; means that a² + b² = (2p+1) + (2q+1) = 2(p+q+1),
2a² + a in the even case and m=2b²+3b+1 in the odd
} } return true; } which means that a² + b² is even. However, as
case) which is what we needed to show. ■
/* True or false: S and T are sets, and S n T = mentioned earlier we know that c² is odd. Therefore,
/* ∃ x. (Person(x) ∧ Loves(x, x)) */
emptyset? */ we see that a² + b² ̸ = c² as required.■
bool c(std::set<Entity> world) Thm: For all sets A, B, and C, if A ∩ C = ∅., then A - (B -
Thm: For all integers m and n, if mn is even and m is
bool areDisjointSets(Object S, Object T) { { for (Entity x: world) { C) ⊆ (A - B) - C.Prf: Pick arbitrary sets A, B, and C, odd, then n is even. Prf: Assume for the sake of
if (!isSet(S) || !isSet(T)) return false; if (Person(x) && Loves(x,x)) return true; where A ∩ C = ∅.. We want to show that A - (B - C) ⊆ (A - contradiction that there exist integers m and n where
std::set<Object> large = asSet(T); } return false; } B) - C. Pick an arbitrary x ∈ A - (B-C). We want to show mn is even and m is odd and n is odd. Since m is odd,
for (Object x: asSet(S)) { if (large.count(x)) return /* ∀ x. (Cat(x) → Loves(x, x)) */ that x ∈ (A-B)-C. In other words, we need to show three we know that there is an integer k where m = 2k + 1.
false; }return true; bool d(std::set<Entity> world) { things: x ∈ A ,x ∉ B , and x ∉ C. Since x ∈ A - (B-C), we Similarly, since n is odd, there is an integer r where n =
} 2r + 1. Then we see that mn = (2k+1)(2r+1) = 4kr +
for (Entity x: world) { know that x ∈ A, and that x ∉ B or x ∈ C. This shows that
/* True or false: S = {T}? */ 2k+2r+1 =2(2kr+k+r)+1 which means that mn is odd,
if (Cat(x)) { if (!Loves(x, x)) { return false; } } x ∈ A,. Since x ∈ A, and A ∩ C=∅, we know that x ∉ C. but this is impossible because mn was assumed to be
bool isSingletonOf(Object S, Object T) { }return true; } Since x ∉ B or x ∈ C, and we already know that x ∉ C, it even. We have reached a contradiction, so our
if (!isSet(S)) return false; return isElementOf(T, S) /* ∀ x. (Cat(x) → ∃ y. (Person(y) ∧ ¬Loves(x, y)))*/ must be that x ∉ B, which is what we wanted to show. assumption must have been wrong. Therefore, if mn is
&& asSet(S).size() == 1;} bool e(std::set<Entity> even and m is odd, then n is even.■
// Reasoning: if T is a set -> {T} is a set of one world) { for (Entity x: world) { Thm: Let T be an arbitrary tournament and c be a player Thm: For all integers x and y and any integer k, if x ≡k
element, therefore T must be a element of S. if T is if (Cat(x)) { bool found = false; in that tournament. If c won more games than anyone y, then y ≡k x. Prf: Let x, y, and k be arbitrary integers
not a set it must be just one item, -> must be an else in T or is tied for winning the greatest number of where x ≡k y. We want to show that y ≡k x. To do so,
for (Entity y: world) {
element of S. size == 1 limit as otherwise T could be games, then c is a tournament champion in T. Prf: We we will show that there is an integer q where y = x +
if (Person(y) && !Loves(x, y)) { qk. Because x ≡k y, we know there is an integer r such
an element but S could have more elements (S must found = true; break; } } will prove that if c won more games than anyone else in
that x = y + rk. Now, let q = -r. Then we see that y = x −
have the same no of elements) if (!found) return false; T or is tied for winning the greatest number of games,
rk = x − (−q)k = x + qk which ....
/* True or false: S and T are sets, and S in P(T)? */ } }return true; } then c is a tournament champion in T. To do this, we will Thm: For all integers x, y, z, and k that if x ≡k y and y
bool isElementOfPowerSet(Object S, Object T) { /*∃ x. (Robot(x) ↔∀ y. Loves(x, y))*/ bool prove the contrapositive of this statement, namely, if c is ≡k z, we have x ≡k z. Prf: Let x, y, z, and k be arbitrary
return isSubsetOf(S,T); } f(std::set<Entity> world) { not a tournament champion in T, then some player in T integers where x ≡k y and y ≡k z. We want to show
/* True or false: S and T are sets, and S is a subset of won more games than c. If c is not a tournament that x ≡k z. To do so, we will show there is an integer
for (Entity x: world) {
champion, then its negation holds, namely, there exists a m where x = z + mk. Because x ≡k y, we know there is
P(T)? */ bool found = true;
player p such that p beat c, and for any player q, q beat c an integer r such that x = y + rk and because y ≡k z,
bool isSubsetOfPowerSet(Object S, Object T) { for (Entity y: world) { we know there is an integer s such that y = z + sk.
if (!isSet(S) || !isSet(T)) return false; if (!Loves(x, y)) {found = false; break;} or p beat q. Consider any player r. There are two cases: Using this we can see that x = y + rk = (z + sk) + rk = z
for (Object x: asSet(S)) { } Case 1: If r beat c, then c’s win tally did not change. + (s + r)k = z + mk which ...
if (!isSubsetOf(x,T)) return false; if (found && Robot(x)) { Case 2: If c beat r, the statement "r beat c or p beat r" Thm: For all integers x and k,x ≡k x.Prf:Let x and k be
} return true; } return true; must still be satisfied. Since r did not beat c, p must have arbitrary integers. We want to show that x ≡k x. To do
beaten r. Then c’s and p’s win tallies both increased by this, we will show that there is an integer r where x = x
Proof: Pick arbitrary sets A, B, where A ∈ B. We } else if (!found && !Robot(x)) return true;
one. Thus, p beat every + rk. Pick r = 0. Then we see that x=x+0(k) = x+rk ...
want to show that (A U B) ⊆ p(B). Pick } return false; }
player that c beat, so p won at least Look at odd no starting at 3, analyzing pattern show m=k². Thm: If n is an
an arbitrary element S ⊆ p(A U B). We want to show
that S ⊆ (B). In other words, we want as many matches as C. Furthermore, odd natural number and n ≥ 3, then there is an m ∈ N where m > 0 and m² +
mn is a perfect square. Prf: Pick an odd natural number n where n ≥ 3. We
to show that S ∈ B. Pick a ∈ S. We want to show p beat c, which adds an additional
want to show that there exists an integer m such that m² + mn is a perfect
that x ∈ B. Since S ∈ p(AUB), S ∈ AUB. win to p’s tally. Thus, p must have square. Since n is an odd natural number there is an integer k such that
Since x ∈ S and S S A U B, then we know that x ∈ A won at least one more match than c. n=2k+1. Let m= k². Because 2k+1 ≥ 3, we know that k ≥ 1, which means that
U B. So then x ∈ A or x ∈ B. If x ∈ A,
So, some player in T won more m=k²≥ 1. m² + mn = (k²)² + (k²)n = k4 + (k²)(2k + 1) = k4 + 2k3 + k² = (k² + k)².
then since A ⊆ B, x ∈ B. In either case, x ∈ B,
games than c, as required. Therefore there is an integer r (namely, k(k+1)) such that m²+mn=r². Thus
which is what we wanted to show.
m²+mn is a perfect square, as required.