Technical Report Writing

TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING
TECHNICAL REPORT
WRITING
ENGLISH 220
SECOND SEM MODULE
NAME
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TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING:
DEFINITION:
- Technical writing is a type of writing used by scientist, engineers and other pro-scientific
and technical expositions about scientific and technical subjects associated with
sciences.
- Technical writing deals with an object, a process, or an abstract idea in the sciences or in
engineering, it stresses accuracy rather than style. Its tone is objective rather than
subjective or emotional.
- Technical content is the focus of writing rather than the author’s voice.
- The primary goal of any technical communication is to accurately and adequately

transmit technical information with clarity and ease, with precision and conciseness, in a
logically organized report for a particular reader or a group of readers.
NATURE OF TECHNICAL WRITING

 Technical writing is a communication, which is written for and addressed to a specific
entities or individuals to attain desired objectives. It is communication in the field of
business, trade, industry, science, technology, engineering and government.
 The main objective is to convey specific piece of information for a specific purpose to a
specific reader or group of readers. It is writing that involves a special knowledge. The
specific information is technical, that is, it is formal aspect of the fields above, written from
the specific point of view.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL WRITING

 Technical writing presents and explains a subject matter in a clear, objective, accurate,
concise, and unemotional manner.
 Technical writing uses a relatively high concentration on certain complex and important
writing techniques particularly description of a mechanism, description of process,
classification, cause and effect, comparison and contrast, analogy and interpretation.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TECHNICAL WRITING

1. TECHNICALLY ACCURATE.
- The purpose of any technical writing is the transmittal of technical information which must
be true and scientifically accurate. Moreover, it must be presented in a logical manner. This
very important because readers make business decisions and scientific judgments based on
the data presented. The error may result in misinformed readers.
2. CONSISTENT.
- The technical report must be consistent in form and style. Inconsistencies in technical
writing will confuse readers and convince them that your work is sloppy and
unprofessional. Inconsistencies are manifested in random and unnecessary capitalizations,
mixed sets of units of measure, indiscriminate use of abbreviations, punctuations, and
rules of grammar.
- The technical writer must keep everything in one consistent style to produce a technical
document that is well-written, educated, and conventional.
3. CLEAR.
- Technical writers are successful if their work can be readily understood by their readers or
their audience. Try to be specific rather than general. Use concrete familiar expressions
rather than the abstract.
- Unfortunately, some writers write as if all their readers had the same level of technical
expertise as they. They write in complicated, difficult-to-understand technical papers or
reports that have jargon, and run-on sentences.
HOW CAN YOU WRITE TO BE UNDERSTOOD? HERE ARE A FEW

SUUGESTIONS:
a. Keep your writing short and simple.

 Use simple words, not the high-sounding ones. Keep the paragraphs and sentences
short. Break up the writing into short sections, and limit each section to one central
theme or idea. Sentences or paragraphs that express one idea are easier to
understand than those that express multiple ideas.
b. Avoid jargon.
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 Some technical terminology is valid and necessary, but too much technical jargon
makes writing incomprehensible. Not every readers knows the latest “buzz-words” in
a specialized field. Your readers are busy people, and more likely, they will put your
report aside than to reach for a technical dictionary.
c. Know your readers.

 Typically, a technical document is distributed to readers of widely varied levels of
technical expertise- research scientist, applications engineers, sales representatives,
purchasing agents, top-level executives, consultants. Write so that the most number
of non-technical readers can understand your report easily. No one has ever
complained of a report or paper that is easy to read.
4. CORRECT IN SPELLING, PUNCTUATION AND GRAMMAR.

- All writing must follow the standard rules of spelling, punctuation, and grammar.
5. CONCISE
- Most people in industry and academia are extremely busy. Concise technical
writing is easier and less time –consuming to read than wordy technical writing. By avoiding
unnecessary repetition, wordy phrases, general words, jargon, you can produce readable
prose without sacrificing content. Your words and phrases should be precise, well-
organized, and to the point.
- Conciseness requires that unnecessary materials and too much expansion of details
from the report must be removed. Care must be exercised in the choice of words. Use
precise verbs and keep a balance between active and passive verbs. Avoid abstract nouns
and jargons. Eliminate needles structure words and stretched-out connectors.
6. COMPLETE.
- Sentences in the report should give complete information so that the reader can
unmistakably understand or comprehend its meaning. The reader need to ask question to
understand it. You must spell out abbreviations and acronyms which are used in the report
for the first time. Also, avoid ambiguous references. Nouns must precede pronouns which
refer to them. Watch out for the antecedents of pronouns like he, she, it, his, her, its, this,
that, these, those. The number of the pronouns must agree with the number of their noun
antecedents.
7. OBJECTIVE
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- The report must speak factually, quantified or categorized. Regardless of his feelings,
prejudices, or biases, the writer must report the findings of the study.
8. FORMAL
- Technical writing convention requires that the report use standard formal English. When
you are in doubt as to the label and usage of a term, you must not fail to consult the
dictionary. Formality requires that you should avoid contractions and avoid the use of slang
words.
- Technical reports are written in the third person. The writer refers to himself as the
researcher, the investigator, the writer rather than “I” or “we”, for it is not “who” which is
important. It is ‘what” was done, and “how” it was done that matters. The process can be
done by any qualified individual in the field.
IMPORTANCE OF WRITING SKILLS

“Put it in writing” is often heard in offices and in industry to make sure that a message is recorded,
evaluated, and acted upon. Writing will be a part of your work in the jobs that will advance your
career for whoever communicates better will advance first.
Report writing skill is valuable to you as your career progresses, and as you occupy positions of
authority you will have greater writing responsibilities. Your ability to present yourself and your
ideas in writing is one of those qualities which will enable you to gain recognition for your other
abilities.
PURPOSES OF TECHNICAL WRITING

 Technical writing usually deals with an object, a process, or an abstract idea in the sciences
or in engineering, so it stresses accuracy rather than the style. Its tone is objective rather
than subjective or emotional.
The technical content is the focus of writing rather than the author’s voice.
The primary goal of any technical communication is to accurately and adequately transmit technical
information with clarity and ease, with precision and conciseness, in a logically organized report for
a particular purpose to a particular reader or a group of readers.
 Mills and Walter say that “technical writing is characterized by formal elements such as its
use of scientific and technical vocabulary, its use of graphic aids, and its use of conventional
report forms.
Purposes of Technical Writing
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1. TO INFORM
- It is written to make another person understand or do something. It is designed to fulfill a
need to tell and need to know.
2. TO ANALYZE EVENTS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

- It will explain how certain systems failed. This system may include education,
socioeconomic, political and the needed change.
3. TO PERSUADE AND INFLUENCE DECISIONS

- It will show how a business or an industry succeeds.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TECHNICAL WRITING (Mills and Walter)

1. Bear in mind a specific reader, real or imaginary; and always assume that he is intelligent
but uninformed.
2. Before you start to write, decide what the specific purpose of your report is, and make sure
that every word, every sentence, and every paragraph clearly contributes to this purpose
and makes is at the right time.
3. Use simple, concrete, and familiar language.
4. At the beginning and end of every section of your report, check your writing whether you
have introduced it to the reader what you intended to tell him, then tell him, then tell him
what you had told him.
5. Make your report attractive to look at.
FUNCTIONS OF TECHNICAL WRITING

Below are the functions of Technical Writing
1. To serve as a basis for management decision
2. To furnish needed information
3. To give instructions
4. To explain techniques
5. To report achievements
6. To analyze problem areas
7. To determine design and system requirements
8. To serve as a basis for public relation
9. To provide report to stockholders of companies
10. To develop a product
11. . To record business through proposals
12. To record business through proposals
13. To procure business through proposals
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

1. Understanding the reader 5. Writing objectively
2. Knowing the purpose of each article or report 6. Using correct format
3. Knowing the subject matter 7. Adopting ethical standards
4. Organizing the material
STEPS OF A WRITING ROUTINE

Here are the steps: PECOW.
1. PROFILE the audience (readers).

- What type of audience are you going to have? Do they compose the educated informed
group or the uninformed group?
- As a writer, you should know your audience. Know what they already know about the topic
and what they still do not know. You should know your readers enough to make an
estimate of what they already know. You must assume that your reader is intelligent but
uninformed about the topic.
2. ESTABLISH the purpose of your report.

- A report may be written to inform, to explain, to describe, to evaluate, to fabricate, to
compare, to recommend, to persuade, or to sharply define an object or a process, to
investigate, to determine.
3. COLLECT and screen information.

- You should be able to decide which information is needed in the report and be able to
know that you have adequately collected information which will support your
generalizations.
4. ORGANIZE the report or document.

- Decide what should go into the introduction, the body, and conclusion of the report.
5. WRITE in appropriate style.

- Revise and revise the written output until t becomes a finished complete report. As you
write, pay attention to special techniques of technical writing, style, introductions,
transitions, and conclusions. Pay attention to outlines or organization, layout, or format of
reports.
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 UNDERSTANDING THE READER

 A basic consideration in technical writing is to know the target audience. The technical
writer should know how to adopt his writing and terminologies of the type of the
intended audience or readers. Difficult technical terms used must be carefully defined
so that the reader will easily understand the information being presented. If the reader
fails to understand what he reads, the writer fails in his mission. The technical writers
should know how important his readers are. The target readers help the writer to know
what to write about and how to write it.
 KNOWING THE PURPOSE OF EACH TECHNICAL REPORT

 The technical paper must be organized around a central theme. The reader should
understand the main purpose after reading the paper. The purpose maybe is to
describe a thing, to report on a specific problem or project, or to analyze ad solve a
problem.
 KNOWING THE SUBJECT MATTER

 A technical writer must have a thorough knowledge of the subject he is tow write
about. If the report is on the result of a technical experiment, the writer who writes the
report should explain what the problem is all about, what causes the problem and how
the problem is solved.
 WRITING OBJECTIVELY
 A good technical writer must emphasize the facts and the data. The impersonal style is
basic to an effective technical writer. He represents facts, figures and statistics skillfully
woven around the subject matter or central theme and written in an impersonal
manner.
 USING CORRECT FORMAT

 The format and style of a report attract the attention of the reader first. Companies
require neatly-typed communications, reports and project proposals and feasibility
studies. The current trends require that such communication be computerized or
typed.
 ADOPTING ETHICAL STANDARDS

 A technical writer should undertake comprehensive research work; accumulate the
required data through interviews, surveys, referrals and related publications. He must
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have to present facts and figures as gathered and required, using only those that are
pertinent to the report. A good technical writer acknowledges the help he receives
from others and cites sources of reference materials.
STYLE IN TECHNICAL WRITING

- STYLE is the writer’s way of writing, a manner in which he expresses his thoughts and
feelings in a language.
1. Be selective, focus on the essential information and the significant detail.
2. Develop a clean, direct style; avoid inflated language and scrambling sentences.
3. Use examples and comparisons to clarify descriptions and explanations.
4. Repeat words and phrases for clarity or emphasis or to ease transitions, but avoid needless
repetitions.
5. Delete unnecessary words and phrases, but avoid short cuts that sacrifice meaning.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE AND LENGTH

- Technical writing should use the natural word order, simple sentence structure and good
short sentences. Since technical subject matter requires the use of complex, technical
vocabulary and the expression of complex ideas, the use of shorter words and sentences,
simple in structure, will help a lot in the readability of difficult material.
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE AND LENGTH

- In technical writing, the topic sentences should come first in the paragraph or at the very
latest part after whatever transitional sentences appear. Sometimes the writer does the
opposite by giving the details at the beginning and then concludes by stating the main idea.
The use of one or more very short paragraphs achieves an especially forceful effect.
SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE
- Judicious weighing of evidence is very important in a technical report. The best evidence is
one which is the most ample, the most pertinent and the simplest in explaining the facts
with the least additional evidence and the most in harmony with the rest of the available
evidence. The conclusions or recommendation should include all evidences in which the
judgment is made.
- The technical writer must know when he would say enough, and not overwrite. As a write
of his materials, he should know what to present, what to amplify, what to rewrite and
what to emphasize.
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GENERALIZATION
- When the technical writer makes generalizations, he is giving probable conclusions derived
from the observation of factors. Since the report is based on generalizations, it is necessary
to describe the circumstances surrounding the report. Provide enough evidence, data and
samples to enable the reader to evaluate the generalizations for himself.
PRINCIPLES to be observed in organizing the material as cited by Alvarez (1981) are as follows:
1. To organize the material of a subject, first break it down into the component aspects.
2. To organize a report or paper, choose a suitable approach and make an outline that
implements it.
3. The basic unit of organizations is the paragraph.
4. Use these paragraph to present the related data, graphs to show trends and visuals to
clarify description.
5. Plan a report or paper thoroughly before starting to write.
6. Gather the necessary data through basic library research and primary services.
7. Write a first draft.
8. Revise and rewrite as often as necessary.
9. Write a final draft.
10. Place footnotes to acknowledge references and include a bibliography at the end of a report
or paper.
Other attribute of good technical report writing are:

1. Appropriateness 4. Factual
2. Functional 5. Efficient
3. Informative 6. Correct
THE ROLE OF THE TECHNICAL WRITER

o A good technical writer possesses insights, perceptiveness, quick to determine probabilities
and the ability to adapt to requirements.
o The technical writer must understand the nature of his work. He should be able to help his
principals attain the target objectives. He must not only possess the technical writing ability
and technical expertise, he must also have the capability to grasp, analyze and interpret
unexpected events and situations that occurred during the writing of the technical report.
o The technical writer should have the ability to state facts clearly and accurately to organize
a variety of elements into a unified structure, and to describe logical generalizations.
HALLMARKS OF AN EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL WRITER
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The hallmarks of an effective technical writer is represented by this acronym REPORTER (Mosura
and Tenorio, 1999)
R - Resourceful
E - Energetic
P - Patient
O - Observant
R - Responsible
T - Trustworthy
E - Evaluative
R – Responsive
THE WHOLLISTIC GUIDE TO TECHNICAL WRITING

ABC’S of report writing
1. ACCURACY
- A report writer must be tactful in the recording of data, statement or calculating
mathematical figures. He must check every statement in its final form. An error committed
and an illogical statement written can create confusions as well as doubts over the whole
text. A writer should always aim to be understood.
2. BREVITY
- Being brief is a courtesy to the reader. The reader should find it easy to group the main
idea of the report. In the same manner, accuracy of the statements can easily be
maintained. The reader can get of your thinking in a compressed form.
3. CONFIDENCE
- A good report writer must have the quality of self-confidence. He cannot only
communicate but he has to be also decisive or sure of what he is writing about. After
finishing the last page of his report, he is an authority.
4. DIGNITY
- Dignity is courtesy to your readers as professionals. This is an ethical standards. The writer
must be certain that all grammatical constructions are correct. In report writing, you need
to be formal with words and how these words are used. You should be sure that the ideas
or information are well organized, simplified, summarized and expressed in
straightforward manner.
5. FACILITY
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- This refers to the devices used by the writer, to make his report easy to read and
understand. In most cases, report writing depends more on pacing, sequence,
arrangement and continuity of ideas as well as information. A GRAMMATICAL CORRECTION
IS IMPORTANT. He should make his writing straightforward, logical and clear. The thought
from one part to another should be clearly established, illustrated or stated.
6. EMPHASIS
- The writer has to feel what is important to the reader and should never expect how the
reader finds it for himself. He has to lead him from point to point, clearly making every
step, directs the reader to the right way and gives him the reason for stopping at a
particular portion.
7. HONESTY
- Honesty is expected in a report. When a writer has borrowed some statements, ideas or
quotations, he has to acknowledge them either in footnotes, endnotes or cite the source
or author of the borrowed ideas or statements within the running text.
8. ILLUSTRATION
- Illustration materials such as charts, graphs, diagrams and photos are always helpful. The
writer should use them to clarify and support the text. They can be used to show situations
or trend or movement.
9. JUDGMENT
- The writer should qualify the data and information gathered by judicious weighing.
10.KNOWLEDGE
- The communication of knowledge is the primary objective of the report, but knowledge I
not only a collection of data or information. It involves interpretation and formulation of
conclusions. Without sound interpretation; the data will become useless.
11.LOGIC
- Logic is a chiefly process of classification. It is putting things in their proper places. It shows
the relations among groups of things and classes of groups. By thinking logically, one can
avoid the following trouble areas:
1. statements must not contradict one another,

2. words must be used in consistent sense,
3. statements must move in direction whether space, time or relation,
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4. statements must make sense

5. judgments must not be based on few data,
6. cause and effect should be clearly distinguished from simple sequence,
7. conclusions should not be inferred if they have no connection with the data
8. an authority should not be accepted if he is biased or he is not an expert in the
particular field
12.MECHANICAL NEATNESS
- This is the general appearance of the report. It must be neatly encoded or typed, properly
margined, free from typographical errors, erasures, crossing-outs and smudges.
13.NORMAL PROCEDURE
- The report is easier to understand if it conforms to the standard practices. The writer must
follow the acceptable arrangement of the different parts of the reports. If the writer
deviates from the normal procedure, he should inform his readers by explaining his
reasons for doing it.
14.OBJECTIVITY
- In technical writing, the writer should consider himself a s another person, uninterested
observer or an innocent bystander. In this instance, the third person point of view is
preferred. The writer should treat his subject matter the way he sees or observe it.
Technical reports avoid the use of the first person (I, me, my).
15. PLANNING
- This is primary in all activities. This gives the purpose and direction to what the technical
writer has to write. This involves thinking ahead of what one has to do, when to do it and who
is to do it. This will be reflected in a well-organized report.
16.QUALIFICATION
- The technical writer should select only these statements that have direct relationship with
the topic being discussed. The writer should evaluate the ideas or statements he will
include in the writing of the report.
17.REVISION
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- This consists of more than merely correcting the spelling, punctuation, spacing and margin
errors. The writer must also check every statement for sense and relevance and be sure
that he has sad all that must be said. An effective report is all that is required to perfection.
The secret of good writing of the report.
18.STRAIGHT SENTENCES
- Sentences carry the full weight of the meaning of the report. The sentence to be employed
must be limited to only one idea or to closely related ideas. To avoid monotony, vary your
sentence structure and employ appropriate transitional devices. By employing such
devices, there will be a smooth transition from sentence to sentence. They will show the
readers the writer’s thoughts leading him to what the writer wants to communicate.
19.THOROUGHNESS
- The writer should treat well his subject matter. The writer should check the thoroughness
of his report from initial thinking to final submission. The writer is obliged to go over, the
subject, analyze and investigate it, organize and interpret the result and draw conclusions
whether it is positive or negative.
20.UNITY
- A report is unified when everything is clearly relevant to the main point under discussion.
Nothing should be left hanging. No question should be left unanswered. After all, the main
objective of a unified report is to let the readers feel that they have read everything
essential to the subject undertaken.
21.VIEWPOINT
- A report is written from a certain viewpoint: that of a reporter, proponent, researcher or
an author. The viewpoint is established in the first sentence and should be maintained
consistently throughout the report. Voice unity should be observed.
22.WORD CHOICE
The writer should choose the words that are fit to the reader’s understanding. Avoid
words which are difficult to understand.
23. ZEST
- Write only things that are worth writing and which are invigorating. Write as though you
were performing a service that only you can perform.
Writing should not be regarded as something difficult but something that is enjoyable
and pleasurable.
Below are the important “end” products of technical writing:
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1. Technical Report 11. Article for a Technical Journal

2. Abstract 12. Monograph
3. Feasibility Report 13. Memorandum
4. Business Letter 14. Graphic Aids
5. Brochure 15. Specification
6. Contract 16. Printed Action Memo
7. Instructional Manual 17. Survey Report
8. Proposal 18. Letter Report
9. Progress Report 19. Laboratory Report
10. Policy 20. Technical Paper
1. TECHNICAL REPORT
- This provides useful information about a complete program of work, for reference and
permanent record.
- Technical report is one of the most frequently used type of technical communication.
There are three subtypes of technical reports which will be discussed:
A. THE SHORT INFORMAL REPORT

 Is a one to four-page, single-spaced report, usually written to someone within the
writer’s own company or organization. It may note the existence of a problem,
propose some course of action, describe a procedure, or report the results of a test or
investigation.
B. THE LONG INFORMAL REPORT

 Is quite similar to the short informal report. Both are written for readers within the
writer’s organization: both
C. THE FORMAL REPORT

 Are long reports written to readers outside the writer’s organization.
 It begins with a Title page, an Abstract, a Table of Contents, and a list of Illustrations.
 Formal reports also begin with a Foreword, Summary, and Discussion on new pages.
 The formal report resembles a book.
o THE TITLE PAGE INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING:

1. Name of the receiver and/or receiving organization
2. Name of writer and writer’s organization
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3. Subject of the report

4. Date of the report
Additional
5. Funding agency
6. Funding contract numbers
7. Beginning and ending dates of the project
8. File number of the report or document authorizing the project
2. CONTRACT
- This is a formal agreement between two or more persons; organization or parties to do
something on mutually terms.
3. FEASIBILITY REPORT
- This represents facts and information intended to make the reader realize that the
proposed project or plan is financially, economically, significant as well as beneficial.
4. BUSINESS LETTER
- This is a written communication or message used to transact business which cannot be
conveniently conducted orally.
5. BROCHURE
- This is a pamphlet or printed information material given to a customer in order to convince
or persuade him to take action on the company’s services, ideas or products offered.
6. ABSTRACT
- This is a summarized form of resume of a long piece of writing.
7. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
- This contains directions for work procedure or policies, or for the use of technical
equipment or appliances. Instruction relies on clear, specific, complete directions
presented in sequential order. Directions of complicated step-by-step procedures should
be accompanied by graphic illustration.
8. PROPOSAL
- This contains suggestions for actions, usually involving change or performance. It may be to
solve a problem, suggest new project site, revise a policy or initiate a researcher report
project or terminate a project.
9. PROGRESS REPORT
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- This contains an account of what has been accomplished on a project over, a specific
period of time and what may be expected in the next period.
10. POLICY
- A plan of action adopted or preserved by an individual, government, party, business and
industry or it may be a document containing a contract of insurance.
11. ARTICLE FOR A TECHNICAL JOURNAL

- A technical paper which will be published in a journal. It contains an abstract, an
introduction, discussion and summarizing, concluding sentence or paragraph.
12. MONOGRAPH
- This is a thorough textbook treatment which requires full illustration and documentation.
13. MEMORANDUM
- This is an important form of written communication circulated within the company and its
branches which is used to disseminate a message or information.
- The content and style are determined by the relationship of sender and recipient.
- Memos may be written to ask or answer questions, to describe procedures and policies, to
remind people about appointments or meetings.
- GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A MEMO:

o Write memos only when necessary
o Send them only to those who need them
o Distribute them through appropriate media-paper-office mail, bulletin boards, e-
mail
o Make your subject line precise so that the topic is clear and the memo is easy to file
o Get to the point. (1) state the project, (2) give the necessary details, (3)state the
response you want.
14. GRAPHIC AIDS

- This refers to all pictures, graphs, diagrams and other materials used in illustrating
important details in report.
15. SPECIFICATION
- This contains detailed information about performance courses, materials for construction,
theory of operations, sample calculations, table and operating data and information.
16. PRINTED ACTION MEMO
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- This prepared from requires only a check mark in an appropriate aquare to indicate its
message.
17. SURVEY REPORT

-This is a thorough study of any subject. Some subjects of surveys are potential markets for
products, labor policies, market punctuation, public opinions and community resources.
Examples are poll surveys and survey on the study of a possible site for a new plant.
18. TRIP REPORT

- An account of a business or professional trip. It records specific and significant places,
events, conversations and people met. It attempts to answer where, we, what, why and
how also. It may have a recommendation section.
19. LABORATORY REPORT

- A record of procedures and results of laboratory tests. It describes the scope of a project,
the equipment utilized, the procedures used, the results of tests and a conclusion and
recommendation.
20. TECHNICAL PAPER
- A research paper written for a professional journal or magazine. Technical papers usually
describe a theory or new development. They resemble technical reports in most respect.
The main difference lies on the fact that the audience for a technical paper is wider and
more diverse.
DIRECTION OF THE COMMUNICATION

1. UPWARD (to supervisors)
- Are usually addressed to managers and supervisors who are often busy. The
communication should be concise and direct. They need thorough information. The
definition of technical terms and brief summary of the whole communication are needed
to save reading time.
2. LATERAL (to peers)

- Is addressed to peers who may share the writer’s expertise in the field. It may be ideas or
projects that affects their own research or jobs. Since one cannot invade a peer’s territory,
the tone should only suggest not command. If the reader shares with the writer’s
professional background, then the technical writer is concerned with the technical
vocabulary, symbols and abbreviations need not to be used.
3. DOWNWARD (to subordinates)
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- Is addressed to employees and technicians who are most concerned with how to increase
their productivity and their incomes. Since they need to see how their jobs fit into the
overall company operation, the writer should explain as well as give directions.
4. OUTWARD (to consumers, public interest groups, stockholders, government and others)
- GO outside the company and the techniques of upward communication are used.
- These are group of busy people, so that what they need is a communication that is simple,
with the terms defined and a thorough discussion of facts and ideas. Potential costumers
want to know the cost, use and durability of the products.
- The public wants information on how one’s ideas will affect the environment or the
economy, and the stockholders want to know whether the organization is conforming to
government regulations or how it affects the natural economy.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES OF TECHNICAL WRITING

 Technical writing is writing in which there is a high concentration of complex and important
writing TECHNIQUES such as:
 definition,
 description of mechanisms,
 description of a process,
 classification, and partitioning
 interpretation
Each of these special techniques frequently appears in technical writing.
DEFINITIONS IN TECHNICAL REPORTS:
Words are labels or symbols for things and ideas. There are times when the writer and the
reader are not in perfect agreement as to the referent for certain words. A reader may have
a different referent from the one the writer had in mind, or he may not have any referent at
all, so communication may not be achieved. It is, therefore, important to define key terms
in a study.
Definitions are a description o explanation of a word or thing by its attributes, properties or
relations that distinguishes it from all other things.
THERE ARE THREE KINDS OF DEFINITIONS IN REPORT: Informal, operational, and formal
definitions
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o INFORMAL DEFINITIONS – is a synonym or substitute for a familiar word, phrase or clause

or even a sentence for the unfamiliar term used. It is the term alone that is unfamiliar to the
reader and not the referent.
- Is usually short or partial substitution. They are not complete definitions. Because of
their informality and brevity, they can be fitted smoothly into a discussion without
seriously distorting its continuity and without appearing to be serious interruptions.
o OPERATIONAL DEFINITION – is a definition of a term or a phrase as it was used in the study

or report. This definition does not come from the dictionary. It is a definition that explains
how a certain word or phrase was used in the study or report.
o FORMAL DEFINITION – is a sentence definition.

IT HAS THREE PARTS:
SPECIES (the word being defined)
GENUS (class or family to which the word belongs)
DIFFERENTIA (the peculiar characteristics of the word which make it different
from others in the same family)
FORMAL DEFINITION has TWO FORMS:

1. Sentence Definition
2. Extended or Amplified Definition
SUGGESTIONS OF FORMAL DEFINITIONS

1. Do not repeat the term to be defined or any variant form of it in the genus or
differentia.
2. When a definition is being made for a specific purpose, a common practice in reports,
limitations should be clearly stated.
3. In amplified definitions, the use of examples, instances, and illustrations helps clarify the
meaning of the term. However, the single instance or example is not a definition by
itself.
4. Do not repeat the purpose of the definition by using difficult, unfamiliar terminology in
the genus and differentia.
5. If the term being defined is a noun, the definition is also a noun.
The description of the part of the mechanism requires that the purpose of the machine may start
with a statement of its use or purpose; the, this is followed by a detailed description that mentions
size, shape, material, relationship of other parts, and method of attachment.
When we write, our reader may not always understand the meaning of specialized words and
expressions we wish to use.
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AMPLIFIED DEFINITIONS
1. WORD DERIVATION
- The origin of the word sheds light on its present meaning.
2. CONCRETE EXAMPLES AND INSTANCES

- Exemplifications (the use of examples) is a method of amplifying definitions by
giving the readers concrete examples to help them understand the term. The writer
should attempt to select examples that are familiar to a wide range of readers. If an
example is not familiar to the reader, it will need further understanding.
3. EXPLICATION
- The purpose of explication is to give the reader new information about the term
through clarification. Explication can be expanded by the use of word derivation,
comparison and contrast, analogy and example.
4. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

- A comparison-contrast definition shows both the likeness of differences between
similar items.
PATTERNS that can be used in comparison and contrast:

First, compare and contrast two things or ideas point by point. This is
preferred when the comparison and contrast is lengthy and complex.
Second, subject by subject. All the details about the first idea is given
first; then all the details of the second idea are given.
5. ANALYSIS
- Refers to the division of an item into parts. This method aids the reader’s
comprehension by allowing them to grasp the definition bit by bit.
6. CAUSE AND EFFECT

- When you write cause and effect paragraph, you will explain the causes
chronologically or in climactic order. To explore the causes of an effect through
chronological order, you must state the effect first, then examine its causes
consecutively in time.
7. BASIC PRINCIPLE
- State the principle and explain how it is applicable to processes and mechanisms.
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8. LOCATION
- You can expand your sentence definition by mentioning where a thing is located or
found. Description should proceed from the known to the unknown, from the
exterior to the interior.
9. ANALOGY
- Analogy points out a similarity between otherwise dissimilar things. If something is
unknown to readers, they will be aided if you call attention to its similarity, however
slight, to something they do know.
10. ILLUSTRATION
- Drawings and diagrams can be very helpful for reinforcing definitions.
11. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

- The description of mechanism consists of three kinds of information: (1) what it is,
(2) what its purpose or purposes, functions, or uses are, and (3) what it looks like.
What is its over-all description (its brand, general weight, shape, length, width)?
What is it made of (polished steel, iron, etc.) What are its principal parts?
WHERE TO PUT DEFINITIONS

1. INFORMAL DEFINITIONS are placed on the text, or in a footnote. If the terms requiring
definition are not numerous and require brief rather than amplified definition, it is most
convenient to place explanatory words or phrases in the text itself as appositives set off by
commas or parentheses.
2. FORMAL DEFINITIONS and OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS are placed in the text of the report,
in a special section of the Introduction title Definition of Terms, or in the glossary.
If placing definitions in the text would result in too many interruptions in the text, it is good idea to
make a separate list to be put the Glossary. If there are number of terms of highly critical
importance to an understanding of your report, they may be defined in a special section of the
Introduction under Definition of Terms.
WHAT TO DEFINE
1. Define familiar terms to the reader but are used in the report in a different sense.
Example: hostess, slave
2. Define unfamiliar terms but actually name things which are actually familiar to the readers.
Example: Analgesic (pain killer), Anorexia (lack of appetite to eat)
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3. Define terms which are unfamiliar to the reader and which name scientific and technical
things and process with which he is also unfamiliar.
Example: mean (average), significant factor (important contributing or casual factor)
MILLS AND WALTER CALSSIFIES WORDS INTO THE FOLLOWING

CATEGORIES:
1. Familiar words for familiar things. The aim of writing is to convey a message. This message
must be understood by the reader in the same way the writer would want hi. When the
writer and the reader hold the same meaning for the word used, we can say that
communication has happened.
2. Familiar words for unfamiliar things.
3. Unfamiliar words for familiar things.
4. Unfamiliar words for unfamiliar things. There are times when the technical terms need to
be learned by those in the profession and those that are technical for their information and
enrichment.
DEFINING ABSTRACT CONCEPTS ( such as beauty, truth, justice, loyalty, love) is more
difficult than defining concrete objects. Often such concepts cannot be adequately defined
in one-sentence objects. Definitions can be expanded by giving an example, by stating the
main characteristics of the object or concept.
Description of a Mechanism
 Mechanism is any system of parts that operates in a definable way. It is an assembly of movable
part fixed with respect to frame of reference and designed to produce an effect. It is designed to
transmit power greatly in excess of that required to overcome the frictional and dynamic
requirements of the mechanism itself or to produce a desired relative movement of its parts.
 Mechanism may be simple or complex, small or large.
o a simple mechanism has three main parts;
o a complex one has more than four main parts
 Mechanism may be designed primarily (1) to transmit power greatly in excess of that required to
overcome the frictional and dynamic requirements of the mechanism itself, or (2) to produce a
desired relative movement of its parts.
Three fundamental divisions of the description of a mechanism:
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 The introduction- provides an overview of the mechanism. Includes the definitions,

purposes, overall description, or divisions into components/ functions of a mechanism
to be described.
a. The reader will need to know: (1) what the mechanism is or its description, (2)
what its main use or purpose is, and (3) what it looks like.
b. The visual image created by words should be general not detailed. this general
image can be achieved in two ways: (1) describe the general appearance of the
device, and (2) compare it with something which is familiar to the reader.
c. Overall description of the mechanism in the Introduction – this statement serves
two purposes: (1) to give the reader a general understanding of what the
mechanism is, and (2) to indicate the organization of the discussion that is to
follow.
d. The parts that are taken up are determined by the physical arrangement of their
function.
 The part-b-part description and the conclusion- begin with the description of the first
major part.
a. Divide it into subparts
b. Describe in detail means giving careful attention to the following aspects of the
mechanism such as the shape, size, and relationship to the other parts, methods
of attachment, material, finish. This aspects need not to be followed at all
because attention is given to them according to the reader and the subject.
c. The mechanism as a whole progressively broken down into smaller and smaller
units until common sense says it is time to stop. Then each of these small units is
described in detail.
“Description of mechanism is not a type of report it is a special technique in technical

writing.”
 Conclusion of the Description - redefinition of the mechanism(its purpose or use), and

a restatement of the main parts, a summary of the special points from the description
of the mechanism.
- Last function of the description is to let the reader know how it works, or how it is used, if
this hasn’t been done in the general introduction, emphasis should naturally fall upon the
action of the parts in relation to one another.
STYLE – painstaking attention to detail can ensure accuracy of a description. You can put what
you have said in the form of a sketch or drawing being guided by the words you have written.
Usually the entire description is in the present tense.
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1. Combination of sentences in the active and passive voices is ideal.

a. Active voice is best when the following conditions are present: (1) performed by a
single person, (2) the information is intended as general rather than as a guide for
immediate action, (c) the reader knows little about the process.
2. The present tense form the verb is used in the description.
3. The process description follows a natural order that is starting at the beginning of the
process and continuing step by step to the end.
4. Try to use sequencers such as then, next, after this. At the beginning of the description, use
first, firstly, to begin with, initially. In the middle steps, use second(ly), third(ly), next, then,
subsequently, after this, before this, at the same time. At the end, use lastly, finally.
SEQUENCERS- are placed at or near the beginning of a sentence.

- it works as a signpost for the reader to give advance warning of the need to recognize
relationships
- it is needed where the writer wants to highlight the steps of the process, and when the
process is not described in the order they naturally occur
Description of a Process
 Is a series of steps aimed to achieve some results to get something done. It can mechanical
where the operator is seen or natural where the human operator is not seen.
 The description of the process requires (1) be adapted to the needs of the reader, (2) the
organizational of the description be simple and chronological and include the discussion of
equipment and materials, (3) illustration of how the tool is held or how one step leads to
the next can add clarity to the text.
 The explanation of a process is addressed to readers who may not perform the process but
wish to understand it so that they can judge its reliability, practicality, or efficiency.
 Introduction- comprehensive answer to the question.

o What is the process?
o Who performs this process?
o Why is this process performed?
o What are the chief steps in the process?
o From the point of view is this process going to be considered in this discussion?
o Why is this process being described?
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 Organization- in chronological order. The individual steps should be divide into substeps.
The description is essentially a miniature of the description of the process as a whole.
 Conclusion- not always necessary to write a formal conclusion. Whether one is desirable,
depends, of course, on whether it will help the reader.
o Fixing the chief steps in mind.
o Recalling special points about equipment or materials.
o Analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of the process.
o Noting how this process is related to other processes or other work that is done, or
reported on.
“The writer must analyze his own report and his intended reader to decide whether a
conclusion is necessary”
CLASIFICATION AND PARTITIONING
CLASSIFICATION
- Act of locating a specimen of the different kinds of objects which possesses a given
characteristics. It permits clear, systematic information.
- Operate like a filing system that sort out items, objects, or ideas according to a basis or
governing principle.
- Divides a unit into parts, steps, or aspects
- To classify any group formally and completely involves considering every representative of
the group and breaking down classes into sub classes and so on until the ultimate discussion
is done.
CERTAIN TERMS USED IN CLASSIFICATION

 GENUS AND SPECIES – A genus is a class or family; a species is a subdivision with a class.
 Species can refer to the individual members of the family.
 LOGICAL DIVISION - is concerned with arranging a collection of facts or ideas in order to
discuss them.
MILLS AND WALTER (1968) give RULES TO FOLLOW WHEN A

WRITER PRESENTS A CLASSIFICATION:
1. Make clear what is being classified by giving a formal definition of the subject.
2. State a significant useful basis or guiding principle for the classification. The basis should
point to a significant distinction among the members of a class such as qualities or
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properties. State the basis for classification before naming the members of a class so the
reader will understand you. Stick to the basis chosen.
3. Stick to the basis at a time in listing members of a class. Failure to do so will result to
mixed classifications. Use proper species name and use proper terms.
4. Name all the species according to a given basis. Tell the reader what the limitations are
so that he will not expect more than what you will present. Make clear what is being
classified and for what purpose.
5. The species of classification must be mutually exclusive. There should be no overlapping.
This means that a part has a place in only one division. Overlapping is cause by shifting
the basis of classification or wrong choice of words.
6. Help your reader understand the distinction between species by defining them,
describing them, or illustrating them, or use all these three.
7. In a sub- classification, discuss characteristics peculiar to that one sub-classification only.
Shape is not a useful distinguishing characteristics.
PARTITIONING
- Partitioning is a method of analysis which divides a unit into part, steps, or aspects..
It breaks down a singular item into parts or an abstract topic into divisions.
- The parts do not necessarily have anything in common except that they belong to
the same unit.
MILL AND WALTER (1968) STATED RULES ON THE USE OF

PARTITIONING as a method of analysis. They must be followed when writing an article
using this technique.
1. Any partitioning of a subject for discussion should be made on a consistent point of view
or basis, and this basis should be adhered throughout the discussion.
2. Each part in the division is distinctly a separate part. The parts must be mutually
exclusive. This means that each part or division can exist without the other divisions.
3. The partitioning must be complete or its limitations clearly explained. The

incompleteness of parts may be justified by a phrase.
4. Sub-partitioning a part should be conducted according to a principle or a point of view

exclusively pertinent to the part. Follow logical and effective principles in carrying out
such divisions. Divisions should be stated in parallel form.
Cause and Effect
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- Discusses the reason why something is true or the result of some peculiar event or state of
mind.
- May include other methods of development, like analysis, but the overall structure of the
written work will be based on the relationship of causes and effects.
Comparison and Contrast

- Discussion of the subject in relation to some other subjects, showing both similarities and
differences as the article goes along. It may conclude with a value judgment based on the
comparison.
Analogy
- one term is discussed according to terms which apply to the other
- expression of relationship between two different things, but between two things which
have more than one likeness
- wide range in length , from simple illustration to a long sustained development; in content,
from subject close to one to be explained to the greatly different, application from only a
relationship or two, to a detailed point by point comparison. But whatever its size, its
nature, or its use, the analogy has its purpose, clearness and its value as a clarifying device
makes it worthy of study.
Employing Persuasion
- The reader must convince that the idea presented in the communication is well-reasoned
and that the recommendation given is the best action to take.
Giving Instructions
- To enable the reader to perform a particular operation. The technical writer who is giving
the instructions expects the reader to act. Each step is presented and explained to the
reader who should carry out to perform the operation.
Interpretation
- Art of establishing a meaningful pattern of relationships among a group of facts.
- The process of interpretation is to decide what the purpose of the interpretation is
o Six major elements in a clear interpretation:
 Acquiring a thorough grasp of all available information
 Stating the problem in concise form.
 Defining unfamiliar terms.
 Distinguishing between primary problem and subordinate problem.
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Distinguishing between what is already known and what remains to be found out
or decided.
 Giving background information.
o How was the evidence obtained
 Interpretation can be no better than the data on which it is based.
 Second major interpretation is the provision of any necessary explanation about
how the data were obtained or of a statement of their probable reliability.
 The information should be enough about the data so that he can make his own
interpretation if he wishes.
o Organization of the Main Part of the Interpretation
 The interpreter must explain the significance of his evidence and state conclusion.
 Three major factors that may be considered in stating and organizing
major data:
o The problem in concise form
o The subordinate or standards of judgment
o Possible explanations or possible choices
 The term judgment maybe new but the idea is familiar.
Divisions of the report

- Reports are read by people in various positions and from different points of view.
- Busy executives are interested only in the highlights of the investigation, a short concise
statement of the problem, the conclusion arrived at, and the recommendations.
- The engineer, however, may require detailed information. He may wish to know how the
tests were conducted, the instruments used, and the analysis of data. To suit the needs of
all it has been found best to divide and arrange the report as follows:
FOREWORD
- Foreword or introduction defines the subject, scope, and purpose of the report. It may
explain why the work was undertaken and upon whose authorization. Reference to other
reports on the subject is desirable.
CONCLUSION
- The conclusion of a report summarizes the results of the test made and records discoveries.
The foreword states the problem and the conclusion interprets the results. This
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interpretation should be written that the less specialized reader will have no difficulty in
comprehending it.
RECOMMENDATIONS
- Should be given emphasis by simple, forceful expression by being set off on separate lines
or paragraphs as in the following:
“We therefore, recommend that: / We also recommend that:”
The recommendations are placed under a separate heading: “RECOMMENDATION
DISCUSSION
- Body of the report and it contains the data collected during the investigation. The data are
tabulated or charted and are explained and interpreted. whenever possible it is advisable to
put the numerical test results under a separate heading: “RESULTS OF TEST”
TYPES OF TECHNICAL REPORT

1. REPORT LAYOUT - companies and organizations have agreed that attractive format is
necessary.
2. FORMAL REPORT LAYOUT – this report contains all the part: cover page, title page, letter of
transmittal, table of contents, list of figures, abstract, headings, quotations, and listing,
equations and formulas.
3. INFORMAL REPORT FORMAT- short reports. No cover page…
4. THE MEMORANDUM REPORT – least formal of all reports. Includes: To, From, subject,
dateline, complimentary close or signature, the headings are type at the top of the page.
5. LETTER REPORT – it vary according to its purpose, the type of reader and the subject being
discussed.
6. BULLETINS – used for both internal and external communications. Commonly used to inform
their readers about personnel changes and policies.
7. BOOKLETS – they serve to inform. They are not longer than 3 pages, in fact, they are
practically of book length. Resembling books.
8. SHORT REPORTS – deals with topic which is limited in scope.
9. ABSTRACT – is to give the reader enough information for him to decide whether or not to
read the whole report.
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a. Descriptive abstract – this tells what things are taken up in the report itself but not
mentioning what the reports say about these things. This abstract is short and easy
to write but contains little information.
b. Informational Abstract – it provides more information. Thus, it is longer and harder

to write.
10. ORAL REPORTS - the ability to communicate technical information orally is just as important
as the ability to write well. Oral presentations are faster, easier, and more suited to
immediate feedback and clarification.
Giving a formal oral presentation
a. Analyze your audience, and limit your topic accordingly.
b. Determine your primary purpose.
c. Select effective supporting information
d. Choose an appropriate pattern of organization
e. Prepare an outline.
f. Select appropriate visual aids.
g. Prepare a suitable introduction
h. Prepare a closing summary
WORK ON THE FOLLOWING AS YOU PRACTICE YOUR ORAL PRESENTATION:

a) Devise ways of repeating your important points without being too repetitive.
Try to vary your wording.
b) Create smooth transitions between sections. Insert a phrase or two to act as
bridge.
c) Familiarize yourself with the equipment you will be using.
d) Prepare yourself with questions.
e) Develop your own speaking style
f) If you are going to read in a manuscript, work on giving it a lively intonation.
11. CONFERENCES
12. PROPOSAL – a written offer to solve a technical problem in a particular way under a specified
plan of management for a certain sum of money. In other words it is a report which aims to
convince customers that the company or person presenting it is better qualified to give the
product or service.
TYPES OF PROPOSAL
1. SOLICITED PROPOSAL – written in response to a direct invitation to bid;
sometimes called a “ big request”. A “purchase request” or a request for
proposal. They are published in business journals, official government
publications or in the newspaper classified ads.
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2. UNSOLICITED PROPOSAL- This is sent to a prospective customer in the hope that

the excellence of the idea or plan proposed will result in a contract.
13. THE RESEARCH REPORT – presents the findings of an investigation of a problem which
developed from an unresolved conflict or situation.
Introduction
1. background of the study
2. statement of the problem
3. significance of the study
4. scope and delimitation of the study
5. hypothesis
Research Methodology
1. research population
2. instruments used
3. data- gathering procedure
4. statistical statement
Findings of the study
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendation
14. FEASIBILITY STUDY- is a technical proposal although much more detailed than the ordinary
proposal. It offers recommendations.
Feasibility study may have the following parts:
1. objectives of the project
2. analysis of the progress of similar studies conducted elsewhere
3. comparisons of the project with previous ones
4. plans - initials, actual and future
5. schedule of activities
FEASIBILITY COVERS FIVE GENERAL CRITERIA, WHICH ARE:

1. EFFECTIVENESS
2. TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
3. DESIRABILITY
4. AFFORDABILITY
5. PREFERABILITY
15. RECOMMENDATION REPORTS

- Recommendation reports vary widely I their basic characteristics; however, the bulk of the
content of a recommendation report is most often interpretative though it is not
uncommon to find more description than interpretation.
- Recommendations are usually stated near the beginning or near the end or both.
- The function of a recommendation report is to persuade the reader to take a certain course
of action.
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If your superior tells you to write a recommendation report about something, you must start by
analyzing the problem, decide on the proper course of action or what decision is best justified by
the evidence, and make a forthright recommendation.
READER ANALYSIS AND STYLE

There are TWO SITUATIONS TO BE CONSIDERED:
1. you are given definite instructions to prepare a recommendation report, and
2. you volunteer a recommendation
When you expect opposition to recommendations, you should give a good deal of thought to
the tone of your report and to methods of emphasizing the points which clarify the logic of the
situation.
The probable opposition first, is to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
preferred recommendation Be careful to state all its advantages fairly. Second, present the
advantages and disadvantages of the course of action. Third, give a summary and recommendation.
This approach provides emphasis through relative position- the value of the preferred action being
shown after the weaknesses of the alternative have been explained.
When you volunteer a recommendation, you ought to observe two cautions: (1) be sure
that your recommendation is sound and that you have shown clearly that it is sound. (2) Be careful
not to give the impression that you are trying to force your ideas on something.
WHEN YOU HAVE A RECOMMENDATION TO MAKE:

1. you must determine precisely what course of action to take,
2. estimate your reader’s probable attitude toward your recommendations,
3. prepare report that will be effectively organized to make clear the logic of your
recommendations to the specific reader or readers you expect to have.
WHERE TO PUT RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendation usually appear at the end of a recommendation report.
If the report is long and if an introductory summary is used, they appear at the beginning as well,
immediately after the statement of the problem.
Those at the end are stated formally, whereas those at the beginning enable the reader to
find the major results at once.
SOME ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT REPORTS:
 Reports and proposals depend on research. The research maybe simple or complicated.
Care in planning, proposing, and researching reports is needed to produce reliable data.
VARIETES OF REPORTS/DEFINITIONS
 Many documents are called reports. A report is either a long document that contains
numerical data, or one-and two-page memos only.
 Reports supply the information that people in organization need in planning and solving
problems.
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 Reports are information reports if they collect for the reader, analytical reports if they
interpret data without recommending action, and recommendation reports if they
recommend action or solution.
INFORMATION REPORTS
The following reports are usually information reports:
 Sales Reports list sales figures weekly or monthly.
 Quarterly Reports document a factory’s productivity and profits for the quarter.
ANALYTICAL REPORTS
 ANNUAL REPORTS record an organization’s achievement during the past year and provide
financial data.
 AUDIT REPORTS document the facts revealed in audit and give an interpretation of them.
 MAKE-GOOD or PAY-BACK REPORTS calculate at which point a new capital investment will
pay off.
INFORMATION/ANALYTICAL/RECOMMENDATION REPORTS
 ACCIDENT REPORTS list accidents, their nature and causes, and can recommend measures
to make conditions safer.
 CREDIT REPORTS summarize an applicant’s earnings and other credit obligations and
evaluate his or her collateral and credit standing.
 COMMITTEE REPORTS document a committee’s work for a period of time.
 PROGRESS REPORTS record the extent of work done and the work remaining on a project.
 TRIP REPORTS share what the author learned during the trip.
 CLOSURE REPORTS are documented researches that are not economically or technically
feasible for new products under the current conditions.
RECOMMENDATION REPORTS
 SCOUTING REPORTS point out the strengths and weaknesses of an applicant or an opposing
team and recommend whether to bid for the applicant or recommend strategies for
defeating the opponent.
 FEASIBILITY REPORTS evaluate two or more options and recommend which the organization
should choose.
 JUSTIFICATION REPORTS justify the need for a building, an advertisement, a reorganization,
or a change in procedure.
 PROBLEM-SOLVING REPORTS identify the problems and recommend solutions.
FIVE BASIC STEPS IN WRITING ANY REPORTS:

1. Define the problem.
2. Gather the necessary data and information.
3. Interpret the data.
4. Organize the information.
5. Write the report.
DEFINING THE REPORT PROBLEMS
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- Good report problems come from real problems: reality departs from the ideal. When you
write a report as part of your job, the topic may be defined for you.
- A good report problem in business or administration meets the following criteria:

1. The problem is
 Real
 Important enough to be worth solving
 Narrow but challenging
 Possible to solve with the time and resources available
 Something you’re interested in
2. The audience for the report is

 Real
 Able to implement the recommended action
 One you can get information about
3. The data, evidence, and facts are

 Sufficient to document the severity of the problem
 Sufficient to prove that the recommendation will solve the problem
 Available to you
 Comprehensive to you
 PROPOSALS FOR CLASS RESEARCH PROJECT
SECTIONS OF A PROPOSAL FOR A STUDENT REPORT

1. In your first paragraph, summarize in a sentence or two the topic and purpose of your
report.
2. Problem. What is wrong? Why is there need to solve it? Is there a background to this
problem?
3. Feasibility. Are you sure that a solution can be found during the semester? How do you
know?
4. Audience. Who in the organization can carry out your recommendation? Who else might be
asked to evaluate your report? Who would be affected by your recommendations? Will
anyone in the organization be a gatekeeper to determine whether your report will reach
decision makers?
FOR YOUR AUDIENCE:

o What is the audience’s primary concern?
o How will the audience view advantages that your proposal bring? What
objections, if any, will the reader raise?
o Is the audience interested in the topic of your report?
o To what extent is the audience’s knowledge about the topic of your report.
35
5. Topics to Investigate. Prepare the questions and sub questions you will answer in your
report, the topics or concepts you will define, the aspects of the problem you will deal with.
Indicate to what extent you will examine each of the aspects you plan to discuss. Give
reasons for choosing to discuss some problems and not others.
6. Methods /Procedure. How will you secure answers to your questions? Whom will you
interview or survey? What publications will you use?
7. Qualifications/Facilities/Resources. Are you knowledgeable and skilled to be able to conduct

this study? Do you have enough access to the organization and to any equipment you will
need to conduct your research.
8. Work Schedule. Calculate both the total time your research will take and the date expected
to finish it.
9. Call to action. Indicate that you are open to any improvement of the research plan
suggested.
BUSINESS LETTERS
GOOD BUSINESS LETTER has the following qualities
1. creates favorable impression
2. Appeals to the reader’s point of view
3. Correct in every detail
4. Courteous, friendly and sincere
5. promotes goodwill
6. coherent and well-prepared
7. employs highly the business jargons
STATIONARY
Good taste rather than economy should be considered. The stationary should be of the best
quality that the user could afford since the stationary on which a letter is written enhances the
prestige of the writer.
THE SEVEN C’S

1. CLEARNESS – the message must be expressed properly that there is no doubt as to its
meaning. The details of the message should be accurate and straight forward.
2. CONCISENESS – The short compact message in which the writer avoids superfluous words
and phrases is welcome. The business message must be limited to the essentials.
3. CONCRETENESS – This is achieved by using specific instead of general terms. The details
must be sharp and definite.
4. COMPLETENESS
5. CORRECTNESS
6. CONSIDERATION – the letter should emphasize the “you” attitude and should make the
reader feel that the writers is as much interested in his costumers as he is in himself.
36
7. COURTESY – produces a pleasant- feeling note.
PARTS OF THE BUSINESS LETTER

BASIC PARTS
1. Heading or Letterhead
Heading- address of the writer which includes the street address, town, province, country
and zip code which are typed on the top lines.
Letterhead – this contains the name of the firm, a statement of its business its address and
other less essential parts such as telephone number, fax number, cell phone and web site.
2. Date Line – is typed two to three spaces below the last line of the letterhead.
3. Inside Address – this tells to whom the letter is written whether it is a person, a firm or an
organization.
4. Salutation – this serves as the greeting for the addressee.
5. Body – this contains the message of the letter.
6. Complimentary Close – this is typed two spaces below the last line of the body.
7. Signature block – The writer’s name is typed four to five spaces below the complimentary
close.
8. Reference Initials – These are the initials of the typist or the stenographer, which are typed
in the lower corner of the letter.
*Note a business letter with missing basic parts is a wrong letter.
OPTIONAL PARTS
1. Attention Line 4. CC Notation
2. Subject Line 5. BCC Notation
3. Enclosure Notation 6. Mailing Notation
*Note: Optional parts may or may not be included in the letter.

TABLES, PHOTOGRAPHS, DRAWINGS, and CURVES
- Visual aids in reports follow textual presentation of data. The visual aids should appear after
its first mention in the text.
- Its first mention may come in the form of an introduction to the table or figure or a
summary of the significant findings presented in the table of figure.
- Tables are numbered separately from the figures. They are numbered consecutively in the
paper.
- Data in tables and figures should support findings of the study.
- Visual aids have captions which tell the main information that supports the hypothesis or
denies it.
GENERAL DATA REQUIRED
- Authorization of the work.

- Description of apparatus with photographs or sketches signed and dated.
37
- Conditions and method of test.

- Description and illustration of mechanism under test.
- Sample computations in design reports if these are involved.
- Results and analysis of test including curves and tabulated data.
ABBREVIATIONS IN TABLE COLUMNS SHOULD NOT BE USED IN CAPTIONS
CAPTIONS
- Place the caption above the table. You must choose the format you will use on your
captions: inverted pyramid, block style, indented style.
- CAPTIONS IN INVERTED SYTLE
 Generally use uppercase and lowercase letters, though all uppercase letters may
be used. Capitalize thw first word, the last word, and all the principal words, with
th exception of articles (a, an, the), coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for,
yet, so) prepositions (to, at, before between)and the word to in an infinitive
(when the words fall in the middle of the title)
 The caption has no end punctuations. It is centered between left and right
margins.
 Captions are place above the Tables and below Figures. The caption of a Table is
separated from the body of the table by double single horizontal lines separated
by only a fraction of the normal space, extending the width of the table and
placed a single space below the last line of the caption.
NUMBERING
- Tables are numbered consecutively in the report. They are usually numbered with Arabic
numbers, not Roman numerals.
COLUMNS AND ROWS

- Should have appropriate descriptive headings (called box headings) when they are enclosed
by vertical and horizontal rules.
o Capitalize the first word of table headings and any other word that needs
capitalization (proper nouns). All other words should be in lower case. Headings do
not take end punctuation.
o You may use abbreviations, provided their meaning is obvious, to create well-
proportioned tables.
38
o When a table consist of numerous columns or when frequent reference be made to

specific columns from left to right. Enclose each column number in parentheses: (1),
(2), (3) … Then in the text you may refer to columns by number.
FOOTNOTES FOR TABLES

- Tables and figures may require footnotes to reveal the source of the data or give
explanatory information. Each table should have an independent series f footnotes,
regardless of whether the table is located in the text or in separate section. Footnotes
should be place at the end of the table, even if the paper contains endnotes or footnotes.
INTERNAL FORMAT
- A table begins with a table number and its caption placed above the table.
- A table is separated from textual material by three spaces above and below.
o MARGINS – There should be two inches margin on the left side, one inch at the
bottom and right sides.
o PAGINATION – The page number is placed in its normal position, even if the table is
broadside on the page.
WRITING AN EFFECTIVE RESUME
- A resume informs the employer what you know and what you have done; but importantly,
it is a way to show what you can do. After all, you are going to get a job. Which job is the
question.
- Employers look for people who can do the job. To learn who to hire, they may use resumes,
application forms, written tests, performance tests, medical examinations, and interviews.
CREATING EFFECTIVE RESUMES AND APPLICATION FORMS
- Written evidence of your qualifications are resumes and application forms. When making
these two, you need two different kinds of information:
o Facts about yourself and facts about the job you want.
With this information in hand, you can present the facts about yourself in terms of the job.
You have more freedom with a resume – you can put your best points first and avoid
blanks. But, even on application forms you can describe your qualifications in terms of the
job’s duties.
KNOW THYSELF
39
Begin with gathering data about yourself. Some items appear on every resume or application form,
including the following:
 Present address and phone number or e-mail – if you are seldom home during business
hours, try to obtain an answering machine. Leave a message that would reflect well on you.
This is not the time for jokes! As an alternative, you may give the phone number of a friend
or relative who will take messages for you.
 Job applied for or career goal.
 Experience (paid or volunteer) – date of employment, name and full address of the
employer, job title, starting and finishing salary, and reason for leaving (moving, returning
to school, and seeking a better position are among the readily accepted reasons).
 Education - the school’s name, its location, the years you attended it, the diploma or
certificate you earned, and the course of studies you pursued.
 Other qualifications – hobbies, organizations you belong to, honors you have received, and
leadership positions you have held.
 Office machines, tools and equipment you have used and skills that you possess.
 Skills and achievements – more than duties and responsibilities. What you have
accomplished? What are your remarkable strengths? These are most likely related to your
work experience but could be related to your education or outside interests.
Other information, such as your ID number, is often asked for an application form but is rarely
presented on resumes. Application forms might also ask for a record of past addresses and for
information that you would reveal reluctantly, such as a record of convictions. If asked for such
information, you must be honest. Honesty does not, however require that you reveal disabilities
that do not affect your overall qualifications for a job.
KNOW THY JOB
o Know more about the jobs you are applying for.

o For example, the salary scale (so you can make their top your bottom), education
and experience usually required, hours and shifts usually worked. Also know the job
specifications (so that you can describe your experience in terms of those duties).
Study the job description. Some job announcement, especially those issued by a
government, even have a checklist that assigns a numerical weight to different
qualifications so that you can be certain as to which is the most important; looking
at such announcements will give you an idea of what employers look for even if
you do not wish to apply for a government job. If the announcement or
advertisement is vague, call the employer for clarification.
40
 Once you have gathered the information you need, you can prepare a
resume. You can prepare more than one master resume if you are looking for
different kinds of jobs. Otherwise, your resume will not fir the job you seek.
TWO KINDS OF RESUME

Basically, you can either describe your most recent job first and work backwards (reverse
chronology) or group similar skills together. No matter which formats you use, follow the advice
below:
o USE SPECIFICS – A vague description of your duties will make only a vague impression.
o IDENTIFY ACCOMPLISHMENTS – If you were the leader of a project, improved productivity,
reduced costs, increased membership, or achieved some other goal.
o USE ACTION VERBS – Combine the specifics and the accomplishments with action verbs, for
example, supervised staff of 10; increased sales by 35 percent in two years; reduced
maintenance costs; set new standard in assembling parts of refrigerators without a flaw.
Note: Reverse Chronology is the easiest method to use, but the least effective because it makes
when you did something more important that what you can do. It is a format if you have gaps in
your work experience, if the job you seek is very different from the job you currently hold, or if you
are just entering the job market. Use such resume when you have climbed up a clearly defined
career ladder and want to move up a step further.
Resumes that do not start from the most recent, may be called functional, analytical, skill
oriented, creative, or some other name.
Make a functional resume by determining the skills the employer wants. Again, study the
job description for this information. Then, review your experience and education to see when you
showed the ability sought for. Then write the resume itself, putting first the information that
relates most obviously to the job.
APPEARANCE COUNTS
o Type your resume, using a standard typeface, or computerize it. (Printed resumes are
becoming more common, but employers do not indicate a preference for them).
o Use two pages at the most.
o Leave all embarrassing or negative information off the resume – but be ready to deal with it
positively at the interview.
o Proofread the master copy carefully.
41
o Ask someone else and a third person to proofread the master copy carefully.
o Use the best quality photocopying machine and good white or off-white paper.
THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION APPEARS ON ALMOST EVERY RESUME
o Name
o Phone number(s) at which you can reached or receive messages.
o Address
o Job or career applied for.
o References – often just a statement that references are available is enough. If your
references are likely to be known by the person who reads the resume, however, their
names are worth listing.
o Experience
o education
o Special talents
o Personal information – height, weight, marital status, physical condition. Although this
information often appears, it is not important to recruiters. If some of this information is
directly job related – the height is important to an employer.
FIT YOURSELF TO A FORM

o The forms help large organizations to find information more quickly if it always
appears in the same place all the time. However, creating a resume before filling out
an application form benefits you when you send a letter asking about a position.
Also, it spotlights your qualifications and serves as ready reference if you must fill
out an application from quickly. Application forms are just like resumes in disguise.
No matter how rigid the forms appear to be, you can still use them to show why you
are the person fit for the job.
General advice on completing application forms:
- Request two copies of the form. If only one is provided photocopy it before you
make a mark on it. You will need more than one copy to prepare rough drafts.
- Read the whole form before you start completing it.
- Prepare a master copy if the same form is used by several divisions within the same
company or organization. Do not put the specific job applied for, date, and signature
on the master copy. Fill in the information on the photocopies as you submit them.
- Type or computerize the form if possible.
42
- Leave no blanks, enter n/a (for not applicable) when the information requested does
not apply to you; this tells people checking the form that you did not simply skip the
question.
- Carry a resume and a copy of other frequently asked information (such as previous
addresses) with you when you visit potential employers in case you fill out an
application on the spot.
When all your choices are complete, you will have the information about yourself that you
need to evaluate your potential job satisfaction in anew field or in an old one. You should
have a good start on sorting out the skills you wish to emphasize in your resume.
JOB INTERVIEWS
 An interview is like a conversation with several features: A specific purpose, a
structural pattern - time, place, length, participants, and subject matter planned in
advance and one group or participant controls the proceedings and contributes
mainly questions – the other contributes mainly answers.
 The participants adopt roles and are not equal partners. If you take part in an
interview – whether as an interviewer or interviewee – don’t expect to feel at ease.
After all, the setting in unnatural. But by practicing and adopting various strategies
you can cope with an interview.
 As to interviews in the workplace, bosses or personnel managers conduct
interviews; to monitor employees’ progress (appraisal interviews); and to deal with
problems (disciplinary interviews). The inequality between the participants consists
of the boss or interviewer in the role of judge, with the power to employ, upgrade,
or fire the interviewee – the person in the witness box.
o RESPONSIBILITIES
 The interviewee has to do him- or herself justice.
 The interviewer (just like the judge) has to do justice, full stop. In case the
interviewer fails to decide correctly, injustice rebounds, not just on the affected
individuals, but on the company as a whole.
PREPARING THE INTERVIEW
 As interviewer, your first job is to carefully phrase the job description and
include the skills, qualifications, and personal qualities you are looking for.
 Consider the candidate’s ability to work in a team or individually, to lead or to
follow, to be creative or to reproduce accurately someone else’s pattern of work.
 Clear ad would means
43
 The effectiveness of the questions depends on the wordings. Sift from the
application forms the inappropriate candidates- underqualified, semi-literate, or
whatever and prepare courtesy letters for these. Some application forms will
indicate clearly a suitable candidate. Invite them for interview.
 Good questions in the application form will give useful information .
 Background information gives work information and relevant skills.
Factual experience as you need to know should be included in the form.
 Foreground information are explanatory topics – the applicant’s
attitudes, outside interests, or irrelevant skills. A driver’s license may
indicate relocation or multi-site work.
FORMS AND STRUCTURE OF THE INTERVIEW

As a matter of courtesy, an interviewee is told in advance what form the interview will take;
its duration; number of interviewers – one, two, a panel; and who the interviewee will be with. This
is a matter of courtesy.
THREE FORMS OF INTERVIEWS ARE: Panel, Two, and one-to-one.
The panel interview is nerve-racking and takes a long time.
Two interviews test the candidate’s possible reaction to pressure in the workplace
by adopting opposing roles, one sympathetic and the other confrontational.
One-to-one interview is preferred because it resembles a conversation rather than a

third-degree.
 THE INTERVIEW ROOM

- Select a comfortable setting. Redirect phone calls and minimize interruptions. Do not
clear your desk totally or else it appears like an interrogation room.
- See to the lightning and seating arrangement. The light should not be directly trained
into the interviewee’s face.
- Talking across a desk or table builds barrier instead of a channel for conveying ideas
and observing body language.
 THE INTERVIEWER’S BEHAVIOR

- Absorb and analyze the information to gain insight and learn from the interviewee’s
tone of voice, body language, and from the eye contact and facial expression.
- Listen actively, and encourage him or her to continue. Your speech must be clear,
informal, and open for a corresponding speech pattern from the interviewee.
maintain eye contact but do not glare.
44
- Set in a relaxed position, but do not slouch so as to put the interviewee on his guard.
Avoid uninviting gestures such as covering your mouth or frowning. Show all signs of
attentiveness – nodding your head, murmuring ‘mmm’ or ‘I see’ – and this will
encourage free and expansive talk from your interviewee.
- A pause in conversation is a problem in interviews.
- Let the interviewee do much of the talking.
- The interviewers may take note, but explain that you have to pause to jot down some
notes. Resume eye contact and continue the conversation.
- The effective interviewer has to deal with his prejudices. Some have predispositions –
low regard for women, etc.
DANGER AREAS TO BE MINDFUL OF:
o Too much emphasis on first impressions.
o Not considering into account the built-in tension and artificiality you will
assume that a nervous and reticent candidate will behave the same way once
employed.
 THE INTERVIEW
o An interview has three parts: welcoming the interviewee, questioning the
interviewee, and concluding the interviewee.
 In welcoming the interviewee, act friendly and in a business-like way. You
are the host and he is the guest. You may question the interviewee about
his trip or the weather to make the candidate feel at ease:
 Tell him/her that everything said in the interview will be
confidential.
 Give him an outline of the topics you will go over.
 Reassure the applicant that he can also ask questions.
 The questions in the interview should be based on the topics you listed as
rough guides. Questions must be flexible. Implications are gathered from
the interviewee’s responses and adjust your questions accordingly.
Open and close questions can be combined. As the interviewer
controls the flow of information, he is careful in switching from one to
the other type. Closed questions require brief answers such as yes or
no. Open questions are more demanding.
 CONCLUDINGTHE INTERVIEW
o The interviewee is asked if s/he has questions to ask. The type of questions s/he
asks will affect evaluation of the interviewee.
 THE INTERVIEWEE
45
o The time before the interview is a nerve-racking, adrenalin-pumping period.

Adopt a positive attitude. The best strategy is value yourself.
o Do not take the role of the victim. It is a dialogue and you are an active
participant. The company needs you as much as you need it.
o You weight your possible future with your company.
 PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW

o Know as much about the position as possible.
o For the best impression, present yourself positively.
o Consider prejudices and dislikes of the interviewer when you answer questions.
o Find out what the company’s priorities are.
o Match skills with job description.
o How to explain weaknesses:
 Look at weak points: long- time promotion; frequent job change;
unemployment.
 Prepare answers. Rehearse; write down.
 THE INTERVIEW
- On the day of the interview, have plenty of time to get ready, and travel to the
venue. You also need to relax. A last- minute rush means you will arrive flustered.
- If you feel very nervous, try various relaxation exercises. Do voice and body warm-
up exercises.
- For support have an encouraging friend accompany you and to chat you.
- Think in advance what you will do when the interview is over. Whether feeling high
or low, you will need an activity to help you through the post-interview period.
- Before you speak you will be seen. The style of dress you choose depends on the
company and the position you are applying for, your appearance should indicate
that you know what is acceptable dress within the company.
- If you are in doubt about how to dress, phone the office secretary to ask.
- Make sure that your outfit is comfortable to wear, and that it suits you.
- Finally, take care not to walk into the interview room laden with all your
belongings.
THE INTERVIEWEE”S BEHAVIOR

 THE GREETING – Greet the interviewer by name. Your handshake should be firm. Stand with
good posture, smile, and meet the interviewer’s eyes. More jobs are lost from lack of eye
contact than from the lack of experience or qualifications.
46
 BE FRIENDLY WITHOUR BEING FAMILIAR – Don’t slap the interviewer at the back.
 BODY LANGUAGE – If the interviewer has not decided in advance where you should sit,
don’t sit on the low soft armchair. It invites a submissive, slouching posture which you
cannot easily control your body language. If the chair has arms, don’t put your elbows on
them. You are forcing yourself into a tense, unattractive posture. Sit upright, with your back
firmly supported by chair.
o As for body language, an ‘open’ posture with your back straight, and arms and legs
uncrossed, is better than a ‘closed’ posture – back hunched, arms and legs tightly
crossed.
o Make sure your body language does not give you away. Don’t turn away from the
interviewer, or wrap your arms around your chest in self-protection. Don’t look out
of the window, giving the interviewer the impression that you are inattentive rather
than that you are thinking seriously.
 INTERVIEWERS TOLERATE NERVOUSNESS, but if you are feeling really jittery, focus on
controlling your breathing. If you do not know what to do with your hands, clasp them in
your lap. Avoid small repetitive movements: your nervousness will show and distract the
interviewer if you keep moving your foot, smoothing your hair, or nibbling your fingernails.
 ESTABLISHING RAPPORT. Interviewing is based on taking turns: the better you are at
listening, the better are your responses. Listen carefully, and pause when answering to note
his or her responses. Recognize who is in charge. So, wait for the interviewer to finish
before you speak. And answer questions directly; don’t pretend you did not hear the
interviewer said, and don’t answer a question not asked.
o You might sense that you have no rapport. Don’t simply say you have encountered
with an awful interviewer. Perhaps it is you that is at fault. Consider the following
points.
 Are you talking too much? Pause more often and give short answers.
 Are your answers so short? Show the interviewer, by means of nods and
gestures, that you are interested in the questions and comments.
 Respond with enthusiasm, speak clearly, and use facial expression
expressions as a visual aid to emphasize your meaning.
o TAKING QUESTIONS
 Common questions
 Why did you apply for this job?
 What makes you want to work for this company/organization?
 What do you think has been your outstanding achievement in your
career so far?
47
 Give me an assessment of your strengths and weaknesses – as a

person and in the work you have done.
 Don’t be apologetic.
 Don’t emphasize failures or bad luck. For the unpleasant in the past,
point out the positive side of what at first glance seems negative.
 don’t exaggerate your present salary in the hope that this inflated
figure will be matched or bettered by your prospective employer. An
experienced interviewer will probably be able to estimate your
income fairly accurately, and will know when you are misleading him.
Prepared by:
Jollee Mae L. Latigay, LPT
48

Technical Report Writing

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TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING:

- The primary goal of any technical communication is to accurately and adequately

NATURE OF TECHNICAL WRITING

CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL WRITING

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TECHNICAL WRITING

HOW CAN YOU WRITE TO BE UNDERSTOOD? HERE ARE A FEW

a. Keep your writing short and simple.

c. Know your readers.

4. CORRECT IN SPELLING, PUNCTUATION AND GRAMMAR.

IMPORTANCE OF WRITING SKILLS

PURPOSES OF TECHNICAL WRITING

Purposes of Technical Writing

2. TO ANALYZE EVENTS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

3. TO PERSUADE AND INFLUENCE DECISIONS

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TECHNICAL WRITING (Mills and Walter)

FUNCTIONS OF TECHNICAL WRITING

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

STEPS OF A WRITING ROUTINE

1. PROFILE the audience (readers).

2. ESTABLISH the purpose of your report.

3. COLLECT and screen information.

4. ORGANIZE the report or document.

5. WRITE in appropriate style.

 UNDERSTANDING THE READER

 KNOWING THE PURPOSE OF EACH TECHNICAL REPORT

 KNOWING THE SUBJECT MATTER

 USING CORRECT FORMAT

 ADOPTING ETHICAL STANDARDS

STYLE IN TECHNICAL WRITING

SENTENCE STRUCTURE AND LENGTH

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE AND LENGTH

Other attribute of good technical report writing are:

THE ROLE OF THE TECHNICAL WRITER

HALLMARKS OF AN EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL WRITER

THE WHOLLISTIC GUIDE TO TECHNICAL WRITING

1. statements must not contradict one another,

4. statements must make sense

1. Technical Report 11. Article for a Technical Journal

A. THE SHORT INFORMAL REPORT

B. THE LONG INFORMAL REPORT

C. THE FORMAL REPORT

o THE TITLE PAGE INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING:

3. Subject of the report

11. ARTICLE FOR A TECHNICAL JOURNAL

- GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A MEMO:

14. GRAPHIC AIDS

16. PRINTED ACTION MEMO

17. SURVEY REPORT

18. TRIP REPORT

19. LABORATORY REPORT

DIRECTION OF THE COMMUNICATION

2. LATERAL (to peers)

3. DOWNWARD (to subordinates)

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES OF TECHNICAL WRITING

Each of these special techniques frequently appears in technical writing.

DEFINITIONS IN TECHNICAL REPORTS:

o INFORMAL DEFINITIONS – is a synonym or substitute for a familiar word, phrase or clause

o OPERATIONAL DEFINITION – is a definition of a term or a phrase as it was used in the study