Measurements & Metrology Basics

MEASUREMENTS
AND
METROLOGY
(N–SCHEME)
N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

Measurements and Metrology
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Preface
This book on MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

has been written to cover the latest revised syllabus for the
Polytechnic college students of III Semester Mechanical,
Automobile, and Production Engineering.
All the topics in this book are written in simple and

constructive manner with suitable examples and neat sketches.
I assure that the review questions added at the end of each
chapter will be more helpful to the students while preparing for
the examination.
I acknowledge my gratitude with thanks to

M/s. KAL PATHIPPAGAM for their kind encouragement to
bring out this book in time. The author would be very glad and
thankful to receive any comments and constructive suggestions
for the improvement of this book.
N. IYANARAPPAN
([email protected])
All the best...

MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY
DETAILED SYLLABUS
Unit – I : BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS

Chapter 1.1 : Introduction
Basic units - system concepts used in measuring technology -
measuring instruments - length, angles and surface - scope of
Metrology - standardization - international standardization, the
bureau of Indian standards – legal metrology definition - applications -
important elements of measurements - methods of measurements –
needs for inspection - need for measurement - important terminology.
Chapter 1.2 : Precision and accuracy

Precision - definition - accuracy - definition – difference between
precision and accuracy - factors affecting the accuracy of the
measuring system - general rules for accurate measurements -
precautions for use of instruments so as to avoid in accuracy in
measurements - reliability - definition - error - definition - sources of
errors - classification of error - compare systematic error and random
error - selection of measuring instruments - symbols for metallurgical
terms (ASME and ISO).
Unit – II : LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Chapter 2.1 : Linear measurements
Classification of linear measurement instrument – construction and the
principles only - Steel rule - calipers - outside caliper, inside caliper,
Jenny caliper - combination set - feeler gauge - pitch screw gauge -
Vernier caliper - digital caliper - Vernier height gauge - micrometer -
inside micrometer - thread micrometer - optical micrometer - light wave
micrometer - possible sources of errors in micrometers - slip gauges -
requirements - Indian standard – care and use.
Chapter 2.2 : Angular measurements

Introduction - vernier bevel protractor - universal bevel protractor -
optical bevel protractor. Sine bar - types - uses and limitations -
working principle of clinometer, autocollimator, angle dekkor.
Comparators - uses - application - classification of comparator -
mechanical comparator, optical comparator, electrical comparator,
pneumatic comparator - principles - advantages and disadvantages –
compare comparator with measuring instruments - compare electrical
and mechanical comparators.
Unit – III : FORM MEASUREMENT

Chapter 3.1 : Measurement of screw threads
Screw thread terminology - error in thread - measurement of various
elements of thread (description only) - thread gauges - classification
- plug screw gauges, ring screw gauges, caliper gauges – adjustable
thread gauge - gauging of taps - function of various types of gauges -
floating carriage micrometer.
Chapter 3.2 : Measurement of gears

Introduction - types of gear - gear terminology - gear errors - spur
gear measurement - run out, tooth measurement, profile
measurement, lead checking, backlash checking, tooth thickness
measurement - vernier gear tooth caliper - David brown tangent
comparator - constant chord method - measurement of concentricity,
alignment checking - Parkinson gear tester - Rolling gear testing
machine - radius measurement - radius of circle - surface finish
measurement - classification of geometrical irregularities - elements of
surface texture - methods of measuring surface finish - measuring
surface roughness - tracer type profilogram - double microscope.
Unit – IV : ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

Chapter 4.1 : Laser Metrology
Basic concepts of lasers - types of lasers - uses, advantages and
applications - laser telemetric system - laser and LED based distance
measuring instruments - scanning laser gauge – photodiode array
imaging - diffraction pattern technique - laser triangulation sensors -
two frequency laser interferometer - gauging wire diameter from the
diffraction pattern formed in laser - interferometry - use of laser in
interferometry - interferometer - standard interferometer, single beam
interferometer, AC interferometer, Michelson interferometer, dual
frequency laser interferometer - Twyman green interferometer -
applications.
Chapter 4.2 : Computer in Metrology

Coordinating measuring machine - introduction - types of measuring
machines - types of CMM – futures of CMM - causes of errors in CMM
- performance of CMM - applications - advantages disadvantages -
computer controlled coordinating measuring machine – mechanical
system of computer controlled CMMs - trigger type probe system,
measuring type prop system, features of CNC and CMM - features
of CMM software - factors affecting CMM - digital devices – Computer
based inspection - Computer aided inspection using robots.
Unit – V : MEASUREMENT OF MECHANICAL

PARAMETERS
Chapter: 5.1 : Force
Measurement of force - Direct methods - equal arm balance, unequal
arm balance, multiple lever system, pendulum scale - indirect
methods – electromagnetic balance - load cells – hydraulic load
cell, pneumatic load cell, strain gauge load cell, shear type load cell,
electronic weighing system. Torque measurement – torque
measurement using strain gauge - laser optical torque measurement
- stroboscope for torque measurement.
Chapter 5.2 : Measurement of power

Mechanical dynamometer DC dynamometer – inductor dynamometer
- hydraulic dynamometer - diaphragm pressure sensor - deform
gauge with LVDT - diaphragm gauge with strain gauges – piezoelectric
sensors.
Chapter 5.3 : Measurement of flow

Types of flow meters - rotameter, electromagnetic flow metre, hot wire
anemometer, ultrasonic flow metre, laser Doppler anemometer (LDA)
- reference beam mode, interference fringe mode.
Contents
Units Page No.
Unit – I : Basic Concepts of Measurements ..... 1.1 – 1.22
Unit – II : Linear and Angular Measurements …. 2.1 – 2.41
Unit – III : Form Measurement ……………….. 3.1 – 3.46
Unit – IV : Advances in Metrology……………… 4.1 – 4.26
Unit – V : Measurement of Mechanical

Parameters ……. 5.1 – 5.34
 3 Marks Questions and Answers

 Board Examination Question Papers
Unit – I
BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS
1.1 Introduction to metrology
Metrology is a branch of science which deals with measurements
and measuring instruments. When checking the quality of a product, it is
necessary to measure the size of the product. The quality of a product
depends upon the shape, correct size and surface finish. Various
measuring instruments are used to measure these characteristics.
Vernier caliper, micrometer, etc. are used to for measuring the exact
dimension of the products. The instruments used to check whether the
size of the product is within the specified limits are known as limit gauges.
Some instruments compares the size of a component with the known
standards to find the deviations. These are called comparators.
1.2 Units
The standards used for measuring each physical quantity is
known as units. The International System of Units (S.l) has divided the
units into three categories.
a) Fundamental units or base units.
b) Supplementary units.
c) Derived units.
a) Fundamental units or base units

A base unit is a unit adopted for measurement of a base
quantity. It is independently chosen and not dependent on any other
units. The fundamental S.l units are listed in the table.
Sl.No. Quantity Unit Symbol
1) Length Metre m
2) Mass Kilogram kg
3) Time Second s
4) Temperature Kelvin K
5) Electric current Ampere A
6) Luminous intensity Candela cd
7) Amount of substance Mole mol
1.1
1) Metre
Based on line standard, metre is defined as the straight line
distance, at 0OC between the centre portions of pure platinum iridium
alloy (90% platinum, 10% iridium) of 102 cm total length and having a
web cross section.
Based on wavelength standard, metre is defined as the length
equal to 16,50,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between energy levels 2P10 and 5d5 of
Krypton 86 atom.
2) Kilogram
It is the fundamental unit of mass. Kilogram is equal to the
mass of the international prototype preserved at the IBWM
(International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, Paris). The
prototype is made of a cylinder of 90% platinum and 10% iridium alloy.
3) Second
It is the fundamental unit of time. Second is equal to the
duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the hyper fine levels of the ground state of the
Caesium –133 atom.
4) Kelvin
It is the fundamental unit of temperature. Kelvin is defined as
the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water.
5) Ampere
It is the fundamental unit of electrical current. Ampere is that
constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length of negligible circular cross section and
placed one metre apart in vacuum would produce a force equal to
2 x 10-7 Newton per unit length between these conductors.
6) Candela
It is the fundamental unit of luminous intensity. Candela is the
luminous intensity in the perpendicular direction of a surface of
1/6,00,000 m2 of a black body at the temperature of freezing platinum
under a pressure of 101.325 kN/m2.
1.2
7) Mole
It is the fundamental unit for amount of substance. Mole is the
amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of Carbon-12.
b) Supplementary units
1) Radian (rad ) : It is the unit of plane angle. One radian is defined
as the plane angle subtended as the centre of an arc of unit
length at unit radius.
2) Steradian (sr ) : It is the unit of solid angle. One steradian is
defined as the solid angle subtended at the centre by unit area
of a spherical surface at unit radius.
c) Derived units
The derived units are expressed in terms of the fundamental
and supplementary units by defining equations.
Example : Units for area (m2 ) , volume (m 3 ) , density (kg / m3 ) ,

velocity (m / s) , acceleration (m / s 2 ) , force (N ) , pressure ( N / m 2 ) ,
torque ( N − m) , power ( N − m / s) , specific heat capacity ( KJ / kg . K ) ,
etc.
1.3 Needs for inspection

Inspection is the quality assurance method that compares
materials, products or processes with established standards. The
inspection is needed for the following purposes :
1) To ensure the correctness of materials and components with the
established standards.
2) To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
3) To produce components with acceptable quality levels.
4) To reduce scrap and wastages.
5) To purchase good quality raw materials, tools and equipment.
6) To reduce the rejection percentage of products.
7) To judge the possibility of rework of defective parts.
1.3
1.4 System concepts used in measuring technology
Measurement is the comparison of a given unknown quantity
with one of its predetermined standard values adopted as a unit. The
following are the concepts used in measuring technology :
The standards used for comparison must be accurate and
internationally accepted
The apparatus or instrument and the process used for comparison
must be provable.
1.5 Elements of measurements
Fig.1.1 Elements of measurement
The sequence of operations necessary for the execution of

measurement is called process of measurement. The following are the
important elements of measurements :
1) Measurand : It is the physical quantity or property to be
measured. It includes length, angle, diameter, pitch, thickness, etc.
2) Reference : It the physical quantity or property to which
quantitative comparisons are made.
3) Comparator : It is the means of comparing measurand with some
reference.
Example : Consider a fitter who measures the length of a
work piece using a steel rule. In this example, the length of the work
piece is a measurand, steel rule is the reference and fitter’s eye can
be considered as a comparator.
1.6 Needs / Applications of measurements

1) To determine the true dimensions of a part.
2) To ensure public health and human safety.
3) To carry out research and development activities.
1.4
4) To provide input for automatic control systems.
5) To test the functions of elements in a system.
6) To evaluate the performance of a system.
7) To study some basic laws of nature.
8) To ensure interchangeability for promoting mass production.
9) To evaluate the response of the system to a particular point.
10) To check the limitations of theory in practical situations.
11) To establish the validity of design.
1.7 Method of measurements

The choice of the method of measurement depends on the
required accuracy and the amount of permissible error. The various
methods of measurements are :
1) Direct method : In this method, the quantity to be measured is
obtained directly without any calculations. Example : Scales,
Vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protractors, etc.
2) Indirect method : In this method, the value of a quantity is
obtained by measuring other quantities that are functionally
related to the required value. Measurement of the quantity is
carried out directly and then the value is determined by using a
mathematical relationship. Example : Angle measurement
using sine bar, measurement of strain, determination of effective
diameter of a screw thread, etc.
3) Fundamental or absolute method : In this case, the
measurement is based on the measurements of base quantities
used to define the quantity. The quantity under consideration is
directly measured, and is then linked with the definition of that
quantity.
4) Comparative method : In this method, the quantity to be
measured is compared with the known value of the same
quantity or any other quantity practically related to it. The
quantity is compared with the master gauge and only the
deviations from the master gauge are recorded after
comparison. Example : Comparators, dial indicators, etc.
1.5
5) Transposition method : This method involves making the
measurement by direct comparison, in which the quantity to be
measured (V ) is initially balanced by a known value ( X ) of the
same quantity. Then X is replaced by the quantity to be
measured and balanced again by another known value (Y ) .
Then, quantity to be measured, V= XY . Example :
Determination of mass by balancing methods and known weights.
6) Coincidence method : This is a differential method of
measurement in which a very minute difference between the
quantity to be measured and the reference is determined by careful
observation of the coincidence of certain lines and signals.
Example : Measurements on Vernier calliper and micrometer.
7) Deflection method : This method involves the indication of the
value of the quantity to be measured directly by deflection of a
pointer on a calibrated scale. Example : Pressure measurement
8) Complementary method : The value of the quantity to be
measured is combined with a known value of the same quantity.
The combination is so adjusted that the sum of these two values
is equal to the predetermined comparison value.
Example : Determination of the volume of a solid by liquid
displacement.
9) Null measurement method : In this method, the difference
between the value of the quantity to be measured and the known
value of the same quantity with which comparison is to be made
is brought to zero.
10) Substitution method : It is a direct comparison method. This
method involves the replacement of the value of the quantity to be
measured with a known value of the same quantity, so that the
effects produced in the indicating device by these two values are
the same. Example : The Borda method of determining mass.
11) Contact method : In this method, the surface to be measured
is touched by the sensor or measuring tip of the instrument.
Example : Measurements using micrometer, Vernier calliper,
and dial indicator.
1.6
12) Contactless method : In this method, there is no direct contact
with the surface to be measured. Example : Optical instruments,
tool maker’s microscope, and profile projector.
1.8 Measuring instruments

Measuring Instruments are measuring devices that transform
the measured quantity into an indication or information. Measuring
instruments are classified as follows :
1) Linear measuring instruments
2) Angular measuring instruments
3) Geometric or profile measuring instruments
4) Surface measuring instruments

Linear measurement is used for the determination of the
distance between two points in a straight line. Linear measurement is
applicable to all external and internal measurements such as distance,
length and height difference, diameter, thickness, straightness,
squareness, taper, axial and radial run-out, coaxiality and
concentricity. The principle of linear measurement is to compare the
dimensions to be measured and aligned with standard dimensions
marked on the measuring instruments. Linear measuring instruments
are designed either for line measurements or end measurements .
Example : Steel rule, calipers, dividers, depth gauge, Vernier
calipers, micrometers, Vernier height gauge, slip gauge, comparators, etc.

Angular measurement involves the measurement of angles of
tapers and similar surfaces. Angle gauges and divided scales are the
two types of angle measuring devices. The main difference between
linear and angular measurement is that no absolute standard is
required for angular measurement.
Example : Angle gauges, sprit level, protractors, combination

sets, sine bars, clino meter, angle dekkor, auto collimator, etc.
1.7
Profile measurement systems measure and record the profile
of a target by tracing the surface of the target using a stylus. These
instruments are ideal for measuring minute shapes such as screw
threads and thin films in the order of micrometers. In recent years,
profilometer models have been developed that use a laser instead of
a stylus to measure complex shapes.
Example : Thread micrometers, gear tooth Vernier calipers,

profilometers, profile projectors, roundtesters, Coordinate Measuring
Machines, etc.

Surface measuring instruments are used for
the measurement of small-scale features on surfaces. It is important
for the machining of precision parts and assemblies. Surface finish
may be measured in two ways: contact and non-contact methods.
Contact methods involve dragging a measurement stylus across the
surface. Non-contact methods include interferometry, digital
holography, focus variation, structured light, electron microscopy, etc.
Example : Profilometers, Taylor-Hobson Tallysurf, tracer type

profilogram, double microscope, etc.
1.9 Scope / applications of metrology

1) Complete evaluation of newly developed products.
2) Determination of the process capabilities
3) Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities
4) Minimizing the cost of inspection.
5) Reducing the cost of rejects and rework.
6) To standardize the measuring methods.
7) To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
8) To prepare designs for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.
1.8
1.10 Standardisation
Standardisation is the process of creating, issuing and
implementing standards. Standardisation leads to interchangeability.
It improves economy, efficiency and productivity in a factory and
country. Standardisation is done at various levels.
1.10.1 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

It is the National body for standardisation in India. The
functions of the Bureau are :
1) Formulation, publication and promotion of Indian Standards
2) Inspection of process under Certification Scheme
3) Establishment, maintenance and recognition of laboratories
4) Formulate, implement and coordinate activities relating to quality
maintenance.
5) Promote developments in standardization, quality systems and
certification.
6) Provide information, documentation and other services to
consumers and recognised organisations.
7) Give recognition to quality assurance systems in manufacturing
or processing units.
8) Bring out handbooks, guides and other special publications.
1.10.2 National Physical Laboratory (NPL)

National Physical Laboratory is the measurement standards
laboratory of India. It is established by Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR). It maintains standards of SI units in India
and calibrates the national standards of weights and measures.
1.10.3 International standardisation

International standards are technical standards developed by
international standards organizations. International standards are
available for consideration and use worldwide. The following are the
international organisations involved in metrology.
International Organisation of Weights and Measures : It was
established with the objective of maintaining uniformity of
measurements throughout the world. It comprises of
1.9
(a) The General Conference of Weights and Measures.
(b) The International Committee of Weights and Measures.
(c) The International Organisation of Legal Metrology.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Bureau International des Poids et Measures (BIPM)
International Laboratory Accreditation Conference(ILAC)
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
Committee International des Poids et Measures (CIPM)
Conference Generate des Poids et Measures (CGPM)
National Metrology Institute (NMI)
1.11 Legal metrology

Legal metrology is concerned with the regulations and legal
requirements for the measuring instruments and methods of
measurements. The main objective is to maintain uniformity of
measurement in a particular country. The functions / applications of
legal metrology are :
1) To assure public guarantee in respect of security and accuracy
of measurements.
2) To ensure conservation of national standards.
3) To guarantee the accuracy by comparison with international
standards.
4) To organise training in legal metrology.
5) To take part in the work of other national organizations.
6) To carry out scientific and technical work in the field of metrology
7) To regulate, supervise and control the manufacturer.
8) To inspect the use of instruments and measurement methods
9) To detect frauds in measurement or sale of goods
1.12 Important terminology

1) Error
Error of a measuring instrument is the difference between the
value measured by the instrument and true value of the corresponding
input.
1.10
2) Correction
It is the amount which should be algebraically added to the
indicated value to obtain the actual value of the size being measured.
The correction is numerically equal to the error, but opposite in sign.
3) Range
Range is defined as the upper and lower limits an instrument
can measure a value without exceeding the maximum permissible
error.
4) Magnification
In order to measure small difference in dimensions, the
movement of the measuring tip in contact with the work piece must be
magnified. The output signal from a measuring instrument is to be
magnified many times to make it more readable. Magnification may be
achieved by mechanical, electrical, optical, pneumatic principle or a
combination of these.
5) Repeatability
Repeatability is the quality of a measuring instrument to give
the same result when measuring a component using the same method
in the same conditions by the same operator.
6) Resolution
Resolution is the smallest value that an instrument can
measure.
7) Sensitivity
Sensitivity of the instrument denotes the smallest change in
input value to which the instrument responds. It also denotes the
maximum change in an input signal that will not initiate a response on
the output.
8) Hysteresis
It is the difference between the indications of a measuring
instrument when the same value of the measured quantity is reached
by increasing or by decreasing that quantity.
1.11
9) Response time
It is the time taken by an instrument to give an indication after
a sudden change in the measured quantity.
10) Calibration
The process of periodic checking against measuring
instruments and standards of high accuracy is called as calibration.
The following are the requirement of a good calibration system.
1) The measuring equipment in measuring system should be
capable of desired accuracy and precision.
2) Calibration should be carried out using measurement systems
having adequate accuracy, stability and range.
3) All the test and measuring equipment should be securely and
durably labeled.
4) Test and measuring equipment should be calibrated at periodic
intervals with desired accuracy and quality.
5) Records should be maintained for all the test and measuring
equipment included in the calibration system.
1.13 Precision and accuracy
Precision
Precision is the closeness of agreement between
independent test results obtained under specified conditions.
Precision refers to a group of measurements rather than a single
measurement. If an instrument is not precise, it will give different
results for same dimension when measured again and again.
It indicates the degree of repeatability in the measuring

process. A numerical measure of a precision is the standard deviation
of the frequency distribution of the values obtained from repeated
measurements. For the right level of precision, the measuring device
must be ten times more precise than the specified tolerance. For
example, if the tolerance to be measured is ±0.01mm, the measuring
device must have a precision of ±0.001mm.
1.12
Average Value
Dimension
Dimension
Error Average Value
True Value Error True Value
Frequency Frequency
(a) Precise but not accurate (b) Accurate but not precise
Dimension
True Value &

Average Value
Frequency
(c) Accurate & Precise
Fig. 1.2 Precision and accuracy
Accuracy
Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between the
measured value and the true value. The difference between the true
value and the measured value is known as error of measurement.
Accuracy is an important quality of a measuring instrument. As the
exact measurement of a true value is difficult, a set of observations
are made and the mean value is taken as the true value.
Example : Let a micrometer measures a part dimension as

10 mm. If the selected accuracy is ±0.01mm, then the true dimension
may lie between 9.99 mm to 10.01 mm. Thus, the accuracy of the
micrometer is ±0.01mm means that the results obtained by the
micrometer are inaccurate between ±0.01mm. The relation between
precision and accuracy is shown in the figure.
1.13
Difference between precision and accuracy
Precision Accuracy
1) Precision is the closeness of Accuracy is the closeness of
agreement between independent agreement between the
test results obtained under same measured value and the true
conditions. value.
2) It indicates the degree of It indicates the degree of
repeatability in the measuring trueness in the measuring
process. process.
3) Precision does not take into Accuracy takes into account
account the accepted value. the accepted value.
4) For high precision, the average For high accuracy, the
value need not be closer to the average value must be closer
true value. to the true value.
5) Good repeatability is sufficient for Good repeatability is not
good precision. sufficient for good accuracy.
6) For high precision, the measured For high accuracy, the
values must be close to the measured values may be
average value. scattered from the average
value.
7) Precision speaks about quality. Accuracy does not speak
about the quality.
8) Precision refers to a group of Accuracy may refer to a single
measurements. measurement.
9) It is concerned with random It is concerned with systematic
errors. errors.
1.14 Factors affecting the accuracy of the measuring system

The following elements are affecting the accuracy of a
measuring system.
1) Calibration standards 2) Work piece
3) Measuring Instruments 4) Environmental effects
5) Person or Inspector carrying out the measurement
Higher accuracy can be achieved by eliminating all the

sources of errors due to the above five elements in the measuring
system. The following are the factors affecting these five elements.
1.14
1) Standard : It may be affected by thermal expansion, stability with
time, elastic properties, geometric compatibility, position of use etc.
2) Work piece : It may be affected by cleanliness, surface condition,
elastic properties, geometric profile, arrangement of supports, etc.
3) Instrument : It may be affected by hysteresis, backlash, friction,
zero drift error, deformation in use of heavy work pieces, inadequate
amplification, errors in amplification device, calibration errors,
standard errors, etc.
4) Environment : It may be affected by temperature, thermal
expansion due to heat radiation, heating of components by sunlight,
surroundings, vibrations, lighting, pressure gradients, etc.
5) Personal errors due to improper training in use and handling of
instruments, skill, sense of precision and accuracy, proper selection
of instrument, attitude towards personal accuracy achievements, etc.
1.14 General rules for accurate measurements

1) The measuring instrument should be ten times more accurate than
the dimension to be measured.
2) The dimension of master used in comparative measurement
should be closer to the dimension to be measured.
3) Measurement should be taken at the standard temperature of 200C.
4) The measuring instrument should be checked for damage before use.
5) The zero error of the instrument should be checked and adjusted.
6) To eliminate parallax error, the observer should position his eyes
directly above the scale reading.
7) All reading taken during the measurement are in the same unit system.
8) The objects should be gripped gently during measurement.
9) The surface of the objects should be clean and dry.
10) The measuring instrument must be cleaned before and after use.
11) The manufacturer’s recommendations for accurate measurement
should be followed.
1.15
1.15 Precautions for use of instruments to avoid inaccuracy
The following are the precautions for use of instruments so as
to avoid inaccuracy in measurements.
1) The measuring instrument should be inspected for damage before use.
2) The zero error of the instrument should be checked and adjusted.
3) To eliminate parallax error, the observer should position his eyes
directly above the scale reading.
4) The objects should be gripped gently during measurement.
5) The surface of the objects should be clean and dry.
6) The measuring instrument must be cleaned before and after use.
7) The instrument should not be mixed with other bench tools.
8) It should be kept in in the cases provided, when not in use.
9) Bright surfaces should be protected by a film of oil.
10) Regular preventive maintenance should be done.
11) Recalibration should be done periodically.
12) The manufacturer’s recommendations for maintaining the
instrument in good condition should be followed.
1.16 Reliability
Reliability is the degree of consistency of a measurement. A
test will be reliable when it gives the same repeated result under the
same conditions. For example, a micrometer is a reliable instrument
when it measures the correct dimension each time it is used.
1.17 Error
Error is the difference between the measured value and the
true value. The errors can be expressed either as an absolute error or
a relative error.
1) Absolute error
True absolute error : It is the algebraic difference between the
results of measurement to the true value of the quantity measured.
Apparent absolute error : It is the algebraic difference between
one of the results of measurement to the arithmetic mean of a
series of measurement.
1.16
2) Relative error
It is the ratio of the absolute error and the value of comparison
used for calculation of that absolute error. This value of comparison
may be the true value or the arithmetic mean for series of
measurement.
1.18 Sources of error

The following are the major sources of errors in measurement :
1) Imperfections or limitations in the hardware and apparatus of
measuring device.
2) Calibration errors due to the effect of inertia, hysteresis, drop in
voltage, etc.
3) Operator errors such as parallax error and interpolation error in
scale reading.
4) Environmental errors resulting from effect of surrounding
temperature, pressure and humidity on measuring system.
5) Deflection and deformation of work piece under a definite stylus
pressure.
6) Variations in the position of setting standard and work piece.
7) Fluctuation due to friction in the measuring instrument.
1.19 Classification of error

The errors are classified as follows:
1) Static errors
(a) Reading errors
(b) Environmental errors
(c) Characteristic errors
2) Loading errors
3) Dynamic error
(a) Systematic error
(b) Random error
1.17
1) Static errors
Static errors result from the imperfections or limitations in the
hardware and apparatus of measuring device. The basic sources of
static errors include :
(a) Reading error : Reading error occurs only in readout
device. The factors involved in reading error are parallax, interpolation
and optical resolution.
Parallax error can be eliminated by using a mirror behind the
readout pointer.
Interpolation error can be minimised by using a magnifier over
the scale.
Most of the reading errors can be eliminated by using digital
readout.
(b) Environmental error : Environmental errors result from

effect of surrounding temperature, pressure and humidity on
measuring system. The other factors include magnetic field, electric
field, nuclear radiation, vibration, periodic or random motion etc. It can
be reduced by controlling the atmospheric according to specific
requirements.
(c) Characteristic error : Characteristic error is defined as
the deviation of the output of the measuring system from nominal
performance specifications. Linearity, hysteresis, repeatability and
resolution errors are part of the characteristic error.
2) Loading error
Instrument loading error is the difference between the value
of measurand before and after the measurement. The deformation of
soft component under contact pressure of measuring instrument is an
example of loading error. Measuring system should be selected such
that its sensing element will minimise instrument loading error.
3) Dynamic error
Dynamic error is caused by time variations in the measurand.
It results from the inability of the system to respond faithfully to a time
1.18
varying measurement. This is due to inertia, damping or friction in the
sensing, readout or display system. Dynamic errors are classified as :
(a) Systematic or controllable errors
(b) Random errors
(a) Systematic or controllable errors

These errors are controllable and can be reduced by
systematic analysis. They are constant and similar form. The sources
of error includes the following :
Calibration errors : These are caused due to the variation in
the calibrated scale from its normal value. This is due to the
effect of inertia, hysteresis, drop in voltage, etc.
Atmospheric conditions : The variations in the atmospheric
conditions from standard values can cause errors in the
measured value.
Stylus pressure : Deflection and deformation of work piece will
occur under a definite stylus pressure. This leads to error in
measured value.
Avoidable errors : These errors include the errors due to
parallax, effect of misalignment of the work piece and
instrument, etc.
(b) Random errors

These errors occur randomly. The specific cases of such
errors cannot be determined. It is difficult to eliminate such errors. The
sources of error include the following :
Small variations in the position of setting standard and work piece.
Slight displacement of lever joints in measuring instrument.
Fluctuation due to backlash and friction in the measuring
instrument.
Operator errors in scale reading.
1.19
Comparison of systematic errors and random errors
Systematic errors Random errors

1) The specific sources of error The specific sources of error
can be identified. cannot be identified.
2) These errors are controllable. These errors are not controllable.
3) They are constant and similar They are not consistent.
form.
4) These errors can be eliminated These errors cannot be
by proper analysis. eliminated.
5) These errors are due to These errors are due to the
improper conditions or characteristic of measuring
procedures. system.
6) These errors include calibration These errors are caused due to
errors, errors due to change in variations in the position of setting
atmospheric conditions, stylus standard and work piece,
pressure, parallax error, displacement of lever joints in
misalignment of work piece and measuring instrument, fluctuation
instrument, etc. due to backlash and friction in the
measuring instrument, etc.
1.20 Selection of measuring Instruments

The important factors to be considered in selection of
measuring instruments are :
1) Measuring range : It is the upper and lower limits an instrument
can measure a value. The instrument should have the range to
cover effectively the range of the parameter to be measured.
2) Accuracy : The cost of instrument increases exponentially with
accuracy. Hence, instrument with high accuracy should be
selected only when it is absolutely necessary.
3) Precision : Precision indicates the repeatability of an instrument.
An instrument with high precision should always be selected.
4) Resolution : It represents a smallest value that a measuring
instrument can measure. The resolution of the measuring
instrument should be smaller than the minimum unit of
measurement of the parameter.
1.20
5) Measurement method : An instrument compatible with the
method of measurement and atmospheric conditions should be
selected. The instrument should be easy to handle.
6) Reliability : Reliability is the degree of consistency of a
measurement. Higher reliable instrument should be selected so
that to give the same repeated result under the same conditions.
7) Cost : The instrument with minimum cost should always be
preferred. The cost includes manufacturing cost, calibration cost,
inspection cost, maintenance and repair cost, etc.
Review Questions
Short Answer Questions
1) Define metrology.
2) Define unit. State its classification.
3) List out the base units.
4) Explain the two supplementary units.
5) What are derived units? Give examples.
6) What is measurement?
7) Classify the measuring instruments.
8) Define standardisation.
9) List out the international standardisation organisations.
10) What is legal metrology?
11) What is calibration.
12) Differentiate between precision and accuracy.
13) Define reliability.
14) Define error? Differentiate absolute error and relative error.
15) Classify errors in measurements.
16) What is loading error?
1.21
Long Answer Questions
1) Explain the various base units.
2) Explain the needs for inspection.
3) What are the needs for measurement.
4) Explain the important elements in measurement system.
5) Explain the various methods of measurements.
6) Explain the classifications of measuring instruments.
7) Explain the scope of metrology.
8) Explain the functions of BIS.
9) Explain the functions of legal metrology.
10) Explain the important terminology in metrology.
11) Explain the precision and accuracy.
12) Explain the factors affecting the accuracy of measuring system.
13) List out the general rules for accurate measurements.
14) State the precautions in use of instruments to avoid inaccuracy in
measurements.
15) Explain the various sources of errors.
16) Explain the various errors in measurements.
17) Compare systematic errors and random errors.
18) Explain about the selection of measuring instruments.
 
1.22
Unit – II
LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
2.1 Linear measurements
Linear metrology is defined as the science of linear
measurement, for the determination of the distance between two
points in a straight line. Linear measurement is applicable to all
external and internal measurements such as distance, length,
diameter, thickness, etc. The principle of linear measurement is to
compare the dimensions to be measured and aligned with standard
dimensions marked on the measuring instruments.
2.2 Classification of linear measuring instruments

1) Based on the measurement method
(a) Line measuring instruments : The measurement is taken by
comparing the dimensions marked on the instruments.
Example : Steel rule.
(b) End measuring instruments : The measurement is taken
between two end surfaces of the instrument. Example :
Micrometers, slip gauges, etc.
2) Based on the method of reading
(a) Graduated instruments. Example : Steel rules, vernier
callipers, vernier height gauges, vernier depth gauges,
micrometers, dial indicators etc.
(b) Non-graduated instruments. Example : Calipers, telescopic
gauges, surface gauges, straight edges, screw pitch gauges,
radius gauges, slip gauges etc.
3) Based on the precision of measurement

(a) Non-precision instruments. Example : Steel rule, calipers, etc.
(b) Precision instruments. Example : Vernier calipers,
micrometers, etc.
The precision measuring instruments have a high degree of
repeatability in the measuring process. If the dimensions measured by
the instruments are less than 0.25 units, it is said to be precision
measurement. The error produced by such an instrument must not be
more than 0.0025mm for all measured dimensions.
2.1
2.3 Steel rule
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 29 30
1 2 3 12
Fig. 2.1 Steel rule
This is also called as scale. It is simplest and most common

measuring instruments used to measure length. It consists of a strip
of hardened steel having line graduations etched or engraved at
interval of fraction. The scale can be graduated on one side or both
sides with different units of measurement. The scales are available in
the sizes of 150 mm, 300 mm, 600 mm and 1000 mm. This is not
accurate measuring device. It can be used in general measurement in
foundry, steel factories, fabrication works, etc.
2.4 Calipers
Outside caliper Inside caliper Jenny caliper

Fig. 2.2 Calipers
Calipers are generally used to measure the size or to transfer a

dimension to a work piece. The commonly used calipers are :
1) Outside caliper 2) Inside caliper 3) Outside spring caliper
4) Inside spring caliper 5) Jenny or Odd leg caliper
2.2
Outside caliper has two-curved legs bent inwards. It is used to
measure outside dimensions like diameter, thickness, etc. with the
help of steel rule. The two legs are joined stiff at the hinge of the legs.
Inside calipers has two straight legs bent outwards. It is used

to measure the inside dimensions of holes, shoulders, parallel surface,
etc. The accurate measurements can be easily adjusted in the screw
controlled spring calipers.
The odd leg caliper is used for scribing parallel lines about a
straight edge of the work piece. It is also used to find the centre of a
cylindrical work.
2.5 Combination set

This is the most adaptable and widely used non-precision
instrument in layout and inspection work. The combination set consists
of scale, squaring head, protractor and centre head. Groove is cut
along the length of the heavy scale. The sliding squaring head is fitted
in this groove. One surface of the squaring head is always
perpendicular to the scale. It can be adjusted and placed in any
position by a locking bolt and nut. The squaring head also contains a
spirit level which is used to test the surfaces for parallelism.
Graduated protractor head

Centre head Spirit level
Squaring
head
Graduated rule
Fig. 2.3 Combination set
The graduated protractor mounted on the scale is used for

laying out dovetails and angles in the work pieces. It can be moved and
locked in any position. The height and depth measurements can be
done with the combination of squaring head and scale. The centre head
attachment is used with the scale to locate the centre of bar stock.
2.3
2.6 Feeler gauges
m
5m
0.0 mm
0 .1
Fig.2.4 Feeler gauges

Feeler gauges are used to measure the gap between two parallel
flat faces. It is also called as thickness gauges. A feeler gauge consists of
a narrow strip of sheet steel with specified thickness. There are many
gauges of different thickness assembled together to a common hinge.
They can be brought into use independently. These are called feeler
gauges because the user can feel its correctness by himself.
Feeler gauges generally comprise of a series of gauging
bladed of different grades and thickness from 0.003 mm to 1 mm.
assembled in protective sheath. Generally these blades are available
in overall length of 100 mm. These are wide at heel and taper in outer
part. These are hinged in a sheath on a screw and nut on both sides.
The sheath is designed to fully protect the blades when not in use.
The correct size of the gap can be determined by inserting a
number of gauges one after another. While measuring, the blade
should not slide easily. At the same time it should not be forced in the
clearance. One or more gauges can be used together to get the
desired value.
Applications of feeler gauges
1) It is used to measure the clearance between the tool and work
piece in the machines.
2) It is used in automobiles for adjusting the spark plug clearance
correctly.
3) It is used to measure the clearance between piston and cylinder.
4) It is used for measuring the clearance between the guide and
guide ways in machines.
2.4
2.7 Fillet and radius gauge
m m
.05
6.0
5m 10
m
Fig. 2.5 Fillet and radius gauge
Fillet and radius gauge consists of a metal case containing a

number of steel blades in it. The fillet and radius gauges are made in
thin strong strips curved to different radii at end. One set of blades,
mounted on one end of the case carries concave end faces. The other
set at the other end of the case, carries convex end formations. The
radii of the curvatures of the end formations are of different dimensions.
It is highly useful for measuring and checking the inside and

outside radii of fillets and other round surfaces.
2.8 Pitch screw gauge

30.057
Fig. 2.6 Pitch screw gauge
2.5
Pitch screw gauge is a very effective and accurate instrument
used to identify or check the pitch of the threads on different threaded
items. It consists of a case made of metal carrying a large number of
blades or threaded strips. They have teeth of different pitches cut on
their edges. The corresponding pitch value is marked on the surfaces.
For checking the pitch value, different blades are applied on

the threads one after another. The pitch value can be directly read
from the marking on the exactly meshing blade surface. This gauge
can be used to measure both external and internal threads. The free
ends of the blades are made narrow for entering easily into the
threaded holes.
2.9 Vernier caliper

Knife edge for marking
Locking screw
Rule
Main scale
0 2 3 5 6
0 25
Vernier scale Fine adjustment

screw
Sliding jaw
Fixed jaw Work piece
Fig.2.7 Vernier caliper
Length, width, depth, outside diameter and inside diameter of
a component can be measured by using vernier caliper. The accuracy
of vernier caliper is 0.02 mm.
Vernier caliper has a main beam called rule. It is graduated in
millimeters. It has a fixed jaw at one end. There is a vernier head with
a sliding jaw. It has a vernier scale marked on it. The sliding jaw slides
over the rule and can be locked in any position by using locking
2.6
screws. A fine adjustment screw is fitted in the vernier head. The
inside face of fixed and sliding jaw are parallel with each other.
For measuring the outside diameter, the work piece is placed

between the two jaws. The sliding jaw is moved and made to touch
the work piece correctly. The vernier head is locked by tightening the
locking screw. The sliding jaw can be minutely adjusted to touch the
work piece exactly by using fine adjustment screw. Then main scale
and vernier scale readings are noted.
Reading
The length of one main scale division is 0.5 mm. The length
of 25 divisions in the vernier scale equal to 12 mm. So length of one
vernier scale division = 12 / 25 = 0.48 mm.
Least count = Length of one main scale division –
Length of one vernier scale division
= 0.50 – 0.48 = 0.02 mm
In some vernier calipers, the length of one main scale division
will be 1 mm. The length of 50 divisions in vernier scale is 49 mm. So
length of one vernier scale division = 49 / 50 = 0.98 mm.

= 1.00 – 0.98 = 0.02 mm
While reading the vernier, the main scale reading just before
the zero line of vernier is noted. Then the vernier scale division which
exactly coincides with any one of the main scale division is noted. This
number is multiplied by the least count and added with the main scale
reading. This is the correct reading of the work piece.
2 3 4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Reading = 28 + (16 x 0.02) = 28.32 mm

Fig.2.8 Reading of vernier
2.7
For example, as shown in the figure,
Main scale reading = 28 mm
Vernier scale coincidence = 16 divisions
Vernier scale reading = 16 x 0.02 = 0.32 mm
Correct reading = 28 + 0.32 = 28.32 mm.
Digital vernier caliper

Inside measuring faces
Locking screw
Depth measuring blade
15.44 Main scale
Thump roller
Battery lid
ON switch
OFF switch
Movable jaw
Fixed jaw
Fig.2.9 Digital vernier caliper
This vernier caliper has all the parts same as in ordinary

vernier caliper. In this vernier, the reading are shown directly in liquid
crystal display (LCD). It works with the help of small battery fitted in it.
The accuracy of instrument is 0.01 mm. The readings can be taken in
millimeter or in inches. This instrument is also used to find the
deviation between the dimensions of the component and a standard
dimension.
2.10 Vernier height gauge

Vernier height gauge is used to measure the height of the
work piece and to mark the specified dimension exactly on the work
piece. The accuracy of this instrument is 0.02 mm. The dimensions
are measured after placing the work piece and the height gauge on a
surface plate.
It has a solid base made of steel. A vertical beam is mounted

over the base. Main scale is graduated in the beam. A slider slides up
and down along the beam. Vernier scale is graduated in the slider.
2.8
The slider can be moved and locked in any position using a clamping
screw. The slider can be adjusted accurately using a fine adjustment
screw. A measuring jaw is fitted with the slider. A scriber is clamped
with the measuring jaw.
Fine adjustment Beam

screw
Clamp 7
6 Clamping screw
25
Scriber
4
3
0
Vernier scale
Slider
1
Measuring jaw
0
Base
Fig.2.10 Vernier height gauge

For measuring the height of work piece, it is placed on the
surface plate. The slider is adjusted so that the lower face of the slider
touches the top surface of the work piece. Then main scale and vernier
scale readings are noted. The least count of vernier is 0.02 mm.
Correct reading = Main Scale Reading +
(Vernier Scale Coincidence x Least Count)
With this reading, the height of the base block given with the
height gauge is added to determine the actual height of the work piece.
Actual height of work piece = MSR+(VSC x LC)+Height of base block
2.11 Micrometer
The micrometer is used to measure length, width, thickness and
diameter of small and medium size components. The outside micrometer
used for measuring external dimensions is shown in the figure.
2.9
It has a ‘C’ shaped frame made of steel. An anvil is fitted at
the left end and a barrel is fitted at the right end of frame. The main
scale is graduated on the barrel. The barrel has a bore with threads of
0.5 mm pitch. A screw of 0.5 mm pitch passes through this bore. The
spindle is fitted in the left end and the thimble is fitted at the right end
of the screw. Thimble is tubular cover. When thimble is rotated, spindle
moves as the screw rotates. Vernier scale is graduated in the beveled
edge at the left end of the thimble. Ratchet is fitted at the right end of
thimble. The ratchet will slip when the pressure on the screw exceeds
a certain limits.
Spindle clamp
Thimble
Spindle Main scale
Anvil 0 5 10 15 15
10
5
Barrel Ratchet
Vernier scale
Frame
Fig.2.11 Micrometer
A clamp is provided at the right end of ‘C’ frame. The spindle

can be locked at any position by using the clamp.
For measuring the dimension, the work piece is placed

between the spindle and anvil. The ratchet is screwed until the spindle
face touches the work piece. Then the spindle is clamped. Main scale
and vernier scale readings are noted.
Reading
30
0 5
25
20
Fig.2.12 Reading of micrometer

2.10
The value of one main scale division is 0.5 mm. Spindle moves 0.5
mm for one complete rotation of thimble. Thimble is divided into 50 equal
divisions. So value of one vernier scale division = 0.5 / 50 = 0.01 mm
Dimension of component = Main scale reading + (vernier scale

division coinciding with the datum line x 0.01 mm)
For example, as shown in the figure,

Dimension of component = 8.50 + (25 x 0.01)
= 8.50 + 0.25
= 8.75 mm
2.12 Inside micrometer
Work piece
Handle
Anvil
Barrel
Extension
Thimble rods
Spindle
Fig.2.13 Inside micrometer
Inside micrometer is used to measure the inside diameter of

a hole. It works on the same principle as the outside micrometer. The
dimensions above 50 mm only can be measured by this instrument. It
has an anvil at one end and a spindle at the another end. The spindle
moves when the thimble is rotated. A long handle is provided to insert
the micrometer into hole.
2.11
The spindle can be moved to the maximum of 13 mm. So this
micrometer is directly used for measuring the dimensions from 50 mm
to 63 mm. For measuring larger dimensions, the anvil is removed and
suitable extension rod is fitted. The extension rods of 25, 50, 100, 150,
200 and 600 mm are available. The accuracy of this micrometer is
0.01 mm.
2.13 Depth micrometer
Thimble
Barrel
Locking ring
Head
Work piece
Spindle
Fig.2.14 Depth micrometer
Depth micrometer is used to measure the depth of blind holes,

slots and grooves. The method of measuring is similar to the outside
micrometer. It has a head. The spindle moves through the head. This
instrument can be used only in the places where suitable seating is
available for the head.
The head is correctly placed on the top of the hole whose

depth is to be measured. When thimble is rotated, spindle moves
inside the hole. After the spindle touches the bottom of the hole, it is
locked. Then the micrometer is taken out and the reading is noted.
The main scale divisions are graduated in decreasing order from the
bottom to top. Extension rods of various sizes can be used for
measuring large depths.
2.12
2.14 Thread micrometer
Thread micrometer is used for measuring the pitch diameter
of a thread accurately. The construction is similar to external
micrometer. The spindle has a conical end and the anvil has a ‘V’
shaped end. The conical point and V shaped anvil have the same
shape as the thread to be measured. Different sets of conical points
and V shaped anvils are used for measuring different threads.
Pitch diameter
V-shaped Conical
anvil point
Thread
Fig.2.15 Thread micrometer
The thread to be measured is placed between the spindle and

anvil. The spindle is moved to touch the flank of the thread. Now the
reading taken from the micrometer is the pitch diameter of the thread.
Three wire method

Anvil
Spindle
Thread
Wire
Distance between
wires (D)
Fig.2.16 Three wire method
2.13
This method is used for measuring pitch circle diameter
accurately. In this method, an ordinary micrometer and three wires of
same diameter are used. These wires are made of hardened steel and
finished by lapping. The correct size of wire is selected according to
the size of thread to be measured.
As shown in the figure, two wires are placed in one side of
thread and one wire is placed at the other side of thread. The
micrometer anvil and spindle are adjusted to touch the wires on the
both sides. Now the reading in micrometer (M) is noted.
Then the pitch diameter of thread is calculated by using the
following formula.
= − + +
Where, = Micrometer reading over the wires
= Diameter of wirre
= Included angle of thread
= Pitch of the thread
2.15 Optical micrometer

Optical micrometers are non-contact type devices used to
measure diameters of wires, rods and other cylinders. It also measures
gaps, edge positions and various geometric dimensions of objects.
Construction
The optical micrometer consists of the following :
Transmitter with a laser diode, rotating mirror and transmitting lens
Receiver with receiving lens and detector photo diode.
Electronics system to process the optical signal.
Display device to show the measurements.
Working principle
Optical micrometer uses a shadow measurement principle.
The laser diode produces a high intensity beam of light. This laser
beam is deflected at constant speed by a rotating mirror. The
transmitting lens projects a parallel beam of lights in the measuring
field. The laser beam is intercepted by the object being measured. The
shadow of the object is projected onto the receiver.
2.14
Fig.2.17 Optical micrometer
The receiving lens concentrates the light beams on a photo

diode. The edges of the shadow is accurately measured by the
detector array in the photo diode. The processor calculates the
dimension by measuring the time duration between the detection of
edges of shadow. The position of the object can be detected by
measuring the time duration (length) of light from transmitting lens to
the object. The display unit shows the measured dimension. The
dimensions and positions of one or more objects can be measured at
the same time by detecting the corresponding shadows.
2.16 Light wave micrometer

Light wave micrometer is provided with an optical pressure
indicator which uses light wave interference. This is provided to apply
exactly the same pressure on the object for each measurement.
The micrometer consists of a lead screw machined with high
precision. The screw carries a graduated wheel at the end. The screw
moves when the wheel is rotated. An anvil is provided to place the
work piece to be measured. The pressure indicator is a combination
of optical flat, a chromium plated steel flat, and a red glass screen.
The optical flat produces a series of visible dark bands to

indicate the amount of pressure supplied by the micrometer lead
screw. The red glass screen is used to see the dark bands in normal
light. A reference line is marked on the steel flat.
2.15
Fig.2.18 Light wave micrometer
When the spindle is not touching the anvil, an adjustment is

made so that two or three bands will be seen from the left-hand edge
of the steel flat up to the reference line. Each additional band that is
moved up to this reference line indicates an increase in measuring
pressure. The number of visible bands should be same for each
measurement so that to apply same pressure. The pressure is
selected according to the material under test.
Possible sources of errors in micrometer

1) The anvil may not be truly flat
2) Lack of parallelism and squareness of anvils
3) Lead error in the screw
4) Deflection of the frame
5) Inaccurate setting of zero reading
6) Inaccurate reading following the zero position
7) Inaccurate reading shown by fractional divisions on the thimble
8) Heat transfer while holding the instrument
9) Misalignment of the work piece and instrument
2.17 Slip gauges

Slip gauges are precision gauge blocks used for measuring
linear dimensions. They are in the shape of cuboids. They are made
of hardened alloy steel and the surfaces are finished by lapping. They
2.16
have various thickness. The length of all slip gauges are same and the
width of all slip gauges are same.
1.001
1.002
1.003
1.004
1.005
1.006
1.007
1.008
1.009
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.08
1.09
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
10
2
9
20 30 40 50 60
70 80 90
10 20 40
10 20 40
Fig.2.19 Slip gauges
One or more slip gauges are used to build up required

dimension. Slip gauges are placed one over another and combined by
wringing. The two gauges will stick together due to the adhesion
between the two highly finished surfaces.
A normal set of slip gauges has 45 pieces. The thickness of

gauge blocks will be from 1 mm to 90 mm. The size of each block is
marked on it. Different sets of slip gauges having 27, 33, 87, 112 and
165 pieces are available.
Requirements of slip gauges

The following are the basic requirements of slip gauges:
1) The end faces of the gauges must be flat and parallel to each other.
2) All the adjacent faces must be perfectly square to each other.
3) They must possess high degree of surface finish.
4) The actual size must be within tolerances.
5) The edges must be deburrred.
2.17
Indian standard on slip gauges (IS:2984-1966)
Slip gauges are graded according to their accuracy as Grade 0,
Grade I & Grade II.
Grade II is intended for use in workshops during actual

production of components, tools and gauges.
Grade I is of higher accuracy for use in inspection

departments.
Grade 0 is used in laboratories and standard rooms for
periodic calibration of Grade I and Grade II gauges.
M-87 set of slip gauges :
Range Steps No. of pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9

1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 9.5 0.5 19
10 to 90 10 9
1.0005 -- 1
Total 87
M-112 set of slip gauges :
Range Steps No. of pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9

1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 24.5 0.5 49
25, 50, 75, 100 25 4
1.0005 -- 1
Total 112
2.18
Care of slip gauges
The following care should be taken for slip gauges to maintain
their accuracy for a long period.
1) The gauges should not be left in the wrung condition when not
in use.
2) Before the use of slip gauges, they must be properly cleaned
to remove dust and grease traces.
3) The slip gauges should be kept in their case when not in use.
4) Do not break the wring after use. Slide one gauge over the
other to separate them.
5) Slip gauges should be used in an atmosphere free from dust.
6) The blocks are not to be used again immediately after
separating them.
7) A thin layer of good quality grease should be applied on their
faces before they are kept in their case.
Uses of slip gauges

The following are the uses of slip gauges :
1) Slip gauges are used in metrology laboratory, tool room and
machine shop for the calibration of precision measuring
instruments.
2) Slip gauges are used in setting sine bars for establishing
angles.
3) They are used to set other measuring instruments such as
snap gauges.
4) They are used to check comparators and optical inspection
devices.
5) They are used as auxiliary measuring system on milling
machine.
2.19
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
2.18 Vernier bevel protractor
Vernier bevel protractor is also known as plain protractor. It is
a simple device mainly used for measuring and laying out angles. It
mainly consists of a head and blade. The blade is about 150mm long.
The head is graduated from 0 to 180o in both directions for easy
reading. It can provide a least count of 1o for smaller protractors and
½ ° for large ones.
2.19 Universal bevel protractor

Universal bevel protractor is used for measuring angle
between two adjacent surfaces with an accuracy of 5 minutes. This
instrument has a rectangular stock beam integral with a circular disc.
This circular disc is pivoted at the centre of another circular dial. Main
scale is graduated on the circular dial.
The main scale on the dial is divided into four quadrants, each
measuring 90o . Each division on this scale reads 1o . The degrees are
numbered from 0 to 90 on either side of the zeroth division.
Fig.2.20 Universal bevel protractor
2.20
A vernier scale is fitted to the disc. A movable blade is fitted in
the groove of circular dial. The vernier scale has 24 divisions, which
correspond to 46 divisions on the main scale. The divisions on the
vernier scale are numbered from 0 to 60 on either side of the zeroth
division. . An acute angle attachment is provided for the measurement
of acute angles.
The blade is suitably adjusted and clamped. A locking screw is

provided to lock the circular disc with the dial. The stock can be tilted to
any angle with respect to the movable blade.
Reading
Main scale
10 20
20 30
40
30
50
40
0 15 0 15 30 45
45 3 60
60
Vernier scale
Fig.2.21 Reading of bevel protractor
The value of one main scale division is equal to 1o. Vernier

scale is divided into 12 equal parts. The value of 12 vernier scale
division is equal to 23o.
So, the value of one vernier scale division =
23°
12
Least count = 2 Main scale division − 1 vernier scale division
= 2° −
23°
12
= = = 5 minutes
1° 60 minutes
12 12
As shown in the figure,
Main scale reading = 15o
Vernier scale coincidence = 4 divisions
Vernier scale reading = 4 x 5 = 20 minutes
2.21
Actual reading = Main scale reading +
Vernier scale reading
= 15 + 20 Minutes = 15O 20’
2.20 Optical bevel protractor
Fig.2.22 Optical bevel protractor
An optical bevel protractor is a simple extension of the

universal bevel protractor. A lens in the form of an eyepiece is
provided to facilitate easy and magnified reading of the
protractor scale. All other parts are same as in universal bevel
protractor. The blade is clamped to the dial by means of a blade
clamp. This enables fitting of blades of different lengths. The eyepiece
is attached on top of the vernier scale. The eyepiece provides a
magnified view of the reading for the convenience of the user. A clamp
is provided to lock the reading.
2.21 Sine bar

Sine bar is used for measuring angles accurately. It is a
rectangular beam made of steel. All the surface of sine bar are finished
by lapping. Two rollers of equal diameter are fitted at both the ends of
2.22
sine bar. The size of the sine bar is specified by the distance between
the centres of these two rollers. The size varies from 100 mm to 300
mm. The line drawn between the centres of two rollers will be parallel
with the top and bottom surface of the sine bar.
End face Relief holes Upper face
Setting Lower surface

rollers
100 or 200 or 300 mm
Fig.2.23 Sine bar
Types of sine bar

The following are the types of sine bar :
1) Sine centre 2) Sine table 3) Compound sine table
1) Sine centre
Sine centers are used for mounting conical work pieces which
cannot be held on a simple sine bar. Sine center consists of a self-
contained sine bar hinged at one roller and mounted on its own datum
surface. The top surface of the bar is provided with clamps and centers
to hold the conical work pieces. It cannot measures the angle more
than 45 degrees
2) Sine table or sine plate

A sine table or sine plate is a large and wide sine bar. It is
equipped with a mechanism for locking it in place after positioning. It
is used to hold work pieces during measurement.
3) Compound sine table

It is used to measure compound angles of large work pieces.
In this case, two sine tables are mounted one over the other at right
angles. The tables can be twisted to get the required alignment.
2.23
Uses of sine bar
1) Measuring unknown angle
Slip gauges
l
e bar
Sin
Work Surface plate

θ piece
Fig.2.24 Uses of sine bar
The figure shows an arrangement for measuring the angle of

the tapered surface of a work piece by using sine bar and slip gauges.
The work piece is placed on a surface plate. The bottom
surface of the sine bar is placed over the tapered surface of the work
piece. One roller of the sine bar rests on the surface plate. Slip gauges
are built up between the another roller and the surface plate. The slip
gauges are built up so that there is no gap between the sine bar and
work piece surface. The total height of slip gauge is added.
From the figure,

Length of sine bar =
Height of slip gauge block; = ℎ
" #$ =
%
By using the above formula, the taper angle $ can be calculated.
2) Setting up known angle

ℎ
From the sine principle &'( ) = , the height ℎ can be calculated
by knowing the values of ) and . One of the rollers of the sine bar is
placed on the surface plate. The other roller is placed on the slip
gauges of height ℎ. Now the sine bar is inclined at an dangle of ).
Thus a workpiece can be set to any required angle.
2.24
3) Checking of unknown angles of heavy component
When components are heavy and difficult to place on the sine
bar, then the sine bar is placed on the component. The height of both
rollers from the horizontal reference surface are measured by a vernier
height gauge. A dial test gauge is used along with the vernier height
gauge for accurate measurement.
Let, ℎ+ = Height of the lower roller, and
ℎ, = Height of the upper roller
Then the angle of inclination of the work piece can be
calculated with the formula,
−
" #$=
%
Limitations of sine bar (Disadvantages of sine bar)
The following are the limitations of sine bar
1) The accuracy of sine bars is limited by measurement of
center distance between the two precision rollers.
2) It cannot be used as a primary standard for angle
measurements.
3) Sine principle is fairly reliable at angles less than 15o, but
becomes inaccurate as the angle increases.
4) Sine bar becomes impractical and inaccurate as the angle
exceeds 45o.
2.22 Clinometer
A clinometer is a special case of application of spirit level for
measuring the inclinations in the vertical plane in relation to the
horizontal plane. The main functional element of a clinometer is the
sensitive vial mounted on a rotatable disc. Vial is a closed glass tube
of accurate size in a spirit level, which is used for storing the liquid. It
is graduated in linear scale and the bubble moves inside it. Vial carries
a graduated ring with its horizontal axis supported in the housing of
the instrument.
The bubble of the vial is in its centre position, when the

clinometer is placed on a horizontal surface and the scale of the
rotatable disc is at zero position. If the clinometer is placed on an
2.25
inclined surface, the bubble deviates from the centre. It can be brought
to the centre by rotating the disc. The rotation of the disc can be read
on the scale. It represents the deviation of the surface over which the
clinometer is placed from the horizontal plane.
5 55
0
Minute
Rotatable disc adjustment
screw
Magnetic base Graduated scale

Vial
Fig.2.25 Clinometer
A number of commercially available clinometers with various

designs are available. They differ in their sensitivity and measuring
accuracy. Sensitivity and measuring accuracy of modern clinometers
can be compared with any other high precision measuring
instruments. Clinometers with 1 minutes graduations are available.
Applications
The following two categories of measurement are possible
with clinometer :
a) Measurement of an inclined plane with respect to a horizontal
plane : This is done by placing the instrument on the surface to be
measured and rotating graduated disc to produce zero inclination
on the bubble. The scale value of the disc position will be equal to
the angle of incline.
b) Measurement of the relative position of two mutually inclined

surfaces : This is done by placing the clinometer on each of the
2.26
surface in turn, and taking the readings with respect to the
horizontal. The difference of both the readings will indicate the
angular value of the relative incline.
2.23 Autocollimator
Principle of auto-collimation
90
°
O
Optical axis
Object and
image Collimating lens Plane
reflector
(a) θ°
Image
O'
2θ°
x
Tilted
O reflector
Object
(b)
Fig.2.26 Principle of auto-collimation
Let us imagine a converging lens with a point source of light

O at its principle focus. When a beam of light strikes a flat reflecting
surface, a part of the beam is absorbed and the other part is reflected
back. If the angle of incidence is zero, i.e. incident rays fall
perpendicular to the reflecting surface, the rays are reflected back
along the same path and refocused at the point of origin. When the
reflecting plane is tilted through a small angle )°, the reflected rays will
be inclined at 2)° to the optical axis. These rays will be focused at a
point in the focal plane with a distance / from the origin.
Now, from the diagram, 001 = / = 2)2, where 2 is the focal

length of the lens. Thus, by measuring the linear distance /, the
inclination of the reflecting surface ) can be determined.
2.27
Working of autocollimator
Light source
Target
graticule
Micrometer
Eyepiece Eyepiece Beam

graticule splitter
Objective Reflector on
workpiece
Reflected beam when reflector is at right angle to the beam
Reflected beam from tilted reflector
Fig.2.27 Ray diagram of autocollimator
The surface of the work piece whose inclination is to be

measured acts as the reflecting surface. The displacement / is
measured by a precision microscope which is calibrated directly to
read the values of inclination . The target wires are illuminated by the
electric bulb and act as a source of light.
The image of the illuminated wires are projected onto the

reflective surface of the work piece through a collimating lens system.
The reflected image of the wires are returned back through the same
lens system. The target wires and their reflected images are viewed
simultaneously through a magnifying eyepiece.
Reading on eyepiece
Reflected image
Target wire 0 10 20 of target wire coincide
with setting lines
Scale
Fig.2.28 Reading on eyepiece
2.28
The eyepiece contains an adjustable graticule engraved with
setting lines and a scale. The scale is divided into minutes and half
minutes. The setting lines are adjusted by the micrometer control until
they coincide with the reflected image of the target wires. The scale
is then read to the nearest minute plus the micrometer reading.
Generally the divisions of the micrometer scale represent a
0.5 seconds. Autocollimators can accurately read up to 0.1 seconds
and may be used for distance up to 30 meters.
2.24 Angle dekkor
Prism
Microscope
eyepiece
Light source
Graticule
(glasss screen)
TRansmiitted
image
Reflected
image
Collimating lens
Workpiece
Fig.2.29 Ray diagram of angle dekkor

Angle dekkor works on the principle of auto collimation. This
instrument measures angle by comparing the reading from a standard,
such as combination of angle gauges, and the reading from the work
piece under test. Thus it acts as a comparator.
This optical system consists of a ground glass screen on
which a fixed datum scale and an illuminated scale are engraved right
angles to each other. The illuminated scale is engraved outside the
view of the eyepiece. The magnifying eyepiece views both the fixed
datum scale and the reflected image of illuminated scale at right
2.29
angles to each other. The image does not fall across a simple datum
line, but across a similar fixed scale at a right angle to the image. Thus
the reading on the reflected scale measures angular deviation in one
plane at 90° to the optical axis.
The reading on the fixed scale gives the deviation in a plane
which is perpendicular to the former plane. This feature enables to
measure angular errors in two planes at the same time. The whole optical
system is enclosed in a tube which is mounted on an adjustable bracket.
Procedure to measure inclination angle
glass screen Eye piece
Reflected image Fixed scale
40 of illuminated scale
40
30 30 30
20
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
10 10 10
0 0
Zero reading with Reading with

angle gauge built-up component in
Fixed scale position
Illuminated scale Error = 35 - 20 = 15 divisions
= 15 minutes
Fig. 2.30 Arrangement of scales Fig.2.31 Reading in the eyepiece
in glass screen
The angle of inclination of the work piece is measured roughly

by an angle protractor. Then the angle is built up with the combination
of angle gauges. This angle gauge set is placed below the telescoping
tube of the angle dekkor. The zero reading is adjusted in the eyepiece
with the help of special attachment. Then the angle gauge set is
replaced by the work piece under test. The reflected image of the
datum scale and illuminated scale shows the angular deviation of the
work piece from the built up angle. The correct inclination angle of the
work piece can be obtained by adding or subtracting the angular
deviation with the built up angle.
Angle dekkor requires considerable skill to set and read
accurately. It is a very useful instrument for wide range of angular
measurement at short distances. Reading can be obtained to an
accuracy of 0.2 minutes.
2.30
2.25 Comparators
Comparators are devices used to compare the size of the
component with a standard size. The actual size of the component
cannot be measured directly by using comparators. The deviation in
the size of component only can be measured.
Uses / Applications of comparator
1) Comparators are used as laboratory standards
2) They are used as working standards to maintain required
tolerance at all stages of manufacture.
3) Comparators may be used as final inspection gauges where
selective assembly is requires.
4) Comparators are used for checking parts received from
outside sources.
5) Comparators are used for checking newly purchased gauges.
Requirements of a good comparator
1) The scale used in the instrument should be linear and have a
wide range of acceptability for measurement
2) There should not be any backlash and lag between the
movement of the parts.
3) The instrument must be precise and accurate.
4) The indication method should be clear.
5) The indicator should be constant in its return to zero.
6) The design and construction of the comparator should be
strong.
7) The measuring pressure should be uniform for all similar
measuring cycles.
8) The comparator must possess maximum compensation for
temperature effects.
Classification of comparators
All comparators have a magnifying device. According to the
mechanism used for magnification, the comparators are classified as
follows.
1) Mechanical comparator 2) Optical comparator
3) Electrical comparator 4) Pneumatic comparator
2.31
2.26 Mechanical comparator
Rack Gear
Set of
gears
Pointer
Pointer gear Stand
Slip gauges Plunger

Work piece
Table
Fig.2.32 Mechanical comparator

A dial gauge is used as a mechanical comparators. It has a
work table. A vertical stand is fitted on the table. The dial gauge can
be fitted at required height in the stand by a screw.
The dial gauge has a spring actuated plunger. The plunger

has rack teeth cut on its periphery. A gear is engaged with the rack.
Two more gears are attached with the gear as shown in the figure. A
small gear connected with the pointer is independently hinged. It is not
connected with the plunger. Even a small movement of the plunger is
magnified by this gear arrangement and shown by the point. Each
division in the dial scale is equal to 0.01 mm.
First, slip gauges are built up to required size of component to

be checked. The slip gauge blocks are placed under the plunger of
dial gauge. The pointer is adjusted to zero. Then the slip gauges are
removed and the work piece is placed under the plunger. If there is
any deviation in the size of work piece, it will be indicated by the
pointer.
2.32
Advantages of mechanical comparator
1) It is cheaper in comparison to the other comparators.
2) It has linear scale, which is easily readable.
3) It is compact and robust in construction.
4) It is easily handled.
5) It does not require any external supply such as electricity, air, etc.
6) It is suitable for ordinary workshops.
Disadvantages of mechanical comparator

1) The friction is more due to more moving parts, and hence the
accuracy is less.
2) Any slackness in moving part reduces the accuracy
considerably.
3) The more inertia in the mechanism causes the instrument to
be sensitive to vibration.
4) The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves
over a fixed scale.
5) Error due to parallax may occur.
2.27 Optical Comparator

In this comparator, a plunger is connected to a lever which is
hinged at one end. The displacement of plunger is magnified through
these lever. A mirror is fitted at an angle at the end of the lever. A bulb
is fitted at a certain distance above the mirror. The light rays from the
bulb are reflected by the mirror and fall on the screen opposite to the
mirror. A calibrated scale is provided on the screen.
First, the slip gauge of required size are built up and placed
between the plunger and the table. Now the point where the beam of
light falls on the screen is noted as zero reading. Then the slip gauges
are removed and the work piece to be checked is placed under the
plunger. If there is any deviation in the size of work piece, the plunger
will move up and down. This makes the lever to tilt the mirror. Now the
beam of light reflected from the mirror falls on the screen at another
point. From this, the deviation in the size of work piece is determined
accurately.
2.33
Light
Scale
Condensing
lens
Projection
lens
Beam of
light
Hinge Lever Mirror
Plunger
Table
Base
Fig.2.33 Optical comparator

Optical comparator is used for checking gear teeth, screw
thread, cutting tools, needles, etc.
Advantages of optical comparator
1) Very high magnification can be obtained.
2) It has less number of moving parts.
3) The accuracy is higher.
4) The range of instrument is high.
5) No parallax error occurs.
6) The weight is comparatively less.
Disadvantages of optical comparator

1) It has large construction.
2) The cost of equipment is more.
3) Heat from the lamp, transformer, etc. may cause the settings
to drift.
4) A dark room is needed.
5) It is not convenient for continuous use as it viewed through
the microscope.
2.34
2.28 Electrical comparator
Casing Armature Magnet Winding Amplifier
Wheatstone Meter
bridge circuit
Stand Plunger
Table
Base
Fig.2.34 Electrical comparator
This comparator has a solid base. A vertical post is mounted

on its one end. A casing is fitted horizontally to the vertical post. The
casing can be moved vertically and locked at required position. An
armature made of iron is hinged at one end of casing. Two electro
magnets are placed on both sides of armature at equal distances. A
plunger is fitted vertically to the armature. The coils wound on
electromagnets are connected to a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
First, a specimen of correct size is placed between the plunger

and the table. The resistance of the circuit is adjusted so that the meter
indicates zero reading. Then the specimen is removed, and the work
piece to be checked is placed under the plunger.
If there is any variation in the size of work piece, the plunger

moves up and down. So the armature also moves up and down. This
changes the distance between the armature and electromagnets. So
the Wheatstone bridge circuit will become unbalanced. This causes
change in current flowing through the circuit. This current is amplified
by an amplifier and shown by the meter. The accuracy of electrical
comparator is 0.001 mm.
2.35
Advantage of electrical comparator
1) It has very less number of moving parts.
2) The magnification is comparatively high.
3) It can be used for various ranges.
4) It has very light pointer mechanism and hence not sensitive to
vibrations.
5) It has a compact construction.
Disadvantages of electrical comparator

1) The fluctuation in electrical supply may affect the accuracy.
2) Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift and
change the calibration.
3) It is comparatively more expensive.
4) The range of measurement is limited.
2.29 Pneumatic comparator

Restriction chamber
Control orifice
Flexible pipe External
measuring head
Work piece
h
constant pressure
Internal
Manometer measuring head
Work piece
Scale
Air escaping
Fig.2.35 Pneumatic comparator
2.36
This comparator has a water tank fitted with a manometer. A
calibrated scale is fitted vertically at the side of the manometer. A dip
tube is immersed in the water tank. Restriction chamber is provided at
the top of the dip tube. The lower end of the dip tube is opened. The
upper end is connected to a flexible pipe through a control orifice. The
top of the manometer tube is connected to the flexible pipe. A
measuring head is connected at the end of flexible pipe.
Compressed air is passed into the dip tube through restriction

chamber. The velocity of air is reduced in the restriction chamber and
the air enters into the flexible pipe through control orifice. From the
flexible pipe, the air passes to the measuring head and escapes
through the holes on the measuring head.
When the air flows freely through the measuring head, the
water levels in the manometer and in the tank will be same. If there is
some restriction to the flow of air, there will be a pressure difference
between the flexible pipe and the dip tube due to the back pressure.
This pressure difference is shown by the variation of water level in the
manometer.
a) Internal measurement
For checking the size of hole, internal measuring head is
connected to the flexible pipe. It is in cylindrical shape. Two holes are
provided at its sides through which air can escape. First, the
measuring head is introduced into the hole of standard specimen or in
a ring gauge. The level of water in the manometer is marked as zero.
Then the measuring head is introduced in the hole of work piece to be
checked. When the size of hole is smaller, the restriction for air flow
will be more. So the water level in the manometer will fall down from
the zero reading. When the size of hole is larger, the restriction for air
flow will be less. So the water level in manometer will rise above the
zero reading. The deviation can be found out with an accuracy of
0.001 mm by using this method.
2.37
b) External measurement
External measuring head is connected to the flexible pipe to
check the thickness and height of components. Slip gauge blocks are
built up to required size and kept under the measuring head. The zero
reading in the manometer is noted. Then the slip gauges are removed
and the work piece is placed under the measuring head. The gap
between the work piece and measuring head varies according to the
variations in the size of work piece. This variation is indicated by the
water level in the manometer.
Advantages of pneumatic comparator

1) No wear takes place on the gauging devices.
2) Accuracy is more due to less friction and less inertia.
3) Higher magnification can be obtained.
4) Components with very small dimensions can be checked
accurately.
5) The indicating instrument can be kept remote from the
measuring unit.
6) A very small measuring pressure is sufficient.
Disadvantages of pneumatic comparator
1) The scale is generally not uniform.

2) Very high magnification is required to avoid meniscus errors.
3) Various gauging heads are needed for different dimensions.
4) It requires a number of auxiliary equipment.
5) Handling of equipment is difficult.
2.38
2.30 Comparison of comparators and measuring instruments
Comparators Measuring instruments

1) It is used to compare It is used to measure the actual
dimensions. dimensions.
2) Magnification system is No magnification system is
provided. provided.
3) Measurement can be done Measurement is time consuming.
rapidly.
4) Suitable for mass production. Not suitable for mass production.
5) Geometrical forms of parts can Geometrical forms cannot be
be checked. checked.
6) Accuracy is not dependent on Accuracy is dependent on
operator skill. operator skill.
7) Chances of errors are less. More chances of errors.
2.31 Comparison of mechanical and electrical comparators
Mechanical comparator Electrical comparator

1) It has more number of moving It has less number of moving
parts. Hence friction and wear parts. Hence low friction and
is more. wear.
2) Low accuracy High accuracy
3) No external power is required. Electrical power is required.
4) Cheaper Expensive
5) Portable Not portable
6) Sensitive to vibration due to Not sensitive to vibrations
high inertia.
7) Range is limited by the range of It has wide range of
the fixed scale. measurement.
8) Lower magnification Higher magnification
2.39
Review Questions

1) Classify linear measuring instruments.
2) List any four linear measuring instruments.
3) List any four angular measuring instruments.
4) Define least count.
5) Explain the working of inside micrometer.
6) What are the possible sources of errors in micrometers?
7) List out the requirements of slip gauges.
8) What are the grades available in slip gagues.
9) List out the care and uses of slip gauges.
10) What is sine bar? List out the types of sine bar.
11) Explain the principle of auto-collimation.
12) What are the limitations of sine bar?
13) What is comparator? Give its classification.
14) Compare comparators with measuring instruments.
15) Compare electrical comparators with mechanical comparators.

1) Explain the various calipers.
2) What is combination set. Explain its uses with a diagram.
3) Explain the following : (a) Feeler gauges (b) Radius gagues
4) Explain the use of pitch screw gauge with a diagram.
5) Explain the construction and working of a vernier caliper.
6) Explain the procedure to find the height of an object using vernier
height gauge.
7) Explain the construction and working of micrometer.
8) Briefly explain screw thread micrometer.
9) Explain the optical micrometer with neat sketch.
10) What is light wave micrometer? Explain its principle of working.
11) Explain the uses of slip gauges with neat sketch.
2.40
12) Explain the universal bevel protractor with neat sketch.
13) Explain the uses of sine bar with sketch.
14) Explain the working principle of clinometer with sketch.
15) Explain the working of auto collimator with a ray diagram.
16) How angle is measured using angle dekkor?
17) Explain the mechanical comparator with a neat sketch.
18) Explain the working of optical comparator with line diagram.
19) Explain the electrical comparator with neat sketch. List out the
advantages and disadvantages.
20) Describe the working principle of pneumatic comparator with a
neat sketch. What are the advantages and disadvantages?
 
2.41
Unit – III
FORM MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT OF SCREW THREADS
3.1 Screw thread
A screw thread is obtained by cutting a continuous helical
groove on a cylindrical surface. The threaded portion engages with a
corresponding threaded hole forming a screwed fastener. It is also
used to transmit power and motion.
3.2 Screw thread terminology

The following are the important terms associated with screw threads:
Form of thread : This is the shape of the contour of one complete
thread, as seen in an axial section. Some of the popular thread
forms are :
1) ISO metric thread 2) BSW thread 3) Buttress thread
4) Square thread 5) ACME thread 6) Knuckle thread
External thread : The screw thread formed on the external surface
of a work piece is called an external thread. Examples : Bolts and
studs.
Internal thread : The screw thread formed on the internal surface of
a work piece is called an internal thread. Example : Thread on a nut.
Axis of thread (pitch line) : This is the imaginary line running
longitudinally through the centre of the screw.
Fundamental triangle : It is the imaginary triangle that is formed
when the flanks are extended till they meet each other to form an
apex.
Angle of thread : This is the angle between the flanks of a thread
measured in the axial plane. It is also called an included angle.
Flank angle : It is the angle formed between a flank of the thread
and the perpendicular to the axis of the thread that passes through
the vertex of the fundamental triangle.
3.1
Fig.3.1 Nomenclature of screw thread
Pitch : It is the distance between two corresponding points on

adjacent threads, measured parallel to the axis of the thread.
Lead : It is the axial distance moved by the screw when the screw
is given one complete revolution about its axis.
Lead angle : It is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the
pitch line with the plane perpendicular to the axis.
Helix angle : It is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the
pitch line with the axis. This angle is measured in an axial plane.
Major diameter (Nominal diameter): This is the largest diameter
of a screw thread, touching the crests of an external thread or the
roots of an internal thread.
Minor diameter (Core diameter): This is the smallest diameter of
screw thread, touching the roots or core of an external thread or
the crests of an internal thread.
Pitch diameter (Effective diameter) : This is the diameter of an
imaginary cylinder, passing through the threads at the points where
the thread width is equal to the space between the threads.
Addendum : It is the radial distance between the major diameter
and pitch line for external threads. It is the radial distance between
the minor diameter and pitch line for internal threads.
3.2
Dedendum : It is the radial distance between the minor diameter
and pitch line for external threads. It is the radial distance between
the major diameter and pitch line for internal threads.
Single-start thread : In case of a single-start thread, the lead is
equal to the pitch. Therefore, the axial distance moved by the screw
equals the pitch of the thread.
Multiple-start thread : In a multiple-start thread, the lead is an
integral multiple of the pitch. Accordingly, a double start will move
by an amount equal to two pitch lengths for one complete revolution
of the screw.
3.2 Errors in thread
Errors in screw threads may occur during its manufacture or
storage. The possible sources of errors in screw thread are :
1) Errors on major diameter
2) Errors on minor diameter
3) Errors on pitch diameter
4) Pitch errors
5) Angle errors
Errors on the major and minor diameters will cause interference
with the mating thread. Due to this error, the root section and wall
thickness will be reduced. The flank contact will be reduced. The
component will become weak in strength.
Errors on the effective diameter will also result in weakening of the
assembly due to interference between the flanks. If it is small, the
threads will be thin on the external screw and thick on the internal
screw.
Pitch and angle errors cause a progressive tightening and
interference on assembly. These errors precisely related to the
effective diameter.
Pitch errors
Errors in pitch are the errors in the effective diameter helix
measured parallel to the axis of the screw thread. The total pitch error
in overall length of the thread is called cumulative pitch error.
3.3
The types of pitch errors are :
1) Progressive error
2) Periodic error
3) Erratic or irregular error
4) Drunken error
Fig.3.2 Pitch error in screw threads

1) Progressive error
When the pitch of the screw is uniform, but is shorter or longer
than its nominal value, the error is called progressive error. The
causes of progressive error are :
Incorrect tool - work velocity ratio during thread cutting.
Pitch error in the lead screw of machines used for thread cutting.
Use of Incorrect gear during thread cutting.
Change in length of the work due to hardening.
Fault in the saddle guide ways.
In case of progressive error, the graph between the
cumulative pitch error and the length of thread is a straight line.
2) Periodic error
The periodic error repeats itself at equal intervals along the
thread. In this case, the successive portions of the thread length are
either shorter or longer than the mean value. The causes of periodic
error are :
Non uniform tool - work velocity ratio
Lack of squareness in lead screw. It causes the lead screw to
move forward or backward once in each revolution.
Eccentric mounting of gears
Errors in lead screw
3.4
Periodic errors are cyclic. Pitch increases to a maximum then
reduces to minimum. The graph between the cumulative pitch error
and length of thread for this type of error will be in sinusoidal form.
3) Erratic or irregular error

The errors that vary in an irregular manner along the length of
the thread is called erratic error. Their causes are difficult to identify.
The possible causes are :
Disturbances in the machining set up
Non uniformity in work material
Incorrect cutting action
Fault in machine
4) Drunken error
It is type of periodic pitch error occurring for one revolution in
drunken threads. In such threads, the thread is not cut to true helix.
The helix will be a curve and not a straight line.
Effects of pitch error

1) It increases the effective diameter of the bolt and decreases the
effective diameter of nut.
2) It reduces the clearance.
3) It increases the interference between mating threads.
3.3 Measurement of various elements of thread

3.3.1 Measurement of major diameter of external thread
(a) Using ordinary micrometer
Fig.3.3 Measurement of major diameter by ordinary micrometer
3.5
In this measurement, the micrometer is used as a comparator.
A setting cylinder of size approximately equal to the major diameter of
the thread is taken. Let, 𝑆 is the diameter of the setting cylinder. First,
the micrometer is adjusted on the setting cylinder and the reading is
taken (𝑅1 ) Then the micrometer is adjusted on the major diameter of
the thread and the reading is taken (𝑅2 ).
Now, the major diameter of thread, 𝐷 = 𝑆 ± (𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )
Where, 𝑆 = Diameter of setting cylinder
𝑅1 = Micrometer reading over the setting cylinder
𝑅2 = Micrometer reading over the thread.
b) Using bench micrometer
Fig.3.4 Measurement of major diameter by bench micrometer

The bench micrometer is used for accurate measurement of
major diameter. A fiducial indicator is used in place of the fixed anvil.
It ensures that all measurements are taken at the same pressure. This
machine is used as a comparator in order to avoid any pitch errors of
micrometers, zero error setting etc. A calibrated setting cylinder is
used as the setting standard. The diameter of setting standard must
be nearly equal to the major diameter of the thread.
The setting cylinder is held between the anvils and the
micrometer reading is noted down. Then the screw thread is held
between the anvils and the micrometer reading is noted. The fiducial
indicator reading must be same for both the readings to ensure same
measuring pressure.
Let, 𝑆 = Diameter of setting cylinder
𝑅1 = Micrometer reading on setting cylinder
𝑅2 = Micrometer reading on thread.
Then, the major diameter of external thread, 𝐷 = 𝑆 ± (𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )
3.6
3.3.2 Measurement of major diameter of internal thread
The major diameter of internal thread is usually measured by
thread comparator fitted with ball-ended stylus. A calibrated setting
cylinder is used as the setting standard. The diameter of setting standard
must be nearly equal to the major diameter of the internal thread.
Initially, the Instrument is set for the setting cylinder and the
reading is taken. Then the floating head is retracted to engage the tip
of the stylus at the root of the thread under spring pressure. Now, the
new reading is taken.
Let, 𝑆 = Diameter of setting cylinder
𝑅1 = Reading of dial indicator on setting cylinder
𝑅2 = Dial indicator reading on thread
Then, the major diameter internal thread, 𝐷 = 𝑆 ± (𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )
3.3.3 Measurement of minor diameter of external thread
Fig.3.5 Measurement of minor diameter of external thread
The minor diameter is measured by a comparative method using

floating carriage diameter measuring machine and two small V -pieces.
The V - pieces will make contact with the root of the thread. The included
angle of Vee-pieces is less than the angle of the thread to be checked.
The machine has a bench micrometer. It is constrained to move at right
angles to the axis of the centre. A calibrated setting cylinder of diameter
nearly equal to the minor diameter of the thread is used.
3.7
The threaded work piece is mounted between the centres of
the machine. The correct V-pieces are place on each side of the work
piece and the reading is taken. Then the work piece is replaced by the
setting cylinder and the reading is taken.
Let, 𝑆 = Diameter of setting standard
Then, the minor diameter of external thread, 𝐷 = 𝑆 ± (𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )
3.3.4 Measurement of minor diameter of internal thread

a) Using taper parallels
The taper parallels are pairs of wedges having parallel outer
edges. The diameter across their outer edges can be changed by
sliding them over each other. The taper parallels are inserted inside
the thread and adjusted until firm contact is made with the minor
diameter. The diameter over the outer edges is measured with a
micrometer. This method is suitable for smaller diameter threads.
Fig.3.6 Measuring minor diameter using taper parallels
b) Using rollers and slip gauges

In this method, precision rollers are inserted inside the thread.
Proper slip gauges are inserted between the rollers so that firm contact
is obtained. The minor diameter is then the length of slip gauges plus
twice the diameter of rollers. This method is suitable for threads bigger
than 10 mm diameter.
3.8
3.3.5 Measurement of effective diameter (pitch diameter) of external thread
a) Using thread micrometer
The thread micrometer is
similar to ordinary micrometer except
that it has special contact points to suit
the screw thread form to be measured.
The contact points are selected
depending upon the type and pitch of
the thread to be measured. In this
micrometer, the end of the spindle is Fig.3.7 Measuring effective
pointed to the V-thread form with a diameter using thread
micrometer
corresponding V-recess in the fixed
anvil.
When measuring threads, the angle of the point and the sides
of V-anvil should make contact with the screw thread. Now the reading
of the micrometer gives the effective diameter.
This value should agree with the valued calculated by using
the following relation.
Effective diameter, 𝐸 = 𝐷 − 0.6403 𝑝
Where, 𝐷 = major diameter, 𝑝 = pitch of the thread.
The advantage of thread micrometer is that this is the only

method which shows the variation for the drunken thread.
b) One wire method

In this method, one wire or
rod is used. The wire is made of
hardened steel to sustain the wear
and tear in use. It is given a high
degree of accuracy and finish by
lapping to suit different pitches.
The wire is placed between two
threads at one side. The anvil of
the measuring micrometer
contacts the crests on the other Fig.3.8 Measuring effective
side. diameter by one wire method
3.9
First the micrometer reading is noted on a setting standard.
The diameter of the setting standard is nearly equal to the effective
diameter of the thread to be checked. Then the setting standard is
replaced by the thread under test and the reading is taken.
Let, 𝑆 = Diameter of setting standard
Then, the effective diameter of thread, 𝐸 = 𝑆 ± (𝑅1 ~ 𝑅2 )
This method is used for measuring effective diameter of
counter pitch threads, and during manufacture of threads. The
difficulty with this method is that the micrometer axis may not remain
exactly at right angles to the thread axis.
c) Two wires method

In this method, two wires of
identical diameter (𝑑 ) is used. The
wires are placed between the flanks
of the thread, each on one side as
shown in the Fig.3.9. The distance
over the outside of these wires is
measured using micrometer.
Let, 𝑑 = Diameter of wire

𝑀 = Dimension over the wires
Fig.3.9 Measuring effective
diameter by two wires method
𝑇 = Dimension under the wires = 𝑀 − 2𝑑
Then, the effective diameter of thread, 𝑬 = 𝑻 + 𝑷
Where, 𝑃 is a value depends upon the diameter of wire and
pitch of the thread.
For Whitworth thread 𝑃 = 0.9605 𝑝 − 1.1657 𝑑
For metric thread, 𝑃 = 0.866 𝑝 − 𝑑
Two wire method can be carried out only on the diameter

measuring machine. Because the correct alignment of two wires can
be provided only by the floating carriage machine.
3.10
d) Three wires method
In this three wires of known
diameter are used. The wires are
placed between the flanks of thread
such that one wire is placed on one
side and two on the other side. The
wires may be either held in hand or
hung from a stand. It ensures
freedom to the wires to adjust
themselves under micrometer
pressure. The distance over the Fig.3.10 Measuring effective
outside of these wires is measured diameter by three wires
method
using micrometer.
Let, 𝑑 = Diameter of wire
𝜃 = Thread angle
𝑀 = Dimension over the wires
Then, effective diameter, 𝐸 = 𝑀 − 𝑄
Where, 𝑄 is a value depends upon the diameter of wire and +
thread angle.
𝜽 𝒑 𝜽
𝑸 = 𝒅 (𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 ) − 𝐜𝐨𝐭
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
This method ensures the alignment of micrometer anvil faces
parallel to the thread axis. Hence, this method is more accurate.
Best size wire

It is a wire of such diameter that makes contact with the flanks
of the thread exactly on the effective diameter. The best size wire
should always be used for measuring the effective diameter. Any error
on the measured value of effective diameter due to error in thread form
or angle is minimised using best size wire.
𝒑 𝜽
The diameter of best size wire, 𝒅𝒃 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜
𝟐 𝟐
Where, 𝑝 = Pitch of the screw, 𝜃 = Thread angle
3.11
3.3.6 Measurement of effective diameter (pitch diameter) of
internal thread
A thread comparator is used to measure the effective
diameter of internal threads. In this case a pair of ball tips engage the
flanks of the threads measure the effective diameter only.
The ball tip on the right is fixed at the end of a measuring jaw
attached to a floating head in the sliding bracket (B). The floating head
has extension in contact with the spindle of the dial indicator. The
movement of floating head towards the indicator is constrained by a
spring. The fixed head (A) carrying the left hand ball tip is adjusted by
a fine screw to set the gauge to the reference standard.
First, the instrument is set to a reference standard and the dial

reading adjusted to zero. Then the floating head is retracted to insert
the ball tips in the internal threads of the work piece. The tips are
allowed to engage the flanks of the thread under the pressure of the
spring. Now the dial indicator shows the deviation from the nominal
size to which the gauge is set.
The effective diameter of the internal thread, 𝑬 = 𝑺 + 𝐃𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

Where, 𝑆 = Value of setting standard.
(a) Thread comparator (b) Setting reference standard
Fig.3.11 Measuring effective diameter of internal thread
3.12
Setting up reference standard
The reference standard is built up from slip gauges as shown in
Fig.3.11(b). The two end pieces have V-jaws of an angle equal to V form
of the thread. The dimensions 𝐽1 and 𝐽2 are the depths from the face to
the apex points of the V form. Assuming the effective diameter and pitch
of the thread to be known, the distance S is found from the formula,
𝑺 =𝑬 +𝒚−𝒁
Where, 𝐸 = Mean effective diameter.
𝑦 = Depth of the thread from apex to the apex of the
V-form. The value of 𝑦 depends on the included
angle of the thread.
𝑦 = 09605 𝑝 for 55° thread and 𝑦 = 0.866 𝑝 for 60° thread.
𝒁 = 𝑱𝟏 + 𝑱𝟐
The assembled slips are set in a holder with a slip equal to
half the pitch, under one end piece to compensate for the helix angle:
3.3.7 Measurement of pitch of external threads

The pitch of the external threads can be measured by using
a) Screw pitch gauge
b) Pitch measuring machine
c) Tool maker’s microscope

The pitch of external threads can be measured by using screw
pitch gauge. It consists of series of thread forms with varying pitch.
The one which coincides perfectly with the thread under test gives the
pitch. The accuracy of measurement depends on the method of
sighting used to judge the perfectness.

The Pitter screw measuring machine uses various stylus
points to suit screw threads of various pitches. The screw to be
checked is held between centres on a slide. A fiducial indicator is used
to set zero reading. The suitable stylus is mounted on a block
supported by a thin flexible strip and a strut. The stylus point contacts
the thread flanks at the pitch line.
3.13
Fig.3.12 Pitch measuring machine
The slide along the thread is moved by rotating the
micrometer spindle. The stylus falls in and out of each thread. The
pointer of the indicator reads zero when this stylus is in a central
position in each successive thread. The micrometer reading is taken
each time the indicator reads zero. The difference in two successive
reading of micrometer gives the pitch of the thread.
3.3.7 Measurement of pitch of internal threads
Fig.3.13 Measuring pitch of internal thread

3.14
The pitch of an internal thread can be measured on a pitch
measuring machine by using an adaptor. This adaptor carries a bar
which can be inserted into the internal thread to be measured. A stylus
is fitted to the bar end to engage with the thread in the usual manner.
The thread is mounted on the head stock of the machine.
The slide along the indicator unit is moved by rotating the
micrometer spindle. The stylus falls in and out of each thread. The
pointer of the indicator reads zero when this stylus is in a central
position in each successive thread. The micrometer reading is taken
each time the indicator reads zero. The difference in two successive
reading of micrometer gives the pitch of the thread.
3.4 Thread gauges

Thread gauges are limit gauges used to assure that the screw
is within the prescribed limits of size. They are used for checking screw
threads quickly.
Classification of thread gauges
1. Classification based on the type of application
(a) Working gauges : They are used by workers during
manufacturing of threads.
(b) Inspection gauges : They are used by an inspector after the
production process is completed.
(c) Master gauges : They are used as standards for checking
inspection gauges.
2. Classification based on their forms
(a) Plug screw gauges : They are used to inspect internal thread forms.
(b) Ring screw gauges : They are used to inspect external thread forms.
(c) Caliper gauges : They are used to inspect external thread forms.
3.4.1 Plug screw gauges

Plug screw gauges are used for checking nuts and internal
thread forms. Major, minor and effective diameters will be checked. In
ordinary production practice, NO GO effective diameter gauge and full
form GO gauge are mainly used.
3.15
Fig.3.14 Thread form for NO GO effective diameter gauge
Form of threads for NO GO effective diameter gauge is shown

in the Fig.3.14. In this gauge, NO GO plug is truncated and the roots
of the threads are cleared away. This is done to avoid contact with
the crest of the mating thread. The truncations also avoid contact with
the roundings at the root of the nut. The effect of all these modifications
from full form is to limit the NO GO end of the gauge for checking only
the effective diameter
Fig.3.15 Patterns of plug gauges

Plug gauges are made in different designs according to the purpose
of use. Most widely used patterns are shown in the Fig.3.15. For gauging
parallel internal screw threads, following three gauges are recommended.
(i) GO and NO GO plug gauges to check the tolerance on the minor
diameter.
(ii) GO screw plug gauge to check the minimum effective diameter.
(iii) NO GO screw plug gauge to check the maximum effective diameter.
3.16
3.4.2 Ring screw gauges
Ring screw gauges are used for checking bolts and external
thread forms. Major, minor and effective diameters will be checked. In
ordinary production practice, GO effective diameter gauge and full
form NO GO gauge are mainly used.
Fig.3.16 Patterns of NO GO ring gauge
The NO GO ring gauge is truncated on its minor diameter and

cleared on its major diameter as shown in the Fig.3.16.
A thread ring gauge cannot be used to analyse the individual

errors present in a screw. If the pitch diameter is over size, the ring will
not engage. Excessive screw thread lead errors will be detected after
a few turns of ring gauge. When very fine threads are gauged, care
must be taken not to force the threads of the ring gauge on screw.
3.4.3 Caliper gauges

These gauges are equivalent of gap gauges with thread form
on anvils. In the metric system, external threads are gauged with a
caliper type gauge with two sets of anvils. The front anvils have the
full thread form cut on them. They are GO anvils of the gauge. The
width of these anvils is such as to test the required length of the screw.
If the screw passes through front GO anvils it reaches near

NO GO anvils. NO GO anvils check the effective diameter. The tooth
form on these anvils is cleared off at root and truncated at crest. If a
screw is cut of correct effective diameter but has a pitch error, it will
not be pass through GO anvils.
3.17
The following three gauges are recommended for checking
parallel external screw threads,
(i) GO and NO GO caliper gauges to check the tolerance on the major
diameter.
(ii) GO screw caliper gauge to check the maximum effective diameter.
(iii) NO GO screw caliper gauge to check the minimum effective diameter.
3.4.4 Adjustable thread gauge

The fixed plug and ring screw thread gauges have
disadvantages such as solid gauge wear, inaccuracy and increased
cost of production. In order to overcome the disadvantages, the
adjustable pattern screw thread gauge is widely used for precision
gauging purposes.
Fig.3.17 Wickman adjustable thread gauge

The Wickman adjustable thread gauge can be used for
inspecting both right and left hand threads. It is adjustable to 0.002
mm and will test for out of roundness or eccentricity. It can be sealed
after adjustment and is temper proof. The principal feature of this
gauge is the combined fine adjustment and lock.
3.18
The anvils are first adjusted by means of the adjusting screws
until the setting of master gauges supports the weight of the gauge.
After adjustment, a monogram lead seal can be fixed over the
adjusting screws. The gauges are made to suit all standard screw
thread forms.
It can be used for checking major, minor and effective

diameters. The effective diameter is increased by errors of pitch and
angle. For this reason the front or GO portion of the anvil is provided
with a full form of thread with sufficient length. It is set to the nominal
diameter. The rear anvil is of specially truncated form and consists of
a few threads only. So, contact may be made only on the central
portion of the flanks of the thread. The effects of pitch error are taken
into account. The threads on the anvils are relieved so that there is no
interference with the helix of the thread.
3.5 Gauging of taps

Most of internal threads are produced by tapping. Hence
gauging of taps is necessary for quick measurement. The Wickman
gauge system for taps consists a pair of adjustable thread caliper
gauges. The four gauging positions of the pair of gauges are shown
at (a), (b), (c) and (d) in Fig.3.18
The first gauge controls the form of the thread, pitch and
effective diameter. It ensures that the full and core diameter are not
too large. The second gauge ensures that full and core diameter are
not too small.
Fig.3.18 Gauging of taps
3.19
1) The full form GO front anvils of the first gauge are shown at (a)
2) The rear pair of NOT GO anvils for effective diameter are shown at (b).
3) The NOT GO full diameter front anvils of the second gauge are
shown at (c)
4) The NOT GO core diameter rear anvils are shown at (d).
Tap gauges are set in similar manner to thread gauges except

that on the full and core diameter an allowance is made for wear on
tap threads.
3.6 Function of various types of gauges

Gauges for checking external threads
1) Solid or adjustable GO screw ring gauge : It is used for checking
the maximum material limit of the pitch diameter, the maximum
size of the minor diameter and the length of straight flank.
2) Check plug for new solid GO screw ring gauge : It is used
for checking the limit of the pitch diameter of new solid GO
screw ring gauges. The checking is done by both GO and NO
GO check plugs.
3) Wear check plug for solid and adjustable GO ring gauge :
It checks the maximum wear limit of the pitch diameter of the
GO screw ring gauge.
4) Setting plug for adjustable GO screw ring gauge : It is used
for setting the adjustable GO screw ring gauge to the specified
pitch diameters.
5) GO screw caliper gauge : It checks the maximum limit of pitch
diameter in an axial plane taking into account the errors of pitch
and flank angle.
6) Setting plug for GO screw caliper gauges : The GO screw
caliper gauges should just pass over the setting plug gauge
under its own weight or under a fixed working load.
7) NO GO screw caliper gauge : It checks the minimum limit of
pitch diameter.
3.20
8) Setting plug for NO GO screw caliper gauge : NO GO screw
caliper gauge is set by this gauge.
9) Solid or adjustable NO GO screw ring gauge : it is used to
check the minimum pitch diameter limit.
10) Screw check plugs for new sold NO GO screw rings gauge :
These check plugs (GO and NO GO) are used to check the limits
of the pitch diameter of the new solid NO GO screw ring gauge.
11) Wear check plug for solid and adjustable NO GO screw ring
gauge : It is used for checking the maximum wear limit of the
solid NO GO screw ring gauge.
12) Setting plug for adjustable NO GO screw ring gauge : It has
a portion with complete flanks and the screw ring gauge is
adjusted for a snug fit on this portion and further checked by the
NO GO screw check plug.
13) Gauges for major diameter : The plain GO and NO GO caliper
gauges or ring gauges are provided for checking the major
diameter of the work piece threads. For checking GO limit, the
ring gauges are preferred.
Gauges for checking internal threads

1) GO screw plug : It ensures the minimum limit of the pitch
diameter, major diameter and length of the straight flanks of thread.
2) NO GO screw gauge : It checks the maximum limit of the pitch
diameter.
3) Gauges for minor diameter : GO and NO GO plain cylindrical
plugs are used for checking the minor diameter of the work piece
thread.
3.7 Floating carriage micrometer

A floating carriage micrometer is an instrument used for
accurate measurement of thread plug gauges. It is also called as an
effective diameter measuring micrometer. Gauge dimensions such as
outside diameter, pitch diameter, and root diameter are measured
using this instrument. All these dimensions have a vital role in thread
3.21
plug gauges, since the accuracy and interchangeability of the
component depend on the gauges used. To reduce the effect of slight
errors in the micrometer screws and measuring faces, this micrometer
is basically used as a comparator.
Fig.3.19 Floating carriage micrometer
The carriage has a fiducial indicator with a fixed spindle on

one side. It has a movable spindle with the micrometer on the other
side. The screw thread to be checked is mounted between the centres.
The carriage has two slides which move on a finely ground ‘V’
guide way or an antifriction guide way. The lower slide moves in a
direction parallel to the axis of the screw thread. The top slide moves
in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the screw thread. The
micrometer can measure with an accuracy of 0.001 mm.
The instrument is very useful for thread plug gauge

manufacturers, gauge calibration laboratories and standard tool
rooms where in-house gauge calibration is carried out.
3.22
MEASUREMENT OF GEARS
3.8 Types of gear
1) Spur gear : In this gear, teeth are cut on the periphery of a
cylindrical disc at equal space. These gears are used to transmit
motion between two parallel shafts.
2) Helical gear : In this gear, teeth are cut at an angle to the axis.
These gears are used to transmit motion between two parallel
shafts. Helical gears run smoothly without noise.
3) Rack and pinion gear : They are used to convert rotary motion
into linear motion or linear motion into rotary motion.
4) Worm and worm wheel : These gears are used to transmit the
motion between the two shafts which are perpendicular to each
other. Speed can be very much reduced by using these gears.
5) Bevel gear : This gear is used to transmit motion between two
shafts which are inclined at an angle to each other.
3.8.1 Gear terminology
Fig.3.20 Elements of spur gear
1) Base circle : It is the circle from which the involute form is

generated.
2) Outside diameter: It is the diameter of the circle passing through
the top of the teeth.
3.23
3) Pitch circle: It is an imaginary circle passing through the points
at which the teeth of the meshing gears contact each other.
4) Pitch diameter: It is the diameter of pitch circle.
5) Diametral pitch: It is a number that represents the number of
teeth on the gear when the pitch diameter is one inch.
6) Circular pitch: It is the distance from the centre of one tooth to
the centre of adjacent tooth measured along the pitch circle.
7) Addendum: It is the radial distance between the top of the tooth
and pitch circle.
8) Dedendum : It is the radial distance between the bottom of the
tooth (root) and pitch circle.
9) Clearance: It is the small space provided between the top of a
gear tooth and the root of another mating gear tooth space.
10) Whole depth: It is the radial distance between the top of the tooth
and root.
11) Chordal thickness: It is the thickness of tooth measured along
the chord of a pitch circle.
12) Module : It is the metric standard used to represent the pitch.
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒, 𝑚 =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ
The cutters having the following modules are recommended
as per Indian Standards.
First choice : 1, 1.25, 2, 1.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20
Second choice : 1, 1.25, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75,
3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18
Third choice : 3.25, 3.75, 6.5
12) Pressure angle

It is the angle between the common tangent to the pitch circles
and the perpendicular line through the point of contact of two
meshing gears. 14½o and 20o are the standard pressure angle of
gear teeth.
3.24
Spur gear tooth proportions
Spur gear tooth proportion as per BIS are given below.
Sl.No Name of the tooth element Gear tooth proportion

1. Outside diameter (D) m (Z+2)
2. Pitch circle diameter (d) mZ
3. Addendum m
4. Dedendum 1.25 m
5. Working depth 2m
6. Tooth depth 2.25 m
7. Tooth thickness 1.5708 m
8. Clearance 0.25 m
9. Circular pitch πm
10. Diametral pitch 1/m
3.9 Gear errors

The major types of gear errors are:
1) Gear blank runout errors : The blank may have radial runout
on its surface due to errors in the preliminary machining. It may
have excessive face runout.
2) Gear tooth profile errors : These errors are caused by the
deviation of the actual tooth profile from the ideal tooth profile.
Excessive profile error will result in either friction between the
mating teeth or backlash.
3) Tooth thickness errors : This type of error can take the form of
either tooth thickness error or tooth alignment error. The tooth
thickness measured along the pitch circle may have a large
amount of error.
4) Tooth alignment error : The locus of a point on the machined
gear teeth may not follow an ideal path. This results in a loss in
alignment of the gear.
3.25
5) Single pitch error : Single pitch error is the error in actual
measured pitch value between adjacent teeth.
6) Accumulated pitch error : It is the difference between
theoretical summation over any number of teeth intervals and
summation of actual pitch measurement over the same interval.
7) Runout errors : This type of error refers to the runout of the pitch
circle. Radial runout is measured along a perpendicular to the
axis of rotation. Axial runout is measured parallel to the axis of
rotation. Runout causes vibrations and noise, and reduces the
life of the gears. This error occurs due to inaccuracies in the
cutting arbour and tooling system.
8) Eccentricity : It is half the radial runout.
9) Undulation : It is a periodical deviation of the actual tooth
surface from the design surface.
10) Lead errors : This type of error is caused by the deviation of the
actual advance of the gear tooth profile from the ideal value. This
error results in poor contact between the mating teeth, resulting
in loss of power.
11) Cyclic error : it is an error occurring during each revolution of
the element.
12) Periodic error : It is an error occurring at regular intervals.
13) Assembly errors : An error in centre distance between the two
engaging gears results in backlash error or jamming of gears.
The axes of the two gears must be parallel to each other, failing
which misalignment will be a major problem.
3.10 Spur gear measurement

The following are the important tooth elements to be
measured in a spur gear.
1) Runout 2) Pitch 3) Profile
4) Lead 5) Backlash 6) Tooth thickness
7) Concentricity 8) Alignment 9) Composite errors
3.26
3.11 Measurement of runout
Runout is the eccentricity in the pitch circle. Gears that are
eccentric give vibration in each rotation. A gear failure may occur with
a high eccentric tooth.
The runout in the gears is measured by gear eccentricity

testers. The gear is held on a mandrel in the centres. The dial indicator
of the tester has the special tip depending upon the module of gear
being checked. The tip is inserted in between the tooth spaces. The
gear is rotated tooth by tooth. The maximum variation is noted from
the dial indicator reading. It gives the runout of the gear. The runout is
twice the eccentricity.
3.12 Measurement of pitch

Pitch is the distance between corresponding points on equally
spaced and adjacent teeth. Pitch error is the difference in distance
between equally spaced adjacent teeth and the measured distance
between any two adjacent teeth. The following two types of
instruments are commonly used for checking pitch.
a) Pitch measuring Instruments
Fig.3.21 Pitch measuring instrument
The chordal pitch between successive pairs of teeth can be

measured using this instrument. It consists of a fixed finger and a
movable finger. The fingers can be set to two identical points on
adjacent teeth along the pitch circle. The pitch variation is displayed
3.27
on a dial indicator attached to the instrument. In some cases, the pitch
variation is recorded on a chart recorder, that can be used for further
measurements. A major limitation of this method is that readings are
affected by profile variations and runout of the gear.
b) Pitch checking Instruments
Fig.3.22 Pitch checking instrument
A pitch checking instrument is a dividing head that can be

used to measure pitch variations. The instrument can be used for
checking small as well as large gears due to its portability. It is used
as comparator.
It has two probes. One is fixed, called the anvil. Other is
movable, called the measuring probe . The measuring probe is
connected to a dial indicator through levers. The instrument is located
by two adjacent supports resting on the crests of the teeth.
A tooth flank is correctly located by the fixed anvil and locating

supports. The dial indicator is set to zero. The gear is indexed to the
next tooth. The measuring probe senses the corresponding next flank.
Now the dial indicator reading gives the variation in the pitch. From
this value, the adjacent pitch error, actual pitch, and accumulated pitch
error can be calculated.
3.28
3.13 Measurement of profile
The profile is the portion of the tooth flank between the
specified form circle and the outside circle. Profile error is the deviation
of the actual tooth form from the theoretical profile. Involute is mostly
used in gears. The methods commonly used for profile measurements
are :
a) Optical projection method

In this method, the profile of the gear under test in magnified
by optical method, and projected on the screen. It is then compared
with master profile. This is a quick method. It is suitable for checking
profile of small and thin gears.
b) Using profile measuring machine

This machine is designed for checking the involute profiles of
the spur and other gears. The machine is provided with a measuring
stylus. The stylus is initially set at base circle radius of the gear by
means of slip gauge. It is connected to a dial indicator through lever
mechanism. A master involute template is also provided for setting
and calibration of the machine.
The gear to be checked is mounted on the holding device.

When the gear is rotated, the stylus also slides along the involute
curve. The deviation of the tooth profile from the correct involute is
indicated by a dial indicator. The profile variation can also be recorded
on a chart recorder. When there is no error in the involute profile, the
trace on the recording chart will be a straight line.
c) Using gear involute tester

In this method, the gear to be checked is held on a mandrel.
A circular disc is also mounted on the mandrel. The diameter of the
disc is equal to the diameter of the base circle of the gear. The straight
edge of the instrument is brought in contact with the base circle of the
disc. When the gear and disc are rotated, the straight edge moves
over the disc without slip.
3.29
Fig.3.23 Gear involute tester
The stylus of the dial gauge is brought in contact with a tooth

flank. When the gear and disc are rotated, the stylus moves over the
tooth profile. The deviation from the true involute profile is indicated
on the dial gauge.
3.14 Lead checking

Lead is the axial advancement of a helix for one complete
rotation about its axis. Control of lead is necessary to ensure proper
contact across the face width when gears are in mesh.
A lead checking machine contains a measuring probe. It

traces the tooth surface at the pitch circle and parallel to the axis of
the gear. The probe is mounted on a slide, which travels parallel to the
gear axis. The probe is connected to a dial indicator. It indicates the
deviation when the gear is rotated through a specified time revolution.
The total deviation gives the amount of axial displacement of the gear.
3.15 Backlash checking
Backlash in the gears is the play between the mating tooth
surfaces. It is the amount by which a tooth space exceeds the
thickness on an engaging tooth. Backlash in the gear teeth results on
account of errors in profile, pitch, thickness etc. It is measured by
mounting the gears in specified position. Backlash should be
measured at the tightest point of the mesh. A dial gauge is used to
measure the backlash. The pointer is positioned along the tangent to
the pitch circle of the driven gear.
3.30
The driving gear is held solidly against rotation. The backlash
is determined by moving the driven gear back and forth. This
movement is registered by a dial indicator. The backlash variation is
measured by locating the points of maximum and minimum backlash
and obtaining the difference. For precision gears the variation should
not exceed 0.02 to 0.03 mm.
3.16 Tooth thickness measurements

The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle. As the
tooth thickness is the length of an arc, it is difficult to measure directly.
In most of the cases, it is sufficient to measure the chordal thickness.
The tooth thickness can be measured by the following methods.
a) Using vernier gear tooth caliper
b) Constant chord method
c) Using David brown tangent comparator
a) Tooth thickness measurement using vernier gear tooth caliper
Fig.3.24 Gear tooth vernier
3.31
Gear tooth vernier is used to measure the chordal thickness
of a gear tooth. Chordal thickness is the thickness of a gear tooth at
which the pitch circle passes through it. This vernier has a horizontal
slide and a vertical slide. The slides can be independently moved.
Main scale and vernier scale graduations are marked in both slides.
The addendum of gear tooth is found out by using the

following formula.
𝒎𝒁 𝟗𝟎
𝑨𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎 + 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )]
𝟐 [ 𝒁
Where, 𝑚 = Module of the gear
𝑍 = Number of teeth
Addendum is the linear distance from the top surface of the
tooth to the pitch circle.
First, the vertical slide is moved up to the calculated value of

addendum and locked. The vertical slide is made to rest on the top of
the gear tooth. The horizontal slide is adjusted to touch the side of
gear tooth. Now the reading noted from the horizontal scale is the
value of chordal thickness.
b) Tooth thickness measurement by constant chord method
Fig.3.25 Constant chord method
3.32
In gear tooth vernier, both the chordal thickness and chordal
addendum are dependent upon the number of teeth. Hence, separate
calculations are required for measuring a large number of gears with
different number of teeth. The measurement of tooth thickness at
constant chord simplifies the problem for all number of teeth.
Constant chord of a gear is measured where the tooth flanks

touch the flanks of the basic rack. The tooth thickness of the rack along
this line is equal to the arc tooth thickness of the gear.
If an involute tooth is considered symmetrically in close mesh

with a basic rack form, the contact always occurs at two fixed point A
and B. AB is known as constant chord. The value of AB and its depth
from the tip can be calculated mathematically. Then it is verified by an
instrument. The advantage of the constant chord method is that for any
number of teeth (of same module), the value of constant chord is same.
𝜋
Mathematically,
Length of constant chord, 𝑐 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜙
2
𝜋
Depth from tip of the tooth 𝑑 = 𝑚 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙)
4
𝜋𝑚
Height of AB above pitch line, ℎ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜙
,
8
Addendum, 𝑚 = ℎ + 𝑑
Where, 𝜙 = Pressure angle
𝑚 = Module of the gear
Using gear tooth vernier, the vertical slide is moved up to the
calculated value of addendum and locked. The vertical slide is made
to rest on the top of the gear tooth. The horizontal slide is adjusted to
touch the side of gear tooth. Now the reading noted from the horizontal
scale is the value of chordal thickness.
c) Tooth thickness measurement using David brown tangent

comparator
This method is also called as base tangent method. In this
method, the span of a convenient number of teeth is measured with
the help of the David brown tangent comparator.
3.33
The instrument consists of a fixed anvil and a movable anvil.
There is a micrometer on the moving anvil side and this has a very
limited movement. The distance between two opposed involutes is
known as base tangent length. It can be calculated by using the
following formula.
𝝅 𝝅𝑺
Base tangent length, 𝑾 = 𝒁𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓 [𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝝓 − 𝝓 − +
𝟐𝒁 𝒁 ]
Where, 𝑍 =Total number of teeth in gear
𝑆 = Number of teeth under consideration
𝜙 = Pressure angle
𝑚 = Module of the gear
Fig.3.26 David brown tangent comparator
The calculated base tangent length is set in the micrometer

with the help of slip gauges. The distance is adjusted by setting the
fixed anvil at desired place with the help of locking ring and setting
tubes. Now, the micrometer will be a good comparator. The measuring
anvils contact at the mid-working depth of the gear teeth. The
accuracy of span width for the selected number of teeth is checked.
The difference in micrometer reading gives the error in tooth thickness.
3.17 Measurement of concentricity
Fluctuation in velocity of gear will occur, If teeth are not
concentric. This also leads to inaccuracy in indexing process. Tooth
concentricity can be checked by the following methods :
1) Mounting the gear between the bench centres, placing a
standard roller in each tooth space and then measuring the
deviation using a dial indicator.
3.34
2) Using a gear testing fixture fitted with a spring loaded slide and
dial indicator. The spring exerts a constant pressure on the
mating teeth and the movement of the dial indicator gives the
measure of the eccentricity of teeth.
3.18 Alignment checking

The load will not be distributed evenly over the gear face, if
the teeth are not aligned properly. Tooth alignment can be checked by
the following methods :
1) By placing a standard roller in the tooth space and checking for
parallelism using a surface plate.
2) The teeth on one gear are lightly marked with Prussian blue. It is
mounted in a testing machine having a master gear. The contacts
made on the mating gear gives the error in tooth alignment.
3.19 Parkinson gear tester / Rolling gear testing machine

A Parkinson gear tester is a type of rolling gear testing
machine used in gear metrology. It is also known as a gear rolling
tester. This machine is used to carry out composite gear inspection.
The master gear is mounted on a fixed frame. The gear to be checked
is fixed to a sliding carriage. A dial indicator is used to measure the
composite error, which includes errors due to runout, tooth-to-tooth
spacing, and profile variations.
Fig.3.27 Parkinson gear tester
3.35
The two gears are mounted on respective mandrels. The
master gear slide is fixed at a convenient position. The two gears are
brought into mesh by moving the sliding carriage. The sliding carriage
base is locked in its position. However, the sliding carriage is free to
slide for a small distance on steel rollers under a light spring force.
A vernier scale is attached in the machine to adjust the centre
distance of gears accurately. The dial indicator is set to zero. The gear
under test is rotated. Radial variations of the gear are indicated by the
dial indicator. This variation is plotted on a chart for one complete
rotation.
3.20 Radius measurement

This method is used to find the radius of job having a shape
of portion of a circle. The bearing cap is an example of such a job. It
requires the use of surface plate, Vernier caliper, C-clamp and two
pins of equal diameter.
The job is first clamped to surface plate with the help of C-

clamp. It should be clamped in such a way that central position of the
circular job is in contact with the surface plate. Then two pins of equal
diameter are placed on each side of the job. The reading over the pins
is taken by using Vernier caliper.
Fig.3.28 Radius measurement
Let, 𝑂 be the centre of the circle.

𝐿 = Reading over the pins
𝑑 = Diameter of the pin
𝑅 = Radius of the job
3.36
From ∠𝑂𝐴𝐵 in the Fig.3.28,
𝑂𝐵 2 = 𝑂𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐵 2
𝑑 2 𝑑 2 𝐿−𝑑 2
(𝑅 + 2 ) = (𝑅 − 2 ) + ( 2 )
𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑑 2 𝑑 𝐿−𝑑 2
𝑅2 + ( ) + 2𝑅 ( ) = 𝑅2 + ( ) − 2𝑅 ( ) + (
2 2 2 2 2 )
(𝐿 − 𝑑)2
2𝑅𝑑 =
4
(𝑳 − 𝒅)𝟐
𝑹=
𝟖𝒅
From the above relation, the radius of the job 𝑅 can be calculated.
SURFACE FINISH MEASUREMENT

3.21 Classification of geometrical irregularities
The surface of the material machined by chip removal process
cannot be finished perfectly. They have some geometrical
irregularities. These geometrical irregularities can be classified into
four categories.
1) First order : This includes the irregularities arising out of
inaccuracies in the machine tool such as lack of straightness of
guide ways. This also includes the surface irregularities arising
due to deformation of work under the action of cutting forces and
the weight of the material itself.
2) Second order : These are irregularities caused due to vibrations,

such as chatter marks.
3) Third order : These irregularities are caused by machining due

to characteristic of the process. This also includes the feed marks
of the cutting tool.
4) Fourth order : This includes the irregularities arising from the

rupture of the material during the separation of the chip.
3.37
3.22 Elements of surface texture
Fig.3.29 Surface texture characteristic
The following are the important elements related with the

surface texture :
1) Surface: The surface of an object is the boundary which separates
that object from another mating object.
2) Nominal surface: A theoretical geometrically perfect surface is
called nominal surface. But, it is not possible to obtain a perfect
surface.
3) Measured surface : It is the representation of the surface obtained
by instrumentation or other means.
4) Surface finish: Surface finish or surface texture is the amount of
geometric irregularity produced on the surface. The degree of
surface finish is a factor in cost during manufacturing.
5) Roughness: All smooth surfaces have some small peaks and
valleys caused by machine cutting operations. These finely spaced
surface irregularities are called roughness.
Roughness height: It is an arithmetical average distance
measured from peak to valley in microns.
Roughness width: It is the distance parallel to the nominal
surface between successive peaks. It is measured in
millimeter. It depends upon the machine, cutting tool and feed.
Roughness width cut-off: It is the greatest spacing of
repetitive surface irregularities. It must always greater than the
roughness width.
3.38
Centre line : The line about which roughness is measured.
Sampling length: It is also known as cut-off length. The
roughness value measured over a specified distance in
microns is called sampling length.
6) Waviness: Surface irregularities of large size is called waviness.
Waviness results from vibrations, work deflections, warping, heat
treatment, etc.
Waviness height: It is the distance from the peak of the wave
to its valley. It is measured in millimeter.
Waviness width: It is the spacing between successive
waves. It is measured in millimeter.
7) Flaws: Flaws are infrequent irregularities that occur at random

places on a machined part. The most common flaws are cracks,
scratches, etc.
8) Surface roughness number: It represents the average departure
of the surface from perfection over a prescribed sampling length,
usually selected as 0.8mm and is expressed in microns.
9) Direction of lay : It is the primary direction of the surface pattern
made by the machine tool marks.
3.22.1 Evaluation of surface roughness

The following methods are used to assign a numerical value
to surface roughness.
a) Centre Line Average (CLA) Value
Fig.3.30 Centre Line Average (CLA) Value
3.39
It is defined as the average height from a mean line of all ordinates
of the surface, regardless of sign. The 𝑅𝑎 value is the commonly used
standard for measuring surface roughness. From the Fig. 3.30,
𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑨𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑨𝒏
𝑹𝒂 =
𝑳
b) Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
Fig.3.31 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
The RMS value is defined as the square root of the mean of

squares of the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line.
Fig.3.31 illustrates the graphical procedure for calculating RMS value.
If ℎ1 , ℎ2 , . . . , ℎ𝑛 are equally spaced ordinates at points 1,2, …, n, then
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
√ 𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟏 + ⋯ 𝒉𝒏
𝒉𝑹𝑴𝑺 =
𝒏
c) Ten - point Height Average Value
Fig.3.32 Ten-point Height Average Value

It is also referred to as the peak-to-valley height. In this
method, the heights of five successive peaks and valleys from a
reference line are noted down. The reference line should be parallel
to the mean line and not cross the roughness profile.
3.40
The average peak-to-valley height 𝑅𝑧 is given by,
(𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟑 + 𝒉𝟓 + 𝒉𝟕 + 𝒉𝟗 ) − (𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟒 + 𝒉𝟔 + 𝒉𝟖 + 𝒉𝟏𝟎)
𝑹𝒛 =
𝟓
3.22.2 Surface roughness symbol
Fig. 3.33 Surface roughness symbol

The standard surface roughness symbol recommended by
BIS is shown in the Fig.3.33 In this symbol,
‘a’ represents the surface roughness value in µm or in grade
‘b’ represents the production method
‘c’ represents the sampling length in mm
‘d’ represents the direction of lay
‘e’ represents the machining allowance in mm.
3.23 Methods of measuring surface finish

The following methods are used to measure surface finish.
1) Surface Inspection or Comparison Methods.
2) Direct Instrument Measurements.
The surface inspection methods include the following :

1) Touch Inspection 2) Visual Inspection
3) Scratch Inspection 4) Microscopic Inspection
5) Surface Photographs 6) Micro-Interferometer
7) Wallace Surface Dynamometer 8) Reflected Light Intensity.
3.41
1) Touch Inspection : In this method, the finger-tip is moved along
the surface at a speed of about 25 mm per second and the
irregularities as small as 0.01 mm can be easily detected. A
modification is possible by using a table tennis ball. The ball is
rubbed over the surface. The surface roughness is judged by the
vibrations transmitted to hand from the ball. The degree of surface
roughness cannot be measured by this method.
2) Visual Inspection : This method involves inspection of surface by
naked eye. It is limited to rougher surfaces and results vary from
person to person. More accurate inspection can be done by using
illuminated magnifiers.
3) Scratch Inspection : In this method, a softer material like lead,
babbit or plastic is rubbed over the surface to be inspected. The
material carries the impression of the scratches on the surfaces.
The roughness can be judged by visualising these impressions.
4) Microscopic Inspection : In this method, a master finished
surface is placed under the microscope and compared with the
surface under inspection. In another method a straight edge is
placed on the surface to be inspected and a beam of light projected
at about 60° to the work. Thus the shadows cast into the surface
scratches are magnified and the surface irregularities can be
studied. This is the best method for examining the surface finish.
But only a small portion of the surface can be inspected at a time.
5) Surface Photographs : In this method magnified photographs of
the surface are taken with different types of illumination. In case of
vertical illumination, defects like irregularities and scratches appear
as dark spots and flat portion of the surface appears as bright area.
In case of oblique illumination, reverse is the case. Photographs with
different illumination are compared and the results are evaluated.
6) Micro Interferometer : In this method, an optical flat is placed on the
surface to be inspected and illuminated by a monochromatic source
of light. Interference bands are studied through a microscope.
Scratches in the surface appear as interference lines extending from
the dark bands into the bright bands. The depth of the defect is
measured in terms of the fraction of the interference band.
3.42
7) Wallace Surface Dynamometer : This is a type of friction meter.
it consists of a swinging pendulum. The pendulum is lifted to its
initial position and allowed to swing over the surface to be tested.
If the surface is smooth, the friction will be less. The pendulum
swings for a longer period. The time of swing is a direct measure
of surface finish.
8) Reflected Light Intensity : In this method, a beam of light of
known quantity is projected upon the surface. This light is reflected
in several directions. The change in light intensity in different
directions is measured by a photocell. The measured intensity is
compared with reading taken from surface of known roughness.
3.24 Tracer type profilogram
Fig. 3.34 Tracer type profilogram

The work piece whose surface to be tested is placed on a
working table. The table can be moved horizontally by rotating the
lead screw. The lead screw is driven by a motor. The tracer point is
pivoted with a mirror. The tracer point is made to rest on the surface
3.43
to be tested, The pivot point is fixed in space with the stand and its
position can be changed. When the surface to be tested moves, the
oscillations of the tracer are transmitted to the mirror.
A light source emits a beam of light through lens and precision

slit. The beam of light strikes on the oscillating mirror and is reflected
on to the revolving drum. A light sensitive film is fixed on the drum.
The drum is also rotated from the same lead screw through bevel
gears. The trace obtained on the drum is magnified and can be used
for evaluating the roughness value.
3.25 Double microscope

A double microscope is working on the principle of optical
cross - section. When a thin film of light strikes the surface to be tested
at an angle of 45°, a band of reflected light will appear on the surface.
The edge of this band will reproduce the profile of the surface
irregularities. It is an optical cross-section. This profile is magnified and
observed by an optical device, arranged at an angle of 45°
(perpendicular to the light source).
Fig. 3.35 Double microscope

From a light source, a beam of light passes through the
condenser and precision slit. it is directed at an angle of 45° to the
surface to be tested. The observing microscope having objective and
eyepiece is also inclined at an angle of 45° with the tested surface. The
field of view of the eyepiece contains a reading scale called an eyepiece
micrometer. It is used to measure the height of surface irregularities.
3.44
Review Questions

1) Name the important elements of screw thread.
2) List out the errors in screw thread.
3) Explain the proecedure for measurement of major diameter of
internal thread.
4) Explain any one method for measurement of minor diamter of
internal thread.
5) How effective diameter of external thread is measured using three
wires method.
6) What is best size wire? Give the expression for best size wire.
7) How pitch of internal thread is measured?
8) Give the classifications of thread gauges.
9) Explain ring screw gauges.
10) What are caliper gagues? Explain.
11) Explain about gauging of taps.
12) What are the types of gears?
13) Explain the various errors in gears.
14) Explain the procedure to measure runout of gears.
15) Explain the process of lead checking in gears.
16) What is backlash in gears? How it is measured?
17) Explain the constant chord method used for measuring tooth
thickness of gears.
18) Explain the messurement of concentricity of gear teeth.
19) How the alignment of gear teeth are checked.
20) Explain the measurement of radius of a circular profile.
21) Classify the geometrical irregularities.
22) Explain the surface roughness symbol with a sketch.
23) What is double microscoper? Exlain its use.
3.45
1) Explain the various screw thread terminology with a sketch.
2) Explain the various pitch errors in screw thread.
3) Explain any two methods of measurements of major diameter of
external thread.
4) Explain the measurement of minor diamter of external thread using
bench micrometer.
5) Explain any two methods used to measure the effective diameter
of external thread.
6) Explain the procedure for measurement of effective diameter of
internal thread with a sketch.
7) Explain any two method used for measuring pitch of external thread.
8) Explain plug screw gagues.
9) Explain the constructional details of adjustable thread gauge with a
neat sketch.
10) Explain the functions of various types of screw gauges.
11) Explain the construction and working of floating carriage
micrometer with a line sketch.
12) Explain the various gear terminology with a sketch.
13) Explain any one method used to measure pitch of gears.
14) Explain the various methods used for measuring the profile of gears.
15) Explain any one method for measuring chordal thickness of gears.
16) Expalin the procedure to measure chordal thickness of gear using
gear tooth vernier caliper.
17) Expalin the method of measuring tooth thickness of gear using
David brown tangent comparator.
18) Explain the construction and working of Parkinson gear tester /
Rolling gear tester with a neat sketch.
19) Explain the various elements of surface texture.
20) Explain the various methods of evaluation of surface roughness.
21) Explain the various comparison methods for measuring surface finish.
22) Explain the construction and working of tracer type profilogram.
 
3.46
Unit – IV
ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
LASER METROLOGY
4.1 Basic concept of lasers
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation. The photon emitted during stimulated emission has the
same energy, phase and frequency as the incident photon. If a photon
comes in contact with another atom in the higher energy level E2, then
it will cause the atom to return to ground state energy level E1 by
releasing another photon. The sequence of triggered identical photon
from stimulated atom is known as stimulated emission. This
multiplication of photon through stimulated emission leads to
coherent, powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of light
emission. This light emission is called laser.
4.2 Types of laser

Lasers are classified by the gain medium used for light
amplification. The following are the common types of laser :
1) Gas lasers : They are widely available for all power and
wavelength requirements. It uses low density gaseous materials
as active media. Electrical pumping is used. It can be made from
neutral atoms, ions or molecules.
Example : Argon laser, CO2 laser, Helium-Neon laser, Krypton
laser, Xenon laser, etc.
2) Liquid laser or Dye laser : Liquid lasers use liquid as active
medium. These lasers produce output whose wavelengths are in
visible, ultra-violet and near infrared spectrum.
Example : Rhodamine B laser, sodium fluorescein laser, et.
3) Solid State lasers : Solid state lasers use high density solid
media as active laser materials. They are high power lasers with
peak value in kilowatts to megawatts.
Example : Ruby laser, Nd:YAG laser, etc.
4.1
4) Chemical laser : A chemical laser obtains its energy from
a chemical reaction. They can reach continuous wave output with
power reaching to megawatt levels.
Example : Chemical oxygen iodine laser (COIL), all gas-phase
iodine laser (AGIL), etc.
5) Semiconductor lasers : They are made using semiconductor
materials on nanometer scale. It has operation like LED, but the
output beam has characteristics of laser light.
Example : Double heterojunction laser, Quantum well laser,
distributed feedback laser, tunable laser, surface emitting laser, etc.
Advantages of lasers
1) The laser beam has high intensity and high power in the range
of Mega Watts.
2) The laser beam can be focused in to a parallel beam or into a
very small point.
3) The laser beam has no divergence up to a great distance.
4) It has high information carrying capacity
5) It has very minimum signal leakage.
6) It is free from electro-magnetic interference.
7) Laser beam is visible and can be observed easily.
8) Its centre can be easily judged to an accuracy of 1mm over 2m.
9) This is used for very accurate measurements in the order of 0.1µm.
Applications / Uses of Laser

1) Data storage in CDs and DVDs.
2) Barcode scanning
3) High speed transmission of information over fiber optic cable.
4) Manufacturing uses such as metal cutting, drilling, welding, etc.
5) Distance monitoring and measurement
6) Holography, tattoo removal, etc.
7) Laser radar and laser simulators for military applications
8) Medical tools used in surgery and other medical treatments
9) Scientific research and development
4.2
4.3 Laser telemetric system
Laser telemetric system is a non-contact gauge that measures
with a collimated laser beam.
Fig.4.1 Laser telemetric system

Construction
It basically consists of the following :
Transmitter with a gas laser, collimating lens, synchronous
motor, rotating mirror, and a protective replaceable window.
Receiver with receiving lens and photo detector.
Working principle
The transmitter module produces a collimated parallel
scanning laser beam moving at a high, constant, linear speed. The
scanning beam appears as a red line. This laser beam is deflected at
constant speed by a rotating mirror. The laser beam is projected over
the object being measured.
The receiver module collects and photo-electrically senses

the laser light. The processor electronics takes the received signals to
convert them to a convenient form. The display device shows the
measured dimension of the object.
4.3
Advantages
1) It measures at the rate of 150 scans per second.
2) It is possible to detect changes in dimensions when components
are moving.
3) Objects in hot conditions can be measured.
4) The system can be controlled with closed feedback loops.
5) The output can be taken in digital form.
6) The microprocessor can be programmed to take care of measuring
atmosphere.
4.4 Laser and LED based distance measuring instruments
Fig.4.2 Distance measuring instrument
The light emitted by laser or LED (Light Emitting Diode)

scatters when it hits an object. Some of scattered light is detected by
a position sensitive detector or diode array. If the distance between
the measuring head and the object changes, the angle at which the
light enters the detector will also change.
The angle of deviation is calibrated in terms of distance. An

electronics system is used to process the optical signal. The output is
provided in a digital display.
4.4
Applications
1) Laser distance measurement is used in construction industry to
measure the distance to a wall, length of a pipe, width of a wire, etc.
2) It is used in automotive industry to measure front, back, and side
safety distances.
3) It is used in the artistic design of theater, photography and video
making to estimate the appropriate placement of equipment.
4.5 Scanning laser gauge

Scanning laser gauge is a non-contact gauge that measures
with a scanning laser beam. Optical micrometer is one of the
commonly used scanning laser gauge.
Construction
The scanning laser gauge consists of the following :
Transmitter with a laser diode, rotating mirror and transmitting
lens
Receiver with receiving lens and detector photo diode.
Working principle
Fig.4.3 Scanning laser gauge
4.5
Scanning laser gauge uses a shadow measurement principle.
The laser diode produces a high intensity beam of light. This laser
beam is deflected at constant speed by a rotating mirror. The
transmitting lens projects a parallel beam of lights in the measuring
field. The parallel beam of light is known as scanning laser. The laser
beam is intercepted by the object being measured. The shadow of the
object is projected onto the receiver.
The receiving lens concentrates the light beams on a photo
diode. The edges of the shadow is accurately measured by the
detector array in the photo diode. The processor calculates the
dimension by measuring the time duration between the detection of
edges of shadow. The position of the object can be detected by
measuring the time duration (length) of light from transmitting lens to
the object. The display unit shows the measured dimension. The
dimensions and positions of one or more objects can be measured at
the same time by detecting the corresponding shadows.
Applications
Scanning laser gauges are used to measure diameters
of wires, rods and other cylinders. It also measures gaps, edge
positions and various geometric dimensions of objects.
4.6 Photo diode array imaging

The system consists of laser source, imaging optics,
photodiode array, processor electronics and display unit. A photo
diode array consists of photo detector diodes regularly spaced at
constant intervals along a straight line. The object whose dimension is
to be measured, is illuminated and its image is projected on the photo
diode array.
The electronic devices are used to count the number of

adjacent illuminated diodes. The length is directly proportional to the
number of diodes counted. The accuracy is dependent on the clarity
of the image, spacing of the diodes and the uniformity of their
response. For measuring large parts, two arrays, one for each edge
are used.
4.6
4.7 Diffraction pattern technique (Gauging wire diameter
from the diffraction pattern formed in laser)
Fig. 4.4 Diffraction pattern technique

Diffraction effects are used for measuring diameter of small
wires and narrow gaps. A narrow beam of light incident on a wire is
spread due to diffraction. It results a diffraction pattern of alternate light
and dark bands. The diffraction beam is focused on a screen using a
suitable lens. The linear distance between these bands is measured
using a linear diode array.
The distance between the alternating light and dark bands in
the diffraction pattern is a direct function of the wire diameter,
wavelength of laser beam, and the focal length of the lens.
The diameter of wire, =
where, = Wavelength of laser light, = Focal length of lens,

= Distance between the light and dark band.
Thus the wire diameter can be calculated directly from the
diffraction pattern measurement.
4.8 Laser triangulation sensors
Triangulation means distance measurement by angle
calculation. Laser triangulation sensors contain a solid-state laser light
source and a position sensitive diode as detector. A laser beam is
projected on the target being measured. A portion of the beam is reflected
through focusing lens. The reflected beam is received by the detector.
4.7
Fig.4.5 Laser triangulation sensors
As the target moves, the laser beam proportionally moves on

the detector. The signal from the detector is used to determine the
relative distance to the target. This information is then processed by
the electronic system. The result is displayed on digital display . Non-
contact laser triangulation sensors are used for measuring moving
targets. It can be used for position and thickness measurements.
Applications
Laser triangulation sensors are used for measurement and
monitoring tasks in factory automation, electronics production,
robotics and vehicle construction.
4.9 INTERFEROMETRY
Light is electromagnetic wave and different rays of light can
interfere with each other. If two waves are exactly in phase, they will
reinforce each other. If they are exactly out of phase, they will cancel
each other. Thus, an alternate dark and bright bands will be observed
during interference of two monochromatic light rays. This
phenomenon is applied for measurements of very small linear
dimensions, and the measurement technique is known as
interferometry.
4.8
Essential conditions for interference
1) The two sources of light should continuously give light rays.
2) The wavelength and intensity of light rays should be equal.
3) The phase difference should be maintained constant.
4) Two sources should be very narrow and close to each other.
Uses of laser in interferometry

1) Distance monitoring and linear measurements.
2) Angular measurements.
3) Checking of flatness, squareness, parallelism, etc.
4) Calibration of slip gauges
5) Detecting surface defects.
6) Measurement of surface finish.
7) Holography, etc.
4.10 Michelson interferometer

The instrument working on the principle of interferometry is
called an interferometer.
Fig.4.6 Michelson interferometer
4.9
This is the oldest type of interferometer. It consists of an
extended monochromatic light source, a beam splitter and two mirrors.
A white light from the source falls on a beam splitter. Beam splitter is
a plain parallel plate having a semi-transparent layer of silver at its
back. It splits the light into two rays of equal intensity at right angles.
One ray is transmitted to mirror M1 and other is reflected through beam
splitter to mirror M2. From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected
back and these recombines at the semi reflecting surface. Then they
are transmitted to the eye or a detector.
Mirror M2 is fixed and mirror M1 is movable. Mirror M1 is

attached to the object to be measured. The beams reflected from both
the mirrors rejoin at the beam splitter. If the path difference between
these beams is an odd number of half wavelengths, they cancel each
other. If the path difference is an even number of half wavelengths,
they reinforce each other. This creates interference fringes with
alternate dark and bright bands.
A path difference of half wavelength represents a

displacement of quarter wavelength. Thus the number of bands
depend upon the displacement of mirror. By counting the number of
bands, the displacement can be measured.
The two optical paths must be equal for both beams. The
horizontal beam crosses the beam splitter three times, while the
vertical beam crosses the beam splitter once. A compensator plate is
introduced in the path of mirror M2 to equalize the distance travelled
by both the beams.
The various modifications to improve the Michelson's

interferometer are :
1) Use of laser beam for the measurements over longer distances.
2) Mirrors are replaced by cube-corner reflectors
3) Photocells are used to observe the interference.
4.10
4.11 Twyman - Green interferometer
Fig.4.7 Twyman - Green interferometer

The Twyman - Green interferometer is a modified form of
Michelson interferometer The basic difference is that the use of a
monochromatic point light source and a collimating lens. All modern
interferometers are based on this arrangement.
Mirror M2 is fixed and mirror M1 is movable. Mirror M1 is
attached to the object to be measured. The beams reflected from both
the mirrors rejoin at the beam splitter. If the path difference between
these beams is an odd number of half wavelengths, they cancel each
other. If the path difference is an even number of half wavelengths,
they reinforce each other. This creates interference fringes with
alternate dark and bright bands.
A path difference of half wavelength represents a

displacement of quarter wavelength. Thus the number of bands
depend upon the displacement of mirror. By counting the number of
4.11
The following must be considered for the accurate counting of fringes :
1) Corner-cube reflectors can be used for the exact parallel
movement of beams.
2) Pressure, temperature and humidity of the system should be
measured and correction factors should be applied .
3) The signal strength becomes poor if the path difference is
high. This can be avoided by using cooled mercury 198 lamps.
4) These interferometers are high sensitive to vibrations. The
use of Koster's prism can reduce this problem.
5) Two detectors can be used to count the dark and bright fringes
separately.
4.12 AC laser interferometer (ACLI)
Fig.4.8 AC laser interferometer

Laser interferometer uses AC laser as the light source. This
enables the measurements to be made over longer distance.
Construction
The fixed unit called the laser head consists of laser, a pair of
beam splitters, and two photodiodes.
The sliding unit has a corner cube mounted on it. The corner cube
is also called as retroreflector. The corner cube is a glass disk
whose back surface has three polished faces that are mutually at
right angles to each other. It will reflect light at an angle of 180°.
The photodiodes will electronically measure the fringe intensity
and provide an accurate means for measuring displacement.
4.12
Working principle
Laser light first falls on the beam splitter P. It is partially
reflected by 90° and falls on the other reflector S. A portion of light
passes through P and strikes the corner cube. Light is turned through
180° by the corner cube and recombines at the beam splitter S.
If the difference between these two paths of light (PQRS − PS)

is an odd number of half wavelengths, then interference will occur at
S and the diode output will be at a minimum. On the other hand, if the
path difference is an even number of half wavelengths, then the
photodiodes will register maximum output.
Each time the moving slide is displaced by a quarter

wavelength, the path difference (i.e., PQRS − PS) becomes half a
wavelength. The output from the photodiode also changes from
maximum to minimum or vice versa. This sinusoidal output from the
photodiode is amplified and sent to a high speed counter. The counter
is calibrated to give the displacement in terms of millimetres. The
second photodiode senses the direction of movement of the slide.
Applications
Laser interferometers are used to calibrate machine tables, slides,
and axis movements of coordinate measuring machines, etc.
They are used in calibration of measuring standards like slip
gauges.
Advantages
1) The equipment is portable
2) Easy installation
3) High accuracy and precision in measurements.
4) Long range optical path up to 60m.
5) No change in performance due to wear and tear.
6) Six simultaneous measurements can be made in different axes.
4.13
Versions of AC laser interferometer
1) Standard interferometer
The interferometer explained above is a standard
interferometer. It is least expensive. A corner cube is used as a
measurement retroreflector. Displacement is measured between the
interferometer and the corner cube.
2) Single beam interferometer

Single beam Interferometer has the outgoing and returning
beam superimposed on each other. It gives the appearance of only
one beam travelling between the interferometer and the retroreflector.
This interferometer operates functionally the same way as the
standard interferometer. it is useful when space for optics and beam
paths is limited. The interferometer and retroreflector for this system
are smaller than the standard system.
4.13 Two frequency laser interferometer

Dual frequency laser interferometer
Fig.4.9 Two frequency laser interferometer

The two-frequency laser interferometry is used for easy and
precise measurement of displacement. It is based on measurement
of the frequency and the phase shift due to the Doppler effect.
4.14
This system consists of two-frequency laser source, beam
splitters, reflectors, photodiode, phase detector and processor
electronics. Laser produces beam of two different frequencies with
opposite circular polarisations. The beam splitter generates a
measurement beam with the frequency and a reference beam with
the frequency .
Movement of the measurement reflector causes a frequency

shift in the measurement beam due to Doppler effect. The
frequency shift is directly proportional to the displacement. The
comparison of reference and measurement signals is electronically
processed to calculate the displacement.
Applications
It is used for measuring linear positioning, displacements,
straightness, flatness and squareness of planes, etc.
COMPUTER IN METROLOGY
4.13 Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is an electromechanical
system designed to determine the location, orientation, dimensions
and geometry of a component or object.
4.14 Types of measuring machines
The commonly used types of measuring machines are :
1) Length bar measuring machine
2) Coordinate measuring machines (CMM)
3) Universal measuring machine
4) Computer controlled coordinate measuring machine
4.15 Types of coordinate measuring machines /

Mechanical structures of CMM
The various types of coordinate measuring machines are :
1) Cantilever type 2) Moving bridge type 3) Fixed bridge type
4) Horizontal type 5) Gantry type 6) Column type
4.15
Fig.4.10 Types of CMM
(a) Cantilever structure: In this structure, the probe is

attached to a vertical quill that moves in the Z–axis direction relative
to a horizontal arm. The quill can also be moved along the length of
the arm to achieve Y–axis motion, and the arm can be moved relative
the work table to achieve X–axis motion.
(b) Moving bridge structure: In this design, the probe is
mounted on a bridge structure that is moved relative to a stationary
table. This provides a more rigid structure than the cantilever design.
(c) Fixed bridge structure: In this configuration, the bridge is
attached to the CMM bed, and the work table is moved in the X–
direction beneath the bridge. The rigidity and accuracy of this structure
is more than moving bridge structure.
(d) Horizontal arm structure: It consists of a cantilever
horizontal arm mounted to a vertical column. The arm moves
vertically, in and out to achieve Y–axis and Z–axis motions. To achieve
X–axis motion, either column or table is moved.
(e) Gantry structure: In this structure, the probe moves relative
to the horizontal arm extending between the two rails of the gantry.
This construction is suitable for inspecting large work pieces.
4.16
(f) Column structure: This structure is similar to the
construction of a machine tool. The X–axis and Y–axis movements
are achieved by moving the work table, while the Z–axis motion is
achieved by moving the probe quill vertically.
4.16 Features of CMM / CNC CMM

The features of CMM include the following :
1) Hollow box construction of all moving members.
2) Program for systematic error compensation.
3) Capacity to measure 3D coordinates from various datum.
4) Crash protection for sensitive components.
5) Separate computer for each machine.
6) Software for offline programming using a CAD model.
7) Software for reverse engineering.
8) Software for statistical analysis of measurements.
9) Automatic temperature compensation.
4.17 Causes of error in CMM

The possible sources of errors in CMM are :
1) Geometric error in table of CMM
2) Alignment errors between table and probes.
3) Runout errors and perpendicularity errors in probes
4) Errors in optical readout of the digital system.
5) Errors in straightness and perpendicularity of the guide ways.
6) Errors in scale division and adjustment of scales.
7) Errors in probe system calibration and zero setting .
8) Errors of data feeding by operator.
9) Errors due to environment such as temperatures, oscillations,
humidity, dirt, etc.
4.17
4.18 Performance of CMM
The performance of CMM is measured by conducting various
tests. These includes the following:
1) Repeatability test : The center coordinates of a sphere are
measured ten times quickly. Only four probing points per sphere
are allowed. The range of the coordinates is reported.
2) Linear displacement accuracy test : Measurements are made
parallel to the machine axes. This is the key test for traceability.
A step gage or laser interferometer is used.
3) Volumetric performance test : It involves measuring the length
of the ball bar between its two end spheres. This measurement is
repeated in many positions throughout the machine volume. Any
change in the measured length reflects machine geometry errors.
4) Offset probe performance test : This test also uses the ball bar,
but the test is done to find the error in angular motion of the arm.
5) Bidirectional length test: A small gage block is measured in
multiple positions to detect any size measurement error due to
probe tip calibration.
4.19 Application of CMM

The following are the applications of CMM
1) Used in the field of automobile, machine tool, electronics,
space, etc.
2) Development of new products and construction of prototype
3) Checking the various dimensions of machined components.
4) Checking the profiles and dimensions of gears, threads and
cams.
5) Checking of sheet metal panels, subassemblies and complete
car bodies in the automotive industries.
6) Sorting and pairing of similar components within tolerance limits.
7) Inspection of incoming parts from a vendor to ensure that the
vendor’s quality control system are reliable.
8) Checking and measuring various gauges, fixtures and other
inspection and production tools to validate their continued use.
4.18
4.20 Advantages of CMM
1) Reduced Inspection time.
2) More flexibility to measure different part configuration.
3) Reduced operator errors in measurements and setup.
4) Reduced operator skill requirements.
5) More accurate and precise than manual inspection.
6) Better repeatability.
7) Reduced maintenance cost.
8) Reduced featuring cost.
9) Simple operation.
10) All the features and dimensions of a component can be
measured in a single setup.
4.21 Disadvantages of CMM

1) The coordinate measuring machines are very costly.
2) The CMMs are less portable
3) If the operating software cracks down it is difficult to restart the
entire system.
4) It needs to construct some feature on its own as some parts of
the work piece are unreachable by the probe.
4.22 Computer controlled CMM

The type of instructions needed for the operation of a CMM are
inspection probe selection, speed for positioning the probe, the path
to be followed by the probe, speed and angle at which the probe
approaches the work piece, tolerance based information, etc. The
operation of a direct computer control CMM is explained below.
The inspection programs for CMM is generated with the help of

a CAD database containing the geometric information and
manufacturing information. This is achieved by using Dimensional
Measuring Interface Standard (DMIS). DMIS is a protocol that permits
two–way communication between CAD systems and CMM.
4.19
Fig.4.11 Operation of computer controlled CMM
After a part has been produced on the CNC machine tool, the
part will be checked on a CMM with the inspection program
downloaded from the computer. After CMM checks the part, data
about the part is sent back to the computer, where the original part
geometry is stored. Thus, the geometry of the designed part is
compared with the geometry of the produced part and deviations are
identified. This will help in identifying the problems in manufacturing
and rectification.
4.22.1 Probes
The probe of the CMM is fastened to a mechanical structure
that allows movement of the probe relative to the work piece. The tip
of the probe is usually a rub ball. Probes may have a single tip or
multiple tips. The X, Y and Z coordinates of the probe are accurately
measured by displacement transducers and recorded by the CMM
controller. Rotary encoders, optical scales and magnetic scales are
the commonly used displacement transducers.
4.20
The following two types probes are commonly used in CMMs.
a) Trigger type probe b) Measuring type probe
(a) Trigger type (b) Measuring type

Fig.4.12 Contact probe
a) Trigger type probe system

This system consists of a three point bearing contacts
arranged at 120° around the circumference of the tip. These contacts
act as electrical micro switches. When the probe touches any point,
one or more contacts is lifted off and the circuit is broken. It generates
a pulse. The current co-ordinate positions are recorded. After probing,
a prestressed spring ensures the perfect zero position of the three
point bearing.
b) Measuring type probe System

This system consists of parallel guide ways. At the moment of
probing, the spring parallelograms are deflected from their initial
position. The parallel displacement of probes are measured. The
measured coordinates are automatically transferred to the computer.
In static operation, the slides are moved into their zero positions.
4.22.2 Features of CMM software

CMM software provides readily available computer programs
for the following tasks :
1) Subroutine programs for repeated measurement tasks
2) Automatic calibration of the probe
3) Determination of the work piece coordinate system
4.21
4) Calculation of geometric elements
5) Automatic evaluation and recording of complete measurement
6) Automatic compensation of work piece misalignment
7) Statistical evaluation of measured data
8) Curve measurement and gear measurement
9) Measurement of diameter, center distances, lengths,
geometrical and form errors
10) Interface to CAD software.
4.23 Factors affecting CMM

The following are the factors affecting the performance of CMM
1) Temperature : The varying temperature gradient in measuring
environment affects the accuracy of measuring process. A
controlled temperature gradient should be always be maintained.
2) Humidity : The moisture in measuring environment causes
corrosion of work pieces and measuring devices. It also affects
measuring accuracy of work pieces that are sensitive to moisture.
A controlled relative humidity should always be maintained to
prevent harmful effects of moisture.
3) Trapped dust : Dirt and small particles can become trapped or
lie underneath the CMM’s bearing surface. It leads to breakdown
during operation or inaccurate measurements. The bearings,
motors, controllers, sensors, and friction controllers should be
cleaned periodically.
4) Oil : Contamination of oil will occur within the air supply or guide
ways. It leads to failure of machine in future measurement. all air
filters should be cleaned periodically.
5) Vibration : The components will move out of phase from one
another due to external vibration. Vibration isolation systems
should be provided.
4.24 Digital devices

Digital indication provides the exact measured value. Digital
devices consist of a transducer and a counter. The majority of linear
digital readout systems comprise a glass scale and optical detector
4.22
head. Magnetic strips are provided in the devices using magnetic
recording principle. Readout is provided by a range of digital display
units.
Functions such as datum point memory for each axis, touch

sensor, manual programming by key operation and automatic
programming by playback can be added.
Advantages of digital devices

1) Measuring element is free from errors caused by mechanical
elements such as screws, gear etc.
2) Learning the procedure of measurement is quick and easy.
3) More accurate measurements.
4) Excessive reading errors are eliminated.
5) The display can be zeroed wherever desired.
6) Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) output from digital devices can be
directly fed to computers for further processing.
4.25 Computer based inspection

Computers are used in metrology for the following purposes :
1) Controlling the function of measuring equipment
2) Processing the output of the measurement process.

Most of the modern measuring machines are provided with a
computer and a general purpose software. The software contains
program to control all the functions of the machine. The software may
be written by the user or supplied by the manufacturer.
In the measuring process, hundreds of readings may be

taken, processed, analysed and hard copy results are produced.
Universal probes are used to carry out automatic inspection.
2) Processing the output of the measurement process

The digital devices can produce output in digitised form. It can
be directly fed into computers The processed output from computer
can be presented as numerical table, graphs or a 3D profile.
4.23
Examples :
Height gauges with built-in integral computer with keyboard are
available.
Slip gauge box with built in computer and printer has been
developed. The computer helps in selecting various combinations
of gauges to build any dimension.
The roundness measuring machine fitted with computer carry out
a large number of tedious calculations quickly.
Computer can easily define the circle if three points on its
circumference are completely defined. Manually this job is time
consuming.
In gear measuring machine, the computer carry out all tedious
calculations and give accurate results instantly.
4.26 Computer aided inspection using robots

The computer aided inspection robot is an automated flexible
gauge built like a machine tool. It has the capability of carrying out
automatic inspection routines on parts continuously.
It is designed as a horizontal arm measuring machine. It can be
incorporated in any production line. Multi-arm configurations are
used for inspecting wide range of different size products.
The high precision mechanical slides have pre-loaded roller packs
as bearings, and rack and pinion drive systems. These enable
acceleration and speeds to be attained quickly. Thus inspection
cycles become four to five times faster than conventional CMM.
The robots are controlled by CNC path control system with
integrated linear and circular interpolation. This ensures precise
movements for profile scanning.
Circular interpolation increases the measuring speed for parts with
circular, spherical or cylindrical geometry.
The system has a self-teaching capability. It enables a program to
be generated automatically when inspecting the first item.
4.24
Built in diagnostic tools is incorporated for the verification of all
input / output signals.
Advantages of computer aided inspection
2) Reduced rejection of parts due to in-process inspection.
3) Automatic evaluation and recording of complete measurement
4) Self teaching capability of the system.
5) Built-in programs for repeated inspection tasks.
6) More flexibility to inspect different part configuration.
7) More accurate and precise inspection.
9) Statistical evaluation of measured data.
Review Questions

1) Explain the basic concept of laser.
2) What are the types of lasers? Give examples.
3) Name the advantages of lasers.
4) What are the applications of laser?
5) Explain the lases based distance measuring instrument.
6) Write short notes on photo diode array imaging.
7) Explain the diffraction pattern technique.
8) Write short notes on interferometry.
9) List out the uses of laser in interferometry.
10) Explain : i) Standard interferometer ii) Single beam interferometer.
11) List out the types of measuring machines.
12) What are the types of CMM?
13) List out the features of CMM.
4.25
14) What are the causes of errors in CMM?
15) List out the applications of CMM.
16) What are the advantages and disadvantages of CMM?
17) List out the features of CMM software.
18) Write short notes on digital devices.
19) List out the advantages of computer aided inspection.

1) Explain the laser telemetric system with a sketch.
2) Explain the working of scanning laser gauge with a diagram.
3) Explain the principle of laser triangulation with a neat sketch.
4) Explain the Michelson interferometer with a neat sketch.
5) Explain the Twyman-Green interferometer with a neat sketch.
6) Explain the construction and working of AC Laser interferometer
with a line sketch.
7) Explain the two frequency laser interferometer with a sketch.
8) Explain the various types of CMM.
9) Explain the various test to measure the performance of CMM.
10) Explain the operation of computer controlled CMM.
11) Explain the two types of probe system used in CMM.
12) Explain in details the computer based inspection.
13) Briefly explain the computer aided inspection using robot.
 
4.26
Unit – V
MEASUREMENT OF
MECHANICAL PARAMETERS
5.1 Measurement of force
Force is the product of mass and acceleration, i.e. 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 or
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 . Force is a vector quantity. The measurement of force
involves the determination of its magnitude and direction.
The force is measured by the following two methods :

a) Direct method : In this method, a direct comparison is made
between an unknown force and the known gravitational force on
a standard mass. Example : Equal arm balance, unequal arm
balance, multiple lever system, pendulum scale, etc.
b) Indirect method : In this method, force is calculated indirectly by
measuring the effects produced by the applied force. Example :
Accelerometers, load cells, etc.
5.2 Equal arm balance

An equal arm balance is the simplest force measuring system.
It is also known as an analytical balance. The basic principle of
operation is based on moment comparison. The system consists of a
balance arm pivoted on a fulcrum exactly at the centre of the arm. The
pointer is attached to the centre of the arm. An equilibrium condition is
indicated by the pointer when it is absolutely perpendicular to the arm.
The balance arm rotates about fulcrum 𝑂. In this system, the

gravitational force, known force and unknown force are acting in the
direction parallel to each other. Hence, It is sufficient to only find out
the magnitude. The figure shows the balance in an unbalanced
condition.
Let, 𝑊𝐺 = Weight of the balance and the arms.
𝑊1 = Known weight
𝑊2 = Unknown weight
𝑥𝐺 = Horizontal distance of weight 𝑊𝐺 from fulcrum 𝑂
5.1
𝑥1 = Horizontal distance of weight 𝑊1 from fulcrum 𝑂
𝑥2 = Horizontal distance of weight 𝑊2 from fulcrum 𝑂
Fig.5.1 Equal arm balance
Taking moment about fulcrum 𝑂,

(𝑊1 × 𝑥1 ) + (𝑊𝐺 × 𝑥𝐺 ) = 𝑊2 × 𝑥2
At equilibrium conditions, 𝑥𝐺 = 0
∴ 𝑊1 × 𝑥1 = 𝑊2 × 𝑥2
In equal arm balance, 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
∴ 𝑊1 = 𝑊2 or 𝑊2 = 𝑊1
Thus, the unknown weight 𝑊2 is measured from the known weight 𝑊1 .
5.3 Unequal arm balance

The major disadvantage of equal arm balance is that it
requires a set of weights equal to the maximum weight to be
measured. An unequal balance is used for the measurement of
heavier weights with the help of lighter weights.
5.2
The unequal arm balance uses two arms. One is called the
load arm and other is called power arm. The load arm is used to apply
the load to be measured. The power arm is used to apply counter
weights to set the balance in equilibrium.
Fig.5.2 Unequal arm balance
A typical unequal arm balance is shown in figure. Mass 𝑚

Calibration of the balance
produces a force 𝐹𝑔 due to gravity. This force acts as counterposing

force against the test load 𝐹2 .
The test force 𝐹2 is applied by a screw or lever through knife

edge 𝑃 . The force is applied until the pointer indicates that the beam
is horizontal.
For balancing of moments, 𝐹2 × 𝑏 = 𝐹𝑔 × 𝑎

𝐹𝑔 × 𝑎 𝑚 × 𝑔 × 𝑎
Test force, 𝐹2 = =
𝑏 𝑏
By keeping the mass 𝑚 and the load arm distance 𝑏 as constant,
Test force, 𝐹2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑎
The test force 𝐹2 is directly proportional to the power arm length 𝑎.
The power arm distance 𝑎 can be calibrated by variying the test load 𝐹2 .
5.3
Measurement of unknown force
Let, 𝐹2 be the force to be measured. We know that the power
arm distance 𝑎 is calibrated in terms of force 𝐹2 . Apply the force
through knife edge 𝑃 .
The counter posing mass 𝑚 is adjusted until the arm become

horizontal. Now the applied force can be directly read from the
calibrated scale. A mark is made on the counter posing mass to
indicate the reading. As the same gravity is acting on both sides of
the beam, the reading also shows the value of mass.
5.4 Multiple lever system (Multiple arm balance)

Multiple lever system is used for the measurement of larger
weights when compared to equal and unequal arm balances. The
measurement of large weight W can be done by using two smaller
weights 𝑊𝑃 and 𝑊𝑠 .
Where, 𝑊𝑃 = Weight of poise
𝑊𝑠 = Weight of pan.
Fig.5.3 Unequal arm balance
5.4
The system is provided with an adjustable counter poise to
get an initial balance. The poise weight 𝑊𝑃 is set at zero of beam
scale, before the unknown load 𝑊 is applied to the platform. The
counterpoise is adjusted to obtain initial zero balance. In order to
simply the analysis, the weight 𝑊 on the platform can be replaced by
two arbitrary weights 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 . When the weight 𝑊𝑃 is applied it is
entirely balanced by the weigh 𝑊𝑠 in the pan.
At equilibrium,
𝑇 × 𝑏 = 𝑊𝑠 × 𝑎 − − − (1)
𝑓
and, 𝑇 × 𝑐 = 𝑊1 × 𝑒 + 𝑊2 ℎ − − − (2)
𝑑
ℎ 𝑓
=
𝑒 𝑑
If the links are so proportional that,
Then, 𝑇 × 𝑐 = ℎ(𝑊1 − 𝑊2 ) = ℎ𝑊 − − − (3)
From the above equation (3), it is clear that the weight 𝑊 may
be placed anywhere on the platform. Its position relative to the two
knife edges of platform is immaterial.
𝑎
From equation (1), 𝑇 = 𝑊𝑠 − − − (4)
𝑏
ℎ
From equation (3), 𝑇 = 𝑊 − − − (5)
𝑐
𝑎 ℎ
Equating (4) & (5), 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊
𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑐
Unknown weight, 𝑊 = . 𝑊𝑠
𝑏 ℎ
𝑊 = 𝑀 𝑊𝑠
𝑎 𝑐
Where, 𝑀 = . is called the multiplication ratio of the scale.
𝑏 ℎ
The multiplication ratio 𝑀, is the indicative of weight that

should be placed in the pan to balance the weight on the platform.
Suppose the scale has a multiplication ratio of 100, it means that a
weight of 1 kg placed in the pan can balance a weight of 100 kg placed
on the platform.
5.5
𝑊𝑝 by 1 scale division represent a force of 𝑥 kg, then a poise
If beam scale is so divided that a movement of poise weight
movement of 𝑦 scale division should produce the same result as a

weight 𝑊𝑝 placed on the pan at the end of the beam. Hence,
𝑊𝑝 × 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦 𝑎
𝑊𝑝
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑥 =
𝑎
The above equation represents a relationship that determines

the required scale divisions on the beam for any poise weight 𝑊𝑝 . The
length of the beam scale 𝑎 is expressed in terms of scale divisions. The
beam is balanced by appropriate combinations of pan weights and an
adjustment of the poise weight along the calibrated beam scale.
5.5 Pendulum scale
Fig.5.4 Pendulum scale
5.6
Pendulum scale works on the principle of multiple leverage
system. The force to be measured is transmitted from a suitable
mechanism and applied to the load rod. As the load is applied, the
sectors rotate about pivot. It moves the counter weights outward. This
movement increases the counter weight effective moment until the
load and balance moments are equalised. Motion of the equalizer bar
is converted to indicator movement by a rack and pinion.
5.6 Electromagnetic balance
Fig.5.5 Electromagnetic balance

In electromagnetic type balances, an electromagnetic force is
applied instead of a placed weight to balance the beam. The weight is
placed on the balance pan. An electromagnetic servomotor generates
a force equal to the weight of the object to be measured.
The electrical current required to generate this force is

proportional to the weight of the object. The amount of current, when
the beam is perfectly balanced, is electronically measured. The
display system is calibrated to directly show the calculated mass. Then
the mass is displayed on the screen. A null detector is used to indicate
that the weight and electromagnetic forces are equal. It uses a light
source and detector.
5.7
5.7 Load cells
Elastic members are generally used for the measurement of
force through displacement measurement. Application of force on the
elastic members causes a deflection. This deflection is measured
directly or indirectly. Then the proportionate force is calculated from
this deflection. The following types of load cells are commonly used :
1) Hydraulic load cell 2) Pneumatic load cell
3) Strain gauge load cell 4) Shear type load cell
5.7.1 Hydraulic load cell
Fig.5.6 Hydraulic load cell
The hydraulic load cell consists of a diaphragm, a piston with

a loading platform placed on top of the diaphragm, oil under pressure
and a pressure gauge
The force to be measured is applied to the piston. The applied

force moves the piston downwards and deflects the diaphragm. This
deflection increases the pressure in the oil. This increase in pressure
is proportional to the applied force.
The increase in pressure is measured by the pressure gauge.

The pressure is calibrated in force units. Hence the pressure gauge
directly indicates the force applied on the piston.
5.8
5.7.2 Pneumatic load cell
Fig.5.7 Pneumatic load cell
A pneumatic load cell consists of a diaphragm with loading

arrangements, an air supply regulator, nozzle, pressure gauge and a
flapper fitted above the nozzle.
The force to be measured is applied to the top side of the

diaphragm. Due to this force, the diaphragm deflects and causes the
flapper to shut-off the nozzle opening. Now an air supply is provided
at the bottom of the diaphragm. As the flapper closes the nozzle
opening, a back pressure results below the diaphragm. This back
pressure creates an upward force.
Air pressure is regulated until the diaphragm returns to the pre-

loaded position. This is indicated by air which comes out of the nozzle.
At this stage, the pressure required to balance the weight is indicated
by the pressure gauge. The pressure is calibrated in force units.
5.7.3 Strain gauge load cell

When an elastic member is combined with a strain gauge and
used for the measurement of force, it is termed as a load cell. In load
cells, elastic members act as primary transducers and strain gauges
as secondary transducers.
A load cell consists of four strain gauges. Two of these are

used for measuring the longitudinal strain and the other two for
measuring the transverse strain. The four strain gauges are mounted
at 90° to each other.
5.9
Fig.5.8 Strain gauge load cell
At the no-load condition, resistance in all the four gauges will be

same. The voltage across the two terminals 𝐵 and 𝐷 are same. The
Wheatstone bridge is now balanced and the output voltage is zero.
When the specimen is stressed due to the applied force, the

strain induced is measured by the gauges. Gauges 𝑅1 and 𝑅4
measure the compressive strain. Gauges 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 measure the
tensile strain. In this case, voltages across the terminals 𝐵 and 𝐷 will
be different. This voltage difference is proportional to the applied force.
The voltmeter is calibrated to directly show the value of applied force.
5.7.4 Shear type load cell (or) Shear beam load cell
Shear beam load cells are used to measure the applied force
in terms of shear strain induced by the force. There are two types of
shear beam load cells : (a) Double ended and (b) Single ended.
In double ended type, the free ends of two cantilever beams

are butted together and the force is applied at the junction. In single
ended type, the force is applied at the free end of a single cantilever
beam.
5.10
Fig.5.9 Shear type load cell
A recess is machined in each side of the load cell, leaving a

relatively thin vertical web in the centre. This gives an I-cross section.
Strain gauges are mounted on the side surfaces of this web, at 45O
angles to detect the shear strain. At the same time, the top and bottom
flanges resist any moment or bending.
When the force is applied, the shear strain induced is

measured by the strain gauges. This produces a voltage difference
across the electrical circuit. This voltage difference is proportional to
the applied force. The display is calibrated to directly show the value
of applied force.
5.7.5 Electronic weighing system
Fig.5.10 Electronic weighing system
The electronic weighing system consists of the basic load cell,

signal amplifiers, filter, analogue to digital converter, microcontroller,
display unit, etc.
5.11
The output signal from load cell is very weak. Signal amplifiers
are used to amplify this signal up to convertible range. The amplified and
filtered signal is further converted to digital form by analogue to digital
converter. The display unit is used to display the measured weight.
The output can also be printed out or used for further

processing. The electronic weighing system can be integrated with
computer system to carry out many other functions such as counting,
totalling, averaging, etc.
5.8 Torque measurement

The twisting moment is called torque. Torque is defined as a
measure of the tendency of force to rotate a shaft about an axis.
Measurement of torque is important for the following :
1) Analysis of stress or deflection : In this case, torque 𝑇 is
determined by the measurement force 𝐹 at a known radius 𝑟.
𝑇 = 𝐹 ×𝑟
2) Determination of mechanical power : Mechanical power is the
power required to operate a machine or the power developed by
the machine.
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Where,𝑁 is the angular speed in resolution per second.
3) Evaluating the performance characteristics of machines.
5.8.1 Torque measurement using strain gauge

A strain gauge converts torque into an electrical signal. The
sensor is bonded to a rotating shaft that deforms when a torque is
applied. Generally, four strain gauges are attached to the rotating shaft
in the form of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. They are placed precisely
at 45O degrees with the shaft axis.
When torque is applied to the shaft, the shaft gets twisted to
the direction of rotation, It produces shear strain. This causes
elongation in gauges 1 and 2 and compression in gauges 3 and 4.
These changes in the strain gauges lead to an increase in the circuit
resistance. This results in an unbalanced bridge, which produces an
electrical output corresponding to the applied torque.
5.12
Fig.5.11 Torque measurement using strain gauge
To transmit signal between the rotating strain gauge and the

stationary signal receiver, slip rings are used. A slip ring consists of a
series of conductive bands that are positioned around the rotating
element. The stationary brushes contact the rings and transmit the
sensor’s signals.
5.8.2 Laser optical torque measurement
Fig.5.12 Laser optical torque measurement

5.13
In this system, two black-and-white striped wheels are
mounted at both the ends of the rotating shaft. The strips are in
alignment when no torque is applied to the shaft. Light from a laser
diode is directed by a pair of fiber-optic cables onto the wheels.
The rotation of the wheels causes pulses of reflected light.

The pulses are transmitted back to a receiver by a second pair of fiber-
optic cables. Under no torque conditions, the two pulse trains of
reflected light are in phase with each other.
If torque is applied to the shaft, a phase difference occurs

between the two pulse trains of reflected light. The receiver measures
this phase difference and calculates the magnitude of applied torque.
5.8.3 Stroboscope for torque measurement
Fig.5.13 Stroboscope for torque measurement
In this method, two flanges A and B are placed at a distance

on the shaft. Flange A carries a scale and flange a carries a pointer.
At no torque condition, the pointer is set to zero reading on the scale.
When a torque is applied on the shaft, it causes an angular
displacement of pointer relative to the scale due to the angular twist.
5.14
The deflection of the shaft can be read directly when the shaft
is stationery. But, this is not possible when the shaft is rotating. In such
cases, stroboscope is used. The flashing light of the stroboscope is
applied onto the scale, The flashing frequency is adjusted till a
stationery image is obtained. The scale reading can now be taken for
measuring the angular twist. The torque can be calculated from the
measured angular twist.
5.9 Measurement of power

The power can be calculated by the following formula :
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Where, 𝑁 = Rotational speed, 𝑇 = Torque.
Hence, the measurement of power involves the measurement of
torque. The device used for the measurement of torque is known as
dynamometers. The dynamometers are classified as follows :
a) Absorption dynameters : They absorb mechanical energy as
torque is measured. Hence, they are particularly useful for
measuring power developed by engines or electric motors.
b) Driving dynamometers : These measure power and also provide
energy to operate the devices to be tested. Hence, they are used
to determine performance characteristics of devices such as
pumps, compressors, etc.
c) Transmission Dynamometers : These are located at a particular
place in a machine and sense the torque. They do not supply or
receive energy. These are also called as torque meters.
5.9.1 Mechanical dynamometer (Prony brake dynamometer)

Prony brake dynamometer is one of the absorption type
mechanical dynamometer. In this dynamometer, a flywheel is
attached to the shaft whose power is to be measured. Two wooden
blocks are attached diametrically opposite on the flywheel.
The upper block is connected with a load arm. The lower block
is connected with a tightening arrangement using bolts, springs and
nuts. The tightening arrangement is provided to increase the frictional
resistance between the blocks and flywheel. The force is applied
through the load arm using hanging weights.
5.15
Fig.5.14 Mechanical dynamometer (Prony brake dynamometer)
The torque exerted by the Prony brake is given by

𝑇 = 𝐹 ×𝐿
Then, the power dissipated in the brake is calculated by using the
following formula :
2𝜋𝑁 𝑇 2𝜋𝑁 𝐹 𝐿
𝑃 = =
60 60
Where, 𝑃 = Power dissipated (watts)
𝑁 = Angular speed (rpm)
𝐿 = Length of load arm (m)
𝐹 = Force (N)
Limitations of Prony brake dynamometer

1) Due to wear of the wooden blocks, variations in the coefficients
of friction occurs. This makes the system unstable. Hence, large
powers cannot be measured when used for longer periods.
2) Cooling is required in order to limit the temperature rise due to
friction.
3) Difficulty in taking readings of force due to oscillations.
5.16
5.9.2 D.C dynamometer
Fig.5.15 D.C dynamometer
In this type of dynamometer, a D.C machine is mounted on

bearings. The D.C machine can act as both generator and motor.
Hence, it can be used as absorption dynamometer or driving
dynamometer.
The D.C machine (generator) is coupled with the machine to

be tested. The test machine will be a power generating machine such
as internal combustion engines, turbine, etc. A torque arm is attached
to the casing of D.C machine for the measurement of force and torque.
The rotation of the test machine is opposed when a load is

connected to the armature circuit of the D.C machine. The power
absorbed by the resistive load is given by,
𝑉2
𝑃 =
𝑅
Where, 𝑃 = Power absorbed (watts)
𝑉 = Output voltage (volts)
𝑅 = Resistance load (ohms)
The resisting torque can be controlled by changing the voltage

or resistance. The control panel of the dynamometer is provided with
ammeter and voltmeter to take readings of current and voltage. The
output power can be calculated from this reading.
5.17
5.9.3 Inductor dynamometer or eddy current dynamometer
Fig.5.16 Inductor dynamometer
These are absorption type dynamometers. An eddy current

dynamometer consists of a non-magnetic rotor which is rotated in a
magnetic field of stator. The magnetic field is produced by passing D.C
current through the coils. The dynamometer housing is mounted on
bearings. A torque arm is attached to the casing of D.C machine for
the measurement of force and torque.
The machine whose torque has to be measured is coupled to

the rotor of the dynamometer. As the rotor rotates in the magnetic
field, eddy currents are generated. These eddy current oppose the
motion, thus loading the engine. It also tends to rotate the complete
dynamometer housing. The power lost due to eddy currents is
dissipated as heat in the rotor. Hence water is circulated to cool the
rotor.
The torque and speed are measured, and the power is

calculated by using the following relation.
2 𝜋𝑁 𝑇
𝑃 =
60
5.18
5.9.4 Hydraulic dynamometer
Fig.5.17 Hydraulic dynamometer
It uses fluid friction rather than dry friction for dissipating the
input energy. It consists of rotating disc and a stationary casing. The
rotating disc is connected to the drive shaft of the prime mover and it
revolves inside the stationary casing.
The casing is mounted on antifriction bearings and has a

brake arm and a balance system attached to it. This bearing allows
the casing to rotate freely. The casing is in the form of two halves. One
of which is placed on either side of the rotating disc. The semi elliptical
placed in the casing match with corresponding grooves inside the
rotating disc to form chamber. The stream of water flow is maintained
in this chamber.
When the brake is operating, the water follows a helical path

in the chamber. Vortices and eddy current are set up in the water . It
tends to rotate the dynamometer. This tendency is resisted by the
brake arm and balance system that measures the torque.
The amount of braking is controlled by varying either the

amount of water and its pressure or the distance between the rotators
disc and the stationary casing.
5.19
Advantages of hydraulic dynamometers
1) Power of very large and high speed engines can be measured.
2) More flexibility in controlling the operation.
3) Less space is required for high absorption capacity.
4) No additional water is required for cooling.
5.10 Diaphragm pressure sensor
Fig.5.18 Diaphragm pressure sensor
Diaphragm is an elastic transducer used for pressure

measurement. Diaphragms are generally used as primary transducers
for dynamic pressure measurement.
The diaphragms are in two types :

(a) flat type or (b) corrugated type.
 Flat diaphragms are used for smaller deflections. Then this

small deflections are amplified using electrical secondary
transducers.
 Corrugated diaphragms are used for large deflections in static
pressure measurement.
5.20
A single diaphragm in its simplest form is shown in Fig.5.18.
It is a thin, flat, circular plate fixed at the two ends. It will deflect when
pressure is applied. The resulting differential pressure is given by
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 . This can be used only for relatively small movements. The
deflection is limited by linearity constraints or stress requirements.
Some modification is required for practical applications.
Modifications in simple diaphragm

1) A mechanical linkage system or an electrical secondary
transducer is connected to the diaphragm at its centre.
2) The diaphragm may be made up of a variety of materials such as
nylon, plastic, leather, silk, or rubberized fabric. This type of
transducer is known as the slack diaphragm or fabric diaphragm.
3) A pressure capsule or a metal capsule can be formed by joining
two or more diaphragms.
4) Use of corrugated diaphragms increases linear deflections and
reduces stresses.
5.10.1 Diaphragm gauge with LVDT
Fig.5.19 Diaphragm gauge with LVDT
5.21
The linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) transforms
a mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. The magnetic
core is connected to an elastic pressure transducer like a diaphragm
gauge. The diaphragm gauge senses the applied pressure and
converts it into displacement. Then it moves the core of the LVDT.
An LVDT consists of one primary and two secondary windings

(coils), which are mounted on a common frame. The three coils are
carefully wound on an insulated bobbin. Two secondary windings are
symmetrically placed on each side of the primary coil. A non-
contacting magnetic core moves in the centre of these coils. It is
centrally positioned between the secondary windings.
When the core is in this position, the induced voltages in the

two secondary windings are equal and 180° out of phase. It is taken
as the zero position. When the pressure is applied, the core moves
from the zero position. Due to this, a differential voltage appears
across the two secondary windings. The differential voltage is
proportional to the applied pressure. This is measured by a voltmeter.
The voltmeter can be calibrated to directly show the pressure reading.
5.10.2 Diaphragm gauge with strain gauge
Fig.5.20 Diaphragm gauge with strain gauge
This type of pressure transducer consists of a flexible plate

fixed at one end like a cantilever. Strain gauges are bonded on this
flexible plate, one on each side. Two strain gauges are used to provide
temperature compensation. This forms a bridge circuit.
5.22
It also consists of a diaphragm gauge to sense the applied
pressure. A connecting pin is connected to the cantilever. The
pressure applied on the diaphragm is transmitted to the cantilever
through the connecting pin. It produces elongation and compression
in strain gauges. It causes an imbalance in the bridge circuit. The
voltage difference across the circuit is measured by a voltmeter. The
voltmeter can be calibrated to directly show the pressure reading.
5.10.3 Piezoelectric sensors
Fig.5.21 Piezo electric sensor

A piezoelectric sensor is an active type of pressure
transducer. It works on the principle that when pressure is applied on
piezoelectric crystals an electric charge is produced. Quartz is the
widely used piezoelectric crystal.
It consists of a corrugated metal diaphragm on which pressure
is applied. Deflection of the diaphragm is transmitted to the
piezoelectric crystal through a mechanical link. The piezoelectric
crystal is capable of producing the maximum piezoelectric response
in one direction and minimum responses in other directions.
The piezoelectric crystal senses the applied pressure and

generates a voltage proportional to the applied pressure. The
generated voltage is measured by a voltmeter. The voltmeter can be
calibrated to directly show the pressure reading.
This method can be used for the measurement of high
pressure and rapidly varying pressures.
5.23
5.11 Measurement of flow
The rate at which a fluid moves through a pipe is measured in
terms of the quantity known as the flow rate. Flow rate can be
expressed in terms of a flow volume per unit time, known as the
volume flow rate, or as a mass flow per unit time, known as the mass
flow rate.
The device used for the measurement of volume flow rate or

mass flow rate is known as flow meters.
5.11.1 Types of flow meters

The flow meters are classified as follows :
(a) Obstruction meters
1) Venturi meters
2) Flow nozzles
3) Orifices
4) Variable-area meters (Rotameters)
(b) Volume flow meters

1) Electromagnetic flow meters (liquids only)
2) Vortex-shedding meters
3) Ultrasonic flow meters
4) Positive-displacement meters
(c) Mass flow meters

1) Coriolis meters
2) Critical flow venturi meters
3) Thermal mass flow anemometers
5.12 Rotameter
Rotameter is used to measure the volume flow rate of fluids.
It is a type of variable area flow meter. The meter consists of a float
within a vertical tube. The tube is tapered to an increasing cross-
sectional area at its outlet. Flow entering through the bottom passes
over the float, which is free to move. The equilibrium height of the float
indicates the flow rate.
5.24
As fluid flows upward through
the tube, three forces act on the float :
a downward gravity force, an upward
pressure, and viscous drag forces.
For a given flow rate, the float

assumes a position in the tube where
the forces acting on it are in equilibrium.
The total drag is dependent on

flow rate and the annular area between
the float and the tube. The position of
the float will be determined by the flow
rate alone.
So the float’s vertical position is

a direct measure of flow rate. The flow
rate can be read directly from a
graduated scale.
Fig.5.22 Rotameter
A basic equation for the variable-area meter is given by,

√
√
√2 𝑔 𝑣𝑓 (𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌𝑤 )
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑤 𝐶
⎷ 𝐴 𝑓 𝜌𝑤
Where, 𝑄 = Volume flow rate

𝐴𝑤 = Area of the annulur orifice
𝐶 = Discharge coefficient
𝑔 = Acceleration due to gravity
𝑣𝑓 = Volume of the float
𝜌𝑓 = Density of float
𝜌𝑤 = Density of liquid
𝐴𝑓 = Area of the float
5.25
Advantages of rotameter
1) It requires no external power.
2) Simple and economic device
3) The scale is approximately linear.
4) Condition of flow is visible
5) High resistant to thermal shock and chemical action.
Disadvantages of rotameter
1) The meter must be installed in a vertical position
2) The float may not be visible when opaque fluids are used
3) It cannot be used for liquids with solids suspension.
4) It does not provide electronic readout.
5) The calibration is affected by fluid density.
5.13 Electromagnetic flow meter
Fig.5.23 Electromagnetic flow meter
The operating principle of an electromagnetic flow meter is

based on the Faraday’s law. When an electrically conductive liquid
moves through a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the liquid at a
right angle to the field. The induced voltage is directly proportional to
the volume flow rate.
5.26
It is expressed by the following relation :
𝐸=𝑈 𝐵𝐿
Where, 𝐸 = Induced electromotive force (emf)
𝑈 = Average velocity of fluid
𝐵 = Magnetic flux density
𝐿 = Length of the conductor
The flowing medium is passed through a pipe. A short section

of the pipe is subjected to a transverse magnetic flux. The fluid itself
acts as the conductor. Electrodes are placed at the inner surface of
the pipe wall and make direct contact with the flowing fluid.
Fluid motion relative to the magnetic field causes a voltage lo

be induced. The induced voltage is proportional to the fluid velocity.
This voltage is detected by the electrodes. The output is detected and
processed by suitable circuit.
The flow rate is determined by,

𝐸
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝐾1 𝐸
𝐵𝐿
𝐴
Where, 𝐾1 = = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐵𝐿
From the above equation, it is clear that the flow rate is directly
proportional to the induced voltage.
Advantages of electromagnetic flow meter

1) It has a very low pressure loss.
2) No obstruction design.
3) It can be used for both steady and unsteady flow measurements.
4) No internal moving parts.
5) Corrosive and dirty fluids can be measured.
6) The measurement is independent of fluid density and viscosity.
5.13 Hot wire anemometer

Hot wire anemometer is used to measure the velocity of flow of
gases. It consists of a tungsten or platinum wire (sensor) ranging from
1 to 4 mm in length and from 1.5 to 15 μm in diameter. The wire is
supported between two rigid needles that project from a ceramic tube.
5.27
Fig.5.24 Hot wire anemometer
An electric current heats the wire to a temperature above the

fluid temperature. A heated object in a moving stream loses heat due
to the velocity of flow. The heat loss is proportional to the fluid velocity.
Fig.5.25 Modes of operation
5.28
The following two operating modes are available :
(a) Constant current mode
In this mode, a fixed current is passed through the sensor to
heat it. The sensor resistance and its temperature are allowed to vary
with the rate of heat transfer. Bridge-deflection voltage provides a
measure of the fluid velocity.
(b) Constant resistance mode

In this mode, the sensor resistance is initially set by adjusting
the bridge balance. The sensor resistance is then maintained constant
by using a differential feedback amplifier. It senses small changes in
bridge balance and adjusts the applied voltage, thereby adjusting the
sensor current to bring the sensor back to its set point resistance. The
adjusted voltage is the measure of fluid velocity.
Because the current through the sensor varies with changes

in the velocity, the electrical power required to maintain this constant
temperature is equal to the rate of heat transfer from the sensor. The
relation between flow speed and bridge output is obtained by equating
the electrical power to the heat loss.
The relationship is given by,

𝐸 2 = 𝐶 + 𝐷√𝜌𝑈
Where, 𝐸 = Output voltage
𝜌 = Density of fluid
𝑈 = Velocity of fluid
𝐶, 𝐷 = Constants
5.14 Ultrasonic flow meter

Ultrasonic flow meters use sound waves to determine flow
rate. It uses the travel time of ultrasonic waves to estimate average
flow velocity. In this meter, two transducers are fixed to the outside of
a pipe wall. They are separated by some distance. A reflector is
applied to the opposite outside wall of the pipe. Each transducer acts
as a transmitter and a receiver for ultrasonic waves.
5.29
Fig.5.26 Ultrasonic flow meter
An ultrasonic wave emitted by one transducer passes through

the fluid, reflects off the pipe wall, and is received by the other
transducer. The difference in travel time (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) for a wave to travel
from one transducer to another is directly related to the average
velocity of flow in the pipe.
The travel time is given by,

2𝐿 2𝐿
𝑡1 = ; 𝑡2 =
𝑐 + 𝑈 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐 − 𝑈 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑1
Where, 𝐿 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐 = Velocity of sound
𝑈 = Velocity of flow
𝑐2
When, 𝑈 ≪ 𝑐, 𝑈= (𝑡 − 𝑡 ) = 𝐾(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
4 𝑑1 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 1 2
Where, 𝐾 = a constant
The flow rate is given by, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈 = 𝐾𝐴(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )

Thus, the flow rate can be calculated by accurately measuring
the difference in travel time.
5.15 Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA)

When light waves of a given frequency are scattered by
particles in a moving fluid, they undergo a frequency change called,
Doppler shift. The Doppler shift of the scattered waves is proportional
5.30
to the speed of the scattering particle. Laser beam is used as the
incident wave source in laser Doppler anemometer. LDA measures
the time-dependent velocity at a point in the flow.
The following two modes of operation are commonly used in LDA :

a) Reference beam mode b) interference fringe mode
a) Reference beam mode
Fig.5.27 Reference beam mode
In this mode, a separate scattering and reference beams are

used. As a moving particle suspended in the fluid passes through the
laser beam, it scatters light in all directions. The two beams are
crossed and the incident information from the two beams are mixed.
This process is known as optical heterodyne. The outcome of this
mixing is a separation of the incident frequency from the Doppler
frequency. An optical photodiode separates the Doppler frequency
from the incident frequency by filtering.
b) Interference fringe mode

In this mode, a single laser beam is divided into two coherent
beams of equal intensity using an optical beam splitter. These incident
beams are passed through a focusing lens that focuses the beams to
a point in the flow. The focal point forms the effective measuring
volume (sensor) of the instrument.
5.31
Fig.5.28 Interference fringe mode
Particles suspended in the fluid scatter light as they pass

through the beams. Interference of light occurs due to the Doppler
frequency shift of the scattered light. This produces light and dark
interference fringes. These fringier are detected by a photodiode and
further processed.
The distance between these fringes is given by,

𝜆
𝛿=
2 sin (𝜃 )
2
Where,
𝛿 = Fringe spacing
𝜆 = Wave length of laser beam
𝜃 = Angle between two beams
The velocity of flow is related directly to the Doppler shift by,

𝜆
𝑈= 𝑓𝐷 = 𝛿 𝑓𝐷
2 sin (𝜃 )
2
Where, 𝑓𝐷 = Doppler shift frequency.
𝑈 = Velocity of particle in the flow
5.32
Review Questions

1) Define force. List out the methods of measuring force.
2) Explain the working of pendulum scale.
3) Define load cell. What are the common types of load cells?
4) Write short notes on hydraulic load cell.
5) Write short notes on pneumatic load cell.
6) Explain electronic weighing system.
7) Define torque. What is the importance of measurement of torque?
8) List out the methods of torque measurement.
9) What are dynamometers? Give its classification.
10) What is the principle involved in inductor dynamometer?
11) What is diaphragm? Explain its types.
12) Write short notes on piezo electric sensors.
13) What are the types of flow meters.
14) List out the advantages and disadvantages of rotameter.
15) Explain the principle involved in electromagnetic flow meter.
16) What is the difference between constant current mode and constant
resistance mode in hot wire anemometer?
17) What is basic difference between reference beam mode and interference
fringe mode in LDA?

1) Explain the working of equal arm balance with a sketch.
2) Explain the unequal arm balance with a sketch.
3) With a neat sketch, explain the working of multiple lever system.
4) Briefly explain the following : a) Strain gauge load cell b) Shear type load
cell.
5) Explain how the torque is measured using strain gauge?
6) Explain the construction and working of laser optical torque
measurement.
7) How stroboscope is used in the measurement of torque?
5.33
8) Explain the mechanical dynamometer. What are its limitations?
9) Explain the working of D.C dynamometer.
10) Explain the hydraulic dynamometer with a neat sketch. List out its
advantages.
11) Explain the diaphragm gauge with LVDT.
12) With a sketch, explain the diaphragm gauge with strain gauges.
13) Explain the construction and working of rotameter.
14) Explain the working of electromagnetic flow meter.
15) Explain the working of hot wire anemometer with a neat sketch.
16) Explain the ultrasonic flow meter with a line sketch.
17) Explain the laser Doppler anemometer with a sketch.
 
5.34
Q & A.1
Unit – I : BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS
1. Define metrology.
Metrology is a branch of science which deals with measurements
and measuring instruments
2. Define unit. State its categories.
The standards used for measuring each physical quantity is
known as units. The units are divided into three categories.
a) Fundamental units or base units.
b) Supplementary units.
c) Derived units.
3. List out the base quantities and its base units.
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Amount of substance Mole mol
4. Define metre.
Metre is defined as the length equal to 16,50,763.73 wavelengths
in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
energy levels 2P10 and 5d5 of Krypton 86 atom.
5. Define second.
It is the fundamental unit of time. Second is equal to the
duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding
to the transition between the hyper fine levels of the ground
state of the Caesium –133 atom.
6. Mention the two supplementary units.
1) Radian (rad ) 2) Steradian (sr )
Q & A.2
7. State the needs for inspection.
1) To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
2) To produce components with acceptable quality levels.
3) To reduce scrap and wastages.
4) To purchase good quality raw materials and tools.
5) To reduce the rejection percentage of products.
8. Define measurement.
Measurement is the comparison of a given unknown quantity
with one of its predetermined standard values adopted as a unit.
9. What are the elements in a measuring system?

1) Measurand 2) Reference 3) Comparator
10. State the needs for measurement.

1) To determine the true dimensions of a part.
2) To ensure public health and human safety.
3) To carry out research and development activities.
4) To provide input for automatic control systems.
5) To test the functions of elements in a system.
6) To evaluate the performance of a system.
11. List out the methods of measurement.
1) Direct method 2) Indirect method
3) Fundamental method 4) Comparative method
5) Transposition method 6) Coincidence method
7) Deflection method 8) Complementary method
9) Null measurement method 10) Substitution method
11) Contact method 12) Contactless method
12. Classify the measuring instrument.

Q & A.3
13. List out the linear measuring instruments.
Steel rule, calipers, dividers, depth gauge, Vernier calipers,
micrometers, Vernier height gauge, slip gauge, comparators, etc.
14. Name the angular measuring instruments.
Angle gauges, sprit level, protractors, combination sets, sine
bars, clino meter, angle dekkor, auto collimator, etc.
15. List out the geometric measuring instruments.
Thread micrometers, gear tooth Vernier calipers, profilometers,
profile projectors, roundtesters, Coordinate Measuring
Machines, etc.
16. Name the instruments used for surface measurements.
Profilometers, Taylor-Hobson Tallysurf, tracer type profilogram,
double microscope, etc.
17. List out the scope of metrology.
1) Complete evaluation of newly developed products.
2) Determination of the process capabilities
3) Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities
4) Minimizing the cost of inspection.
5) Reducing the cost of rejects and rework.
6) To standardize the measuring methods:
18. What is standardisation?
Standardisation is the process of creating, issuing and
implementing standards.
19. Name the international standards organisations.
International Organisation of Weights and Measures
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
International Laboratory Accreditation Conference(ILAC)
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
National Metrology Institute (NMI)
20. What is meant by legal metrology?
Legal metrology is concerned with the regulations and legal
requirements for the measuring instruments and methods of
Q & A.4
measurements. The main objective is to maintain uniformity of
measurement in a particular country.
21. Define range of measuring instruments.
Range is defined as the upper and lower limits an instrument
can measure a value without exceeding the maximum
permissible error.
22. Differentiate resolution and sensitivity.
Resolution is the smallest value that an instrument can
measure.
Sensitivity of the instrument denotes the smallest change in
input value to which the instrument responds.
23. Define hysteresis.
It is the difference between the indications of a measuring
instrument when the same value of the measured quantity is
reached by increasing or by decreasing that quantity.
24. What is response time?
It is the time taken by an instrument to give an indication after
a sudden change in the measured quantity.
25. Define calibration.
The process of periodic checking against measuring
instruments and standards of high accuracy is called as
calibration.
26. Differentiate between precision and accuracy.
Precision is the closeness of agreement between
independent test results obtained under specified conditions.
It indicates the degree of repeatability in the measuring
process.
Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between the
measured value and the true value.
27. List out the factors affecting accuracy of measuring system.
1) Calibration standards 2) Work piece
3) Measuring Instruments 4) Environmental effects
5) Person or Inspector carrying out the measurement
Q & A.5
28. Define reliability.
Reliability is the degree of consistency of a measurement. A
test will be reliable when it gives the same repeated result
under the same conditions.
29. Define error.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the true
value.
30. Differentiate absolute error and relative error.
Absolute error is the algebraic difference between the results
of measurement to the true value of the quantity measured.
Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error and the value
of comparison used for calculation of that absolute error.
31. Give the classification of errors,
1) Static errors
(a) Reading errors
(b) Environmental errors
(c) Characteristic errors
2) Loading errors
3) Dynamic error
(a) Systematic error
(b) Random error
32. What is loading error.
Instrument loading error is the difference between the value of
measurand before and after the measurement.
33. List out the sources of systematic errors.
1) Calibration errors 2) Atmospheric conditions
3) Stylus pressure 4) Parallax error
34. Mention the factors to be considered for the selection of
measuring instruments.
1) Measuring range 2) Accuracy 3) Precision
4) Resolution 5) Measurement method
6) Reliability 7) Cost
Q & A.6
Unit – II: LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
1. List out the important linear measuring instruments.
1) Steel rule 2) Calipers 3) Combination set
4) Feeler gauge 5) Pitch screw gauge 6) Vernier caliper
7) Vernier height gauge 8) Micrometer 9) Thread micrometer
2. Mention the types of calipers.
1) Outside caliper 2) Inside caliper 3) Outside spring caliper
4) Inside spring caliper 5) Jenny or Odd leg caliper
3. What is combination set?
Combination set is the most adaptable and widely used non-
precision instrument in layout and inspection work. The
combination set consists of scale, squaring head, protractor
and centre head.
4. List out the applications of feeler gauges.
1) It is used to measure the clearance between the tool and
work piece in the machines.
2) It is used in automobiles for adjusting the spark plug
clearance correctly.
3) It is used to measure the clearance between piston and cylinder.
4) It is used for measuring the clearance between the guide and
guide ways in machines.
5. List the applications of radius gauges and pitch screw gauges.
Radius gauge is useful for measuring and checking the
inside and outside radii of fillets and other round surfaces.
Pitch screw gauge is used to identify or check the pitch of the
threads on different threaded items.
6. What is least count? How it is calculated in vernier caliper?
Least count is the smallest value that can be measured by
using an instrument.
7. Give the uses of vernier height gauge.
Vernier height gauge is used to measure the height of the
work piece and to mark the specified dimension exactly on
the work piece.
Q & A.7
8. List out the types of micrometers.
1) Outside micrometer 2) Inside micrometer
3) Depth micrometer 4) Thread micrometer
5) Optical micrometer 6) Light wave micrometer
9. What are the uses of inside micrometer and depth micrometer?
Inside micrometer is used to measure the inside diameter of
a hole.
Depth micrometer is used to measure the depth of blind
holes, slots and grooves.
10. What is the use of thread micrometer? Give the formula
used in three wire method for pitch diameter.
Thread micrometer is used for measuring the pitch diameter of
a thread accurately.
= − + +
Where, = Distance between the wires
= Diameter of wire
= Included angle of thread, = pitch of thread
11. What is the principle involved in optical micrometer?
Optical micrometer uses a shadow measurement principle. The
dimension is calculate by measuring the time duration between
the detection of edges of shadow.
12. What is light wave micrometer?
Light wave micrometer is provided with an optical pressure
indicator which uses light wave interference. This is provided to
apply exactly the same pressure on the object for each
measurement.
13. What is slip gauges? Define wringing.
Slip gauges are precision gauge blocks used for measuring
linear dimensions.
Wringing is the process of combining slip gauges by placing
one over another with the help of adhesion between the two
highly finished surfaces.
Q & A.8
14. What are the requirements of slip gauges?
1) The end faces of the gauges must be flat and parallel to each other.
2) All the adjacent faces must be perfectly square to each other.
3) They must possess high degree of surface finish.
4) The actual size must be within tolerances.
5) The edges must be deburrred.
15. Classify the slip gauges.
Grade II is intended for use in workshops during actual
production of components, tools and gauges.
Grade I is of higher accuracy for use in inspection
departments.
Grade 0 is used in laboratories and standard rooms for
periodic calibration of Grade I and Grade II gauges.
16. List out the uses of slip gauges.
1) Slip gauges are used for the calibration of precision
measuring instruments.
2) Slip gauges are used in setting sine bars for establishing
angles.
3) They are used to check comparators and optical inspection
devices.
4) They are used as auxiliary measuring system on milling
machine.
17. What is the use of universal bevel protractor?
Universal bevel protractor is used for measuring angle between
two adjacent surfaces with an accuracy of 5 minutes.
18. What are the types of sine bar?
1) Sine centre 2) Sine table 3) Compound sine table
19. Mention the uses of sine centre and compound sine table.
Sine centers are used for mounting conical work pieces
which cannot be held on a simple sine bar
Compound sine table is used to measure compound angles
of large work pieces.
20. What are the uses of sine bar?
Measuring unknown angle.
Setting up known angle.
Checking of unknown angles of heavy component.
Q & A.9
21. Write the limitations of sine bar.
1) The accuracy of sine bars is limited by measurement of center
distance between the two precision rollers.
2) It cannot be used as a primary standard for angle
measurements.
3) Sine principle is fairly reliable at angles less than 15o, but
becomes inaccurate as the angle increases.
4) Sine bar becomes impractical and inaccurate as the angle
exceeds 45o.
22. What is clinometer? Give its uses.
A clinometer is a special case of application of spirit level for
measuring the inclinations
Uses :
1) It is used for the measurement of an inclined plane with
respect to a horizontal plane
2) It is used for the measurement of the relative position of two
mutually inclined surfaces :
23. What is vial?
Vial is a closed glass tube of accurate size in a spirit level, which
is used for storing the liquid. It is graduated in linear scale and
the bubble moves inside it.
24. What is the principle involved in autocollimator?
When the reflecting plane is tilted through a small angle
θ°, the reflected rays will be inclined at 2θ° to the optical axis.
These rays will be focused at a point in the focal plane with
a distance = 2 ! from the origin, where ! is the focal
length of the lens.
25. How angles are measured in angle dekkor?
Angle dekkor measures angle by comparing the reading from a
standard, such as combination of angle gauges, and the reading
from the work piece under test. Thus it acts as a comparator.
26. List out the requirements of a good comparator.
1) The scale used in the instrument should be linear.
2) There should not be any backlash and lag between the
movement of the parts.
3) The instrument must be precise and accurate.
Q & A.10
4) The indication method should be clear.
5) The indicator should be constant in its return to zero.
27. Classify the comparators.
1) Mechanical comparator 2) Electrical comparator
3) Pneumatic comparator 4) Optical comparator
28. What are the advantages of mechanical comparator?
It is cheaper in comparison to the other comparators.
It has linear scale, which is easily readable.
It is compact and robust in construction.
It is easily handled.
It is suitable for ordinary workshops.
29. Write down the advantages of electrical comparator.
It has very less number of moving parts.
The magnification is comparatively high.
It can be used for various ranges.
It has a compact construction.
30. What are the limitations of pneumatic comparators?
The scale is generally not uniform.
Very high magnification is required to avoid meniscus errors.
Various gauging heads are needed for different dimensions.
It requires a number of auxiliary equipment.
Handling of equipment is difficult.
31. What are the uses of optical comparator?
Optical comparator is used for checking gear teeth, screw
thread, cutting tools, needles, etc.
Q & A.11
Unit – III : FORM MEASUREMENT
1. List out the forms of thread.

1) ISO metric thread 2) BSW thread 3) Buttress thread
4) Square thread 5) ACME thread 6) Knuckle thread
2. Define : (i) Angle of thread (ii) Flank angle
Angle of thread : This is the angle between the flanks of a
thread measured in the axial plane. It is also called an
included angle.
Flank angle : It is the angle formed between a flank of the
thread and the perpendicular to the axis of the thread that
passes through the vertex of the fundamental triangle.
3. Define : (a) Pitch (b) Lead
Pitch : It is the distance between two corresponding points
on adjacent threads, measured parallel to the axis of the
thread.
Lead : It is the axial distance moved by the screw when the
screw is given one complete revolution about its axis.
4. Define : i) Addendum ii) Dedendum
Addendum : It is the radial distance between the major
diameter and pitch line for external threads.
Dedendum : It is the radial distance between the minor
diameter and pitch line for external threads.
5. List out possible sources of errors in screw threads.
1) Errors on major diameter 2) Errors on minor diameter
3) Errors on pitch diameter 4) Pitch errors
5) Angle errors
6. Define pitch errors in thread.
Errors in pitch are the errors in the effective diameter helix
measured parallel to the axis of the screw thread.
7. Name the various types of pitch errors found in screw thread.
1) Progressive error 2) Periodic error
3) Erratic or irregular error 4) Drunken error
Q & A.12
8. Differentiate between progressive error and periodic error.
When the pitch of the screw is uniform, but is shorter or longer
than its nominal value, the error is called progressive error.
The periodic error repeats itself at equal intervals along the
thread. In this case, the successive portions of the thread length
are either shorter or longer than the mean value.
9. What are the causes of progressive pitch error in thread?

Incorrect tool - work velocity ratio.
Pitch error in the lead screw of machine.
Use of Incorrect gear
Fault in the saddle guide ways.
10. Define drunken error.
It is type of periodic pitch error occurring for one revolution in
drunken threads. In such threads, the thread is not cut to true
helix. The helix will be a curve and not a straight line.
11. List out the effects of pitch error.
1) It changes the effective diameter.
2) It reduces the clearance.
3) It increases the interference between mating threads.
12. What is the use of bench micrometer?
The bench micrometer is used for accurate measurement of
major diameter of screw thread.
13. How major diameter of internal thread is measured?
The major diameter of internal thread is usually measured by
thread comparator fitted with ball-ended stylus.
14. How minor diameter of external thread is measured?
The minor diameter is measured by a comparative method using
floating carriage micrometer and two small V -pieces.
15. List any two methods used for measurement of minor
diameter of internal threads.
a) Using taper parallels b) Using rollers and slip gauges
Q & A.13
16. What are the methods available to measure the effective
diameter of screw threads?
1) Using thread micrometer 2) One wire method
3) Two wires method 4) Three wires method
17. Define best size wire.
It is a wire of such diameter that makes contact with the flanks
of the thread exactly on the effective diameter. The best size
wire should always be used for measuring the effective
diameter.
18. List out the instruments used to measure pitch of threads.
c) Tool maker’s microscope
19. What are thread gauges?
Thread gauges are limit gauges used to assure that the screw
is within the prescribed limits of size. They are used for
checking screw threads quickly.
20. Classify thread gauges based on application.
1) Working gauges 2) Inspection gauges 3) Master gauges
21. Classify thread gauges based on their form.
(a)Plug screw gauges : They are used to inspect internal thread forms.
(b)Ring screw gauges : They are used to inspect external thread forms.
(c) Caliper gauges : They are used to inspect external thread forms.
22. What are caliper gauges?
Caliper gauges are equivalent of gap gauges with thread form
on anvils. They are used to inspect external thread forms.
23. List out any four gauges for checking external threads.
1) GO screw ring gauge 2) GO screw caliper gauge
3) NO GO screw ring gauge 4) NO GO screw caliper gauge
24. Write the applications of floating carriage micrometer?
It is very useful for thread plug gauge manufacturers, gauge
calibration laboratories and standard tool rooms.
Q & A.14
25. List out the various types of gears.
1) Spur gear 2) Helical gear 3) Bevel gear
4) Rack and pinion gear 5) Worm and worm wheel
26. Differentiate between diametral pitch and circular pitch.

Diametral pitch: It is a number that represents the number of
teeth on the gear when the pitch diameter is one inch.
Circular pitch: It is the distance from the centre of one tooth to
the centre of adjacent tooth measured along the pitch circle.
27. Define : (i) Addendum (ii) Dedendum
Addendum: It is the radial distance between the top of the
tooth and pitch circle.
Dedendum : It is the radial distance between the bottom of
the tooth (root) and pitch circle.
28. Define clearance in gears.
Clearance is the small space provided between the top of a
gear tooth and the root of another mating gear tooth space.
29. Define chordal thickness.
It is the thickness of tooth measured along the chord of a pitch circle.
30. Define module of gear.
Module is the metric standard used to represent the pitch of gears.
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒆 , 𝒎 =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉
31. Define pressure angle.
It is the angle between the common tangent to the pitch circles
and the perpendicular line through the point of contact of two
meshing gears. 14½o and 20o are the standard pressure angle
of gear teeth.
32. List out the various errors in gears.
1) Runout error 2) Pitch error 3) Lead error
4) Eccentricity 5) Undulation 6) Profile error
7) Alignment error 8)Cyclic error 9) Periodic errors
33. Define runout in gears. How it is measured?
Runout is the eccentricity in the pitch circle. It is measured by
gear eccentricity testers.
Q & A.15
34. Define (i) Pitch (ii) Lead
Pitch is the distance between corresponding points on
equally spaced and adjacent teeth.
Lead is the axial advancement of a helix for one complete
rotation about its axis.
35. What are the methods commonly used for profile
measurement of gears?
1) Optical projection method
2) using profile measuring machine
3) Using gear involute tester
36. Define backlash in gears.
Backlash is the amount by which a tooth space exceeds the
thickness on an engaging tooth.
37. State any three methods used to measure tooth thickness
of gears.
a) Using vernier gear tooth caliper
b) Constant chord method
c) Using David brown tangent comparator
38. Write the formula to find the addendum of gears.
𝒎𝒁 𝟗𝟎
𝑨𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎 + 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )]
𝟐 [ 𝒁
Where, 𝑚 = Module of the gear
𝑍 = Number of teeth
39. Define constant chord.
It is the chordal thickness of gear tooth measured where the
tooth flank touch the flank of the basic rack when both are in
close mesh.
40. What is the principle involved in David brown tangent
comparator?
The distance between two opposed involutes is known as base
tangent length. This length is measured using the instrument
and compared with calculated value.
41. What is the use of Parkinson gear tester?
It is used to measure the composite error, which includes errors
due to runout, tooth-to-tooth spacing, and profile variations.
Q & A.16
42. Classify surface irregularities.
1) First order 2) Second order
3) Third order 4) Fourth order
43. Mention the causes of first order irregularities.
1) Lack of straightness of guide ways
2) Deformation of work under the action of cutting forces
3) Weight of the material
44. Differentiate between roughness and waviness
Roughness is finely spaced surface irregularities.
Waviness is surface irregularities of large size.
45. What are flaws?
Flaws are infrequent irregularities that occur at random places
on a machined part. The most common flaws are cracks,
scratches, etc.
46. What is direction of lay?
It is the primary direction of the surface pattern made by the
machine tool marks
47. List out the methods used for evaluating surface roughness.
1) Centre Line Average (CLA) method
2) Root Mean Square (RMS) method
3) Ten-point Height Average method
48. List out the various comparison methods used for
measuring surface finish.
1) Touch Inspection 2) Visual Inspection
3) Scratch Inspection 4) Microscopic Inspection
5) Surface Photographs 6) Micro-Interferometer
7) Wallace Surface Dynamometer 8) Reflected Light Intensity.
49. State the uses of laser type profilogram and double
microscope.
They are used to measure the roughness value (surface
irregularities) by optical method.
Q & A.17
Unit – IV : ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
1. What is laser?
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation.
2. What are the types of lasers.
1) Gas lasers 2) Liquid laser 3) Solid state laser
4) Chemical laser 5) Semiconductor laser
3. Give examples for gas lasers and solid state laser
Gas laser : Argon laser, CO2 laser, Helium-Neon laser,
Krypton laser, Xenon laser, etc.
Solid state laser : Ruby laser, Nd:YAG laser, etc.
4. What are the advantages of lasers?
1) The laser beam has high intensity and high power
2) It has no divergence up to a great distance.
3) It has high information carrying capacity
4) It has very minimum signal leakage.
5) It is free from electro-magnetic interference.
5. List out the applications of laser.
1) Data storage in CDs and DVDs.
2) Barcode scanning
3) High speed transmission of information over fiber optic cable.
4) Manufacturing uses such as metal cutting, drilling, welding, etc.
5) Distance monitoring and measurement
6) Holography, tattoo removal, etc.
6. What is scanning laser gauge?
Scanning laser gauge is a non-contact gauge that measures
with a scanning laser beam. It uses a shadow measurement
principle.
7. Give the applications of scanning laser gauge.
It is used to measure diameters of wires, rods and other
cylinders. It also measures gaps, edge positions and various
geometric dimensions of objects.
Q & A.18
8. What is the use of laser triangulation sensors?
They are used for measurement and monitoring tasks in
factory automation, electronics production, robotics and
vehicle construction.
9. What is interferometry?
Interferometry is a measurement technique based on the
interference of light waves. It is used for the measurements of
very small linear dimensions.
10. What are the essential conditions for interferometry?
1)
The two sources of light should continuously give light rays.
2)
The wavelength and intensity of light rays should be equal.
3)
The phase difference should be maintained constant.
4)
Two sources should be very narrow and close to each
other.
11. Mention the uses of interferometry.
1) Distance monitoring and linear measurements.
2) Angular measurements.
3) Checking of flatness, squareness, parallelism, etc.
4) Calibration of slip gauges
5) Measurement of surface finish
12. What is the difference between the Michelson
interferometer and Twyman-Green interferometer?
Michelson Interferometer Twyman-Green interferometer
Extended monochromatic Monochromatic point light
light source is used source is used
No collimating lens is used Collimating lens is used
13. What is the principle involved in measuring the
displacement using interferometer?
If the path difference between the two reflected beams is an
odd number of half wavelengths, they cancel each other. If the
path difference is an even number of half wavelengths, they
reinforce each other. This creates interference fringes with
alternate dark and bright bands. By counting the number of
Q & A.19
14. What is beam splitter?
Beam splitter is a plain parallel plate having a semi-transparent
layer of silver at its back. It splits the light into two rays of equal
intensity at right angles.
15. What is the use of corner cubes in interferometry?
The corner cube is a glass disk whose back surface has three
polished faces that are mutually at right angles to each other.
It will reflect light at an angle of 180°.
16. What is retroreflectors?
The corner cubes are called retroreflectors. It will reflect the
incident light at an angle of 180°.
17. State the applications of AC laser interferometer.
Calibration of machine tables, slides, and axis movements
of coordinate measuring machines, etc.
Calibration of measuring standards like slip gauges.
18. List out the advantages of laser interferometers.
1) The equipment is portable
2) Easy installation
3) High accuracy and precision in measurements.
4) Long range optical path up to 60m.
5) No change in performance due to wear and tear.
19. What is single beam interferometer?
Single beam Interferometer has the outgoing and returning
beam superimposed on each other. It gives the appearance of
only one beam travelling between the interferometer and the
retroreflector.
20. What is the principle of measurement in two frequency laser
interferometer?
The displacement is measured by counting the frequency and
the phase shift in frequency due to the Doppler effect.
21. What is CMM?
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is an electromechanical
system designed to determine the location, orientation,
dimensions and geometry of a component or object.
Q & A.20
22. List out the types of measuring machines.
1) Length bar measuring machine
2) Coordinate measuring machines (CMM)
3) Universal measuring machine
4) Computer controlled coordinate measuring machine
23. What are the types of CMM?
1) Cantilever type 2) Moving bridge type 3) Fixed bridge type
4) Horizontal type 5) Gantry type 6) Column type
24. List out the important features of CMM.
1) Hollow box construction.
2) Program for automatic error compensation
3) Crash protection for protecting sensitive components
4) Separate computer for each machine
5) Software for offline programming.
6) Software for statistical analysis.
25. List out the various causes of errors in CMM.
1) Geometric error in table of CMM
2) Alignment errors between table and probes.
3) Runout errors and perpendicularity errors in probes
4) Errors in optical readout of the digital system.
5) Straightness and perpendicularity errors in guide ways.
6) Errors in probe system calibration and zero setting.
26. What are the various tests conducted for measuring the
performance of CMM?
1) Repeatability test
2) Linear displacement accuracy test
3) Volumetric performance test
4) Offset probe performance test
5) Bidirectional length test
27. Mention the applications of CMM.
1) Checking the various dimensions of machined components.
2) Checking the profiles and dimensions of gears, threads and
cams.
Q & A.21
3) Checking of sheet metal panels, subassemblies and complete
car bodies in the automotive industries.
4) Sorting and pairing of similar components within tolerance
limits.
5) Checking and measuring various gauges, fixtures and other
inspection and production tools to validate their continued use.
28. List out the advantages of CMM.
2) More flexibility to measure different part configuration.
3) Reduced operator errors in measurements and setup.
4) Reduced operator skill requirements.
5) More accurate and precise than manual inspection.
6) Better repeatability.
7) Reduced maintenance cost.
29. Name the two types of probes used in CMM.
1) Trigger type probe 2) Measuring type probe
30. What are the main features of CMM software?
1) Subroutine programs for repeated measurement tasks
2) Automatic calibration of the probe
3) Determination of the work piece coordinate system
4) Automatic evaluation and recording of complete
measurement
5) Statistical evaluation of measured data
6) Curve measurement and gear measurement
31. List out the factors affecting CMM.
1)Temperature 2) Humidity 3) Trapped dust
4) Contaminated oil 5) Vibration
32. Enumerate the advantages of digital devices.
1) Measuring element is free from errors.
2) Learning the procedure is quick and easy.
3) More accurate measurements.
4) No excessive reading errors .
5) Display can be zeroed quickly.
6) Output can be directly fed to computers
Q & A.22
33. What are the main uses of computers in metrology?
2) Processing the output of the measurement process.
34. What are the advantages of computer aided inspection?
2) Reduced rejection of parts due to in-process inspection.
3) Automatic evaluation and recording of complete
measurement
4) Self-teaching capability of the system.
5) More flexibility to inspect different part configuration.
6) More accurate and precise inspection.
Unit – V : MEASUREMENT OF MECHANICAL

PARAMETERS
1. Give examples for direct method of force measurement.

Equal arm balance, unequal arm balance, multiple lever
system, pendulum scale, etc.
2. What is the principle involved in equal arm balance?
The basic principle of operation is based on moment
comparison.
3. What is the use of unequal arm balance?
An unequal balance is used for the measurement of heavier
weights with the help of lighter weights.
4. What is multiplication ratio in arms balance?
The multiplication ratio, is the indicative of weight that should
be placed in the pan to balance the weight on the platform.
Multiplication ratio of 100 means that a weight of 1 kg placed
in the pan can balance a weight of 100 kg placed on the
platform.
Q & A.23
5. What is the basic principle involved in electromagnetic
balance?
In electromagnetic type balances, an electromagnetic force is
applied instead of a placed weight to balance the beam
6. Define load cell.
When an elastic member is combined with a strain gauge and
used for the measurement of force, it is termed as a load cell.
7. List out the types of load cells.
1) Hydraulic load cell 2) Pneumatic load cell
3) Strain gauge load cell 4) Shear type load cell
8. What is the difference between double ended and single

ended shear type load cells?
In double ended type, the free ends of two cantilever beams
are butted together and the force is applied at the junction. In
single ended type, the force is applied at the free end of a
single cantilever beam.
9. Define torque.
The twisting moment is called torque. Torque is defined as a
measure of the tendency of force to rotate a shaft about an
axis.
10. What are the purposes of measurement of torque?
1) Analysis of stress or deflection
2) Determination of mechanical power
3) Evaluating the performance characteristics of machines.
11. Name the methods used for measurement of torque.
1) Dynamometers
2) Strain gauges
3) Optical method
4) Stroboscopic method
12. What is dynamometer?
The device used for the measurement of torque is known as
dynamometers.
Q & A.24
13. Classify the dynamometers?
a) Absorption dynameters : Absorbs mechanical energy
b) Driving dynamometers : Provides energy to operate the device
c) Transmission Dynamometers : They do not supply or receive
energy.
14. What are the types of dynamometers?

1) Mechanical dynamometer
2) D.C dynamometer
3) Inductor dynamometer
4) Hydraulic dynamometer
15. List out the limitations of mechanical dynamometers.
1) The system unstable.
2) Large powers cannot be measured.
3) Cooling is required.
4) Difficulty in taking readings of force due to oscillations.
16. List out the advantages of hydraulic dynamometers.

1) Power of very large and high speed engines can be
measured.
2) More flexibility in controlling the operation.
3) Less space is required for high absorption capacity.
4) No additional water is required for cooling.
17. What is diaphragm? Give its uses.
Diaphragm is an elastic transducer used for pressure
measurement. Diaphragms are generally used as primary
transducers for dynamic pressure measurement
18. What are the two types of diaphragm?
Flat diaphragms are used for smaller deflections.
Corrugated diaphragms are used for large deflections.
19. What is LVDT?
The linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) transforms a
mechanical displacement into an electrical signal.
20. What is the principle involved in piezo electric sensor?
Q & A.25
When pressure is applied on piezoelectric crystals an electric
charge is produced. The electric charge is measured in terms of
applied pressure.
21. Define flow rate. What are flow meters?
The rate at which a fluid moves through a pipe known as the
flow rate.
The device used for the measurement of flow rate is known as
flow meters.
22. List out the types of flow meters.
(a) Obstruction meters
1) Venturi meters 2) Flow nozzles
3) Orifices 4) Rotameters
(b) Volume flow meters
1) Electromagnetic flow meters 2) Vortex-shedding meters
3) Ultrasonic flow meters 4) Positive-displacement
meters
(c) Mass flow meters

1) Coriolis meters 2) Critical flow venturi meters
3) Thermal mass flow anemometers
23. What is rotameter?
Rotameter is used to measure the volume flow rate of fluids. It
is a type of variable area flow meter.
24. List out the advantages of rotameters.
1) It requires no external power.
2) Simple and economic device
3) The scale is approximately linear.
4) Condition of flow is visible
5) High resistant to thermal shock and chemical action.
25. What is the principle involved in electromagnetic flow
meter?
When an electrically conductive liquid moves through a
magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the liquid. The induced
voltage is directly proportional to the volume flow rate.
Q & A.26
26. List out the advantages of electromagnetic flow meters.
1) Very low pressure loss.
2) No obstruction design.
3) Used for both steady and unsteady flow.
4) No internal moving parts.
5) Corrosive and dirty fluids can be measured.
27. What is hot wire anemometer?
Hot wire anemometer is used to measure the velocity of flow
of gases.
28. Mention the two operating modes in hot wire
anemometers.
1) Constant current mode 2) Constant resistance mode
29. What is ultrasonic flow meter?
Ultrasonic flow meters use sound waves to determine flow rate.
It uses the travel time of ultrasonic waves to estimate average
flow velocity.
30. State the working principle of LDA.
When light waves are scattered by particles in a moving fluid,
they undergo a frequency change called, Doppler shift. The
Doppler shift is proportional to the speed of the scattering
particle.
31. What are the two modes of operation in LDA?
a) Reference beam mode b) interference fringe mode
32. Give the difference between reference beam mode and
interference fringe mode.
In reference beam mode, a separate scattering and
reference beams are used.
In interference fringe mode, a single laser beam is divided
into two coherent beams of equal intensity
33. What is optical heterodyne?
The process of crossing and mixing the incident information
from two beams of light is known as optical heterodyne.
 
Q & A.27
MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Time: 3 Hrs. Max Marks : 100
[N.B: (1) Answer all TEN questions from PART – A. Each question
carries 3 marks.
(2) Answer division (a) or division (b) of each question in
PART – B. Each question carries 14 marks.]
PART – A
[10 × 3 = 30 Marls]
1. What is meant by legal metrology?

2. Differentiate between precision and accuracy.
3. What are the requirements of slip gauges?
4. What is the principle involved in autocollimator?
5. Define pitch error. Name the various types of pitch errors found
in screw.
6. Briefly explain the types of gears?
7. State the uses of laser in interferometry.
8. What are the advantages of computer aided inspection?
9. Write short notes on piezoelectric sensors.
10. What are the types of flow meters?
PART – B
[5 × 14 = 70 Marls]
11.(a) (i) Explain the needs for inspection and measurement. (7)
(ii) Differentiate between systematic error and random (7)
error.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the various methods of measurements. (7)
(ii) Explain the factors affecting accuracy of measuring (7)
system.
QP.1
12.(a) (i) Explain optical micrometer with neat sketch. (7)
(ii) What are the types of sine bar? Explain its uses and (7)
limitations.
(Or)
(b) (i) With the help of neat sketch, explain angle dekkor. (7)
(ii) Compare electrical comparators with mechanical (7)
comparators.
13.(a) (i) Explain the floating carriage micrometer. (7)

(ii) Explain the tracer type profilogram. (7)
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the three wires method of measuring the (7)
effective diameter of external screw thread.
(ii) Explain the Parkinson gear tester. (7)
14.(a) (i) Explain Twyman green interferometer with neat sketch. (7)
(ii) Explain the computer controlled coordinate measuring (7)
machine.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain dual frequency interferometer with neat sketch. (7)
(ii) Write short notes on computer aided inspection using (7)
robots.
15.(a) (i) Explain unequal arm balance with neat sketch. (7)
(ii) Explain laser Doppler anemometer with neat sketch. (7)
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain laser optical torque measurement with a neat (7)
sketch.
(ii) Explain the hydraulic dynamometer with neat sketch. (7)
QP.2

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MEASUREMENTS

N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

First Edition : October 2021

Price : 188.00 For Contact :

This book on MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

All the topics in this book are written in simple and

I acknowledge my gratitude with thanks to

All the best...

Unit – I : BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS

Chapter 1.2 : Precision and accuracy

Unit – II : LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Chapter 2.2 : Angular measurements

Unit – III : FORM MEASUREMENT

Chapter 3.2 : Measurement of gears

Unit – IV : ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

Chapter 4.2 : Computer in Metrology

Unit – V : MEASUREMENT OF MECHANICAL

Chapter 5.2 : Measurement of power

Chapter 5.3 : Measurement of flow

Unit – I : Basic Concepts of Measurements ..... 1.1 – 1.22

Unit – II : Linear and Angular Measurements …. 2.1 – 2.41

Unit – III : Form Measurement ……………….. 3.1 – 3.46

Unit – IV : Advances in Metrology……………… 4.1 – 4.26

Unit – V : Measurement of Mechanical

 3 Marks Questions and Answers

a) Fundamental units or base units

Example : Units for area (m2 ) , volume (m 3 ) , density (kg / m3 ) ,

1.3 Needs for inspection

1.5 Elements of measurements

Fig.1.1 Elements of measurement

The sequence of operations necessary for the execution of

1.6 Needs / Applications of measurements

1.7 Method of measurements

1.8 Measuring instruments

1) Linear measuring instruments

2) Angular measuring instruments

Example : Angle gauges, sprit level, protractors, combination

Example : Thread micrometers, gear tooth Vernier calipers,

4) Surface measuring instruments

Example : Profilometers, Taylor-Hobson Tallysurf, tracer type

1.9 Scope / applications of metrology

1.10.1 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

1.10.2 National Physical Laboratory (NPL)

1.10.3 International standardisation

1.11 Legal metrology

1.12 Important terminology

1.13 Precision and accuracy

It indicates the degree of repeatability in the measuring

True Value &

Fig. 1.2 Precision and accuracy

Example : Let a micrometer measures a part dimension as

1.14 Factors affecting the accuracy of the measuring system

Higher accuracy can be achieved by eliminating all the

1.14 General rules for accurate measurements

1.18 Sources of error

1.19 Classification of error

(b) Environmental error : Environmental errors result from

(a) Systematic or controllable errors

(b) Random errors