Integrated 2nd

Edition

Organisational

Integrated Organisational Communication

BUSINESS
INTERPERSONAL
2nd

CULTURE
QUALITY
Communication Edition COMMUNICATION I N F O R M A T I O N

Communication is often described as the glue that binds an organisation, enabling

S T R AT E G Y SOLUTIONS-ORIENTED
interaction with its customers, agents and the broader public.

Integrated
Communication flourishes in organisations and is central to their activities and functions:
• as marketing communication, public relations, management communication, corporate
communication, etc.
• in determining and implementing strategy, operations and processes
• in all interaction – interpersonal, mediated, digital and social
• as the foundation of corporate culture.
Integrated Organisational Communication 2nd Edition covers these aspects and addresses the
Organisational V
I
S
Communication
growing need among students and practitioners for a book that takes a broad look at organisations’
communication, and then delves into the detail. This book adopts a multidisciplinary approach
to organisational communication, and while it takes cognisance of individual academic and
I
professional disciplines, it avoids alignment with any one of these. O
Key features: N
• reviews the major communication disciplines
2nd
Campaign

I D E N T I T Y
• focuses on an integrated approach to communication
RESEARCH
• places emphasis on corporate branding, the communication foundations of the brand and
Edition
IMC
alignment of all communication processes with the brand

Management
• adopts the perspective of the practising communication professional in an organisation

CUSTOMER
• relates theory to practice in areas such as research, implementation and campaign planning.
Everyone in the Communication industry should have a copy of this book.
EFFICIENT

FOCUS
About the editors
George Angelopulo holds a DLitt et Phil degree in Communication Science. He is involved in
teaching and research at Unisa in South Africa and CENTRUM Católica in Peru, and has many IMAGE
Trust
years of experience in the private sector. Rachel Barker
George Angelopulo
Editors:
Rachel Barker holds a DLitt et Phil in Communication Science and a Postgraduate Certificate in
Marketing Management. She has more than 20 years’ experience in the private sector. She joined
Unisa in 1997, where she is actively involved in research, and where she teaches both undergraduate

Systems Thinking

STRUCTURE
and postgraduate students in the Department of Communication Science.

Collaboration
www.juta.co.za Editors: George Angelopulo & Rachel Barker

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 Integrated
Organisational
Communication

Second Edition

Editors:
George Angelopulo & Rachel Barker

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Integrated Organisational Communication
2nd Edition

First published 2013

Print edition first published 2013

© Juta and Company Ltd, 2013

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South Africa

ISBN: 978 0 7021 8984 5 (Parent)

ISBN: 978 0 7021 9700 0 (Web PDF)
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system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Subject to any applicable licensing terms and
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of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978.

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 Contents
About the authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Section A: Introduction to organisational communication

  and communication integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1: Communication and the organisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
George Angelopulo and Norlé Thomson
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Organisations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4  Organisational communication and its constituent fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5  The strategic role of communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 2: Communication integration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

George Angelopulo
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2  Defining communication integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3  The evolution of communication integration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4  The principles of communication integration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5  The management of communication integration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.6  The integration of corporate identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Case study: Barloworld. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Section B: Communication of the organisation: Focus areas. . . 73

Chapter 3: Dynamics of organisational communication . . . . . . . . . 75
Rachel Barker
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2  Defining organisational communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3  Communication networks and the direction of communication . . . . . . . 76
3.4  Network roles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.5  Networks as channels of communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.6  Communication characteristics of networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.7  Conflict in the organisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.8  Organisational culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.9  The process of organisational change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

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3.10  Communicating with groups and teams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3.11  Organisational communication technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.12  Globalisation and organisational communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.13 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Case study: Bankseta South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Chapter 4: The role of communication and management

  approaches in the organisational change process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Lizelle van der Walt
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2  A requirement for change in the modern organisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3  Forces of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4  Models of change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.5 Viewing managerial approaches and communication styles as
instruments in organisational change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.6  Defining communication from two different views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.7  Defining communication within the organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.8  Propositions regarding the role of communication in the organisation. . 123
4.9 Managerial and communication approaches in the organisation
during change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.10 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Case study: Challenges and changes in X-PLOR Telecoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Chapter 5: The marketing context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Charmaine du Plessis
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.2  History and definitions of marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3  Marketing perspectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4  The traditional marketing mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.5  Marketing management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Case study: Zoom PEP Generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Chapter 6: Integrated marketing communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Rachel Barker
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.2  Definition of IMC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.3  Development of IMC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

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6.4  Components of IMC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

6.5  Environmental analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.6  The promotional mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.7  The relationship marketing perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.8  A global marketing perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.9  Ethical issues of IMC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.10 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Case study: Cell C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Chapter 7: Public relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Gibson Chauke and Danie du Plessis
7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.2  Public relations in context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.3  Public relations theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.4  Public relations functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.5 Public relations practice in business organisations, government and
non-profit organisations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.6  Corporate social responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.7  Media and public relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.8  Planning a public relations campaign. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7.9 Crisis communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7.10  Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Case study: Pick n Pay under extortionist attack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Chapter 8: Contextualisation of traditional advertising. . . . . . . . . . 258

Janette Hanekom
8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.2 A brief history of advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.3  Defining the nature of advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.4  Classification of advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
8.5 Roles of advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.6 Advertising and its role in the marketing mix and overall
communication strategy of the organisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8.7 Advertising and its role in society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.8 Advertising consumer response theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.9 The ethics of advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.10  Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Case study: Cheeky Kulula ads take on FIFA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Case study: Budget airline takes on FIFA ahead of the World Cup . . . . . . . . . 298
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

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Chapter 9: Advertising management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

Charmaine du Plessis
9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
9.2 The advertising agency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
9.3 Advertising media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.4 Media selection for advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
9.5 Creative roles within the advertising agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.6 The consumer audience and consumer behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
9.7 The consumer decision process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.8 The advertising campaign. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
9.9 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Case study: City Press re-positioned by Chillibush agency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

Chapter 10: Integrated online communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Rachel Barker, Charmaine du Plessis and Janette Hanekom
10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
10.2 Key terminology for integrated online communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
10.3 Contextualising integrated online communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
10.4 The digital divide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
10.5 Online processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
10.6 Push and pull mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
10.7 Information overload. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
10.8 Online marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
10.9 Social media marketing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
10.10 Mobile marketing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
10.11 Online advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
10.12 Online public relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
10.13 Online crisis communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
10.14 Web-based commercial communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
10.15 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Case study: Online marketing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Case study: Online advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Case study: Online public relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Section C: Introduction to organisational communication

  and communication integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Chapter 11: Assessing organisational communication . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Lizelle van der Walt
11.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

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 Contents

11.2  Classification of organisational communication research. . . . . . . . . . . . 398

11.3  The planning of organisational research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
11.4  Research reliability and validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
11.5  Quantitative and qualitative assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
11.6  Applied organisational communication research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
11.7  Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Case study: Attitude and opinion survey: Organisational culture in the South
  African National Defence Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

Chapter 12: Integrated communication measurement . . . . . . . . . . . 425

Danie du Plessis and Norlé Thomson
12.1  Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
12.2  Some integrated communication models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
12.3  Integrated communication research methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
12.4  Integrating traditional and online research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
12.5  Measuring organisational communication integration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
12.6  Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Case study: Barker and Angelopulo’s integrated web-based marketing
  communication model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

Section D: Practical application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

Chapter 13: Integrated communication campaigns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
George Angelopulo
13.1  Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
13.2  Communication campaign – a definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
13.3  The integrated context of communication campaigns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
13.4  Communication campaign objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
13.5  The interactive model of communication campaigns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
13.6  Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Case study: The De Beers Pension Fund. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

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 About the authors

George Angelopulo
Prof George Angelopulo’s area of interest is the relationship between corporate
integration, communication and sustainable competitive advantage. He has published
in peer-reviewed journals, produced standard academic works that are used throughout
southern Africa, edited and authored a number of books, and produced academic
papers for conferences in Africa, Europe, America and Australia, always retaining a
focus on the corporate world. George has worked with organisations that include listed
and unlisted companies, multinationals, NGOs, most of South Africa’s government
departments and a number of parastatals, and has developed marketing diagnostics for
industry. George has undertaken research in Finland, Germany, Great Britain, Italy,
Namibia, the Netherlands, Norway, Peru, South Africa, the USA and Zimbabwe. He
is a member of the MasterCard Africa Knowledge Panel, holds a DLitt et Phil (UJ)
and holds academic positions at the Department of Communication Science at the
University of South Africa (Unisa), and CENTRUM Católica, the business school of
the Pontificia Universidad Cotólica del Perú.

Rachel Barker
Prof Rachel Barker holds a DLitt et Phil at the University of Johannesburg, as well
as a postgraduate certificate in Marketing Management from the University of
Pretoria (cum laude) in 1993. She has more than 20 years’ experience in governmental,
non-governmental and private institutions up to directorate level, and 15 years’
experience in the academic environment. As a scholar, Prof Barker is a renowned
researcher in organisational communication, and has published widely both locally
and internationally. She received a Research Leadership Award from the University
of South Arica’s Women-in-Research in 2010, and was nominated for the university’s
Chancellor’s Award. She is a fellow member of the Public Relations Institute of South
Africa (PRISA) and the South African Communication Association and the Marketing
Executive for Africa of the Academy of World Marketing, Management and Business
Marketing and Management Development initiated by the University of Southern
Queensland, Australia. Since 2004, she has acted as Track Chair for four international
conferences, and is currently an executive member of the organising team. As editor
(Africa) for the journal Technolog y and Sustainable Development (WRSTSD), she received an
award as Best Regional Editor 2003/4 presented at the 2nd International Conference
8–10 November 2004, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK. She is an editorial member
for various nationally and internationally accredited publications.

Gibson Chauke
Gibson Chauke holds a Bachelor of Applied Communication Management degree
and an Honours degree in Communication Management (University of Fort Hare).
At Unisa, he lectures in public relations and marketing communication at both

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 About the authors

undergraduate and postgraduate level. He is currently busy working on his Master’s

degree, researching the concept of integrated marketing communication in the social
marketing context.

Charmaine du Plessis
Prof Charmaine du Plessis holds a DLitt et Phil in Communication (Unisa) as well
as a postgraduate diploma in Marketing Management (Unisa). She lectures to
undergraduate and postgraduate students within the organisational communication
section of the Department of Communication Science. She has published extensively
in accredited journals, and has also presented papers both locally and internationally.
As an associate professor, she frequently acts as evaluator for peer-reviewed articles
and papers, and supervises several Master’s and doctoral students. She also serves on
the evaluators’ panel of the National Research Foundation (NRF). Before becoming
an academic in 1999, she gained much experience in public relations and marketing.

Danie du Plessis
Prof Danie du Plessis holds a DLitt et Phil from Unisa and an MA in Communication
Science from North-West University, and has been the Chair of the Department of
Communication Science at the Unisa since 2004. He has edited or contributed to eight
books, and has published various articles in scholarly journals – the main focus of his
research being in organisational communication. He has contributed to international
research projects, and has delivered papers at national and international academic
conferences. He serves as a panel member for the Council for Higher Education’s
Quality Assurance Committee, and has evaluated more than 50 programmes/modules
during the past five years. Prof du Plessis is a passionate teacher who has received an
Excellence in Tuition Award from Unisa. In 1987 he qualified and registered as an
Accredited Public Relations Practitioner (APR) with PRISA.

Janette Hanekom
Janette Hanekom holds an Honours degree (cum laude) from the University of North-
West and an MA degree in Communication Science from Unisa. She is currently
busy with her DLitt et Phil degree in Communication Science with specific focus on
online consumer behaviour. Her publications on online consumer response models
and theory are used widely as prescribed material at other institutions. She has been
a lecturer at the Department of Communication Science at Unisa since 2000. Her
duties include lecturing to undergraduate and postgraduate students in the fields of
marketing communication, advertising, web-based communication and organisational
communication, and she is a supervisor for Honours and Master’s students. She has
published various articles in accredited South African and international journals, and
has been awarded the Principal’s Prize for excellence in research at Unisa based on her
Master’s dissertation, published articles and chapters in a book.

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 Integrated Organisational Communication

Norlé Thomson
Norlé Thomson has an MCom degree (cum laude) in Communication Management
(University of Pretoria), specialising in Financial Communication. She was a lecturer at
Unisa’s Department of Communication Science until 2007, teaching public speaking,
interpersonal communication, public relations and international communication.
After relocating to the Western Cape in 2008, she decided to pursue her passion for
music, which she is currently teaching privately and at a local primary school.

Lizelle van der Walt

Dr Lizelle van der Walt is a senior lecturer in the Department of Marketing and
Communication Management at the University of Pretoria. Before joining this
department, she lectured in various communication specialisation fields at the
University of Johannesburg, Unisa and Varsity College at both undergraduate and
postgraduate level. She has also served as a communication consultant and trainer for
the South African Police Service (SAPS) and Sanlam, and developed training courses
for the Independent Institute of Education (IIE) and StuartR Business Consultants.
Her areas of specialisation are internal organisational communication practices,
organisational change, organisational leadership and employee behaviour. She also
has a keen interest in leadership intelligence and did her doctoral thesis on the role
and application of spiritual intelligence in the organisation. She has also contributed
conference papers, articles and chapters on organisational change, leadership and
employee motivations and behaviour to various academic textbooks and journals.

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 Preface
The second edition of Integrated Organisational Communication has been written to address
the growing need amongst students and practitioners for a book that offers a holistic
view of the communication of organisations. This book takes a multidisciplinary
approach with more comprehensive content than the first edition.
The main thrust of the book is the integration of communication in the
organisational context. It is now commonly accepted that communication should be
integrated, but integration is interpreted and practised in many ways. It is seen as the
co-ordination of planned communication; managerial communication co-ordination,
aligned strategic communication; the creation of synergy between marketing activities,
or the co-ordination of internal and external communication. In certain environments
it has even gained philosophical and ideological status. The starting point of our
approach to communication integration is the brand. This is the consolidated outcome
of every message about the organisation and its products received by a stakeholder,
and includes planned, unplanned, service and product messages. Organisations should
align these messages at strategic, management and functional levels, bearing in mind
that communication integration, and ultimately perception of their brands, occurs
in the minds of all the organisation’s stakeholders, not only those who manage the
organisation or plan its communication. This edition includes a more critical assessment
of communication integration and its applications throughout the organisation and
its environment.
The book is divided into four sections. Section A introduces organisational
communication and communication integration; Section B addresses a number of
the more prominent focus areas of organisational communication; Section C focuses
specifically on organisational communication assessment and research; and Section D
covers practical application and a generalised integrated communication campaign
framework.
A number of chapters deal with aspects of communication integration in the
organisation as a whole, whilst others focus on narrower aspects of the field. Sections
A, C and D cover the holistic principles, processes and practices of communication
integration, while Section B deals with a number of narrower focus areas of the
organisation’s internal and external communication. Marketing communication,
which is central to many organisations’ communication, is covered in Chapter 6.
Some aspects of marketing communication (public relations, advertising and online
communication) are dealt with separately in chapters 7, 8, 9 and 10. The reason for
selecting these aspects and not others is that there is a greater requirement for them
in current African academic curricula and not because of their relative importance.
The following diagram is a schematic outline of the book.

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 Integrated Organisational Communication

Section A Chapter 1
Communication and the organisation
Introduction to organisational
communication and
communication integration Chapter 2
Communication integration

Chapter 3
Dynamics of organisational
communication

Chapter 4
The role of communication and
management approaches in the
organisational change process

Chapter 5
The marketing context

Chapter 6
Section B Integrated marketing communication
Communication of the
organisation: Focus areas
Chapter 7
Public relations

Chapter 8
Contextualisation of
traditional advertising

Chapter 9
Advertising management

Chapter 10
Integrated online communication

Section C Chapter 11
Assessing organisational
Introduction to
communication
organisational
communication and Chapter 12
communication integration Integrated communication
measurement

Section D Chapter 13
Practical application Integrated communication campaigns

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 About the authors

Acknowledgements
We would like to express our appreciation to everyone who assisted the authors with the
case studies: Steve Massey, managing director of Zoom Advertising Cape Town; Dale
Hefer, managing director of the Chillibush Group of Companies; Dr Barbara Jensen,
Gautrain’s Management Agency (GMA) spokesperson; Maritha Pritchard, former
senior writer at the Gautrain and currently lecturer at the University of Johannesburg;
Hannelie Booyens for the article published in You magazine and online, as well as
Lucia Swart-Walters from Huisgenoot for permission to use it; Rhea Singh for the article
on FIFA and Kulula; Matthew Buckland for the article in the Mail & Guardian Online;
Anette van der Spuy of Nyani Communication for the De Beers Pension Fund case
study; Jacey de Gidts, head, Group Communication and Marketing of the Barloworld
Group; Lauren Bobbert, communication and marketing officer, Barloworld; Mandy
Waddington, marketing director, Cell C; Kim Penstone from marketingweb.co.za;
Peter Wells from nilewide.com; Mia van Heerden from FLUX for the Siemens case
study; Zweli Mnisi for assistance with the Be Proudly South African case study; Ken van
Ginkel from Biz-community; and Tim Courtenay, CEO of X-PLOR Telecoms.
As with all publications of this kind, the book that you hold is the work of many
people other than the authors. We would particularly like to acknowledge the help
and guidance of Corina Pelser and Debbie Henry at Juta; the second copy editor and
proofreader, Wendy Priilaid; the typesetter, Clint MacDonald; the indexer, Clifford
Perusset; and lastly the cover designer, Eugene Badenhorst.
We would finally like to acknowledge the enormous contribution of our first copy
editor, Juliet Haw, who passed away under tragic circumstances as the book was
nearing completion.

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 Section A

Introduction to organisational communication

and communication integration
„„ Chapter 1: Communication and the organisation
„„ Chapter 2: Communication integration

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 BUSINESS
TERPERSONAL

CULTURE
QUALITY
MMUNICATION I N F O R M A T I O N
T R AT E G Y SOLUTIONS-ORIENTED

Advertising
V
Dynamics
BRAND

I
S
I
ASSESSING O
N

Campaign
I D E N T I T Y
RESEARCH

IMC
Management

CUSTOMER EFFICIENT

FOCUS Trust
IMAGE

Systems Thinking
STRUCTURE

Collaboration
tegrated Organisational Communication

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 Communication and the

1
CHAPTER
QUALITY

organisation
G eorge Angelopulo and Norlé Thomson

[Communication is] all of the procedures by which one mind can affect another.
Weaver (in Shannon & Weaver, 1949)

The ability to organise – to routinely engage in interlocked behaviours that allow us to

transcend our individual limitations – is one of humanity’s most highly developed talents.
Farace, Monge & Russell (1977)

1.1 Introduction
Communication is often described as the glue that binds an organisation together.
It enables people working within an organisation to co-operate and, by doing so, to
N achieve more than they would if they worked alone. Communication also makes it
easier for people within an organisation to interact with important people and groups

H outside the organisation – that is, its customers, clients, agents, legislators and the
broader public.

C
In the corporate environment of organisations and businesses, individuals may
sometimes be unaware of communication simply because it is such a natural part of
everyday life. People generally become aware of communication in an organisation
only when it is emphasised, for example during planned communication events like
NT negotiations, presentations, or when media are used to convey a particular message.
But planned communication is only one variation of the communication that occurs
E in organisations. Other types of communication often prove more difficult to discern,

t
understand or deal with, even though such communication undoubtedly affects the
well-being and success of the organisation. For example, communication between
managers and staff, the employees’ knowledge of the company’s long-term plans, or
whether a company director feels comfortable asking for information and advice, are
simple situations where ordinary communication affects, to a greater or lesser degree,
the ultimate success of the organisation. Organisational communication is therefore a
complex phenomenon and somewhat broader than might at first be imagined.
Communication exists in and around organisations in different forms, activities and
functions, including:
„„ planned communication such as management communication, public relations,
advertising or personal selling
„„ corporate culture, co-operation or dissent
„„ relationships between staff
„„ relationships between the people within the organisation and those outside it.

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 Communication and the

1
CHAPTER
QUALITY

organisation
G eorge Angelopulo and Norlé Thomson

[Communication is] all of the procedures by which one mind can affect another.
Weaver (in Shannon & Weaver, 1949)

The ability to organise – to routinely engage in interlocked behaviours that allow us to

transcend our individual limitations – is one of humanity’s most highly developed talents.
Farace, Monge & Russell (1977)

1.1 Introduction
Communication is often described as the glue that binds an organisation together.
It enables people working within an organisation to co-operate and, by doing so, to
N achieve more than they would if they worked alone. Communication also makes it
easier for people within an organisation to interact with important people and groups

H outside the organisation – that is, its customers, clients, agents, legislators and the
broader public.

C
In the corporate environment of organisations and businesses, individuals may
sometimes be unaware of communication simply because it is such a natural part of
everyday life. People generally become aware of communication in an organisation
only when it is emphasised, for example during planned communication events like
NT negotiations, presentations, or when media are used to convey a particular message.
But planned communication is only one variation of the communication that occurs
E in organisations. Other types of communication often prove more difficult to discern,

t
understand or deal with, even though such communication undoubtedly affects the
well-being and success of the organisation. For example, communication between
managers and staff, the employees’ knowledge of the company’s long-term plans, or
whether a company director feels comfortable asking for information and advice, are
simple situations where ordinary communication affects, to a greater or lesser degree,
the ultimate success of the organisation. Organisational communication is therefore a
complex phenomenon and somewhat broader than might at first be imagined.
Communication exists in and around organisations in different forms, activities and
functions, including:
„„ planned communication such as management communication, public relations,
advertising or personal selling
„„ corporate culture, co-operation or dissent
„„ relationships between staff
„„ relationships between the people within the organisation and those outside it.

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 Integrated Organisational Communication

Communication is central to the success of organisations and the people within them
and is therefore deliberately encouraged by management, workers, special-interest
groups and individuals inside and outside the organisation. In its complex diversity,
communication is studied and practised in universities and organisations as an
integral part of a variety of subjects, disciplines and fields. This chapter provides an
overview of these topics and reviews a number of the basic concepts associated with the
communication of organisations. The chapter addresses:
„„ communication in the context of the organisation
„„ important academic and applied approaches to the broad discipline of
communication
„„ the strategic role of communication in the organisation.

Before further considering organisational communication it is first worth exploring the

separate concepts of communication and organisation.

1.2 Communication
Communication may be described as a transactional and symbolic process in which
messages are exchanged and interpreted with the aim of establishing mutual understanding
between parties. This definition covers many of the characteristics typically ascribed to
communication but, as will become clear, it has been highly contested.
As with so many of the social sciences, the communication discipline and our
knowledge of it have developed over the centuries through scientific, pre-scientific,
humanistic and social scientific inquiry. Communication has been studied from the
perspectives of a multitude of disciplines and theoretical approaches. Our knowledge
of the subject is drawn from the interwoven contributions of rhetoric, psychology,
sociology, language studies and philosophy, amongst many other disciplines, and this
knowledge has been broadened by practical experience in the professions, industry
and other fields of endeavour that include business, the media, journalism, information
technology, social development, art and culture.
When attempting to define communication, one must recognise that
communication ‘is one of those human activities that everyone recognizes but few can
define satisfactorily’ (Fiske, 1990: 1). Difficulties with definition have emerged because
such a wide range of meanings for communication has become established through
everyday usage (Clevenger, 1991). Excluding meanings associated with physical
transfer or transportation (for example in uses such as ‘communication of disease’ or
‘road communications’), the word ‘communication’ still retains a diversity of meanings
that are reflected in a range of scientific and academic applications. Even if we narrow
our focus to use of the concept only in human and organisational communication, we
remain confronted with a range of definitions, as the following examples illustrate.
Communication has been defined as:
„„ the formal and informal sharing of meaningful and timely information (Anderson
& Narus, 1990)
„„ ‘all means of facilitating the exchange of knowledge, the expression of desires, and
the dissemination of information’ (Peters & Fletcher, 2004: 1)

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 Chapter 1: Communication and the organisation

„„ ‘a process whereby meaning is defined and shared between living organisms’

(Wikipedia, 2011)
„„ ‘social interaction through messages’ (Fiske, 1990: 2)
„„ a human activity that links people together and creates relationships (Duncan &
Moriarty, 1998)
„„ one individual’s means of relating to other individuals which makes it more than just
information giving (Sanford, Hunt & Bracey, 1976; Zhu, May & Rosenfeld, 2004)
„„ ‘the synthesis of information, utterance and understanding’ (Luhmann, 2006: 47).
Numerous attempts have been made to categorise the definitions of communication.
Princeton University’s WordNet differentiates between meanings of communication
as activity, content and connection (WordNet, 2011). Another categorisation is that of
Dance (1970), who identifies three conceptual pillars in the definition of communication.
„„ The first is level of observation, ranging from broad to restrictive:

For example, the definition of communication as ‘the process that links

discontinuous parts of the living world to one another’ (Ruesch, 1957) is general.
On the other hand, communication as ‘a system (as of telephones or telegraphs) for
communicating information and orders (as in a naval service)’ (Webster’s Third New
International Dictionary 1986) is restrictive (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 3).

„„ The second pillar is intentionality – the degree to which communication is intended.

For example:
Those situations in which a source transmits a message to a receiver with conscious
intent to affect the latter’s behaviours (Miller, 1966) [is a definition that includes
intent]. A definition that does not [include] intent follows: ‘It is a process that
makes common to two or several what was the monopoly of one or some (Cartier,
1959)’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 3).

„„ The third pillar is normative judgement: the qualification of effectiveness or success:

The following definition, for example, presumes that communication is successful:
‘Communication is the verbal interchange of a thought or idea’ (Hoben, 1954)
… Another definition, on the other hand, does not judge whether the outcome is
successful or not: ‘Communication [is] the transmission of information’ (Berelson
& Steiner, 1964). Here information is transmitted, but it is not necessarily received
or understood (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 3).

It is evident that scholars define communication very widely and it is therefore

questionable whether an attempt to formulate a single definition is possible or even
desirable. An attempt to do so would result in the loss of the variety associated
with the concept. Dance (1970) suggests that the diversity associated with the term
‘communication’ is appropriate and that its definitions and theories should remain
a ‘family of concepts’ rather than a single theory, definition or idea. The variety of
definitions should be seen as a range of tools that can be flexibly used (Littlejohn &
Foss, 2008):
While there is not a right or wrong perspective, choices regarding [their selection in
academic studies] are not trivial. These perspectives launch scholars down different

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theoretical trajectories, predispose them to ask distinct questions, and set them up to
conduct different kinds of communication studies (Anderson, 1991: 309).

Littlejohn and Foss (2008: 3) state that:

… different definitions have different functions and enable the theorist to do different
things. A definition should be evaluated on the basis of how well it helps scholars answer
the questions they are investigating. Different sorts of investigations require separate,
even contradictory, definitions of communication.

It is clear, therefore, that communication is difficult to define as a single entity, as a

single discipline or as a single concept. It is more appropriate to consider it as a cluster
of theories and perspectives that provide different insights into the broad phenomenon
which we describe as communication. Because of their diversity we have to accept
that these insights might at times be compatible and at times contradictory. There is
no single theory of communication but rather a range of theories, perspectives and
approaches, and there is certainly no single theory or definition of communication
that is ‘true’ or ‘correct’. At best it might be possible to claim that, within a particular
context, there is a theory or definition of communication that is more accurate than
another, or that one theory gives greater insight than another when a particular
communication situation, context or problem arises.
In social science, of which communication science is an example, there are no
irrefutable laws that explain the relationships between social phenomena. Instead of
laws, we should rather think of explanations that have a high degree of probability.
This is the case even with theories that have been derived from the most rigorous of
scientific methods. Social science and the communication discipline do not comprise
universally valid laws or theories. Theories of communication are best seen as the
means to understand and interpret specific events, as the prisms that help us to focus
and organise certain aspects of communication that we observe and study – that is, as
observational aids. To understand communication as it applies to the organisation we
therefore need to consider a variety of theories and approaches.
It is evident that in attempting to define communication we are confronted with a
range of concepts, definitions and theories that might frequently appear to be equally
valid. It therefore becomes necessary to identify those that are most appropriate
for our purpose. Our aim here is to understand communication within the context
of the organisation. Not only do we wish to understand communication as a social
phenomenon but also as a phenomenon of organisations that can affect their well-being
and success, one that can be understood and managed in various professional contexts
throughout organisations and their environments. With this in mind, therefore, the
theories and definitions that offer the clearest insight into communication in the
organisational context are the most appropriate.
It is possible to identify two broad theoretical streams that offer insight into the
communication of organisations and reflect Fiske’s (1990: 2) view of:
… two main schools … The first sees communication as the transmission of messages.
It is concerned with matters like efficiency and accuracy … The second school sees
communication as the production and exchange of meanings. It is concerned with how
messages, or texts, interact with people in order to produce meanings.
Co

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In the first stream, communication tends to be defined as a mechanistic phenomenon;

in the second, as a social, interactive and often transactional phenomenon. Mechanistic
approaches conveniently and simply identify important components and properties of
communication whereas interactional approaches give a broader and more nuanced
view of communication and its role in the lives of people acting as social beings in the
context of the organisation.

1.2.1 A mechanistic view of communication

The mechanistic view suggests that all phenomena involve a sequence of events that
have specific, identifiable causes. These phenomena and their causes then cause other
events, which in turn cause others, and so on. From the mechanistic perspective,
all phenomena and their causes can be identified and measured separately. We can
understand the world, and communication, by understanding the relationship between
cause and effect, and by our ability to identify the variables in this relationship,
however small. From a mechanistic perspective, the reason we do not understand why
something occurs is either because we have not identified the variables that cause it
or because we have not been able to measure these variables’ effects with sufficient
accuracy.

Dividing communication into parts

In the mechanistic model, everything can be reduced to essential parts that can be
understood and measured. A person’s body, for example, can be divided into head,
torso, arms and legs, and these parts can be measured for length or weight. Following
on from this, everything that results from the interaction of parts can be explained
and predicted. For example, by understanding how a person’s feet and legs move, it
is possible to understand how a person walks or runs. It is assumed that the variables
that determine some phenomena can be isolated from all irrelevant ones and can be
viewed and measured separately from the rest, that patterns of cause and effect can be
identified and, eventually, that similar phenomena that might occur in the future can
be accurately predicted. To reiterate, from the mechanistic perspective, the reasons
why a phenomenon is not understood is either that the variables that cause it have
not been identified or their mutual effect upon one another has not been properly
understood or measured.

Communication as the transfer of signals

The mechanistic model and the view of communication that derives from it are strongly
influenced by Shannon and Weaver’s information theory, popularised in their book
The Mathematical Theory of Communication (1949) and originally conceived as a model
for application in engineering and mathematics. The theory was greatly influenced
by Shannon’s work as a telecommunications engineer. Information theory was not
originally intended as a model of human communication. It does not address meaning,
for example, and instead focuses on data and its transmission. Despite this, their model
has been adapted to human communication and has had a significant impact on the
study of human communication.

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The mechanistic model can be portrayed as the transfer of signals, often illustrated by
the well-known diagram shown in Figure 1.1.

source signal destination

Figure 1.1 A mechanistic model of communication

From a mechanistic perspective, communication does not occur exclusively among

humans. It can also occur between machines when viewed as the transmission of a
signal from a source to a receiving destination. The signal undergoes a ‘ journey’
from one place to another. Communication is seen to be successful when it is received
and interpreted by the destination in exactly the way that it was sent and intended by
the source. The sender, or source, assesses whether the signal was correctly received
and interpreted by the destination by monitoring feedback from the destination.

The components of communication

A simple adaptation of the model as it would apply to human communication is
illustrated in Figure 1.2.

feedback

communicator message recipient

Figure 1.2 An adapted mechanistic model of communication

The communicator is the source of the message. He or she encodes it – the

signal – from thoughts into forms such as words or symbols that are capable of
being transmitted. This message is then transmitted via a channel such as the
air through which sound travels or a technological medium such as a telephone,
computer or radio. The message is received by the recipient – the destination –
who decodes it into a form that has some meaning in order for it to be understood.
During transmission the message might not have meaning; it only has meaning
prior to being encoded for transmission and after it has been decoded at the end of
the transmission.

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Two-way communication occurs when there is feedback. Feedback is essentially

transmission in the reverse order of the initial communication from communicator to
recipient. Feedback also requires encoding, transmission and decoding.
A continuous communication loop is created in ongoing communication in which
the roles of communicator and receiver change and eventually become blurred.
In more structured, formal variations such as mass communication, the definitions of
communicator and receiver are clearer and more durable than they might be during
informal communication between people in everyday contexts.
Mechanistic communication has the potential for fault or failure. This occurs
where there is a disruption of the message during transmission. Everything that
impairs the message during encoding, transmission and decoding is termed ‘noise’.
It is accepted in the mechanistic model of communication that perfect
communication is difficult to achieve, and that some degree of noise is present in most
communication, and that meaning, as intended by the communicator, is rarely exactly
the same as that understood by the receiver.
The mechanistic model described here is relatively simple. This model has been
extended and developed in attempts to describe more complex forms of communication.
Mass communication, the communication networks of groups and organisations,
multi-step modes of communication, various forms of feedback, communication
breakdowns, and the position of gatekeepers and opinion leaders have all been
explained in terms of this approach.

Measurability and efficiency

Hypothetically, every element of the mechanistic communication model can be
identified and measured. Every part is portrayed as a precise entity, separated from all
others by closed and precise boundaries. Where boundaries are unclear it is necessary
to identify them by inspecting increasingly small parts of the phenomenon under study.
The model suggests that there is a quantifiable interplay between factors that can be
isolated, measured and individually manipulated.
The mechanistic approach is most commonly used to plan and interpret
communication effects in fields as varied as persuasion and mass media studies.
The approach emphasises the importance of efficiency and effectiveness in
communication activities and has proved to be particularly useful for communication
in the organisational context where time, cost and the quantification of processes and
activities are crucial.

1.2.2 An interactional view of communication

The interactional view differs from the mechanistic view by explaining communication
as a social phenomenon that cannot be analysed as a sum of constituent parts.
The interactional approach discussed here is drawn from the common foundation of
a range of perspectives that are similar in some respects but dissimilar in others. They
include information theory (which has also had a strong influence on the mechanistic
approach), symbolic interactionism, the transactional view of perception, and
systems theory.

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 Integrated Organisational Communication

In the interactional view, the concept of linear signal transmissions and the labelling
of communicators as senders, sources, receivers or destinations fall away. The division
of communication into parts and the emphasis on codes and signals are not seen as the
essence of communication.

Communication as interaction
Communication is seen to be a purely human activity, to exist only as interaction (or
transaction) between human beings. Communication is the process by which meaning
becomes shared and common understandings emerge in the formation of groups and
cultures, and the process through which interpersonal transaction, social position,
action, status and power are created, altered and, in some cases, diminished.
Society and its structures are made up of communicating, interacting and
transacting individuals who actively shape their own behaviour. Although social
structures do affect people’s lives, it is the ongoing interaction of individuals, rather,
that creates, recreates, maintains and changes these structures.
Even large organisations that appear to exist independently of the people within
them do so because of these people, their actions and interactions which, over time,
occur and recur according to a framework of frequent, established and stable meanings.
‘It is the social process in group life that creates and upholds the rules, not the rules that
create and uphold group life’ (Blumer, 1969: 19). Communication creates the network
of relations that exist between people, and the resulting patterns of interaction form
the structures of society.
The interactional view does not describe communication as an entity or an activity
that exists apart from people and their interaction with one another. Where there
is communication there is interaction, even though all interaction is not necessarily
communication. According to the interactionist approach, communication is a
phenomenon that does not exist as separate from people, and it therefore does not
exist between machines, or between man and machine. Machines can, however, assist
communication between people and, with the ascendance of information technology,
the machine increasingly frames and structures human communication and the
patterns of that communication.
Communication is viewed as a process and not as a structure. Because
communication is inherently interactive, adaptive and transactional, and because it
evolves, any attempt to freeze the process for purposes of definition results in a false
impression of the phenomenon. Communication is fluid and ever changing.

The centrality of meaning

The cornerstone of the interactional approach to understanding communication is
the process through which meaning is created and shared. An individual’s creation of
meaning is seen to occur in a world of personal and environmental stimuli, which would
be regarded as completely random and even chaotic were it not for the individual’s
creation of order within that random variety. This process of creating order has been
termed ‘mapping’, and refers to the discernment of meaningful patterns in the stimuli.
Through mapping, a person creates ‘objects’ out of the stimuli. The complete set of a

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 Chapter 1: Communication and the organisation

person’s objects forms that person’s reality. Blumer (1969) suggests that there are three
types of objects: physical (things), social (people) and abstract (ideas). Manford Kuhn
sees an object as any aspect of a person’s reality: ‘a thing, a quality, an event, or a state
of affairs’ (in Littlejohn, 1992: 174–175). An object is not separate from an individual;
it is implicit in the person’s relationship with the set of stimuli that comprise it.
When an object is to be used in the context of communication, the individual has
to conceive of it from the perspective of others to ensure that they understand all
reference to it. The individual’s definition of an object is created through his or her
interaction with others and it is the group norms thus formed that regulate how the
object is symbolised and dealt with socially.
Individuals attach symbols to objects. Rothstein describes symbols as objects ‘to
which we give names’, and suggests that ‘people can use these names to communicate
and agree that they refer to the same object’ (in Buckley, 1967: 93). Symbols extend
beyond language and can include gestures, facial expressions and hand signals.
The symbol represents the individual’s direct relationship to the object; his or her
perception of how he or she, as a member of society, should relate to it; and how he
or she perceives others’ relation to it (Buckley, 1968; Littlejohn, 1992). Individuals
communicate with one another by mutually defining symbols and creating regions
of shared meaning. These shared meanings ultimately become common amongst the
individuals of a group and, in time, form a society of similar meanings. However,
because every object represented by a symbol is uniquely perceived by each individual,
the precise meanings of symbols can differ, to a greater or lesser extent, from person to
person and this results in a degree of uncertainty in all communication.
For the individual to attempt to share meaning it is necessary for him or her to
reduce the uncertainty inherent in communication. The individual achieves this by
constantly reformulating his or her perception of the object to which a symbol refers,
and realigning it more closely with the perceptions held by other participants in the
communication process. With the increase in interaction between communicators and
greater alignment of the meanings ascribed to symbols, meaning becomes increasingly
shared.
Communication is unnecessary where meaning is completely shared. Only
where meaning is not shared, or where it is not known to be shared, is it necessary to
expend the effort of communication to ensure that others share the same perceptions
regarding symbols or objects. Yet perfect communication and the complete sharing
of meaning among communicators probably do not exist, as there is inevitably
some variation in the meanings ascribed to every symbol. According to Farace et al.
(1977: 43), the ‘chances of achieving exact communication are close to zero, if not
completely impossible’.
Meaning is not static; it is continuously created and recreated. Communication
is the ongoing process of one person attempting to identify another’s meaning of an
object and its symbolic representation and to co-ordinate this meaning with his or her
own. Meaning is derived from the very process of communication because this process
reduces uncertainty. Meaning is also derived from the definition and redefinition of
the symbolic parameters of specific objects and the stimuli to which these refer. In the

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process, increasing constraint is placed on the range of interpretation that is possible

in the interpretation of symbols.

1.2.3 The utility of mechanistic and interactional approaches

We have focused on mechanistic and interactional approaches to communication
because of their usefulness to understanding and implementing communication in the
context of organisations. Each approach suggests a distinct view of communication.
However, if communication is viewed exclusively according to only one approach then
the resulting perception is often dysfunctional. An exclusively mechanistic approach
portrays communication as something that is rigid and which occurs apart from human
beings. An exclusively interactional approach presents communication as something
that ‘is’ us – a ‘part’ of us – but which, as a result, is difficult to quantify or manage.
Both approaches are important. The mechanistic approach offers a structure
for planning, timing and integrating the components of communication while
the interactional approach provides a clear perspective of the interactive, ongoing,
relational and meaning-based nature of communication.
The approaches also present different views of human experience. The mechanistic
approach focuses on social phenomena as a sum of autonomous parts, actions and
purposes that can be understood in isolation from all related phenomena, frozen
in time, which can be seen to exist meaningfully as static entities. In contrast, the
interactional approach, although not a holistic model, gives some insight into the
wholeness, transience, adaptability and interactive nature of social phenomena.

1.3 Organisations
An organisation may be defined as two or more people who intentionally work together
in order to achieve a set of objectives.
To a greater or lesser degree, organisations exist as separate entities within their
environments, and the move from environment to organisation implies passing through
some form of barrier or boundary – this could be a fence or gate, but it could also be
something abstract, such as a mindset, a particular way of behaving, identification,
membership, knowledge, etc. They are more or less self-regulating in terms of their
objectives, performance, control and degree of internal and external co-operation.
Organisations take on many forms and are determined primarily by their objectives.
These can arise from business, religion, government, education, sport or recreational
interests, or any other shared interests of their members.
Organisations vary in their degree of formality. They can be legally constituted
entities, such as registered companies that pay tax and operate according to fixed
policies and operational guidelines, with formal structured relationships between their
members. Organisations can also be completely informal and might not exist as legal
entities, with flexible voluntary membership, irregular meetings and few structured
operational processes or procedures.
The structure of organisations varies extensively. They can have very little
structure or be highly structured in any number of ways. They can be rigid hierarchies
with highly specified areas of responsibility, specialisation and division of labour;

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they can operate as a matrix where members have responsibilities across the organisation
and work across functions and projects; or they can operate as loose associations of
professionals with high autonomy. What is common to all organisations, however,
is that they are social systems, made up of people who interact with one another in
particular ways that are specified within the organisation.
Although we are particularly interested in the communication of organisations,
they can also be considered from a number of other perspectives such as sociology, law,
politics, anthropology or business, and viewed, for example, as operational processes,
as patterned behaviour and interaction amongst people, or as entities that serve various
purposes and ends. While we focus our attention on the organisation as an entity of
human communication, we will, in the course of this chapter and the remainder of the
book, bring in a number of these alternative and complementary perspectives as they
relate to organisational communication.

1.4 Organisational communication and its constituent fields

This book addresses the topic of communication in the context of organisations, in
a discipline that can be termed ‘organisational communication’. In attempting to
define organisational communication, the difficulties faced by the International
Communication Association (ICA, 2010) in its own attempts to do so are instructive:
In 1968 … [members of the first meeting of the Organisational Communication group
of the ICA saw organisational communication as a field that dealt with] … ‘[p]erson-
centred interface; analyses of interaction between organisational structure, message
forms and flow, channel effects and person behaviour’… [with] … the need for applied
research that addresses current organisational problems. At the first business meeting
mentioned above, members set forth a number of questions, comments, and made an
attempt to define organisational communication.
Writing ‘due to the time limit and perceived futility by the group of arriving at a
workable definition,’ they agreed to table the discussion of a definition. Since 1968, few
would argue that any concrete definition has surfaced as agreeable to all and although
the core of the mission remains it has expanded and changed with the field, the applied
focus has always remained in concert with the study of macro as well as micro
organisational communication.

The International Communication Association still has no coherent definition of

organisational communication. The term is very widely used and interpreted, with
little agreement on its definition. As is evident from the discussion below, the concept is
used in a number of ways. In this book we use the term ‘organisational communication’
primarily as the umbrella concept that covers all communication that occurs in the
context of organisations but we also consider a number of other meanings associated
with it. In this section we review a wide range of approaches, disciplines and practices
that constitute this broad field, and some of these are discussed in more detail in
later chapters.
A number of academic and professional fields address the communication of
organisations and we focus here on the more prominent of these. Academics originally
studied communication from the very different perspectives of rhetoric, sociology,
anthropology and psychology, among others. In business, communication became

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important because it was seen as a means to generate publicity, an extension of

journalism, or a means of generating interest in companies and products. As a result
of so many people from different backgrounds focusing on this phenomenon, there is
considerable variety in the range of perspectives on organisational communication
that exist. The intention in this section, therefore, is to make some sense of the variety
and relationships that exist between the more prominent academic and professional
fields that deal with the communication of organisations.
The disciplines and fields of communication that are discussed here are
business, management, organisational, corporate, public relations and marketing
communication. Attention is also paid to the impact that digital communication
has had on all of these fields. Although later chapters address organisational
communication, public relations and marketing communication, the fields of business
communication, management communication and corporate communication are
not discussed in greater detail. The reasons are that business and management
communication focus more narrowly on skills whereas this book pays more attention
to theory; and corporate communication overlaps extensively with public relations.
Nevertheless, many of the aspects addressed in this book have some bearing on
business and management communication, and many of the principles of corporate
communication are addressed in the discussion on public relations. This chapter
addresses these fields in order to identify a comprehensive disciplinary range, while
the remainder of the book focuses on specific areas of interest.
We describe the ‘components’ of organisational communication as ‘fields’ or
‘academic fields’, and only in some cases as ‘disciplines’. We use ‘discipline’ to describe
an area of study that is characterised by a relatively unique body of knowledge that
has coherent and widely accepted theoretical foundations, a range of accepted norms
for research, a clear scope of the problems addressed, and consensus that it exists
as a discipline among scholars. ‘Field’ refers to an area of study that does not meet
these criteria. Although each area that we focus on constitutes an academic subject or
profession, it could be argued that only a few have acquired disciplinary status, and
that they are generally considered to be divisions of overarching disciplines.
The fields of communication discussed here are not exclusive. Almost all overlap
with one or more of the others. It is true that the broad field is wide open, that it does
not hold the same professional status as, say, law or medicine, and that it is not the
exclusive domain of any discipline. While some might see this as a problem, it is to the
benefit of the discipline as a whole that it receives such extensive and multidisciplinary
attention. The disciplinary fragmentation and overlap of the academic fields discussed
in this chapter does not diminish their importance, and it is important to obtain some
perspective of the fragmented, overlapping nature of organisational communication
and the relationship between the disciplines and fields that constitute it. Communication
students or practitioners will be confronted at some point by the particular theory or
practice of each field, and it will be to their benefit to understand the scope, perspective
and relationship of that field to all the others.

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1.4.1 Business communication
Business communication can be traced back to the earliest times of commercial
activity. Historical remnants of business-related writing, for example, have been found
on Roman tablets. Business writing was taught in European universities as early as
the 12th century. Later, at the direction of King Henry V of England, standardised
English for official documents was formalised and, in 1586, Angel Day wrote an
influential book on business correspondence (Krapels & Arnold, 1996). The principles
of early business communication drew heavily on rhetoric, particularly the rhetorical
traditions of the 18th and 19th centuries (Carbone, 1994).
The origin of modern business communication can be more specifically linked
to the establishment of land grant colleges in the United States of America in 1863.
Education in these colleges was more technical and career specific than that of other
universities of the time (Krapels & Arnold, 1996). A manifestation of this education was
the introduction of practical courses in business writing. The first such course was taught
at the University of Illinois in 1902 as part of a business qualification and was the only
subject that was mandatory for all students (Krapels & Arnold, 1996). As the American
model of business gained precedence in business schools throughout the world, including
South Africa, business communication secured a foothold in the business curriculum.
Until the 1960s the communication that received the greatest attention in the field was
written communication, but by the 1980s the scope of the field had expanded to include
oral communication, interviewing and presentation skills (Krapels & Arnold, 1996).
Business communication can be defined as communication that is used to attain a
business objective. Such communication is usually seen as conscious and intentional
and as a tool which, when appropriately used, can help a business achieve its goals
(Reinsch, 1991). Many business communication courses have a skills orientation
(Smeltzer & Suchan, 1991). The ultimate objective of the academic field is to establish
and improve the communication skills of people engaged in business.
Business communication tends to be viewed as a business subject. Usually offered
in faculties of business or management – less so in departments of communication or
language studies – it is closely associated with business language courses such as ‘Business
English’ or ‘Business French’ (Smeltzer & Suchan, 1991). Business communication
is taught largely but not exclusively at undergraduate level. Although the origins of
business communication are business writing and technical communication, the
theory and methodology of the field is multidisciplinary, drawing from business, social
science and language studies.
The organisational scope of business communication is not universal and focuses
more on the communication that occurs within organisations defined as businesses
and less on the communication practised by other organisations. The academic field
also pays greater attention to communication that relates directly to business and less
to communication that falls outside the business context. Most, but not all, business
communication occurs within the organisational environment.

1.4.2 Management communication
Management communication, the newest of the academic fields discussed here, can
be defined as management’s use, adaptation and creation of languages, symbols and

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signs for the effective and profitable management of the corporate enterprise. As
with a number of other fields that fall within the scope of applied communication,
management communication has its roots in rhetoric, although it also draws strongly
from management. Management communication courses are primarily provided by
business faculties but a small number of language and communication departments also
offer courses in the field. Management communication is commonly presented as one
course within a postgraduate business qualification, frequently as part of a Master’s of
Business Administration (MBA) programme (Krapels & Arnold, 1996). It became firmly
established only in the 1970s and the first journal on the subject was published in the
1980s. The field is considered to be ‘the amalgamation of business communication and
organisational communication within the traditional planning, leading, organising, and
controlling functions of management’ (Krapels & Arnold, 1996: 336).
Management communication is an interdisciplinary field that deals specifically
with the communication of management and managers, communication variables
that affect management, and the practice of communication by managers (Smeltzer,
1993). The dominant focus areas of this type of communication are, first and foremost,
writing and, secondly, speaking and presentations. Some attention is also given to
other topics that exist at the intersection of management and communication.
Management communication is oriented more towards skills development and less
towards theoretical knowledge (Krapels & Arnold, 1996). Communication, as it is
generally viewed in management communication, tends to be seen as a means to an
end, as a tool that may be well or poorly utilised by management.
All management communication occurs within the organisational sphere. By
definition, management is an organisational phenomenon and therefore it exists
entirely within the organisational context.

1.4.3 Organisational communication
Organisational communication has its roots in speech communication and
communication studies. It was initially influenced very strongly by psychology and
sociology, and became a distinct academic field after World War II. In the 1960s,
organisational communication shifted its primary focus from the applied aspects of
communication in organisations (such as writing, speaking and persuasion) to the
broader role of communication in the organisation (in areas such as organisational
behaviour and organisational theory) (Krapels & Arnold, 1996).
Traditionally, organisational communication dealt with communication as it exists
within and between formal, hierarchical, public and private organisations and their
environments. More recently, however, many organisations have taken on different forms
that are more effectively characterised by outsourcing and decentralisation, or which
function as partnerships or joint ventures. At the same time, technology has become
increasingly important in the definition and operation of organisations. Consequently,
organisational communication has extended its scope to embrace alternative forms
of organisation and, increasingly, the technologies that have become so central to the
functioning of organisations (Scott Poole, Putnam & Seibold, 1997). Organisational
communication deals as much with the instrumental use of communication (functionalist

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perspectives) as with the social construction of reality within the organisational milieu
(interpretive perspectives).
Although organisational communication entails the communication of organisations
in a holistic sense, there is some disagreement on the definition of the field. The most
common division lies along the functional–interpretive divide. On the one hand,
organisational communication is seen as the diffusion of meaning and information
throughout the organisation and its environment. On the other hand, it can be
described as the process of interaction through which the meaning and experience of the
organisation are constructed, maintained, transacted and adapted. One of the reasons
for this divergence is that many organisational communication scholars have different
disciplinary backgrounds. It is therefore common that the academic field is perceived
and defined differently by scholars with backgrounds in, for example, communication,
management, sociology or business. Organisational communication is characterised
by interdisciplinary approaches towards research and theoretical development, and
it borrows freely from management, sociology, psychology, information science and
other fields (Scott Poole et al., 1997).
Until the early 1980s, the research methodologies used in organisational
communication were predominantly positivist and quantitative. In the ensuing decades,
however, qualitative, interpretive, cultural and critical approaches became commonplace.
Although the variety of these research approaches initially seemed conflicting, all
approaches are now widely accepted within the body of organisational communication.
Shelby (1993) recognises an important difference in the way that academics and
practitioners understand organisational communication. Academics generally view it as
the study of communication as it applies to any aspect, both internal and external, of the
organisation’s existence. Professional communicators and practitioners tend to define it as
the communication that exists and is practised within the organisation – that is, as internal
communication. Other than its use as the umbrella concept for all communication in the
organisational milieu, ‘organisational communication’ is therefore commonly used for
two separate fields: one is the academic study of the spectrum of communication in and
around the organisation; the other is the professional practice of communication within
the organisation.
Organisational communication is chiefly taught and researched within faculties of
arts or social sciences and, most commonly, within departments of communication.
Academic organisational communication generally focuses more on research and
theory than skills and practice. While it addresses corporate and managerial issues,
it also addresses issues that extend beyond the corporate context and it may critically
confront corporate perspectives. Academic organisational communication does
not necessarily cover in the same detail the areas of speciality that are identified
within other academic fields but it is not limited by field boundaries. It focuses on
the theoretical exploration of any topic that lies at the intersection of organisation and
communication. Professional organisational communication, on the other hand, focuses
very specifically on professional practice, methods, skills and applications, rather than
on theory or research.

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1.4.4 Corporate communication
Corporate communication has developed in parallel with a number of other academic
fields that are discussed here but most specifically with public relations. Corporate
communication flourishes as a functional corporate activity and as a field of academic
study. Corporate communication is most commonly offered as an academic subject
within faculties of business, marketing or management, and less so in departments
of communication. Its usual title is ‘corporate communication’ but certain academic
institutions also present it as a subtopic within courses of organisational communication,
public relations or communication management.
The field has developed primarily from the need that has been identified within
companies to address the full scope of communication both inside and outside
the organisation, and to do so with a clear management perspective. Corporate
communication is seen to cover various areas of the organisation’s communication.
It has been described as the technical information system of the corporation; the
interactive, human resource aspects of organisational efficacy; the marketing of an
organisation’s products and image; the development and maintenance of the corporate
image through design; and as the communication that is required to achieve the overall
objectives of corporate strategy (Whittaker, 1996).
The field typically covers corporate image and identity, corporate advocacy and
advertising, media relations, financial communication, employee communication,
community relations and corporate philanthropy, government relations and crisis
communication (Argenti, 1996). A definition of the academic field of corporate
communication is offered by Van Riel (1997), who sees it as the study of the
interdependency between organisational performance on the one hand, and corporate
identity, reputation and communication orchestration on the other.
All corporate communication exists within the organisational context, both
internal and external.

1.4.5 Public relations
Public relations originated in the early part of the last century as a practical means of
generating favourable publicity and interest in a topic, product or event. It was primarily
practised as one-way persuasive communication, a practice that still occurs today. As
a result, public relations has had and in all probability will always retain problems of
credibility, even though the majority of public relations scholars and professionals are
ethical, credible and able. Despite its origins as one-way communication, public relations is
today most commonly approached as ‘participative dialogue’ or two-way communication.
Public relations is an organisational activity. It exists as a business process and, in
many cases, as a distinct department or unit within an organisation. It also exists as an
outsourced function offered by consultants, specialists and public relations companies.
In addition to being a profession and a professional activity, public relations is also an
academic field. It is studied at a wide range of academic institutions, many of which
offer courses that are accredited by the professional public relations body of a region.
A strong link is therefore maintained between academic study in the field and an
individual’s recognition and accreditation as a public relations practitioner.

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Public relations education ranges from training in career-based skills through a

combination of skills and theory, to study at the theoretical level. Its poor academic
foundation improved after the 1960s, and a substantial body of theory and research
has been built up in the academic field ever since. Public relations is taught at technical,
undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Technical training invariably focuses on
skills, with undergraduate education as a mix of skills and theory, and postgraduate
education focusing on theoretical assessment and development. The subject is usually
taught in departments of communication or journalism, though it is frequently taught
in a department of its own.
The Public Relations Institute of South Africa (PRISA) defines public relations as
‘the management, through communication, of perceptions and strategic relationships
between an organisation and its internal and external stakeholders’ (www.prisa.co.za).

Distinguishing between public relations and corporate communication

It is evident from the discussions on public relations and corporate communication that
it is difficult to distinguish between the two fields. Each focuses on the management and
implementation of organisations’ communication, and in most instances they address
exactly the same issues, use the same techniques and rely on the same theory. The
distinction lies more in the origins and emphases of the two disciplines than it does on
content and practice. Public relations originated in journalism, publicity and communication
studies, while corporate communication originated in business. Both fields address
management and communication issues but public relations is more closely aligned to
communication and corporate communication is more closely aligned to business. Both
fields are considered in this section because they are widely practised throughout the
world and it is necessary to understand the scope and area of interest of each, even if they
do overlap extensively.

1.4.6 Marketing communication
The evolution of marketing communication runs parallel to the evolution of marketing.
Fundamentally, marketing communication is the communication element that is
embedded in the marketing process. Perception of the nature of this communication
has changed over time, as has perception of the nature of marketing itself.
Marketing has traditionally been seen as a transaction, with the marketing
elements that contribute most directly to this transaction receiving the greatest
attention, therefore the types of communication activity contributing most directly to
the conclusion of a marketing transaction gained precedence. Traditionally, these have
been advertising, personal selling, sales promotion, publicity and, arguably, public
relations. (Not all academics and practitioners consider public relations as part of
the marketing mix. To differentiate between public relations practised as a corporate
function and public relations practised as a marketing function, ‘marketing public
relations’ or ‘MPR’ is often used to describe the latter.)
In the last three decades the marketing scenario has changed extensively. Digital
communication is an integral part of each element of the marketing communication
mix and many see it as an entirely separate and unique branch of marketing

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communication. Marketing competition has increased and the perception of

marketing has altered. Technology has intrinsically changed business, organisational
processes and the way in which people live, work and play. Organisations utilise
technology that makes detailed management of customer interaction and personal
interaction possible. Mass media have diversified extensively and many have the
capacity to interact individually with audience members on a mass scale. Almost
every individual in the market has access to market information through a
multitude of devices, of which the cellular phone is the most common. Populations
are less geographically confined in their marketing activity, and the potential for
communication within the market is extensive. In many economic sectors there has
been a shift in market power towards the customer and away from manufacturers,
resulting in a significant change in the way that people think about and use marketing
communication. What was seen as a relatively rigid marketing communication mix
of advertising, sales promotion, publicity and personal selling – with advertising
invariably dominating this mix – has now altered.
Today marketing is widely seen as a process in which a single sales transaction
constitutes a single event in an ongoing relationship between an organisation and
its customers. More attention is given to repeat business with existing customers
than the achievement of a one-off sale. Marketing communication is further seen as
the communication variable that exists in every aspect of the relationship between
customer and business as opposed to a discrete set of techniques.
Whereas marketing communication was originally regarded as the management
of the marketing communication mix, today it is seen as the far more fundamental
process of building a resilient brand relationship through every area of interaction
between the customer and the organisation. The interaction includes the traditional
areas of marketing communication but it also focuses on the management of the total
communication process. Continuing to address planned messages (such as those that
are delivered through advertising), marketing communication also includes product,
service and unplanned messages (Grönroos, 2000):
„„ Product messages are those that the product itself conveys through its reliability,
functionality, ease of use and design.
„„ Service messages are delivered through the service process, and include the behaviour
of service personnel, the customer’s experience of the service process and the
quality of service.
„„ Unplanned messages include those that the organisation sends out inadvertently, or
messages that sources outside the organisation, such as fellow customers, the press
and interest groups, send out.
At its most elementary, marketing communication may be defined as ‘the various
types of planned messages used to build a brand’ (Duncan, 2005: 7). More commonly
practised today as ‘integrated marketing communication’, it can also be defined as
traditional media marketing plus the communication aspects of the delivery and
consumption of goods and services, customer service, and other customer encounters
(Grönroos, 2000).

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The academic field of marketing communication originated in a number of disciplines

and, with some exceptions, has been consolidated in an ongoing process determined
more through practice than through theory formulated within the academic world.
Certain elements of marketing communication, such as advertising or public relations,
have their academic origins in art, language, journalism or behavioural studies, which
are more at home in faculties of arts or the social sciences. Other elements of marketing
communication, such as those linked to business strategy, market segmentation or
database development, have their academic origins in business and commerce, with
the result that they are more usually studied in faculties of commerce or business.
Reflecting its mixed origins, the academic field of marketing communication
is commonly offered by different faculties: business or commerce on the one hand,
and arts or social sciences on the other. This is also the case where the subfields of
marketing communication are offered as separate subjects. It is possible to find
marketing communication in all its forms being taught in departments of journalism,
communication or marketing, while individual subjects such as advertising may even
be presented by language or art departments. Moreover, it is not unusual to find these
subjects taught simultaneously by two departments in a university, for example in the
arts and the business faculty.
The academic field of marketing communication now typically includes the
study of the role of communication in the greater organisation and in marketing,
branding and brand development; the communication mix; relationship marketing;
and integrated marketing communication. Marketing communication is studied at
the overall level of marketing communication as a whole, and at the levels of its
composite parts. This is because marketing communication is an extensive field and
an industry, with career opportunities in marketing communication management
and in the separate fields that comprise it. Marketing communication and its
subfields are offered at both theoretical and skills levels by universities, colleges and
other academic institutions.

Selected fields of communication: Boundaries and relationships

In 1993, Annette Shelby wrote ‘Organizational, business, management, and corporate
communication: an analysis of boundaries and relationships’, an article published in
the Journal of Business Communication, in which she identifies relationships and boundaries
that exist between organisational communication (which she identifies as two separate fields),
business, management and corporate communication. Using criteria similar to those of her
study, the fields have been re-assessed. Different titles are used in some cases, and the original
fields are expanded to include public relations and marketing communication.
The first phase in assessing the communication fields evaluates each field on the grounds
of 12 variables that Shelby terms dyad, collectivity, inside, outside, intervention, investigation,
analysis, synthesis, skills, theory, method and discipline. They are defined as follows:
1. Dyad: Degree to which the field is characterised by dyadic communication, or the
communication that occurs between two people.
2. Collectivity: Degree to which the field is characterised as communication from one to
many people, within a group or between groups.
3. Inside: Degree to which the field is characterised as internal communication, occurring
within an organisation.

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4. Outside: Degree to which the field is characterised as external communication, occurring

between the organisation and its environment.
5. Intervention: Degree to which the field is characterised as existing to achieve organisational
goals (as functional).
6. Investigation: Degree to which the field is characterised as a study, the aim being to
understand or describe the communication phenomenon.
7. Analysis: Degree to which the field is characterised by reductionism – that is, the attempt
to analyse the communication phenomenon through the study of its parts.
8. Synthesis: Degree to which the field is characterised by holism and the generation of
encompassing theories – that is, the attempt to analyse the communication phenomenon
through the study of the whole and the contribution of the parts to the whole.
9. Skills: Degree to which the field is characterised by a focus on skills or craft.
10. Theory: Degree to which the communication field is characterised by systematic,
explanatory or predictive principles.
11. Method: Degree to which the communication field is characterised as a range of
techniques.
12. Discipline: Degree to which the communication field is characterised as a discrete,
coherent field of study.
The second phase of assessment places each field’s descriptors into contrasting pairs:

dyad collectivity
inside outside
intervention investigation
analysis synthesis
skills theory
method discipline

In the third phase of assessment, the coupled pairs are clustered into three classifying groups.
Shelby (1993) names these groups system, process and product, but they are changed here for
purposes of clarity. System is replaced with scope, process with means, and product with goal.
These terms are defined as follows:
„„ Scope criteria: The fields’ areas of interest.
„„ Means criteria: The methods by which the fields are studied and practised.
„„ Goal criteria: The fields’ objectives.

Each classifying group is laid out as a matrix comprising two axes, with each axis comprising a
coupled pair of descriptors, the first on the x-axis, and the second on the y-axis.
„„ Scope criteria comprise the inside–outside and the dyad–collectivity coupled descriptors.
„„ Means criteria comprise the intervention–investigation and the analysis–synthesis coupled
descriptors.
„„ Goal criteria comprise the method–discipline and the theory–skills coupled descriptors.

Using Shelby’s (1993) basic set of evaluation criteria, the fields that have been discussed above
are specified in more detail below, with graphic depictions of these specifications and their
comparisons provided in figures 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5.


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‘Academic’ organisational ‘Professional’ organisational

communication communication

Business communication Management communication

Corporate communication Public relations

Marketing communication

Figure 1.3 Scope – areas of interest 

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‘Academic’ organisational ‘Professional’ organisational

communication communication

Business communication Management communication

Corporate communication Public relations

Marketing communication

Figure 1.4 Means – methods of study and practice 

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‘Academic’ organisational ‘Professional’ organisational

communication communication

Business communication Management communication

Corporate communication Public relations

Marketing communication

Figure 1.5 Goals – field objectives 

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The most prominent fields of communication in business and organisations have been
discussed above. The relationships that exist between these fields, their boundaries and
the areas in which they overlap can be understood in terms of their areas of interest (their
scope), the way that they are studied and practised (their means), and their objectives
(their goals). A summary of these relationships is provided in tables 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3.

Table 1.1 The fields’ areas of interest (their scope)

Field Area of interest

‘Academic’ organisational „„ internal and external communication

communication „„ embraces interpersonal, group and mass communication

‘Professional’ „„ external communication forms smaller area of interest

organisational than organisations’ internal communication
communication „„ interpersonal, group and mass communication
„„ focuses extensively on internal communication

Business communication „„ internal and external communication

„„ primary interest in written communication
„„ includes some oral communication
„„ dyadic communication is strongly emphasised
„„ small degree of interest in communication between
groups

Management „„ limited interest in external communication

communication „„ emphasis on internal communication
„„ communication at the levels of the individual and group

Corporate „„ management of communication with all stakeholders,

communication internal and external
„„ communication mostly oriented towards groups
„„ limited interest in dyadic communication

Public relations „„ traditionally more active in external communication

„„ limited internal focus
„„ addresses communication at the interface between an
organisation and its stakeholders
„„ emphasis on mass and group communication
„„ interpersonal communication forms a smaller, but
significant, area of focus

Marketing „„ primary external, collective communication focus

communication „„ field now includes a small degree of internal
communication to address the organisation’s personnel
„„ dyadic communication has increased with the
opportunities made possible by technology

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Table 1.2 Methods used in the fields (their means)

Field Methods

‘Academic’ organisational „„ reductionistic and holistic approaches

communication „„ explanation and description of
communication in the context of the
organisation
„„ intervention is not a universal priority in the
field

‘Professional’ organisational „„ practical application is dominant

communication „„ far more intervention and analysis than
synthesis and investigation
„„ a small degree of research, theoretical
development and consolidation
„„ theory generally borrowed from other fields
„„ theory applied to situations of actual
organisational communication practice

Business communication „„ oriented towards practical intervention in

practice
„„ aimed at better performance
„„ generation and integration of theory
„„ attempts to understand and describe business
communication not extensive

Management communication „„ strongly focused on the application of

communication theories, methods and
techniques of management
„„ greater emphasis on intervention and less on
research or theoretical analysis and synthesis

Corporate communication „„ traditionally focused on intervention

„„ extensive increase in research and theoretical
development in the last two decades

Public relations „„ focused on practice and professional

application
„„ has generated an extensive body of theory
and research
„„ most theoretical interest on application in
narrow areas of practice
„„ some theoretical interest also in the field as a
whole

Marketing communication „„ primarily concerned with intervention and

effective practice
„„ characterised, as an academic field, equally
by substantial research and theoretical
development
„„ theoretical development in fundamental and
applied areas

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Table 1.3 The fields’ objectives (their goals)

Field Objectives

‘Academic’ organisational „„ a discrete, coherent field of study

communication „„ little attention given to methods and skills
„„ overwhelmingly focused on theory and theoretical
exploration

‘Professional’ organisational „„ extensively focused on methods of practice and skills

communication „„ some disciplinary development
„„ embraces a significant body of theory that is primarily
derived from other disciplines

Business communication „„ overwhelmingly focused on method and skills

„„ demonstrates few of the characteristics of a discipline
„„ limited theoretical foundation

Management „„ focuses fairly strongly on method and skills

communication „„ has a substantial theoretical base
„„ may be characterised as a discipline and a coherent
field of study
„„ as a discipline, however, does not demonstrate the
same depth as, for example, ‘academic’ organisational
communication

Corporate communication „„ strongly focused on the generation of effective and

efficient skills and methods of operation
„„ demonstrates, through recent work, significant
disciplinary traits with a sound theoretical foundation

Public relations „„ very similar to corporate communication

Marketing communication „„ centrally focused on the efficient and effective

operation of an organisation, particularly in
relationships with customers or clients
„„ strongly focused on method and skills
„„ has a significant theoretical foundation
„„ comprises strong disciplinary traits
„„ disciplinary stature is understandable as it comprises
other significant fields such as advertising, sales
promotion and direct marketing

1.5 The strategic role of communication

Before discussing in depth the strategic role of communication, it is necessary
to explain what is meant by the word ‘strategic’ and what it means to define a
strategy. In the sections that follow, strategy and its related concepts are defined
and the various levels of strategy are identified. The relationship between
communication and strategy, and the strategic role of communication in the
organisation, are also discussed.

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1.5.1 Defining ‘strategy’
The term ‘strategy’ is derived from the Greek word strategia, meaning the art of war.
The term was therefore first used in the context of warfare and it is only since the early
1960s that it has been applied to business management (Feurer & Chaharbaghi, 1995;
Mansfield, 1997).
Chandler (1962: 13) articulated one of the first definitions of strategy in the
business context, namely: ‘The determination of the basic goals and the objectives
of an enterprise and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources
necessary for carrying out these goals.’ Chandler’s definition encompasses three main
themes, namely:
1. Determination of goals and objectives (for example improving profitability or
market share).
2. Adoption of certain courses of action (for example developing a new product).
3. Allocation of resources (for example natural, financial, technological and human
resources).
A well-known conceptualisation of the strategy concept is Mintzberg’s (1987) five Ps –
five related definitions of strategy:
1. Strategy as plan: an intended course of action. This definition implies that strategy
is forward-looking; it is developed in advance of the actions to which it applies.
Strategy is intentional and purposeful (for example, a plan to cut labour costs
might include automation of manufacturing processes).
2. Strategy as ploy: a specific manoeuvre to outwit an opponent. Strategy is developed
with the intention to protect or support an organisation’s competitive position.
In this sense, strategy may take the form of announcements or threats in order
to pre-empt competitive action. By implication, strategy as a ploy consists of
announcements or threats of certain actions rather than the actions themselves
(for example, a company announces its intentions to develop a new product in the
hope of discouraging competitors from doing the same).
3. Strategy as pattern: strategy emerging through a stream of consistent actions. In
some instances, strategy is not a preconceived plan but rather the result of a range
of actions taken by an organisation. Therefore, strategy is detected in retrospect
through looking back and discerning patterns in the organisation’s behaviour (for
example its tendency to headhunt individuals for certain positions as opposed to
widely advertising the position).
4. Strategy as position: the mediating force between the organisation and the
environment. Strategy is seen as achieving the best fit between the internal context
and capabilities of the organisation and the characteristics and demands of the
external environment (for example a niche strategy where the organisation has
unique resources and capabilities to satisfy a particular need).
5. Strategy as perspective: an ingrained way of perceiving the world. Strategy is
equated to the character of an organisation – that is, an organisation’s particular
way of acting and responding which is shared by the members of an organisation
(for example, some organisations are known as leaders in their industries, others
as followers).

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It is important to realise that one definition is not more important than another and
that at any given point in time an organisation’s strategy might display characteristics
of any or all of the definitions.

1.5.2 Extensions of the strategic concept

The strategic concept is applied in a number of extended contexts, some of which
are significant and warrant further attention. Those considered here are strategic
management, strategic planning, strategic thinking and strategic decision making.

Strategic management
The strategic management literature is vast and there are numerous definitions,
frameworks, models and approaches associated with strategic management. This
section provides an overview of the main themes in the strategic management literature.
Strategic management can be defined as the coordination and monitoring of an
organisation’s strategy development and implementation processes. In a review of the
strategic management literature, Katsoulakos and Katsoulacos (2007) identify three
key strategic issues (also referred to as dimensions of strategy) that managers need to
address: value creation, responsiveness and responsibility.

Value creation
To be profitable, an organisation needs to create more value than its competitors.
Value means different things to different stakeholders. For example, customers want
products or services that offer value for money, while investors want a good return on
their investment in the organisation. Employees want job satisfaction, market-related
salaries and fair treatment in return for their expertise and labour.
Over the last four decades there have been various approaches to strategic
management for value creation. Traditionally, strategic management was seen as a
series of sequential steps – that is, analysing the organisation’s internal and external
environment, setting goals and objectives, developing plans to achieve these objectives,
implementing the plans, and monitoring the progress and success of implementation.
This was known as the planned approach to strategic management (Chen, 2005).
The major drawback of the planned approach is that it is based on the assumption
that the business environment is relatively stable and predictable. As this is rarely the
case, the planned approach is too prescriptive and will not lead to optimal business
decisions. As a result, organisations began focusing on obtaining a competitive
advantage by configuring their value chains more efficiently than competitors with
the outside-in approach (Chen, 2005; Katsoulakos & Katsoulacos, 2007). The value
chain concept recognised the important role of all parties that are involved, from
the development and processing of raw materials to the delivery of the finished
product. The organisation is not necessarily directly involved in all the steps between
the development of raw materials and the delivery of the final product. Its success is
therefore dependent on the performance of other organisations in the value chain.
During the 1990s the emphasis shifted inward to the organisation’s core
competencies, those distinctive capabilities that set it apart from its competitors

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(the inside-out approach). More recent approaches focus on the learning capabilities
(the learning approach) and knowledge assets of organisations such as the expertise and
experience of employees (the knowledge management approach) (Katsoulakos & Katsoulacos,
2007). Because the external environment is changing rapidly, organisations need to
adapt to these changes quickly. Thus organisations that succeed in acquiring new
knowledge and skills quickly, or that tap into existing knowledge assets, are able to
better adjust to new opportunities and challenges in the environment.
One of the most recent approaches to strategic management is the stakeholder
approach. This approach is based on the relational view of the organisation, with the
recognition that various groups and individuals are influenced by the actions of the
organisation and that, conversely, these individuals and groups can have an influence
on the actions of the organisation (Freeman, 1984). For example, government can
influence an organisation’s actions through legislation; suppliers can influence an
organisation’s manufacturing processes if they are not willing or able to provide the
necessary materials.

Responsiveness
As the business environment became more volatile and unpredictable, there was
increasing interest in a more dynamic or responsive approach to strategic management.
Mintzberg (1994) was one of the first scholars to realise that there could be large
differences between the strategy developed prior to implementation (intended strateg y)
and the strategy that is actually realised during execution (realised strateg y). For example,
due to environmental changes, some aspects of intended strategy might not be realised.
Furthermore, Mintzberg (1994) points out that although strategy can be deliberate
(intended strateg y) it can also evolve through a learning process and from adaptation to
environmental changes (emergent strateg y). The concept of emergent strategy incorporates
responsiveness in the strategic management process.
Responsiveness has not featured strongly in the traditional planned approach
to strategic management but it can be detected in the inside-out (core competence),
learning and stakeholder approaches to strategic management:
„„ The inside-out approach enables organisations to respond to a changing
environment by reconfiguring their core competencies.
„„ The learning approach helps organisations to adapt through innovation – that
is, learning how to do business better or differently in response to changes in the
environment.
„„ The stakeholder approach enables organisations, through stakeholder engagement,
to identify trends and issues timeously and take corrective measures (Katsoulakos
& Katsoulacos, 2007).

Responsibility
The responsibility dimension of strategic management involves the ethical behaviour
of organisations and the economic, social and environmental impact of their actions. As
society becomes more aware of the negative impact that organisations can have (for
example fraud, unfair labour practices or pollution), pressure on organisations to

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earn their ‘licence to operate’ increases. One outcome of this is the corporate social
responsibility movement which promotes the triple bottom line approach (profit, people
and planet) to business management. In the past, an organisation’s strategies were
geared exclusively towards profitability. Nowadays, organisations are held accountable
for their negative impact upon – or positive contribution to – social and environmental
well-being as well.
The stakeholder approach to strategic management is especially relevant to the
responsibility dimension of strategic management. Previously, when the profitability
motive was the only or most important consideration, shareholders/investors were one
of the few stakeholder groups whose needs and concerns were taken into account. With
the current emphasis on the triple bottom line, organisations now need to identify
and engage with groups and individuals who experience the organisation’s social and
environmental impact as well.

Strategic planning
Strategic planning is the process through which strategy is operationalised. In other
words, strategic planning involves decisions on the implementation of strategy by
various functions or departments in the organisation (Steyn & Puth, 2000). Strategic
plans are implemented to improve the organisation’s performance (O’Regan &
Ghobadian, 2002) and to provide staff members and stakeholders with information
regarding the direction the organisation is intending to take (Schraeder, 2002).
However, strategic planning is not without its weaknesses. According to Schraeder
(2002), the term ‘strategic planning’ typically conjures up images of a lengthy, elaborate
and expensive process, reserved for the most senior managers. In today’s changing
environment, this is neither realistic nor ideal. The knowledge and expertise of staff
members of all ranks should be incorporated in the strategic planning process.
Another weakness is the fallacy of prediction (Mintzberg, 1994). This refers to the
assumption that the world comes to a standstill while the strategic plan is being
developed, and will maintain its predicted course while the plan is being implemented.
This assumption simply does not reflect reality.

Strategic thinking
Strategic thinking entails the articulation of top management’s broad vision of the
future and the direction of the organisation (Steyn & Puth, 2000). Mintzberg (1994: 108)
refers to an integrated perspective of the enterprise and a ‘not-too-precisely articulated
vision of direction’. Strategic thinking is based on a systems view (or a holistic view) of
the manner in which different parts of the organisation and the external environment
influence each other. Furthermore, it is aware of the interconnectivity between past,
present and future. Strategic thinking enables organisations to recognise and take
advantage of emerging opportunities – to be intelligently opportunistic (Liedtka, 1998).

Strategic decision making

Strategic decision making underlies the development and implementation of
strategy and is based on analyses of the environment, the organisation’s resources

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and culture, and stakeholder expectations (Steyn & Puth, 2000). In other words,
various types of information are needed to make informed decisions. According to
McNeilly (2002), the success of strategic decisions depends, among other things, on
an effective communication system. It is insufficient to simply gather the information;
a communication infrastructure is necessary to ensure that the gathered information
reaches decision makers timeously. See Strateg y communication for an in-depth discussion
of communication’s role in strategic decision making.

1.5.3 Levels of strategy
Organisations are generally characterised by hierarchical structure – layers of
people with different degrees of seniority and managerial responsibilities working in
different departments. Owing to this structure, different strategies are developed and
implemented at the various levels. Furthermore, different stakeholders are addressed
according to different levels of strategy. There are five levels of strategy, namely
enterprise strateg y, corporate strateg y, business strateg y, functional strateg y and operational strateg y
(Steyn, 2007).

Enterprise strategy
Enterprise strategy is the broadest in scope and is not always formally or explicitly
articulated. According to Freeman (1984), enterprise strategy identifies the organisation’s
relationship with society. In other words, it is concerned with the organisation’s mission
and role in society and is therefore primarily stakeholder oriented (Steyn & Puth, 2000).
In terms of the triple bottom line approach (see Strategic management), enterprise
strategy is more concerned with an organisation’s social and environmental impact –
that is, its non-financial goals. It is specifically concerned with corporate governance,
socially responsible behaviour, corporate citizenship and reputation (Steyn, 2007).
Broadly speaking, enterprise strategy is aimed at building trust between the
organisation and the society in which it operates.

Corporate strategy
Corporate strategy defines either the business domain in which an organisation
operates at a certain point in time or the range of business opportunities that
are available to the organisation (Freeman, 1984). Strategy at this level is seen
as the responsibility of top management and the board of directors, and involves
decisions such as the addition of new businesses (through mergers, acquisitions,
internal development or strategic alliances) or the discarding of existing businesses
(Varadarajan & Clark, 1994). Corporate strategy is primarily concerned with the
financial goals of organisations (Steyn, 2007).

Business strategy
Business strategy guides an organisation’s efforts in establishing and maintaining a
competitive advantage in a specific product, market or industry segment. In other
words, business strategy is primarily marketing oriented. Some organisations might
have more than one business strategy because they compete with different products

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in various markets and industries. It is therefore important that the relationships

between these business strategies and the priority accorded to each are clearly set out
(Mansfield, 1997; Steyn & Puth, 2000).

Functional strategy
Functional strategies are developed for each functional area in an organisation, for
example marketing, public relations, human resources and finance. The purpose of
functional strategies is to indicate what each functional area must do to support the
business and corporate strategies. The emphasis is on optimal utilisation of resources
and coordination between functional areas (Steyn & Puth, 2000; Varadarajan &
Clark, 1994).

Operational strategy
Operational strategy is concerned with short-term objectives and implementation
strategies (tactics) for a particular function. The emphasis is on the cost effectiveness of
functions and operating units (Steyn & Puth, 2000).
It is important to realise that these levels of strategy are more conceptual than
real in nature. In other words, in practice, the distinctions between the levels might
not always be clear. In addition, it is sometimes difficult to determine at which level a
particular issue should be addressed. Furthermore, the levels of strategy development
and implementation depend on an organisation’s structure (Mansfield, 1997; Steyn &
Puth, 2000; Varadarajan & Clark, 1994).

1.5.4 The relationship between strategy and communication

Moss and Warnaby (1998) explain the relationship between strategy and
communication by distinguishing between two concepts: strateg y communication and
communication strateg y. A third concept can be added, namely communication of strateg y.
These three concepts are interrelated and shed light on the various strategic roles
of communication.

Strategy communication
Strategy communication was originally described as the role of communication in
facilitating the development and implementation of the organisation’s strategy (Moss &
Warnaby, 1998). Traditionally, the communication function/department (and notably
corporate communication/public relations) was seen only as a support function to the
strategy-making processes of the organisation – that is, communicating the strategy
in order for internal and external stakeholders to understand and accept it. From
this perspective, the communication function is not integral to the strategic decision-
making processes.
In recent years, there have been calls for the more direct involvement of the
communication function in the strategic decision-making processes of the organisation.
Steyn and Niemann (2008) suggest that communication practitioners should make a
contribution to the formulation of enterprise strategy – that is, the level of strategy
concerned with the organisation’s relationship with society. The communication

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function is actively involved in building and maintaining relationships with the

organisation’s various stakeholders (for example employees, suppliers, customers and
clients, investors, government, pressure groups, the media, and so on). In order to build
and maintain these relationships, the communication function is constantly scanning
the environment for relevant trends and issues, and the stakeholders associated with
them. The communication function is therefore well equipped to participate in decision
making at the enterprise strategy level.
Likely (2003) proposes a model for strategic management that highlights how
the communication function can contribute more directly to the development and
implementation of strategy:
„„ Defining organisational identity: Communication functions such as internal branding
and the management of stakeholder relations and corporate reputation help to
define the organisation’s identity, both internally and externally.
„„ Providing information for the evaluation of the external environment: Functions with
‘external windows’ are ideal for providing valuable information about the state of
the external environment by means of environmental scanning. Steyn and Puth
(2000) refer to this as the mirror function of corporate communication.
„„ Providing information for the evaluation of the internal environment: The internal
communication function is ideal for the identification of strengths and weaknesses
in the organisation’s structure, information and communication systems, and
management, therefore providing input into the strategy development process.
„„ Focusing on the big picture during intended strateg y formulation: Owing to the boundary-
spanning role of communication (interaction with the organisation’s environment),
this can point out cause-and-effect relationships, for example how a decision
concerning one stakeholder group might have an (unintended) effect on another.
„„ Acting as change agent during strateg y execution: Strategy execution requires the
entire organisation to change in some way, for example by improving quality
or productivity. The strategic role of communication is to help organisational
members to understand the nature and implications of these changes.
„„ Acting as an early-warning system of changes (discontinuity) in the external environment:
The contemporary business environment is characterised by constant change. It
is crucial to identify these changes at an early stage so that the organisation’s
strategy can be adapted accordingly. Environmental changes differ in intensity
and impact, thus the strategic role of communication might range from issues
tracking and management to full-blown crisis management.
„„ Identifying and illuminating emergent strateg y: Emergent strategy is formulated
and implemented from the bottom up. In other words, changes are first made
to operational strategy. Information about these changes should therefore be
conveyed to the rest of the organisation so that alterations can also be implemented
at the higher levels of strategy.
„„ Providing information for the evaluation of actual realised strateg y: Besides evaluating
specific communication programmes and campaigns, communication’s boundary-
spanning role enables it to provide top management and other functional
departments with information that helps them to assess the achievement of various
strategic objectives.

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Communication strategy
Communication strategy is an example of functional strategy – that is, the strategy
developed by the communication function itself. This strategy is derived from the
enterprise and corporate strategies, and provides the framework for the organisation’s
communication with its various stakeholders (Steyn & Puth, 2000; Steyn, 2007).
Stated differently, communication strategy indicates what must be communicated to
the organisation’s various stakeholder groups. Developing a communication strategy is
one of the strategic roles of communication, as the communication strategy contributes
to the success of overall organisational strategy.

Communication of strategy
Communication of strategy is necessary to ensure consistency (strategic coherence)
between the different levels of strategy formulation (enterprise, corporate, business,
functional and operational) and implementation in an organisation. During the
formulation of intended strategy, communication of strategy takes place primarily
from the top down. For example, corporate strategy is derived from enterprise strategy,
and operational strategy from functional strategy. However, during the formation
and implementation of emergent strategy the process is reversed; communication
of strategy now takes place from the bottom up. Changes are made to operational
strategy, followed by changes to high-level strategies.
Also note that communication of strategy is closely related to the original definition of
strategy communication, namely communicating the organisation’s strategic direction
to internal and external stakeholders. Regarding internal stakeholders, it is necessary
to build a climate of trust and understanding between managers and employees in
order for strategy to be successfully implemented. Employees have to take ownership
of the organisation’s strategy. Furthermore, messages to external stakeholders have to
be aligned with the strategic intent (mission and vision) of the organisation.

1.6 Summary
This chapter is an introduction to some of the key issues in the discipline of organisational
communication. The communication phenomenon is discussed, and it is noted that
where an instrumental, pragmatic approach is taken, communication is commonly
seen as a mechanistic phenomenon. Where a social, interactive approach is taken,
communication is commonly seen as an interactional phenomenon. The chapter
proceeds with an overview of organisations and a review of a number of prominent
fields that deal with communication in the context of the organisation. The fields include
business communication, management communication, organisational communication,
corporate communication, public relations and marketing communication. Each one is
briefly discussed, and the relationships between them are explored. In conclusion, the
chapter addresses the strategic role of communication in organisations. The concept of
‘strategy’ is explored, and the strategic role of communication in the organisation is then
discussed in depth.

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Activities
1. Identify one communication event in an organisation of your choice. This event
could be internal or external, intentional or unintentional. First describe the
communication event as a phenomenon of mechanistic communication and then
describe the same event as a phenomenon of interactive communication. Compare
the two descriptions and discuss the benefits of each in attempting to understand
the communication event, its significance, causes and effects.
2. Define business communication, management communication, organisational
communication, corporate communication, public relations and marketing
communication.
3. Identify one or two communication functions, practices or events that clearly illustrate
the nature of each of the following communication fields: business communication,
management communication, ‘academic’ organisational communication,
‘professional’ organisational communication, corporate communication, public
relations and marketing communication.
4. Using the criteria area of interest, methods of study and practice and objectives, differentiate
between the fields of communication that are described in this chapter.
5. Briefly explain what is meant by the value creation, responsiveness and
responsibility dimensions of strategic management.
6. Give examples of strategy at each of the following levels: enterprise, corporate,
business, functional and operational.
7. Discuss the difference between strategy communication and communication
strategy. To illustrate the difference, give examples of each.

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Whittaker, C. 1996. ‘Integrated communication: a theoretical perspective’, Corporate Communications:
An International Journal, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 17–21.
Wikipedia. ‘Communication’. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication (accessed
12 January 2011).
WordNet. ‘Communication’. Available at http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=communication
(accessed 12 January 2011).
Zhu, Y, May, S K & Rosenfeld, L B. 2004. ‘Information adequacy and job satisfaction during
merger and acquisition’, Management Communication Quarterly, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 241–270.

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 Communication

2
CHAPTER

integration
G eorge Angelopulo

If the process used for building brand relationships is not properly managed, it will produce
confusion … Unlike the auto industry … it is virtually impossible to recall 1 000 000
relationships to replace a broken promise.
Duncan & Moriarty (1997b)

2.1 Introduction
From the previous chapter it is evident that all communicators in the broad discipline
of organisational communication strive for coherence but that the discipline is
characterised by fragmentation. Fragmentation exists in the practice of communication,
in perceptions of the broad discipline itself and in the many ways in which it is studied in
the academic environment. As a response to such fragmentation and its consequences,
there has been a growing tendency to harmonise the separate aspects of organisations’
communication within a perspective that may be termed ‘communication integration’
or ‘integrated communication’. Communication integration has become a central
concern of academics and practitioners in the field of organisational communication.
This chapter deals with:
„„ communication integration; and
„„ its origins, evolution and practice.

This chapter addresses the broad topic of communication integration but does
not focus specifically on integrated communication or integrated marketing communication
(IMC), which are formalised approaches to the fields of corporate communication,
public relations and marketing communication, and are discussed in later chapters.
The discussion here addresses all aspects of integration, including some that exist
within integrated communication and IMC.

2.2 Defining communication integration

Communication integration is the alignment of all of an organisation’s messages,
including those created by the procedures and behaviours of the organisation and
its people, in order to communicate clearly, consistently and with continuity within
and across formal organisational boundaries (Christensen, Morsing & Cheney,
2008). Added to the idea of ‘aligned messaging’ is that of stakeholder interaction – a
particular way of interacting with the organisation’s internal and external stakeholders
that includes the capability to ‘listen’ and build ongoing relationships in a purposeful
way that is in accordance with the organisation’s strategy.

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Communication integration can therefore be defined as the cross-functional process

of creating and nourishing strategically determined relationships with stakeholders
by ensuring that the messages to these groups are as appropriate and beneficial to
the business relationship as possible, and engaging in purposeful dialogue with them
(adapted from Duncan, 2002).

2.3 The evolution of communication integration

As a basic principle that guides communication planning and implemention,
communication integration has its origins in marketing communication. It has however,
expanded to include the full range of organisational communication fields on the one
hand, and all areas of business and marketing on the other. Christensen et al. (2008),
Cornelissen and Lock (2001), Duncan (2002), Duncan and Caywood (1998), Hutton
(1996), and Van Riel (1995) suggest a time line for the evolution of communication
integration that is illustrated in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Time line: The evolution of communication integration

Prior to the Industrial „„ Most manufacture and trade was undertaken by individuals
Revolution who dealt directly with each other at their own premises or at
markets
„„ Relationships were direct and personal
„„ Communication was invariably interpersonal and was rarely
mediated

The Industrial „„ The process of production was significantly changed from

Revolution custom manufacture to mass production
„„ Communication was increasingly standardised and addressed
to a mass audience
„„ Marketing communication lost its interpersonal nature as
manufacturers and customers became less involved with one
another
„„ Communication was increasingly mediated through agents,
distributors, retailers and the mass media

1920s „„ The first consistent attempt to co-ordinate communication

was through the widespread implementation of ‘house-style
manuals’
„„ These offered clear and consistent guidelines on corporate
design and corporate identity

After World War II „„ Worldwide consumption increased

„„ Companies focused on selling and promotion
„„ While personal selling remained extremely important,
marketing communication budgets swung strongly towards
advertising, with it becoming common to find up to 70% of
total marketing communication budgets allocated to it
„„ The rationale behind this shift was that advertising, through
the media of the time, could reach large percentages of the
market and was perceived to be extremely powerful 

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1950s „„ Despite the dominance of advertising and personal

selling, attempts to implement marketing communication
programmes in a harmonised manner became commonplace
„„ The four Ps paradigm (product, price, place and promotion)
dominated marketing practice
„„ Organisations realised that their marketing elements had to be
co-ordinated to function effectively

1970s „„ Companies demanded more value for the money spent on

marketing communication
„„ Many companies cut back on advertising and increased
expenditure on other areas of marketing communication
„„ Many companies noticed that the messages delivered through
the various elements of their communication mix were often
different, and sometimes at odds with each other
„„ Methods were sought to consolidate diverse marketing
messages

1980s „„ Integration was seen as the process of including and

aligning more of the communication disciplines – not only
advertising – in the marketing communication plan so as to
achieve greater impact

1990s „„ Many organisations saw marketing as the establishment of a

relationship between brand and customer
„„ Communication was understood to embrace all sources of
information, including those that did not originate in the
organisation itself

2000s „„ The concept of communication integration extended from

product brands to the organisations that market products
„„ Organisations attempted to integrate all facets of their
operations such as supply, finance and manufacturing, with
the communication and technology that facilitated these
processes becoming increasingly important
„„ Greater efforts were made to manage the corporate brand in
all relations with customers and other stakeholders

Currently „„ Information technology becomes central to most relationships

and communication, both internal and external
„„ The power balance continues to tilt away from the
organisation towards its stakeholders, with ever-increasing
access to information and more opportunity for anyone to
initiate communication about the organisation
„„ Fragmentation continues in media (with unprecedented
diversity in many of its forms, be they traditional, digital or
social); social groupings (alliances and formations become
increasingly fluid and fickle); audiences (increasingly accessible
only on their own terms); devices (TV, tablet, computer,
billboard, phone and others); and roles (every individual has
multiple roles, such as employee, customer, ally, opponent,
communicator, and so on) 

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„„ Communication type, time and place is increasingly

determined by consumers and less by communicators
„„ Great media diversity but also global consolidation in
ownership and control of hard and software platforms, search
engines, digital, traditional and social media
„„ Audiences’ selective perception and cynicism about planned
communication increases as they select, ignore, interpret,
reformulate or reject messages in ways that are increasingly
difficult to predict
„„ Society increasingly demands ethical norms and open scrutiny
into what organisations say and do
„„ Organisations might initiate the conversation in everything
they are, say and do but they can rarely control it
„„ Communication is only one part messaging; the remainder
is interaction with any stakeholders on an equal footing, on
communication platforms chosen by them and not by the
organisation
„„ Organisations have to ‘integrate everything and everyone’

Duncan (2002) identifies three primary areas where change and evolution have led
to the need for integration: external market trends, trends within organisations and
societies’ demands for organisational integrity.
1. External market trends: The modern marketplace is characterised by a number of
factors that favour an integrated approach to organisational communication. The
availability of products and services in almost every category has increased to
the extent that there is a sense of product overload in the market. Few products
offer tangible differences, and new innovations can be copied easily and cheaply.
Owing to the availability of so many brands that offer similar value, consumers
are less loyal to individual brands. As products in similar price bands differ little
in terms of quality, customers tend to buy on price. Consumers have become more
sophisticated in their knowledge of products and less trusting of companies’ claims.
Commercial messages have saturated the market, with the result that fewer have
a genuine impact on the consumer. As economies become more service based and
less product based, the interpersonal relationships that are required in services
become increasingly important.
2. Trends within organisations: A number of trends within organisations have increased
the need for integration. As organisations grow, the number of departments within
them also grows, requiring better co-ordination. The existence of numerous
functions that deal with communication in an organisation enhances the possibility
of producing conflicting messages. Organisations’ mission statements, which are
generally believed to motivate their staff and instil a single-minded purpose in
their activities, are often meaningless, with the result that organisations do not
drive staff to achieve goals single-mindedly. The attempt to integrate marketing
communication efforts has led to the integration of all internal and external
organisational communication efforts. Integration of communication has become
a central theme in corporate and marketing communication, and has expanded

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to embrace all commercial, external and internal messages generated by the

organisation. Information technology has generated a range of communication
opportunities that were inconceivable in the early 1990s but these are frequently
misused and in such cases are of little benefit.
3. Societies’ demands for organisational integrity: There is a growing societal demand for
integrity in organisations of all kinds, whether they are businesses, services or
government organisations. Each organisation is a brand that is perceived either
positively or negatively. All interaction between these organisations and their
stakeholders, including the interaction that is inherent in the service, products and
communication that these organisations provide, results in their brand images. A
holistic, integrated approach to communication, as opposed to a range of separate
messages, has more chance of projecting a brand image of integrity.

2.4 The principles of communication integration

The way in which communication is understood and the way in which it is integrated
has evolved extensively over time. It originated as a perspective on the consistency of
messages in planned communications and has evolved to the current view of consistent
communication in every facet of the organisation and its relationships with internal
and external stakeholders. Given our current insights, what are the key principles of
communication integration? It is possible to identify five: market orientation; message
alignment from all sources; implementation throughout the organisation; positioning
as a strategic imperative; and, finally, recognition of communication integration’s
limitations and avoidance of its pitfalls.

2.4.1 Market orientation
Organisations are managed from a variety of perspectives. Within competitive
economies, one of the more successful perspectives is best described as a ‘market
orientation’. A market orientation is a way of thinking and organising in which the
needs of the organisation’s key stakeholders are held as the starting point of all decisions
and actions.
A market orientation is most commonly associated with businesses that produce and
sell products, but its principles are applicable to organisations of all kinds. Organisations
that offer services or ideas can also have a market orientation and, in this context, their
customers can better be described as clients, stakeholders or audiences.
Communication integration is a process of thinking and organising that helps an
organisation become and remain market oriented. It ensures that a market orientation
is the responsibility of everyone in the organisation. It is a practical method of
identifying customer needs, aligning the organisation’s attempts to meet these needs,
and maintaining a dialogue with customers and other stakeholders throughout the
process. Communication integration is not a complete solution but it contributes
significantly to the maintenance of good relationships with customers, clients and
other stakeholders. In addition, integration contributes to the co-ordination of the
activities in the organisation that make such relationships possible.

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In many organisations, communication is seen as the function of specialised

departments such as Corporate Communication, Public Relations or Marketing. But
communication is not only a specialised function; it is part of every interaction in
the modern organisation and in the organisation’s relationships with stakeholders.
Communication is part of the normal work of anyone in an organisation, with
managers working with their staff, shop-floor workers co-ordinating their tasks, the
chief executive officer working with the board of directors or a telephonist dealing
with customer queries. All these people might be focusing on something other than
communication, but communication invariably plays a role in their individual functions
and in the relationship between these functions and the organisation as a whole.
Because communication integration deals with more than specialised communication
functions, it is related to all communication generated both by the organisation and
about the organisation.

2.4.2 Align messages from all sources

An organisation’s stakeholders form their opinions of the organisation (and its products,
services or ideas) from a range of messages that accumulate to form the dominant
perceptions that affect their relationship with the organisation. Duncan and Moriarty
(1997a) identify four types of messages: planned, product, service and unplanned
messages.
1. Planned messages are delivered through the communication mix. This includes
marketing communication and other areas of corporate communication that
fall outside the marketing communication sphere, and can include advertising,
sponsorship, public relations and marketing public relations, sales promotion,
direct marketing and personal selling. Under certain circumstances, digital
communication may also be considered part of these planned messages. These
communication messages can be directed at customers as well as internal and
other stakeholder audiences, and are transmitted in a way that is most closely
aligned to the messages that are intended by the organisation.
2. Product messages are inferred from, and comprise everything embedded in, the
organisation’s product. These include the product’s design, the way in which it
works, any problems that it might have, its functionality, the satisfaction of owning
it, the means of its acquisition and disposal, and its perceived value.
3. Service messages exist in the experience of dealing with the organisation and its
staff, agents and products. The behaviour of the organisation’s staff, its service
environment, and the systems and technology that are in place to support its
service all communicate some message about the organisation.
4. Unplanned messages are generated beyond the reach of the organisation. They
consist of rumours, word of mouth from other customers and the content of media
messages that are not generated by the organisation.
Planned messages are, of course, easiest for the organisation to implement and control
but they tend to have the least impact because they are often perceived to be biased.
Service and product messages have greater impact because they are perceived as actual
experiences of the organisation and what it does or produces. Unplanned messages

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are usually highly believable because their sources tend to be perceived as unbiased.
Duncan and Moriarty (1997a) point out that integration exists when planned messages
(what the organisation says) are confirmed by service and product messages (what the
organisation does), and further confirmed by unplanned messages (what unbiased
observers say) about the organisation, its services and products. For the organisation’s
communication to be integrated, messages from all four sources must be similar,
positive and strong. The greatest challenge of integrating communication lies in the
alignment of messages from all four sources.

2.4.3 Implement throughout the organisation

Communication integration requires consistent messages supported by consistent
actions throughout the organisation. In light of the work of Grönroos (2000) and
Zeithaml, Berry and Parasuraman (1988) and others in service quality and marketing,
it is possible to identify five specific locations in the organisation that are centrally
important to communication integration. The processes and interventions that occur
at these locations directly determine the organisation’s communication, its integration,
and stakeholders’ ultimate perception of the corporate brand, which is the dominant
and overriding perception that they have of the organisation. These locations are the
points where the organisation’s mission is translated into strategy; where strategy is
implemented; where external relationships are planned and executed; where service
is delivered; and where stakeholder expectations of the organisation, its products and
services are formed.

1.  The location where the organisation’s mission is translated into strategy
This is where strategic decisions for the organisation are taken. Processes and
communication in this location are in the domain of the organisation’s dominant
decision makers and senior management.
For communication integration to proceed at this point it is necessary that management:
„„ has a clear understanding of the mission of the organisation
„„ has a clear understanding of customers’ and other stakeholders’ needs, wants and
requirements of the organisation, its product and services
„„ is able to develop strategy in line with its mission and the market’s needs so that the
organisation can deliver what is required in five areas: organisational structure,
management, knowledge, attitudes and outputs.
The communication competencies required at this location are primarily strategic
but should also include some expertise in management, business and organisational
communication.

2.  The location where the organisation’s strategy is implemented

The location where strategy is implemented usually occurs at managerial level.
Managers translate and implement the organisation’s strategy into specific objectives
for the divisions of the organisation that create, maintain and support its products and
services. These divisions can include production, systems and technical operations,

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management and supervisor support, finance, human resources and training, amongst
others.
For communication integration to proceed at this location, it is necessary that the
managers of each of these functions:
„„ effectively translate strategy into the operational requirements of their divisions
„„ know and understand how the work done by their division contributes to the
delivery of the organisation’s service or product
„„ keep in touch with the people who deliver the product or service to the market
in order to remain aware of what is happening at the point of product or service
delivery, what it is like to deal with the company at that point, and what external
stakeholders’ needs are at that point.
The communication competencies needed at this location are strategic and managerial,
while some expertise is required in the fields of management, business and professional
organisational communication.

3. The location where the organisation’s external communications are planned

and executed
External communication is normally produced and maintained by specialist
communicators and might incorporate advertising, public relations, direct marketing
or any of the other areas of planned communication. Specialist communicators
may work directly for the organisation, operate as freelancers or be employed by an
externally contracted service vendor.
For communication integration to proceed at this location it is necessary that the
specialist communicators:
„„ have insight into the organisation’s communication aims and strategy
„„ understand customers’ and other external stakeholders’ broad expectations of
the product and service category in which the organisation is engaged, and their
specific expectations of the organisation, its product and service.
The communication competencies required at this location are at the communication
management and task levels, and expertise is required in the fields of public relations,
corporate and marketing communication.

4. The location where the organisation’s service is delivered to the consumer,

customer or client
Service delivery occurs at every point of contact between the customer and the
organisation, its product or service. These include all points of contact before, during
and after the sale; all interaction with the organisation’s representatives; actual
experience of the organisation’s service, product and routines; and all experience
of the organisation’s equipment and resources. Everything that happens inside the
organisation that the customer or client does not directly experience is either unknown
or mere speculation. All contacts here are ‘moments of truth’ – moments where the

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‘truth’ of the organisation is experienced. Each contact here is a message in itself and
constitutes the reality of the organisation and its product in the mind of the customer.
At this point, communication and its messages are largely embodied in the
organisation’s product and service. Service is delivered from many sources inside and
outside the organisation, and some of these might be external suppliers or agents who are
not in fact part of the organisation. Despite this, customers and other external stakeholders
perceive the organisation, its service or product as a single entity, irrespective of the
internal or external position of the people who represent it. It is therefore imperative that
all elements in the supply chain operate as an integrated whole.
For communication to succeed at this location it must:
„„ meet or exceed the customers’ and other external stakeholders’ expectations
„„ present the product or service offering as a seamless entity.

The communication competencies needed at this location are at the task level, and
some expertise is required at the implementation levels of marketing communication,
business communication and public relations.

5. The location where external stakeholder’s expectations of the organisation, its

products and services are formed
Although external stakeholders are the primary focus here, secondary effects on
internal stakeholders must be considered when undertaking action at this point.
Expectations originate from a number of sources:
„„ the wants and needs of stakeholders in general, and customers and clients in
particular
„„ actual and perceived experiences
„„ unsolicited communication from sources other than the organisation and its agents
„„ the organisation’s image
„„ the organisation’s planned communication.

In many cases, the organisation has little influence on the formation of all expectations
and is able to influence these expectations only through its repertoire of planned
communication. Planned communication is generally suitable for making promises
but in the long run the promises must be kept if the organisation is to sustain a level of
expectation that will persuade the customer to return.
For communication to succeed at this point it must:
„„ only make promises that will be kept
„„ be sustained in the long run
„„ be supported by the messages that are conveyed in unplanned communication,
over which the organisation has little or no control
„„ be sustained by a strong and positive organisational reputation that can only be
achieved through ongoing, satisfactory interaction with stakeholders.
The communication competencies necessary at this location are at the levels of
strategy and communication management, and expertise is required in marketing
communication, corporate communication, public relations, service management and
customer relationship management.

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2.4.4 Make integration a strategic imperative

Duncan and Moriarty (1997a) suggest ten specific strategies (or drivers) for marketing
integration. Their model is discussed here in the context of communication integration
because it is strongly centred on communication. It incorporates a comprehensive list of
processes that assist in the alignment of the organisation’s operations for the profitable
delivery of products, services and ideas, to ultimately satisfy consumer needs, and to
do so over the long term.
The first two strategies have a corporate focus.

1.  Create and nourish relationships rather than just make transactions
Maintaining existing customers is less expensive than acquiring new customers. To
maintain a customer it is essential to know the customer well, use this knowledge when
communicating with the customer and, through credible communication, strengthen
the relationship.

2.  Focus on all stakeholders rather than simply customers or shareholders

A good relationship with all stakeholders, not only shareholders and customers,
determines the long-term value of a brand and its profitability. To achieve this, the
stakeholder perspective of public relations should be incorporated more fundamentally
in the objectives of the organisation.
The next four strategies address operational processes.

3.  Maintain strategic consistency rather than independent brand messages

There is a communication dimension to all contact with a brand, and each area
of brand contact should be infused with the ‘big idea’ behind the brand to ensure
consistency and integrity.

4.  Generate purposeful interactivity rather than merely a mass-media monologue

While it is important to speak to customers, it is just as important to listen to them.
The more possibilities there are for receiving feedback from customers, the greater the
possibilities for integrating their needs into the organisation’s planning and operations.

5.  Market the corporate mission rather than simply product claims
An organisation’s mission contributes to the organisation only if it is integrated into
every function of the organisation. Philanthropic and sponsorship activities that reflect
the mission of the organisation contribute to strong stakeholder commitment.

6.  Use zero-based planning rather than adjust previous plans

Analysis and prioritisation of the brand’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats (that is, a SWOT analysis) should precede all communication programmes.
Communication functions that best and most cost effectively serve the campaign
objectives are then selected. All communication strategies must be justified in terms

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of the degree to which they advance communication objectives and contribute to a

favourable relationship with customers. The mere adjustment of previous plans should
be avoided.
The last four strategies relate to organisational infrastructure.

7.  Use cross-functional rather than departmental planning and monitoring

A key concept in integration is the linking of expertise, knowledge and information
across the breadth of the organisation. Expertise and customer information can be
shared and customers can be treated consistently through management planning and
monitoring across functions such as sales, marketing and customer service, without
these functions actually being merged.

8. Create core competencies rather than merely communication specialisation and

expertise
Communication managers must thoroughly understand the strengths and weaknesses
of individual communication functions and methods so that they are able to select
and apply them in the most appropriate way. Expertise in the individual fields of
communication is less valuable than generalised expertise and the ability to plan and
integrate comprehensive communication programmes. Specialised skills can always
be outsourced.

9.  Use an integrated rather than a traditional agency

Integration should preferably be overseen within the organisation rather than by
external agencies, but where agencies are used, even in the execution of specialist
functions, they should understand integration.

10. Build and manage databases to retain customers rather than simply acquire
new ones
Information on customers’ characteristics, transactions and other interactions with the
organisation form the basis of a developed relationship between the organisation and
the customer. This information must be collected, organised and shared within the
organisation. Given the opportunities offered by modern technology, this has become
far easier than was previously the case.

2.4.5 Recognise communication integration’s limitations and avoid the

pitfalls
Communication integration has its limitations and to achieve all that is possible through
integration it is necessary to consider these. In addition, it is important to be aware of a
number of pitfalls that can limit the success of an organisation’s communication and its
integration. Those addressed here are: the illusion of control; that integration lies with
the receiver, not the organisation; absence of communication; the time perspective of
various types of communication; and the impact of unplanned communication.

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1.  The illusion of control

Communication integration implies the organisation’s ability to understand all the
factors that determine its relationship with its stakeholders and to be able to control
them. In reality the ability of organisations to do this is limited – they might do so only
some of the time or only in part. There are a few reasons for this.
The first is that the view that managers have of their organisation is at best a type
of map that can never reflect the organisation in all its complexity. According to
Christensen et al. (2009: 210):
…[w]hile the desire to produce a general overview of an object or a situation, including
an organization’s communication, is understandable, nobody ever meets an organization
in full – neither its own members nor its external stakeholders. Nobody, therefore, is able
to describe the organisation in its ‘entirety’.

The second reason is that the span of communication that the organisation controls
is never the complete range to which stakeholders are exposed. People will frequently
acquire different perspectives of the organisation, its products and services from
sources other than the organisation, which has very little control over these alternative
message sources.
Although communication integration strives for the co-ordination of all messages
about the organisation, its products and services, its ability to control all communication
is limited and will always be so. Total control of communication is illusory, and it is
essential that communicators realise this limitation in order to be able to deal with the
limited aspects over which they do have control.

2.  lntegration lies with the receiver, not the organisation

As much as communicators orchestrate their organisation’s communication,
perception of this communication is ultimately integrated in the minds of its recipients.
No matter how carefully an organisation’s messages might be formulated, stakeholders
might perceive these messages very differently from the way in which the organisation
intended them to be perceived. Moriarty (in Harris 1998: 293) observes that the brain
‘gathers information from an untold number of contact points and assimilates it into
one picture’. This picture is subjective and, to a greater or lesser degree, unique to
each individual. It is rare that an organisation’s messages will be accepted, perceived
or integrated exactly as intended by the organisation.
There are a number of reasons that the messages formulated in the minds of an
organisation’s stakeholders often differ from those intended by communicators. People
form perceptions of an organisation from different sources, of which the organisation is
only one. As a result the array of messages about the organisation can differ substantially
from those propagated by the organisation. Furthermore, receivers are not passive but
are active, productive and creative (Christensen et al., 2009). Their creativity means
that messages are always judged and evaluated in terms of the recipient’s individual
state of mind, knowledge and experience.
In addition, the nature of consumers, markets and audiences has changed over
time. In a globalised world, consumers are swamped with marketing messages,
and many of them have become more distrustful, cynical, capable of grasping the

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intentions of marketers, and ‘more adept at manipulating and integrating corporate

symbols and messages into their own lives in ways that were not intended by the
senders’ (Christensen et al., 2009: 212). The relationship that exists between consumers
and stakeholder groups and the corporate messages to which they are exposed has
become less intense and is increasingly subject to wide interpretation, reinterpretation
and play. If communicators ignore this changed relationship, they test the gullibility
of audiences and their messages can be more easily rejected as one dimensional or
patronising (Christensen et al., 2009; Thompson, 2004).

3.  Absence of communication

In many instances where stakeholders require information about an organisation, the
organisation remains silent and does not communicate. This is often the case when
problems, emergencies or crises arise, or when the organisation is cast in a poor light.
Organisations might feel that it is unnecessary to engage in communication, that
no benefit can be gained from attempting to communicate, or that communication
might actually have negative consequences. In some cases silence might not have
serious consequences but, more often, silence has insidious effects that undermine
the reputation of the organisation. Silence can also have serious and immediate
consequences that negatively affect the organisation.
Grönroos (2000) points out that in certain circumstances the decision not to
communicate acts as a message in itself. This is particularly the case during a crisis.
Stakeholders often view an organisation which avoids communication as untrustworthy,
uncaring about its public, or lacking respect (Grönroos, 2000). In these situations it is
often better to convey negative information than not to communicate at all.

4.  The time perspective of various types of communication

In planning communication activities it should be understood that all communication
affects perceptions. If short-term campaigns clash conceptually with long-term ones
the result is invariably negative. For the same reason, if communications have different
objectives over a period of time, these need to be well co-ordinated to avoid confusion.
Specific types of organisational communication affect perceptions of the
organisation in different ways. While all organisational communication has
an impact, Grönroos (2000) points out that, generally, the impact of marketing
communication is short term; the messages inherent in marketing are medium term;
and image, which is the accumulated ‘residue’ of all communication and interaction,
is long term. It is therefore important to consider the effect of different types of
messages, as communication that might be effective in the short term could prove
detrimental in the long term. For example, an effective advertising campaign for
a defective radio might yield short-term sales but will prevent repeat purchases in
the future.

5.  The impact of unplanned communication

Planned communication is intended to yield certain results. However, Grönroos
(2000) notes that an unforeseen outcome of such communication might be unplanned

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messages that have either positive or negative effects. In the context of integration,
unplanned messages must therefore be considered when planning and evaluating the
communication of an organisation. Examples of unplanned results are a product name
that is acceptable in most parts of the world but which has a negative connotation in
a specific country, or the dress code of an organisation’s representative that might be
acceptable in some regions but inappropriate in others. It is therefore important that
organisations assess all of their messages to see if any are inappropriate, and not focus
only on their planned communications.

2.5 The management of communication integration

The implementation of communication integration is addressed in detail in other
chapters of this book but it may be valuable at this point, and before integration is
more specifically dealt with, to identify some general ways that it can be managed. Van
Riel (1999: 11) describes four methods for managing communication integration or, as
he terms it, communication orchestration. These are rules or directives; sequencing;
routines; and group problem solving. These are not in themselves integration processes;
they are methods for managing communication integration.

2.5.1 Rules or directives
Rules or directives are used to ensure standardisation in any area of communication
practice. They include specified procedures, rules of communication practice,
standardised information and standardised communication systems. The following
are examples of rules and directives:

1.  Common house style

Van Riel (1997) notes that the common house style is one of the oldest forms of
communication standardisation. ‘House style’ refers to the style of presentation that is
accepted and used throughout an organisation. It originated in corporate design but
has expanded to include many forms of organisational self-presentation. At its most
basic, the common house style is a specification of the organisation’s name, logo and
corporate colours. In a more developed form, house style can include standardisation
in many more areas of the organisation’s presentation, including, for example, its
architecture, symbolism or staff behaviour.

2.  Common starting points

Common starting points are a form of directive that is used to guide communication
integration. Such points are described as ‘central values which function as the basis
for undertaking any kinds of communication envisaged by an organisation’ (Van Riel,
1999: 12).
Common starting points create the priorities of a communication project. They do
not dictate the procedures that must be followed in the project; these are specified in
the next point dealing with operational guidelines. Common starting points can be
applied to the planning frameworks of organisational units and to the people involved

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in the communication project, whether they are employees of the organisation or

outside suppliers of communication products and services.
These starting points can be used in a number of ways. If an organisation has
many divisions, and some of these have names that are not identifiable with the parent
organisation, a common starting point could be that the parent organisation’s logo must
be included in all divisions’ communications, for example in letterheads, packaging
and advertising. Similarly an organisation might adopt environmental sustainability
as one of its core values. It can thus create, as a common starting point, a directive
specifying that its promotional messages must include themes of environmental
sustainability, or that all correspondence must be on recycled paper. The common
starting points in these examples do not specify the exact form of communication; they
specify only that the logo must appear in the communications of the first organisation,
and that environmental sustainability must be integrated into the communication and
operations of the second organisation.

3.  Operational guidelines

Operational guidelines are specifications for the implementation of communication
projects. These guidelines might highlight any areas of the communication project,
including those that deal with integration.
Operational guidelines for communication integration can be implemented for every
area of integration. The following are some examples:
„„ Guidelines could be specified for the selection of an advertising agency according
to its ability to implement integrated campaigns.
„„ The number and variety of channels of interaction between audience and the
organisation could be specified for the organisation’s website.
„„ Specific procedures could be set for the transformation of every customer contact
into a communication opportunity.
„„ The ‘big idea’, or central message, could be standardised for all promotional
communication.
„„ Specifications could be set for the alignment of subsidiaries’ communication
campaigns with those of the parent organisation.
„„ The company could actively engage its stakeholders in a range of social media.
„„ Points of information capture and database use in the daily operations of the
organisation could be specified.

2.5.2 Sequencing
Sequencing is the organisation of the planned communication process in such a way
that each contributor in the process has an independent input that is given a specific
time slot in planning, production and implementation. Sequencing is thus a carefully
considered process during which communicators structure communication according
to specific principles. In the case of communication integration, processes that ensure
the co-ordination of messages, maximisation of dialogue with the audience, and an
ongoing focus on the needs of the audience are all allotted a position in the planning,

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implementation and evaluation sequence. Specific areas of the communication process

that would be addressed include tasks, responsibilities and budgets.
Sequencing can also be implemented in the linking of communication processes to
the organisation’s broader operational cycle.

2.5.3 Routines
Routines are implicit protocols that structure the processes of communication
professionals’ tasks. Unlike the rules, directives or operational guidelines discussed
above, routines are not overtly specified. They are processes that have become common
practice through education, training or experience. An example is regular, informal
discussion between a communications manager and the CEO of an organisation before
communication strategy is developed and implemented, to ensure that communication
is aligned with the organisation’s overall objectives.

2.5.4 Group problem solving

A co-ordinating group might be required to oversee problems of integration when
the process of communication integration becomes complex. Such a situation might
result from the involvement of many people, the inclusion of different divisions of the
organisation, or the inclusion of people with little communication expertise. Group
problem solving is a more personal way of dealing with integration than the use of
rules or directives, sequencing or organisational routines. Van Riel (1999) identifies
three types of co-ordinating groups: steering committees; those undertaking annual or
quarterly reviews; and those that make up ad hoc meetings.

1.  Steering committees

Communication integration could be implemented through the work of a steering
committee that oversees communication as a whole, or that more specifically
oversees communication integration. Such a group would not normally set overall
communication policy or be responsible for the management of individual projects
but would concern itself with the conformity of communications to specific principles
such as integration. It should comprise senior members of all communication
and related functions within the organisation to ensure that members who deal
with communication are kept informed of current communication policies and
practices.

2.  Annual or quarterly reviewing processes

Communication integration may be monitored on a regular basis through a review
process that assesses an organisation’s communication practice to ascertain whether it
adheres to the principles of integration.

3.  Ad hoc meetings

Communication integration could be managed through a process of ad hoc meetings
that address communication planning, co-ordination, implementation and evaluation.

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These meetings should include individuals who oversee integration and the people
responsible for its implementation.

2.6 The integration of corporate identity

The discussion above covers the topic of communication integration as it relates
to the organisation as a whole. Communication integration can apply to the overall
communication of an organisation or to narrower areas of communication within
it, such as general marketing communication or specific aspects of advertising
or public relations. To illustrate the application of communication integration to
one specific focus area of communication, the case of corporate identity is
described below.
Corporate identity is the self-presentation of an organisation through
behaviour, communication and symbols (adapted from Van Rekom, Van Riel &
Wierenga, 1991). Corporate identity is one of the more prominent aspects that many
organisations consider when defining their relationship with customers, personnel and
other important stakeholders. The application of this identity across the corporate
enterprise is one of the more important aspects of communication that organisations
must consider.
Corporate identity is applied through artefacts such as names, logos,
graphics, colours, architecture, slogans, rituals and social attitudes, and similar
presentation in all promotional material, across the organisational spectrum.
Identity can further be integrated into the organisation’s communication through
the common application of these artefacts throughout its range of subsidiaries,
products and services.
An organisation plans and implements a corporate identity for a variety of
reasons. Olins (1989) has identified a number of the most important, which include
the organisation’s need to differentiate itself, its subsidiary companies, its products
and its services from others. Corporate identity is used to generate a collective feeling
of belonging among staff, and to strengthen links between the organisation and its
stakeholders. The intention of a corporate identity might be to act as a guarantor of
consistent quality and to contribute to the loyalty of customers and other stakeholders.
Identity creates a coherent picture of an organisation and promotes recognisability
and co-operation within the organisation’s various departments. It furthermore acts
as a symbol that economically communicates all that the organisation represents,
including its values, qualities, products and services. Einwiller and Will (2002) find
that the integration of corporate identity is considered to be a prerequisite for success in
the financial marketplace, the recruitment of suitable personnel, the creation of synergy
between brands, co-ordination of multinational organisations, and the enhancement
of an organisation’s transparency.
Van Riel (1995: 39–47) identifies three main models for the application (or
integration) of corporate identity: uniformity, endorsement and variety. In practice,
corporate identity often incorporates elements from more than one model.

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1. Uniformity model: The whole organisation, its subsidiaries and its brands have one
identity. This model is mostly used in two situations. In the first, subsidiaries
with degrees of autonomy are portrayed with the same identity to convey the size
of the entire organisation. In the second, subsidiaries are portrayed as a whole
because they are strongly linked or directly managed by the parent organisation.
2. Endorsement model: Subsidiaries have their own identities, while the parent
organisation’s identity is present in the background. This model is mostly used
where the parent organisation has a strong influence over the management and
operation of its subsidiaries. Although internal stakeholders might be aware of
this relationship, it might not be evident to external stakeholders. The link is
established to endorse the association between the subsidiary and the parent
organisation.
3. Variety model: Subsidiaries have their own identities with no evident connection
between each other or the parent organisation. Companies, their services and
products tend to be presented as a multitude of brands with different identities.
This model is usually applied where subsidiaries are viewed primarily as
financial assets and where there is little managerial involvement by the parent
organisation.

Case study
Barloworld
Barloworld is a distributor of leading international brands and it provides integrated rental,
fleet management, product support and logistics solutions. The core divisions of the group
comprise Equipment (earthmoving and power systems), Automotive and Logistics (car
rental, motor retail, fleet services, used vehicles and disposal solutions, logistics management
and supply chain optimisation), and Handling (materials handling and agriculture). The
company offers its customers flexible, value-adding, integrated business solutions which are
supported by leading global brands. The brands represented on behalf of their principals
include Caterpillar, Hyster, Avis, Audi, BMW, Ford, General Motors, Mercedes-Benz, Toyota and
Volkswagen, amongst others.
Barloworld has a proven track record of long-term relationships with its global principals
and customers. The company has developed the ability to develop and grow businesses
in multiple geographical locations. Many of these are challenging but have high growth
prospects. One of Barloworld’s core competencies is an ability to leverage systems and
best practices across its chosen business segments. As an organisation it is committed to
sustainable development and playing a leading role in empowerment and transformation.
The company was founded in 1902 and currently has operations in 28 countries around the
world, with approximately 60% of its 18 000 employees in South Africa.
Barloworld is a focused multinational corporation with revenues exceeding R43 billion.
It has its primary listing on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) and secondary listings on
the London and Namibian stock exchanges. Its history is briefly described in Table 2.2.
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Table 2.2 A brief history of Barloworld

1902 Major Ernest (Billy) Barlow forms Thomas Barlow Sons in

Durban, South Africa, as an independent company based on
the family business of the same name in England. Initially, the
company sells woollen goods but within five years Billy Barlow
expands the production to include engineering components.

1920–1930 The company grows and consolidates. In 1920, Barlow opens

an office in Johannesburg and, in 1927, Barlow’s eldest son,
Charles Sydney (Punch), joins the company. Barlow becomes
the official sales and service dealer for Caterpillar in South
Africa. Two years later Barlow acquires the forklift dealership.

1941 Barlow shares are traded on the JSE for the first time. The
opening price is seven shillings and sixpence per share.

1959 Barlow enters the motor business by acquiring its first Ford
dealership.

1960 Barlow expands into motor vehicle retailing, steel, building

materials, handling equipment, consumer electronics, and
steel manufacturing and selling, with interests in the United
Kingdom, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia. In 1969, Barlow
lists its shares on the London Stock Exchange.

1970 Barlow acquires Rand Mines Limited and becomes Barlow

Rand. The company adds cement, lime, stainless steel,
televisions and paint to the product mix. Its reputation grows
as a world-class company, while in South Africa it is the
dominant player in many sectors of the economy, having
interests in everything from food to mining.

1979 Punch Barlow dies. With the acquisition of Wrenn Brothers, the
company moves into the United States of America.

1980 Barlow Rand diversifies into information technology, electrical

engineering and textiles, as well as managing brands such as
IBM and Mercedes-Benz in South Africa.

1984 The acquisition of J Bibby & Sons in the UK provides a

major springboard for the company to further international
expansion with its range of scientific products.

1989 Barlow Rand attains profits of R1 billion and has almost

240 000 employees. Expansion into Europe proceeds with the
acquisition of Lamson in Belgium, Finanzauto in Spain and
STET in Portugal.
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1990–1994 During this period of political transition in South Africa, Barlow

Rand unbundles its non-core businesses. A more focused and
streamlined Barlow Limited is born.

1995–2000 Barlow Limited invests R5 billion in its business units to build

the structure and operational capabilities needed for the 21st
century. The company acquires Lanes Limited and Taubmanns
in Australia, and the Ditch Witch franchise in Georgia, USA. It
distributes Perkins in southern Africa and Caterpillar in Siberia.
Barlow Limited changes its corporate identity to become
Barloworld in 2000.

2001 The company expands its global reach with Freightliner

acquisitions in the USA, three motor dealerships in Australia,
a laboratory company (Protean) in the UK, and a cement
business (Portland Holdings) in Zimbabwe. A new business
unit, Barloworld Logistics, is launched.

2002 Barloworld celebrates its centenary. A medium-term goal

of 2×4×4 is set – to double the value of the company for all
stakeholders in four years. Disposals include PPC’s stakes in
Natal Portland Cement and Ash Resources, the UK coatings
business; Robor Stewart & Lloyds steel distribution outlets;
the Stemcor (South Africa) share; and the Mitsubishi motor
dealerships in Australia. Barloworld celebrates the 75th
anniversary of its relationship with Caterpillar.

2003 Barloworld acquires Northwest Arkansas and Texarkana

Freightliner truck dealerships in the US. Six motor dealerships
are disposed of, and the sale of Henry Cooke in the UK marks
the complete exit from the specialty paper business. Black
economic empowerment (BEE) deals include the formation of
a 50:50 joint venture to distribute DaimlerChrysler products in
the greater Durban metropolitan area; the sale of Afripack to a
BEE investment consortium and the management of Afripack.
These deals are in addition to BEE equity deals in Sizwe Paints
and Shosholoza Steel Supplies. The company sponsors the
Team Barloworld cycling team in international competition.

2004 Barloworld establishes a formal black economic

empowerment policy. The Caterpillar dealership territory in
Siberia, in partnership with Wagner, doubles. Acquisitions
include the balance of Avis Southern Africa, International
Colourant Corporation, and the Hyster dealership in the
Netherlands.

2005 The Hyster dealership in Northern Ireland, Hamilton Brush, and

the Budget franchise in Sweden, are acquired. PPC announces
a one-million-ton expansion in cement capacity to meet
rapidly growing demand in South Africa.
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2006 The Avis and Budget franchises in Denmark are acquired for
consolidation in Scandinavia. The Steel Tube Division and
the US and UK Handling leasing finance books are sold. The
2×4×4 target – the doubling of the value of the business
for all stakeholders in the four years to September 2006 – is
achieved. Barloworld announces a new target of doubling
again by 2010.

2007 Barloworld restructures its major divisions from eight to four.

PPC is unbundled. Coatings is also unbundled and listed on
the JSE as Freeworld Coatings. Tony Phillips stands down as
CEO and Clive Thomson takes over.

2008 Revenue is up by 18% and operating profit up by 31%.

Barloworld announces a broad-based BEE transaction that
includes its South African employees, community service
groups, an educational trust and strategic black partners,
achieving effective 29% empowerment of its SA operations.
The Power business is segmented from Barloworld Equipment
as a separate business unit with dedicated focus. International
acquisitions are made in order to position Barloworld
Logistics for future growth. The Leadership Development
Centre is launched to facilitate and co-ordinate professional
development programmes that enhance the ability of
Barloworld employees.

2009 The economic downturn negatively impacts group

performance. Operating profit is down 25% and headline
earnings per share down 43%. Focus turns to cash flow and
working capital management, with cash generated increasing
20%. The company positions itself for future growth by
entrenching market leadership in many operations. The Team
Barloworld cycling sponsorship ends. The Centre of Technical
Learning is opened to provide the sustainable technical
skills to deliver on its solutions-based value proposition to
customers.

2010 Barloworld disposes of its Scandinavian car rental operations.

Barloworld Automotive sells Subaru. The company reaches
agreement to acquire the remaining 50% in its Russian
joint venture. Barloworld Global Power System structure is
announced so as to place necessary focus on the Power
business.

2011 The Logistics division is integrated into the Automotive

division.

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Communication integration (1): Aligning all message sources

The evolution of Barlow Limited
By 1989 Barlow Rand had developed into a diversified conglomerate with interests in
sectors as varied as food, computers and mining. Moreover, South Africa was becoming a
democracy, which offered new opportunities and threats to its companies. Many of these
companies had previously been severely constrained by social, economic and political
restrictions. Barlow Rand faced the prospect of being perceived as a poor investment
in the global economic environment, as did many other unfocused conglomerates.
Between 1991 and 1994, Barlow Rand unbundled its non-core businesses, becoming more
strategically focused and renaming itself Barlow Limited. In its new form the company
concentrated on its core business – industrial brand management.
Between 1994 and 2000 the company underwent restructuring and consolidation.
To structure the organisation for the global market and to modernise its operations, it
invested R5 billion in its business units. This process included a comprehensive assessment
of its business strategy, starting at the top.
Although it was highly profitable, having enjoyed 20% profit growth over a number of
years, Barlow Limited was perceived as an ‘old-style’ South African conglomerate and there
was insufficient clarity as to what type of company it actually was. Until this point, it had
successfully followed a strategy of market leadership for its composite brands. Its approach
had included sales maximisation with a strong emphasis on the marketing mix, through
careful application of segmentation, targeting and positioning in its brand management,
and by striving for market share for its individual brands. In other words, Barlow Limited
had been focused on brand development through transactional marketing, concentrating
on exchange and the marketing mix.
The result of Barlow Limited’s strategy had been successful management of its
composite brands, yet the benefits accruing to the holding company were not what they
could have been. For example, it was not an employer of choice, and its shares were traded
at a discount. Its image was weak and fragmented. Although it had successfully managed
its composite brands, it had failed to successfully manage itself as a corporate brand. The
Barlow Limited brand, as opposed to the brands of its products and services, had been
allowed to drift and become vague.

Barlow Limited becomes Barloworld

The assessment of its business strategy led Barlow Limited to undertake fundamental
organisational change. It established its financial goal to be the delivery of returns above
the replacement cost of capital, and proposed a new strategy: corporate brand leadership.
The framework for building the company into a brand leader was termed ‘value-based
management’ or VBM.
VBM is an integrated approach that aligns everything that the company does to ensure that
value is continually created and enhanced for all stakeholder groups. It encourages employees
to seek new, different and better ways of doing things, and ensures that management systems
are directly aligned with the interests of stakeholders. VBM principles are applied to every facet
of the business, from strategic decision making and policies on how to allocate capital, to the
creation of value ‘blueprints’ that indicate which businesses to fix, grow or exit.
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The objective of VBM is to align processes and daily behaviour to create value for all
stakeholders, as opposed to value for one stakeholder at the expense of another. The
identified stakeholders are shareholders, customers, employees and the community. Specific
strategies are devised to ensure and measure the value created for each stakeholder group.
The overall strategy of corporate brand leadership was intended to develop the entire
enterprise, improve stakeholder relationships and focus on the corporate brand. The
ultimate objective was to provide greater brand equity and shareholder value – that is, to
achieve far more than simply selling more products.

Figure 2.1 The stakeholders of value-based management

Communication integration (2): Identity and branding

To assist in the attainment of corporate brand leadership, a planned communication
strategy was devised around Barloworld’s corporate branding and identity. The corporate
brand identity was developed in such a way that it would benefit, and in turn benefit
from its association with, its composite brands. It was to lend synergy to all parts of the
corporate endeavour and leverage further business.
It was to be clear, visible and based on fact. Brand associations were to resonate with
customers, both logically and emotionally. In an environment in which brand messages
are derived from myriad sources, both planned and unplanned, and where different
brand messages fragment and confuse, the decision was taken to develop a single new
corporate identity which was to evolve from the Barlow name and act as the foundation
for the revised corporate brand. Its composite brands were to continue as before. At the
outset of 2000, the organisation was Barlow Limited.

Figure 2.2 The Barlow Limited logo

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By the end of 2000, Barlow Limited had become Barloworld, beginning a transformation
that was to result in an integrated brand framework.

Figure 2.3 The Barloworld logo

Barloworld redefined its business as the management of leading brands through service,
relationships and attention to detail in a way that made its customers’ businesses excel.
All brand communications – planned, product, service and unplanned – were to develop
a brand image that not only reflected the complex and multidimensional nature of the
business but that also implied that this complexity is Barloworld’s strength, and that
enduring trust is generated in the organisation’s structure at every level, over the passage
of time.
In 2000 and 2001, Barloworld ensured that all of its business units adopted the
Barloworld name, endorsed its product and service brands with the corporate identity,
and began an extensive programme of internal communication. At the outset,
implementation was not trouble free. The new identity was applied with a lack of
consistency, there were too many variations in logos, inadequate visual links between
parts of the organisation, and many missed opportunities to display the stature of the
parent company.
Several reasons lay behind the problems that Barloworld encountered. Their
organisational structure was highly complex and unrelated to the structure of the
composite brands. Also, many of Barloworld’s brands were strong in their own right,
with high levels of brand equity, so it was difficult to decide exactly how to relate them
to the corporate brand.
To resolve these problems the CEO gave his unconditional commitment to the new
brand and undertook to actively support it. In 2002, the brand structure was simplified
and tailored to reflect the organisational structure. Corporate identity was given far
greater attention and a standardised policy for its application was introduced. The
application of corporate logos was standardised and greater prominence was given to
the Barloworld identity. Identity was applied to subsidiaries and individual brands in one
of four ways: corporate branding, company branding, endorsed branding and exceptional
endorsed branding.
For corporate branding, the Barloworld logo is used without any mention of
individual products. The logo represents the corporate centre, its centralised functions
and the global representation of the company. However, operating units may use it if
appropriate.


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Figure 2.4 Examples of corporate branding applications



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 Chapter 2: Communication integration

Company branding is the preferred identity for business units. It incorporates the
identities of Barloworld and the subsidiary business unit. Major products, services and
brands of the business unit can be shown on graphic applications such as stationery,
signage or vehicles. The emphasis on the subsidiary or its products can change.

Figure 2.5 Examples of company branding applications

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Endorsed branding allows priority to be given to the existing brand or business name, with
a Barloworld endorsement. No other product names are included.

Figure 2.6 Examples of endorsed branding applications

Exceptional endorsed branding retains the principal’s branding of a business, as in the case
of Caterpillar and Avis, with Barloworld endorsement being introduced as principals allow.

Figure 2.7 Examples of exceptional endorsed branding application 

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 Chapter 2: Communication integration

Barloworld understood that the transition of existing companies to the Barloworld identity
was not a process that could be undertaken in a short time. A clear path for migration to
the new identity was therefore carefully laid out. Each business unit could choose one of a
number of design routes and had to select which elements to use from a specified ‘brand
toolkit’. This toolkit comprised specific logotypes, typefaces, colours, images and layouts.
Certain of these elements were mandatory; others were optional. All areas relating to the
content and style of Barloworld’s identity were planned. Barloworld imagery, language,
colours, layouts, text hierarchy, image cropping and aspects of architecture were specified.

Figure 2.8 Barloworld imagery 

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NO! YES!

Do you require any assistance? Can I help?

In the majority of instances we can deliver in It will be delivered next Monday
approximately one week
We have strong representation across the We have offices in 10 countries
globe

Figure 2.9 Barloworld language

Barloworld revised its overall communication strategy to reinforce the new corporate
identity. Communications were identified as investments, even though the return on these
investments was difficult to ascertain. In a similar way to research and development, the
communication budget was originally derived as a percentage of global revenue and fixed
at 0.06%.
Priorities were set for specific elements of the communication mix. Publicity was to
contribute to brand building through increased international coverage and to assist the
subsidiaries to leverage business through association with the parent company. Sponsorship
was intended to build global brand awareness in a way that would break through the
clutter and remain relevant to the target market, with a successful cycling sponsorship
project that would run for a number of years. Advertising was to be localised, with particular
attention given to the financial media. A range of internal communication processes was
developed to generate a sense of cohesion and common purpose among the personnel
of Barloworld. The processes comprised certain aspects described above, such as common
themes of identity across the organisation, and included an intranet, internal newsletter,
platforms for feedback, interaction among units, and the increase in awareness of other
areas of Barloworld’s activities and organisation.

Figure 2.10 Newsletters

 

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 Chapter 2: Communication integration

Communication integration (3): Black economic empowerment

Barloworld had planned to structure and align perception of the organisation through a
wide-ranging strategy of integrated communication interventions. Although its planned
communication strategy was generally successful, perception of the organisation was
strongly influenced by events between 2000 and 2006 over which it had little control and
which it was ineffectively positioned to deal with.
After the transition to democracy in the 1990s, one of the central policies of the South
African government was the transformation of the economy in order to make it more
representative of the demographics of the country. Most South African companies – Barlow
Limited and later Barloworld amongst them – had a high percentage of whites and a far
lower representation of blacks, coloureds and Indians in their ownership and management
structures at the time of the transition to democracy. In order to change this, the government
introduced the Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act in 2003. Amongst other
things, this legislation aimed to increase black ownership and management of companies
operating in South Africa and increase the representation of previously disadvantaged
groups in the racial composition of businesses and skilled occupations. In 2007, broad-
based black economic empowerment (BBBEE) Codes of Good Practice were introduced that
allowed assessment of the BEE compliance of individual companies according to a BBBEE
scorecard. This scorecard assigns ratings based on a company’s progress in its elements of
ownership, preferential procurement, employment equity, management control, enterprise
development, skills development and socio-economic development. All public companies
and state enterprises are bound to take account of a company’s performance in terms of this
scorecard prior to entering into any investment, procurement, licensing, partnership, sales or
other business dealings with the company.
Barlow Limited, and later Barloworld, had long been at the forefront of the drive to a
more equitable economic dispensation in South Africa but by the mid-2000s the company
was considered to be performing poorly in terms of its official BBBEE scores. Although it
had implemented a BEE policy, entered into a number of related initiatives, and progress
had been made in its operations, the company had not entered into a BEE ownership
transaction. In 2006 and 2007, the chief executive of the Public Investment Corporation, the
government’s wholly owned investment institution for public sector organisations and the
single largest Barloworld shareholder, with 17% of its stock, singled out Barloworld for its lack
of transformation. Barloworld was confronted with a situation in which, despite satisfactory
business performance, it was not meeting the expectations of a significant range of its
stakeholders that included amongst them some shareholders, members of the business
community, government and the broader South African society. The message that was
presented was one that suggested that Barloworld had not transformed in terms of BBBEE.
A number of important changes were undertaken in 2007 to address this challenge.
A black chairman was appointed and black representation on the board gradually increased
to roughly half. In 2008, a R2,4 billion empowerment transaction was concluded. The
company sold a 10% stake to black participants; this included strategic black partners,
an educational trust, community group and all South African employees. This effectively
brought black ownership of its South African operations up to 29%. Key  executive
appointments, clearly identified goals (including identifying empowerment and
transformation as one of the group’s six strategic focus areas) and focused efforts to address
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 Integrated Organisational Communication

all elements of the BEE scorecard resulted in significant progress towards transformation.
In addition to the activities of its enterprise development fund, in 2011 Barloworld
participated with other companies to create the SA Supplier Diversity Council, an
institution created to help businesses find black empowerment suppliers and to develop
black businesses. In 2011 Barloworld had become the highest rated industrial sector
company on the JSE in terms of BBBEE.
(Permission to use this case study was obtained from Jacey de Gidts, Head Group
Communication and Marketing of Barloworld Group.)

Activities
1. Describe in your own words the main characteristics of communication integration.
2. How have external market trends, trends within organisations and societies’
demands for organisational integrity contributed to the move towards
communication integration?
3. Describe how you would go about aligning messages from all sources in an
organisation.
4. Identify any organisation that you know fairly well. It may be a business, a
government organisation, an NGO, a school or any other kind of organisation.
Using the discussion of the five junctures of intervention to guide you, identify five
specific locations within the structure of that organisation where communication
integration should receive particular attention.
5. You are the corporate communication director of a national bank. The bank has
three major divisions, each with its own communication director. The directors,
in turn, have several communication specialists who report to them, and a larger
number of non-communication staff who do not report directly to them but who
share some communication tasks as a part of their overall responsibilities. You and
the communication directors need to co-ordinate the communication of the entire
organisation. How would you implement communication integration using rules
and directives, sequencing, routines and co-ordinating groups to achieve your objective?
6. Read the case study carefully and answer these questions:
6.1 Using the message types described by Duncan and Moriarty (1997a)
(Section 2.4.2), would you typify Barloworld’s branding and identity project
as one that deals with planned, product, service and/or unplanned messages?
6.2 Identify the ways in which the integration of Barloworld’s communication
has paralleled the historical evolution of communication integration.
6.3 In Section 2.4, reasons for the move towards an integrated perspective of
communication are noted. Identify as many of these in the case study as you
can.
6.4 How would you apply the 10 strategies of Duncan and Moriarty (1997a)
(Section 2.4.4) to Barloworld, as it exists today, to ensure integration?
6.5 Identify all communication message types that have been addressed in the
Barloworld case study. Consider all communication, specialised and non-

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 Chapter 2: Communication integration

specialised, including that of communication professionals and all ‘part-

time’ or ‘non-professional’ communicators.
6.6 Where in the structure of Barloworld do you believe that communication
should receive particular attention to ensure that integration continues?
Use the locations of communication intervention that are identified in
Section 2.5.2 to guide you.
6.7 Olins (1989) (Section 2.6) provides a number of reasons for the design and
implementation of corporate identity. Which of these reasons can you
identify in the case study?
6.8 Van Riel (1995) (Section 2.6) suggests three predominant approaches to the
application and integration of corporate identity: uniformity, endorsement and
variety. How do these approaches conform to, or differ from, Barloworld’s
approaches of corporate branding, company branding, endorsed branding and
exceptional endorsed branding?
6.9 Using the message types described by Duncan and Moriarty (1997a)
(Section 2.4.2), would you typify Barloworld’s BEE status as a planned, product,
service or unplanned message?
6.10 Could the messages created by Barloworld’s BEE status have been dealt with
by actions, and particularly communication actions, other than those that
Barloworld undertook from 2007 onwards?

Bibliography
Christensen, L T, Firat, A F & Cornelissen, J. 2009. ‘New tensions and challenges in integrated
communications’, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 207–219.
Christensen, L T, Morsing, M & Cheney, G. 2008. Corporate Communications: Convention, Complexity,
and Critique. London: SAGE.
Cornelissen, J P & Lock, A R. 2001. ‘The appeal of integration: managing communications in
modern organisations’. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 425–431.
Duncan, T. 2002. IMC: Using Advertising and Promotion to Build Brands. Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Duncan, T & Caywood, C. 1998. ‘The concept, process, and evolution of integrated marketing
communication’, in Gronstedt, A & Siracuse, L (eds), The ABCs of IMC. New York Advertising
Research Foundation, pp. 30–51.
Duncan, T & Moriarty, S. 1997a. Driving Brand Value. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Duncan, T & Moriarty, S. 1997b. ‘Front-end alignment’, in Gronstedt, A & Siracuse, L (eds), The
ABCs of IMC. New York: Advertising Research Foundation, pp. 359–61.
Einwiller, S & Will, M. 2002. ‘Towards an integrated approach to corporate branding – an empirical
study’, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 100–109.
Grönroos, C. 2000. Service Management and Marketing. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley.
Harris, T L. 1998. ‘Integrated marketing public relations’, in Gronstedt, A & Siracuse, L (eds), The
ABCs of IMC. New York: Advertising Research Foundation, pp. 290–305.
Hutton, J G. 1996. ‘Integrated marketing communication and the evolution of marketing thought’,
Journal of Business Research, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 155–162.
Olins, W. 1989. Corporate Identity: Making Business Strateg y Visible through Design. London: Thames &
Hudson.
Thompson, C J. 2004. ‘Marketplace mythology and discourses of power’, The Journal of Consumer
Research, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 162–180.
Van Rekom, J, Van Riel, C B M & Wierenga, B. 1991. Corporate Identity. Van Vaag Concept naar Hard
Feitenmateriaal. Rotterdam: Corporate Communication Centre, Erasmus University.
Van Riel, C B M. 1995. Principles of Corporate Communication. Harlow: Prentice Hall.

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Van Riel, C B M. 1997. ‘Research in corporate communication. An overview of an emerging field’,

Management Communication Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 288–309.
Van Riel, C B M. 1999. ‘Ten years of research at the Corporate Communication Centre, Erasmus
University Rotterdam’, Communicatie Wetenskap, vol. 27, no. 3/4, pp. 1–17.
Zeithaml, V A, Berry, L L & Parasuraman, A. 1988. ‘Communication and control processes in the
delivery of service quality’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 64, pp. 35–49.

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 Section B

Communication of the organisation:

Focus areas
„„ Chapter 3: Dynamics of organisational communication
„„ Chapter 4: The role of communication and management approaches in
the organisational change process
„„ Chapter 5: The marketing context
„„ Chapter 6: Integrated marketing communication
„„ Chapter 7: Public relations
„„ Chapter 8: Contextualisation of traditional advertising
„„ Chapter 9: Advertising management
„„ Chapter 10: Integrated online communication

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 BUSINESS
INTERPERSONAL

CULTURE
QUALITY
COMMUNICATION I N F O R M A T I O N
S T R AT E G Y SOLUTIONS-ORIENTED

C
H Advertising
A V
Dynamics
BRAND

N I
S
G I
E ASSESSING O
N

Campaign
I D E N T I T Y
RESEARCH

IMC
Management

CUSTOMER EFFICIENT

FOCUS Trust
IMAGE

Systems Thinking
STRUCTURE

Collaboration
Integrated Organisational Communication

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 Dynamics of organisational

3
CHAPTER
QUALITY

communication
Rachel Barker

The only way we can work for a common cause, for common interest, is really through
communication. Basically, it has to do with democracy, with participation, with the
spreading of knowledge and insight and ability to take care of our future …
Barker (2008)

3.1 Introduction
Organisational communication as outlined in this chapter deals specifically with
communication within the organisation or, more specifically, intra-organisational
communication. Within the paradigm of integration, this means that the internal
communication messages should be aligned with the overall messages of the
N organisation with the intention of enhancing its corporate brand.
There has been a great deal of discussion about organisational communication,
and the origins of the field can be traced to the early 1900s while actual study in this
H field became more prevalent during the 1960s and 1970s. Since the early 1980s, when

C
the organisational communication perspective originally became popular within
communication studies, the literature has evolved and matured to become a well-
established academic field of study that influences organisational practitioners in the
private and public sectors.
This chapter reviews some of the more prominent theoretical dimensions of
NT organisational communication. Beginning with an exploration of the current status

E of organisational communication (as well as a definition thereof), the communication

networks and conflict in the organisation, this chapter then provides a more

t
controversial discussion that reviews the differences between culture and climate
as they have typically been presented in the literature. An in-depth discussion of
organisational culture follows, which includes the elements of organisational culture
and the management thereof as well as theoretical paradigms for understanding it.
The subsequent study of organisational change refers specifically to organisational
culture change. The final section focuses on communication within groups and
teams, organisational communication technology, and the changing landscape of
globalisation and organisational communication.
This chapter therefore explores organisational communication by examining the
definitions, epistemologies and methods applied in the literature as well as the more
fundamental differences in the theoretical foundations. In this chapter, the following
aspects are discussed:
„„ defining organisational communication
„„ communication networks and the direction of communication

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„„ network roles
„„ networks as channels of communication
„„ communication characteristics of networks
„„ conflict in the organisation
„„ organisational culture
„„ the process of organisational change
„„ communicating with groups and teams
„„ organisational communication technology
„„ globalisation and organisational communication.

3.2 Defining organisational communication

In Chapter 1, the three main approaches to the concept ‘organisational communication’
were outlined in terms of the overall concept. These were the International
Communication Association (ICA) approach, which provides the traditional
theoretical scope to which the academic discipline is most closely aligned, and the
organisational communicator or practitioner approach from both an internal and
intra-communication perspective.
Based on these overall approaches, organisational communication evidently
involves the connection of two multifaceted concepts: organisation and
communication. Both terms have been defined in various ways and critical facets
of each concept have been identified in the literature. For the purpose of this book,
organisation is defined as two or more people who intentionally work together in
order to achieve a set of objectives. Communication is defined as a transactional and
symbolic process in which messages are exchanged and interpreted with the aim of
establishing mutual understanding between parties.
There are various definitions of organisational communication that are prevalent
in the literature. These range from definitions that focus on information or message
exchange and the co-ordination of communication by people interdependently related
to the creation, exchange, interpretation and storing of messages and/or co-ordinated
activities between two or more people. Because of its multidimensional and complex
nature, for the purposes of this book ‘organisational communication’ is based on
the latest definitions: an integrated process to exchange and interpret all messages
by encouraging purposeful, data-driven dialogue to create and nourish long-term
profitable relationships with stakeholders in support of the corporate brand of the
organisation (Niemann, 2005: 30).

3.3 Communication networks and the direction of communication

This section discusses the flow of messages in organisations in terms of communication
networks and the direction of communication. Communication networks are used to
direct and ensure the correct flow of messages in the organisation; they are therefore
the interconnecting lines of communication which ensure that messages are exchanged
and interpreted correctly from one person or section to another. Communication
networks therefore signify the existence of specific channels through which messages
are communicated between three or more individuals (Zaremba, 2006).

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Traditionally, organisations were seen as authority pyramids that used communication

as a tool for transmitting orders from superiors to subordinates. Today, communication
in the organisation focuses on neutralising the negative effects of unstable and changing
business environments, both internally and externally, and on managing and solving
conflict that is often the result of change in the organisational structure. In today’s
dynamic organisations, three basic network systems operate within an organisation:
external and internal networks; formal and informal networks; and upward, downward
and lateral (or horizontal) networks:
„„ External networks are those channels that carry information from within to outside
the organisation or vice versa (for example advertising and public relations
messages, information about consumers, and so on).
„„ Internal networks carry information within the organisation along interdepartmental
routes (that is, all types of internal communication used for the functioning of the
organisation).
„„ Formal networks of communication are prescribed by the organisation, and function
through rules, regulations and procedures; they refer to the official written or
verbal channels through which communication is exchanged (including personal
instructions, interviews, training programmes, letters, memoranda and annual
reports).
„„ Informal networks of communication exist in the interpersonal relationships in the
organisation, and refer to the exchange of unofficial or informal information
(for example conversations among personnel and events such as year-end
functions). This information may be work related, social or personal, and can
include, for example, the grapevine, which is also referred to as ‘the rumour
mill’, where messages flow in all directions and are mostly verbal, social and/
or work related.
„„ Upward networks provide feedback for upper management regarding policies and
practices; in this way they allow for wider participation in decision making and
provide an outlet for members’ concerns, uncertainties or complaints (examples
include memoranda, verbal or written reports, proposals and meetings).
„„ Downward networks are used by managers to communicate with the employees that
report to them. Messages include instructions and training, information giving
(that is, company policy, trends and planning), providing rationale for directions
and policies, and evaluating work performance.
„„ Lateral (or horizontal) networks exist where communication occurs between employees at
the same hierarchical level. These appear to be more prevalent in the lower levels of
the organisation, where they tend to focus on problem solving and the co-ordination
of work flow, task co-ordination, information sharing and conflict resolution.
Communication in the organisation fulfils various functions, including information
dissemination, control, persuasion and integration. The information function provides
members with the information they need to function effectively. This includes
information on the work itself (such as organisational goals, procedures and rules),
organisational successes (such as benefits and work standards) and the socio-economic
standing of the organisation as a whole. The control function is a way of influencing

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the organisation. This type of communication, which is usually downward, is task

related and often comes in the form of assignments, expectations and restrictions in the
organisation. The persuasive function is reflected in interpersonal interactions aimed at
agreement; it usually takes the form of face-to-face requests and personal interaction.
The integrative function involves co-ordinating and scheduling activities, establishing
information channels, and recruiting employees to ensure unity, cohesion, identity and
uniformity of the organisation (Neher, 1997).

3.4 Network roles
Within the networks of an organisation, communication can also be analysed in
terms of the functional roles that individuals play; in other words, the set of task-
related behaviours required from a member of an organisation to fulfil the position.
According to Neher (1997), Miller (2003) and Jones (2007), these roles can be
categorised as follows:
„„ Members: They serve as senders and receivers, or participants, usually in cliques,
in network communication (for example secretaries in a department, who tend to
communicate with each other).
„„ Isolates: They are usually outside the interactions carried out in networks (for
example a scientist working alone in a laboratory, or a travelling salesperson).
Isolates might also be isolated dyads or small groups that seldom communicate
with other parts of the organisation.
„„ Liaisons: They facilitate communication flow by providing the link between one
group or clique and others (for example as evidenced in relationships between
administrative staff, and friendship links).
„„ Bridges: They are individuals who connect two groups in a network by being
members of both (for example a departmental head who is both a member of the
department and management).
„„ Cosmopolites or boundary spanners: They are network members who communicate
with people or organisations outside the organisation (for example bank tellers,
salespeople and executives attending seminars and conferences).
„„ Gatekeepers: They determine which messages pass through a particular link in a
network (for example a secretary who screens messages and puts through phone
calls, at her discretion, for the head of department).
„„ Opinion leaders: They influence members in a network more than most other
participants. They explain upcoming messages or place them in context for others
(for example a member of a union). The influence of opinion leaders can operate
either formally or informally.

3.5 Networks as channels of communication

Networks in an organisation are defined as the stable patterns of relationships that
allow communication to flow through a number of contacts that connect different
points together (Neher, 1997). Networks can be centralised or decentralised. The former
are dependent on one central person while with the latter, all members communicate
freely with one another without the necessity of a central person.

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 Chapter 3: Dynamics of organisational communication

The following networks are distinguished in organisations: chain networks, Y-networks,

wheel networks, circle networks and all-channel networks.

3.5.1 Chain network

Figure 3.1 A chain network pattern

The chain network pattern works as follows (see Figure 3.1):

„„ Chain networks are part of the formal communication system.
„„ Two people serve as end persons – having only one person with whom to
communicate directly.
„„ Information typically is sent directly to this other person.
„„ This other person serves as a relay.
„„ Each relay sends his or her own message to their end person.

This information goes to a fifth person, who collates the information. The fifth
(central) person sends the formulated answer back to the relay persons.
In this case communication is downward and one way, and it moves via several
levels in the organisation to the different receivers. Information is task oriented and
extremely accurate because the channels are clear and the commands are direct. This
network consists of members, therefore the employees are mere senders and receivers
of the communication message. Network roles in the chain network include members
and gatekeepers.

3.5.2 Y-network

Figure 3.2 A Y-network pattern

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The Y-network functions as follows (see Figure 3.2):

„„ It is part of the formal communication system.
„„ A and B can send messages to C but they cannot receive messages from anyone.
„„ C and D can exchange messages.
„„ E can receive messages from D.
„„ E can only send messages to D.
„„ C serves as a bridge (connection) between members.

Communication in this network is formal and takes place via C. The members can
only communicate with each other via C (the person acting as the bridge); they cannot
directly communicate with one another. Information is task oriented and extremely
accurate as a result of clear commands and direct information. In the Y-network,
members, isolates and bridges are identified.

3.5.3 Wheel network

Figure 3.3 A wheel network pattern

The wheel network functions as follows (see Figure 3.3):

„„ It occurs within the formal communication system.
„„ No pair of individuals can exchange messages except through the central
member A; this makes co-ordination of action or thought almost impossible.
„„ It is the most structured and centralised of all the patterns.
„„ Members sending messages to the top or central member A are solving
problems.
„„ Member A makes the decisions and sends the information back.

This communication style is autocratic and the central person acts as a liaison
or link between the groups. The distribution of information is fast and accurate
because the wheel network is task oriented. It consists of clear commands and
direct information from the central person. Messages do not have to go through
many levels. However, although only one person receives all the information
and has to send it back, the content of the message can still be distorted. Network
roles in the wheel network include members, bridges, liaisons, gatekeepers and
opinion leaders.

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3.5.4 Circle network

Figure 3.4 A circle network pattern

The circle network functions as follows (see Figure 3.4):

„„ It occurs within the informal communication system.
„„ Every member has an equal opportunity to communicate with the person to both
their right and their left.
„„ Members pass around information to all members.
„„ Members act as their own decision-making centres.

Groups involved in the circle network can be frustrated because communication is

slow and it is not always easy to move messages from one part of the line to another.
Communication is more employee than task oriented. There is also participation in
problem solving and the decision-making process. Only members can be identified
in this network; there are no isolates, liaisons, bridges, cosmopolites, gatekeepers or
opinion leaders.

3.5.5 All-channel network

Figure 3.5 An all-channel network pattern

The all-channel network (also referred to as the star network) can be described as
follows (see Figure 3.5):
„„ It is part of the informal communication system.
„„ It is the result of all the lines drawn within the circle network to connect all the
people. There are no communication restrictions on any members, and each
person can directly communicate information to all others.
„„ All members formulate their own answers within a problem-solving format.

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This channel maximises opportunities for feedback and results in greater accuracy of
messages. As in the case of the circle network, only members can be identified; there
are no isolates, liaisons, bridges, cosmopolites, gatekeepers or opinion leaders in this
network.

3.6 Communication characteristics of networks

According to Neher (1997), various communication characteristics can affect
communication in the above networks, including the following:
„„ Size: Network size can be depicted in terms of reachability, which refers to the
number of links needed to transfer a message from one place to another. The
more links there are in the organisation’s communication network, the greater
the chance that the messages can become distorted. Fewer network links improve
communication and maintain most of the original message content.
„„ Content or function: Different networks exist for different purposes or functions,
such as production, maintenance, social connection and innovation. Task-related
information can be disseminated through formal networks, such as the chain, Y-
and wheel networks, while social communication and innovative or creative inputs
are more accessible through the circle and all-channel networks.
„„ Formality: Both formal and informal networks are present in any organisation.
Formal networks are purely task oriented and used for information dissemination
through the chain, Y- and wheel networks. Informal networks are less task oriented
and have a more social nature as with circle and all-channel networks.
„„ Centralisation or dominance: In highly centralised networks, all information has to
go through one person to reach other members of the organisation. Dominated
networks are those in which an individual or a clique tends to control or dominate
the flow of messages (as in chain, Y- and wheel networks). Centralised networks,
such as formal bureaucracies, maintain communication control, which facilitates
the solving of straightforward problems or the handling of simple or well-
understood technologies.
„„ Multiplexity: Relating to the extent to which different networks overlap in the
organisation, multiplexity exists when the same channels or links are used for
more than one kind of content. Multiplex links tend to be stronger and are capable
of handling more communication activity.
„„ Network openness: Some networks are more open and externally oriented (like the
circle and all-channel networks), while others are more closed and internally
oriented (like the chain, Y- and wheel networks).

3.7 Conflict in the organisation

3.7.1 
Defining conflict
Conflict is defined as the interaction between interdependent people who perceive
there to be an opposition of goals, aims and values, and who view the other party as
potentially interfering with the realisation of these (Putnam & Poole, 1987). Conflict is
a situation where differences in power, values and attitudes can lead to disagreement,
opposition and animosity between two or more people (Werner, 2007: 231).

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This channel maximises opportunities for feedback and results in greater accuracy of
messages. As in the case of the circle network, only members can be identified; there
are no isolates, liaisons, bridges, cosmopolites, gatekeepers or opinion leaders in this
network.

3.6 Communication characteristics of networks

According to Neher (1997), various communication characteristics can affect
communication in the above networks, including the following:
„„ Size: Network size can be depicted in terms of reachability, which refers to the
number of links needed to transfer a message from one place to another. The
more links there are in the organisation’s communication network, the greater
the chance that the messages can become distorted. Fewer network links improve
communication and maintain most of the original message content.
„„ Content or function: Different networks exist for different purposes or functions,
such as production, maintenance, social connection and innovation. Task-related
information can be disseminated through formal networks, such as the chain, Y-
and wheel networks, while social communication and innovative or creative inputs
are more accessible through the circle and all-channel networks.
„„ Formality: Both formal and informal networks are present in any organisation.
Formal networks are purely task oriented and used for information dissemination
through the chain, Y- and wheel networks. Informal networks are less task oriented
and have a more social nature as with circle and all-channel networks.
„„ Centralisation or dominance: In highly centralised networks, all information has to
go through one person to reach other members of the organisation. Dominated
networks are those in which an individual or a clique tends to control or dominate
the flow of messages (as in chain, Y- and wheel networks). Centralised networks,
such as formal bureaucracies, maintain communication control, which facilitates
the solving of straightforward problems or the handling of simple or well-
understood technologies.
„„ Multiplexity: Relating to the extent to which different networks overlap in the
organisation, multiplexity exists when the same channels or links are used for
more than one kind of content. Multiplex links tend to be stronger and are capable
of handling more communication activity.
„„ Network openness: Some networks are more open and externally oriented (like the
circle and all-channel networks), while others are more closed and internally
oriented (like the chain, Y- and wheel networks).

3.7 Conflict in the organisation

3.7.1 
Defining conflict
Conflict is defined as the interaction between interdependent people who perceive
there to be an opposition of goals, aims and values, and who view the other party as
potentially interfering with the realisation of these (Putnam & Poole, 1987). Conflict is
a situation where differences in power, values and attitudes can lead to disagreement,
opposition and animosity between two or more people (Werner, 2007: 231).

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These definitions highlight three main characteristics of conflict: incompatible and

different goals; interdependence or disagreement; and interaction. Miller (2003) explains
that the basis of organisational conflict lies in the perception of incompatibility or disagreement
regarding various organisational issues, that conflict takes place when the behaviours of
the members are interdependent, and that it involves the expression of incompatibility (or
interaction), not the mere existence of incompatibility. Communication is therefore the
means by which conflict is both incited and constructively dealt with.

3.7.2 Levels of organisational conflict

Because members of an organisation are different, and different levels of connections
exist, this influences the levels of conflict that occur. According to Miller (2003),
Venter (in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002) and Werner (2007), five main levels of
organisational conflict occur in an organisation:
1. Intrapersonal conflict: This conflict occurs when members have to make an important
personal decision regarding their work circumstances. They decide on their own
what the most appropriate action is. This can result in their being unable to
perform optimally. For example, an employee must decide whether or not to apply
for a new position or whether to report an error he or she has made and, because
of the mental stress, either withdraws or becomes short-tempered with others.
2. Interpersonal conflict: When individual members of the organisation perceive goal
incompatibility, conflict can occur, often between supervisors and subordinates.
For example, one member influences other team members to choose sides in the
conflict, which allows the conflict to escalate and leads to poor performance by all.
3. Intergroup conflict: This exists when groups of people within an organisation (such as
teams, departments or sections) are parties in the conflict. One member can be in
conflict with the rest of the team or several team members can be in conflict with
one another. For example, different departments in a university differ on entry
requirements for postgraduate students, or the marketing and registration sections
disagree on deadlines for registration of students.
4. Intragroup conflict: Smaller sections within an existing group in an organisation can
cause conflict when they must compete for scarce resources. For example, there is
conflict on budget allocation for new computers.
5. Inter-organisational conflict: This occurs when there are disputes or competition
between two or more organisations. For example, two universities located in the
same city compete for student enrolment.

3.7.3 Types of conflict
Although conflict is not encouraged, it can sometimes prove beneficial to the
organisation when it is seeking to achieve effective teamwork. Venter (in Verwey &
Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002) and Werner (2007) discuss the differences between functional
and dysfunctional conflict as follows:
„„ Functional conflict: This is also referred to constructive conflict and occurs when
conflict results in open discussions, helps to better understand differences and
leads to innovative solutions and greater commitment. In other words, minor

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forms of conflict are functionally used to provide opportunities for sharing

opposing ideas, seeking information, evaluating options, and negotiating goals
and alternatives. Functional conflict is seen as a driver of change that focuses on
task conflict or cognitive conflict where members still focus on the organisation’s
objectives. This leads to improved teamwork, quality decision making,
satisfaction, commitment, cohesiveness, creativity, mutual understanding and
enhanced performance.
„„ Dysfunctional conflict: This is also referred to as destructive conflict, affect conflict,
relationship conflict or interpersonal conflict, and occurs when the focus is on emotions
rather than goals or tasks. It occurs when people view differences as personal
attacks rather than as attempts to find solutions to a problem. It usually stems from
personal or socio-emotional clashes and, because members focus on each other
rather than on the problem, it can prove destructive if no solutions are reached
and morale is negatively affected. This type of conflict hinders progress, leads to
indecisiveness, reduces cohesiveness and disengages people from one another and
the task at hand.
While constructive conflict involves little emotion, destructive conflict is loaded with
emotion which usually tends to be negative, such as anger and frustration. The ideal
situation is to have a moderate level of conflict which is effectively managed to ensure
the organisation’s and its members’ optimal, innovative functioning in response to
these challenges.

3.7.4 Strategies for managing organisational conflict

The literature identifies various strategies for handling conflict. The manner in which
each of these is applied depends on individuals in the organisation.
A method for categorising conflict strategies is the grid concept originally developed
by Blake and Mouton (1964), in which a grid designates managerial styles in terms of the
concern for production (own outcomes) and the concern for people (outcomes of others).
This grid has been updated by Werner (2007: 237) and is illustrated in Figure 3.6.

High A B
Competitor Collaborator
Assertiveness

E
Compromiser

C D
Avoider Accommodator
Low High
Cooperativeness
Figure 3.6 The grid concept of Blake and Mouton (1964)

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Based on Blake and Mouton’s original grids, Figure 3.6 illustrates the five behavioural
orientations and interpersonal conflict handling systems that result from a concern for
the self and a concern for others. These five major conflict strategies or styles are briefly
discussed below:
1. Avoiding: This style scores low on both concern for self and concern for others, and
occurs when people choose to ignore or withdraw from the conflict in the hope
that it will go away or resolve by itself. This can be described as a lose–lose strategy
of conflict.
2. Accommodating: This style scores low on concern for own outcomes and high on
concern for others. Its focus is on maintaining good relationships and this style
is adopted by people who perceive their goals to be of lesser importance than the
goals of others, and who therefore try to maintain harmony and avoid anger and
confrontation by being non-assertive and co-operative. Although accommodators
might agree on decisions to accommodate others, they might later regret their
decisions. This reflects a lose–win approach to conflict.
3. Compromising: This style scores moderately on both concerns, and exists when people
are mildly concerned with their own goals and those of others and therefore strive
to reach a compromise. Compromisers are prepared to modify their goals and to
try to persuade others to do the same so that a common goal can be reached. This
is seen as a lose–lose strategy.
4. Forcing (or competitive): This style scores high on concern for own outcomes and low
on concern for others. It exists when one person tries to dominate the others by
forcing them to accept his or her solution to the conflict. Such people are usually
ruthless; relationships are not important to them because winning is their only
goal. This style has a win–lose orientation.
5. Confronting/collaborative (or problem solving): Scoring high on both concerns, this style
exists when people try to create situations in which the goals and objectives of
every relevant person can be attained by establishing mutually acceptable and
constructive solutions to the conflict. Problems are discussed and relationships
maintained. This style has a win–win orientation.
Werner (2007: 243) and Venter (in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002) state that the
most commonly used strategies for managing conflict are the following:
1. Social intervention programmes: Representatives of the conflicting groups meet to
acknowledge the problem, commit themselves to finding a workable solution, work
on the problem, and provide feedback at follow-up meetings until the interaction
and relationship have improved.
2. Negotiation: During negotiation, people discuss the conflict with the aim of
producing a more satisfactory working arrangement by trying to resolve various
differences concerning goals and objectives while giving up less important aspects.
Good communication skills are needed and both parties should be willing to
approach the situation from a win–win perspective.
3. Third-party interventions or compromising: A third party, or neutral person, can
intervene by assisting the parties to resolve their differences and to ensure that a
fair process is followed.

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4. Dictation: The strategy of one person dictating a decision is usually used when
parties are irrational (for example threatening each other, abusing alcohol, and
so on), overly upset or under great stress, or when they do not have sufficient
communication skills to solve the conflict.
5. Mediation: When a neutral person facilitates the communication process, people
are able not only to listen to each other but also to find their own solutions to the
problems. Both parties must be motivated to reach a solution on their own.
6. Arbitration: An arbitrator listens to both sides of the conflict, discusses possible
solutions, and makes a final decision that is binding. This strategy is usually used
when all other methods have failed.
According to Venter (in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002), the most significant
cause of conflict in an organisation is the increasing diversity of the workforce
which has resulted from the multicultural, multilingual and multireligious nature
of modern societies. The organisational environment consists of developed as well
as developing components. Furthermore, in spite of current constitutional, legal
and societal pressures which force organisations to implement non-discriminatory,
democratic and representative policies and structures, there is still discrimination
in the workplace. Notwithstanding this problem, Venter (in Verwey & Du Plooy-
Cilliers, 2002) believes that diversity can be used to competitive advantage if there
is improved decision making and better team performance in the organisation.
Various strategies aimed at solving conflict need to be integrated, including better
communication; appointing people with similar views, values and background;
altering the organisational structure; creating healthy competition through rewards
and incentives to groups; as well as appointing a devil’s advocate to ensure alternative
views are considered, to name a few. It is, however, important to realise that conflict
is a natural aspect of organisations and, if managed well, one that can benefit the
organisation as well as its members.

3.8 Organisational culture
3.8.1 
Defining organisational culture
The idea of organisational culture was recognised as early as 1948 in a discussion
concerning the ways in which thinking and behaving in organisations became
institutionalised in terms of influencing employees’ actions. In organisational
studies, the origins of this organisational culture can be traced to the 1970s although
it was only during the 1980s that it became widely adopted by researchers into
organisational studies (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Schein, 1991). Over the last two or
three decades, organisational culture has been defined in terms of shared meaning
(patterns of belief, symbols, rituals and myths); it has been described by Baker in
1980 and Siehl and Martin in 1982 (both cited in Miller, 2003) as the glue that binds
an organisation together, and has been portrayed as consisting of shared values and
beliefs. More recently, most definitions have become aligned in terms of an emphasis
on the notions of shared meaning, values, patterns of beliefs, assumptions and
expectations held by members of an organisation (Schein, 1991; Zamanou & Glaser,
1994; Jones, 2007: 8) and an emphasis on the way in which organisational culture

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distinguishes organisations from each other (Werner, 2007: 25; Rikowski, 2007:
137). Today, and for the purpose of this book, organisational culture is defined as
the shared beliefs, values, feelings, norms or common perceptions held by members
of an organisation that are apparent in behaviour; that connect a group of people;
and that guide the functioning of an organisation through symbols, processes and
cultural elements (Crow & Hartman, 2002; Zaremba, 2006). Culture involves
the mission and vision of the organisation and directly influences the members’
motivation, performance, contentment and stress levels. Werner (2007: 27) further
distinguishes between two organisational cultures:
„„ Dominant cultures that reflect the core values of the organisation and which are
shared by most members.
„„ Subcultures that stem from the dominant culture but which reflect common
problems, experiences and situations with which members are confronted.
If these cultures differ considerably it can lead to confusion between members and about
whether certain behaviour is acceptable or not. Cultural differences can sometimes be
more difficult to resolve than political or social issues. Because organisational culture
influences members’ behaviour, performance and functioning, it should be changed,
modified or reinforced to establish a desired culture. To do this, the knowledge
management of individualism–collectivism should be taken into consideration to create
a professional culture based on indigenous knowledge of the different elements involved.
In terms of effective organisational communication, to ensure beneficial relationships
with its stakeholders and to assist in the organisational learning and decision-making
process, the knowledge management paradigm should be utilised. This paradigm refers to
the creation, storing, sharing and transfer of knowledge and information for the benefit
of the organisation and its individuals through the integration of expertise and real-time
interconnectivity. Barker (2007) emphasises the importance of knowledge management
because it facilitates comprehensive and clearly understandable management initiatives
and procedures. Most discussions of knowledge management refer to a technical
component (data gathering, mining and integration, the dissemination of data and
direct, real-time interactions to share information) and a human or organisational
component (which includes the management of four interrelated elements: choice,
adoption and implementation of procedures/methods to link individuals and groups;
formal and informal informational settings where interaction occurs; organisational
practices to complete tasks; and the organisational context in which interactions and
work happen) (Barker, 2006: 134). Successful organisations are characterised by the
constant creation of new knowledge and the fast dissemination and representation of
such knowledge in new products and services through organisational communication
technology. The basic principles for knowledge management listed by Barker (2006)
are, for the purpose of this study, categorised in terms of the three main components of
knowledge management, as indicated in Table 3.1.

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Table 3.1 Basic principles for knowledge management in terms of three main components

Technical component Human component Knowledge component

„„ Continuous „„ Continuous learning „„ Creating value from

improvement essential essential core organisational
„„ Ensure flexibility „„ Employees are seen as competencies
„„ Improve work practices assets with valuable „„ Organisation is change
and processes skills and experience seeking
„„ Develop methods, „„ Creates constructive „„ Knowledge
tools, techniques and and helpful relations comprises corporate
values to acquire, to enable insight and knowledge and shared
develop, measure, sharing and to purge understanding
distribute and return on distrust, fear and „„ Knowledge is closely
intellectual assets dissatisfaction attached to human
„„ Employees are seen as emotions, aspirations,
spiritual beings in need hopes, intentions and
of recognition experiences
„„ Capture expertise „„ New knowledge is
and knowledge from essential for capitalising
one employee to be on new opportunities
referred to by another „„ Knowledge is
employee (for example associated with actions
in databases) and created through
information and social
interaction

3.8.2 Organisational culture and climate

During the early evolution of the cultural perspective, the distinction between
‘culture’ and ‘climate’ was clear. Denison (1996) believes that whatever culture
is, it is not climate. Meek’s summary is also valuable: ‘Culture should be
regarded as something an organisation “is”, not something it “has”; it is not an
independent variable nor can it be created, discovered or destroyed by the whims
of management’ (1988: 469). Essentially this means that cultural core value systems
create the organisational climate, where culture relates to the underlying values and
assumptions, and climate to the manifestations of such. Conversely, organisational
climate can be defined as a set of organisational attributes which have endured
and persisted over time in spite of changes in individual members’ attitudes. It
therefore refers to a feeling people have about the atmosphere of the organisation
(Barker, in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002) that either encourages or discourages
communication (Zaremba, 2006: 164) and it can be ‘hot or cold’, ‘warm or chilly’.
Meudell and Gadd (1994) suggest that, although a strong culture is important, an
organisation will be successful only if an appropriate climate is created.
Table 3.2 presents a summary of the primary differences between organisational
culture and climate (Barker, in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002; Denison, 1996).

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Table 3.2 Primary differences between organisational culture and climate

Culture Climate

Requires qualitative research methods Requires quantitative research methods

Concerned with the evolution of social Less concerned with evolution; more
systems over time concerned with the impact organisational
systems have on groups and individuals

Deep understanding of underlying Greater emphasis on members’ perspectives

assumptions, individual meaning and on observable practices and procedures that
members’ views of the organisation are closer to the surface of the organisation’s
life

Refers to the deep structure of organisations Rooted in the organisation’s value system
which is rooted in the values, beliefs and presenting social environments in relatively
assumptions held by members static terms

Concerned with the nature of expectations Concerned with whether or not these
expectations are met

Refers to the patterns of belief, values, norms Refers to meaningful interpretations or

and expectations shared by members of the perceptions of members of an organisation
organisation

Describes how the organisation is depicted Focuses on the employees’ perceptions of

and what it is about what the organisation is about

It can be argued that organisational culture involves every member at each

hierarchical level and that it is founded on a broad-based history that is visible in
the material aspects (or artefacts) of the organisation (such as its name, products,
buildings, logos and other symbols). Organisational culture is embedded in
several communicative mechanisms, including formal statements of organisational
philosophy (like mission, vision, codes of ethics, organisational reports), leadership
models (indicating intentional or unintentional expected behaviours), crisis response
(what is expected), organisational structures (levels of responsibility and autonomy),
physical layouts or spaces (furnishing, facades, and so on), and storytelling, legends
or heroes (incidents that reflect the culture of the organisation). Organisational
culture is studied mainly from within the organisation; theoretical approaches do
not include the organisation’s relationship with its environment.

3.8.3 Theoretical paradigms for understanding organisational culture

The theory of organisational culture emerges from a combination of organisational
psychology, social psychology and social anthropology. This theory emerged as early
as 1952, when Jacques (in Miller, 2003) referred to the ‘culture’ of a factory. The first
article on organisational culture was published in Administrative Science Quarterly by
Pettigrew (1979). The concept gradually developed into a subject of study. It was initially
seen as an elaboration of the human relations approach (Roetlisberger & Dickson,
1939) and the social systems approach to the scientific management techniques of

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Frederick Winslow Taylor (Scott, Mannion, Davies & Marshall, 2003). Cultural
terminology was then used in two books published in the early 1980s: Corporate Cultures:
The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life by Deal and Kennedy (1982), which focuses on the
development of ‘strong cultures’; and In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best-run
Companies by Peters and Waterman (1982), which pays attention to ‘excellent cultures’
in an organisation. Both books emphasise the importance of organisational elements,
shifting away from rational models of organising.
Miller (2003) stresses that, although the value added by these books is extremely
positive, two crucial criticisms must be made. Firstly, it cannot be assumed that there
is a single cultural formula for achieving organisational success and, secondly, culture
cannot be seen as a ‘thing’ that an organisation ‘has’. The latter view objectifies culture
and de-emphasises the complex processes through which organisational culture
is shaped and maintained. Today, according to Miller (2003), most researchers see
culture as values, practices, narratives and artefacts that make an organisation ‘what it
is’, and not as something that can be managed. Furthermore, Miller (2003) argues that
cultural researchers seek to describe and understand the complex concept and that
various alternative approaches can be used to do this more effectively. The following
three schools of thought have been used to describe organisational culture:
1. The first school sees the organisational tasks in terms of specific and measurable
variables, traits or processes.
2. The second school believes that it is a global challenge to capture culture as an
intrinsic property of the social milieu, which forms when people are brought
together in an organisational setting.
3. The third school sees organisational culture as an anthropological metaphor or
paradigm for measuring organisations as micro-societies. (Burrell, 1996; Morgan,
1986; Schein, 1991; Smircich, 1983)
Researchers and scholars became fascinated with the concept of organisational
culture during the last part of the 20th century. Miller (2003) provides some reasons
for such interest:
„„ The metaphor of culture reverberated with researchers and practitioners.
„„ It exposed new fields of research.
„„ It became a household word.

Various approaches have been proposed for the study and understanding of
organisational culture, the most notable being the functionalist and interpretivist
paradigms. According to the former, organisations produce cultures, whereas the latter
contends that organisations are cultures (Zamanou & Glaser, 1994). The primary
differences between these approaches are as follows:
„„ The functionalist approach is concerned with the administration and control of an
organisation. It attempts to understand the working of the organisation and to
manipulate the variables to improve this.
„„ The interpretivist approach aims to understand and interpret the lives of people as
experienced in the organisation, and asserts that culture cannot be manipulated
but is rather the medium through which reality is created. People using this
approach also attempt to understand how members use interactions to interpret

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and give meaning to their experiences (Barker, in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers,

2002; Neher 1997).
Jeffcutt (1994) and Turner (1990) observe the discourse of organisational culture in
terms of three viewpoints, namely:
1. Corporate culturalism: From this viewpoint, culture is seen as a variable or a root
metaphor that captures the nature of the organisation as a whole. The viewpoint
therefore presents a collective perspective on organisational culture.
2. Organisational symbolism: This perspective allows for an interpretation of the symbolic
importance of phenomena that previously have been considered incomprehensible
or imperceptible.
3. Postmodernism: This approach is concerned with how the research is to be done;
it also questions existing assumptions concerning the rationality of conducting
research and using language to express the findings.
It is clear that different theoretical approaches can be used to study the cultural
phenomenon; moreover, it is important to understand and explain the phenomenon
in the organisational context. In the conceptualisation of organisational culture,
researchers have assessed various cultural elements to collect data. These will be
discussed in the next section.

3.8.4 Elements of organisational culture

Communication or interaction plays a crucial role in the understanding of the various
elements of organisational culture. Researchers tend to focus on their own selected
set of elements, which range from unconscious assumptions (Schein, 1991); values,
rites and rituals (Deal & Kennedy, 1982); behavioural norms (Cooke & Rousseau, in
Zamanou & Glaser, 1994); communication efficacy (Shockley-Zalabak, 1991); symbols,
language, narration and practices (Trice & Beyer, 1993); material artefacts (Peters
& Waterman, 1982) to stories, ceremonies and organisational language ( Jones, 2007:
185) and various others (Barker, in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002).
To study these elements methodologically, Barker (in Verwey and Du Plooy-
Cilliers, 2002) places them in categories that range from accessible and subjective
to less observable, deeper layers that are evident in artefacts, language, behavioural
concepts, heroes, symbols, psychological phenomena and organisational aspects. Each
of these elements is discussed in more detail below.

Artefacts
The most observable expressions of culture (Champoux, 2000), artefacts are unique
characteristics of culture that refer to the total physical and socially created environment
of an organisation. Artefacts include objects and tangible arrangements, patterns of
behaviour and abstract linguistic expressions that are evident in the organisation.
Brown (1998) delineates the subcategories of artefacts as follows:
„„ Material objects: Annual reports, products, brochures, and so on.
„„ Language: For example jokes, anecdotes, stories, metaphors and jargon.

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„„ Physical layouts: How the office is spaced – that is, open or closed plan, shared or
individual working spaces, furniture, dress codes, location of departments and the
general appearance of the building.
„„ Technolog y: The information technologies that the organisation uses to manufacture
its products, such as computers, fax machines, photocopiers, telephones and any
other machinery.
„„ Behavioural patterns: For example rites, rituals, ceremonies and celebrations.
„„ Symbols: For example material objects, physical layouts, posters and once-off actions.
„„ Rules, systems, procedures and programmes: These include human resource systems that
deal with compensation, appraisal and promotion, quality assurance programmes
and others.

Language
Westbrook states that ‘[t]he language of an organisation communicates its culture. It is
a unifying and sustaining force. It tends to perpetuate the existing culture. In order to
change the culture, the language must be changed’ (1993: 1).
Language is a core aspect of organisational culture and includes the symbols,
humour, metaphors, slogans, gestures, jargon or specialised vocabulary used by
members of an organisation (Neher, 1997). Meaning is ascribed to a word or a sign
based on the organisation’s history; a shared symbolic system allows the organisation
to communicate its values, behavioural expectations, experiences and self-image
among its members (Barker, in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002).
Language is presented in the following forms:
„„ Jokes: Culture-bound forms of language use.
„„ Metaphors: Words or phrases applied to an object or action that do not literally
convey a complex idea or image in a short format.
„„ Narration: Includes stories, sagas, myths and legends. A story is a brief description or
a unified sequence of an event (or events) that carries symbolic meaning to members
of a culture and which reveals basic assumptions shared by members, as expressed in
historic events of that culture. Organisational stories include stories about individuals,
shared collegial stories about members of the organisation, corporate stories that are
representative of organisational ideology, and stories about organisational facts or
history. Sagas are comprehensive narratives about the achievements of and events
in the life of a person (hero or villain), group or community (organisation), and
include shared fantasies, rhetorical vision and the narrative of achievements, and
the events and goals of the organisation. Myths and legends are unjustifiable beliefs
that influence the way in which members of the organisation understand and react
to their social environment (Barker, in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002; Brown,
1998; Pacanowsky & O’Donnell-Trujillo, 1983).

Behavioural concepts
Behaviour designates the systematic, standard activities that enable the organisation
to reach its goals (Trice & Beyer, 1993). Norms are the rules for behaviour that guide
members in terms of which behaviour is appropriate or inappropriate in specific

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situations, and these norms result from two-way communication. Behavioural concepts
include rites, rituals, taboos and ceremonies:
„„ Rites convey cultural messages to members through planned events that celebrate
the basic values and behaviours of a culture.
„„ Rituals (and taboos) are straightforward, concise, habitual behaviours that,
although not essential for the functioning of the organisation, can contribute to
members’ motivation and sense of belonging.
„„ Taboos refer to activities, objects or people that are habitually avoided for seemingly
superstitious reasons.
„„ Ceremonies involve organisational celebrations such as well-orchestrated
presentations, prizes and speeches that reinforce cultural values (Barker, in
Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002; Brown, 1998; Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Neher,
1997; Trice & Beyer, 1993).

Heroes
Heroes are symbolic models of valued attitudes and behaviour. According to Deal and
Kennedy (1982), heroes (such as the founder of an organisation) fulfil the following
vital functions in organisations. They:
„„ make success seem within reach of all members of the organisation
„„ act as role models who encourage high standards of performance
„„ symbolise the organisation to external stakeholders
„„ preserve and enhance cultural values and indicate what is unique about the
organisation
„„ encourage members to have greater commitment to the organisation and to
identify their own achievements with the organisation’s success
„„ motivate members.

Symbols
Neher (1997) defines symbols as words, gestures, pictures or objects that carry a
particular meaning within a culture and which allow members of an organisation
to communicate with and understand each other. Symbols include objects, settings,
performers and roles, which are used during times of change and uncertainty to give
members direction (Barker, in Verwey & Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2002; Grieves, 2000).

Psychological phenomena
Brown (1998) identifies the following elements that constitute psychological
phenomena:
„„ Beliefs refer to what people think – they are not necessarily true.
„„ Values refer to the inherent worth of things (such as policies and practices) – they
tend to be taken for granted and are deeply entrenched in the minds of people to
form the basis for their behaviour in the organisation.
„„ Attitudes refer to evaluations or learned predispositions for responses (favourable or
unfavourable), that are based on feelings.

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„„ Basic assumptions refer to readily available solutions to an identifiable problem – they

address aspects of human behaviour and relationships within the organisation and
with elements in the external environment.

Organisational aspects
The two main organisational aspects are the business environment and the cultural
network (Brown, 1998; Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Neher, 1997).
1. The business environment is the environment or marketplace in which the organisation
operates.
2. The cultural network refers to the processes and roles that communicate with and
educate new employees about the organisational culture. It includes the following
roles for transmitting and maintaining culture: storytellers (to pass on the
narratives and myths); priests (to remember the correct rituals and precedents);
gossips (to maintain the informal grapevine); and spies, whisperers and cabals
(political cliques or factions).
In the above section, the elements of organisational culture are categorised in terms
of distinct and intelligible modalities. The next section discusses the management of
these elements.

3.8.5 Managing organisational culture

Whether or not organisational communication can be managed remains a controversial
topic in the literature (Eisenberg & Riley, in Jablin & Putnam, 2001; Howard & Geist,
1995; Trice & Beyer, 1993). In order to manage culture, four factors that produce
culture need to be considered:
„„ Individual characteristics of the members of the organisation who participate in an
organisation to create value and contribute to the functioning of the organisation.
„„ Organisational ethics, which are the moral rules and values used in the organisation
to manage the way in which tasks are performed or resources are used.
„„ Organisational processes, which are used to co-ordinate the organisation’s actions to
achieve goals and objectives.
„„ Organisational structure, which refers to the formal system of tasks and authority
relationships in organisations to manage activities which can be mechanistic
(tall structures, highly centralised and standardised) or organic (flat structures,
decentralised and reliant on mutual adjustment).
Organisations that recognise the need to confront these factors and the changes
that take place in the business environment can usually successfully manage their
organisational culture. The most known and popular method for managing cultural
change is total quality management (TQM).

Total quality management

In general, TQM is defined as the continuous effort made by all organisational
functions to find ways to improve the quality of the organisation’s goods and services
( Jones, 2007: 279). The TQM approach is viewed as an agent of change and as a means
Co
or

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of addressing organisation-related issues so as to improve quality in the planning and

evaluation of work processes. Moreover, emphasis is increasingly being placed on the
use of TQM to manage organisational culture.
In terms of an organisational culture approach, a more precise definition of TQM
views it as the interrelationship between an organisation’s culture, its relations with its
internal and external publics, its use of organisational and cross-functional teams to
solve problems, its recognition of the need for continuous improvement, its measures
to evaluate systems, and its practices that indicate productivity. In light of this, TQM
empowers individuals in the organisation by recognising their value.
Nevertheless, the assessment criteria that have been developed in the literature
remain limited. Certain authors agree that the first phase should be an organisational
readiness assessment that precedes development and implementation of the
management. The main aims of this phase would be to investigate the extent and
rationale of the quality initiative, to encourage support, and to eradicate early employee
resistance and a dysfunctional corporate culture (Atchinson, 1992; Stewart, 1994).
Weeks, Helms and Ettkin (1995) identify seven key characteristics that are critical
both for organisations which strive to develop excellent quality processes and for judging
an organisation’s readiness to implement a TQM programme. These characteristics
are depicted in Figure 3.7.

Influence
Responsibility/autonomy
Satisfaction
Desire to change/ability to change
Common vision/benchmarking
innovativeness
Teamwork

Determination of gaps and variations in level of

agreement between managers and employees

Issues to address prior to TQM implementation

Figure 3.7 Key factors to address before implementing TQM

To assess these characteristics, the perceptions (real or imagined) of management

are significant, as individuals act on perceptions. For the concept to be successful
it therefore needs to be management driven. In addition, an understanding and
agreement between employees and management are needed if the implementation of
quality initiatives is to be successful (Weeks et al., 1995).

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3.9 The process of organisational change

‘Change is the law of life and those who only look to the past or the present will miss
the future.’ ( John F Kennedy)
The next chapter presents a detailed discussion of organisational change and
management. For the purpose of this chapter, however, change in the organisation
is conceptualised and discussed primarily in terms of cultural change. Change in
the organisation resides first in its external environments and, being open systems,
businesses are necessarily affected by these changes and need to adapt to them
accordingly. Organisational change can be defined as the continuous need for proactive
communication with personnel in order to assist personnel and businesses in altering
individual and business objectives. This represents a shift from communication with
personnel that is ‘nice but not necessary’ to communication with personnel that is
critical to the success of the organisation. Or, as defined by Jones, it is the ‘process
by which organisations move from their current state to some desired future state to
increase their effectiveness’ (2007: 9).
Based on the cliché that nothing is as constant as change, it can be said that change
is a continuing and variable characteristic of organisational existence. Change occurs
at two levels: the macro level (organisational) and the micro level (individual). Reactions
to change during the stages of the change process – development, planning and
implementation – are critical to organisational and individual outcomes. Important
reactions to the change process, as identified in the literature, can be divided into
three themes: management support of the change process; resistance or fear felt by
lower-level employees which can result in their attempt to prevent implementation of
the change process; and the uncertainty of organisational members about the change
process, which can result in stress (Fairhurst, 1993; Medved, Morrison, Dearing et al.,
2001; Miller, 2003; Miller, Joseph & Apker, 2000).
Silverman (1996) identifies three models to describe organisational change:
1. The individual model, which identifies specific psychological characteristics that can
be effectively used to modify dysfunctional client behaviours.
2. The cultural model, which is defined as communication, in which communication is
culture. A communication plan is developed to address communication needs.
3. The infrastructure model, which can be used to assess current reinforcers of behaviours
and to modify the change towards developing alternative systems.

3.9.1 Communication during change

The above-mentioned reactions to organisational change highlight the importance
of communication in the change process. Various strategies are proposed for
communicating change to members of the organisation. Two notable approaches that
can be used to address change at a macro or organisational level are the top-down strategy
suggested by Clampitt, DeKoch and Cashman (2000), which indicates that members
should be involved in the change process in appropriate areas based on relevant
information; and the planned strategy suggested by Howard and Geist (1995), in which
members use talking and language to ideologically position themselves within the

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change process by adopting stances of active acceptance, passive acceptance, active

rejection and passive rejection.
To address change at the micro or individual level, the feedback process is crucial.
Feedback facilitates the conceptualisation of information and this influences the
performance of an individual as well as improves performance at both the individual
and organisational level. For example, feedback can be exchanged through performance
appraisal interviews, which could be in a written format (as with appraisal reports) or
verbal (as in a meeting or discussion with superiors) (Miller, 2003).

3.9.2 Organisational culture change

Some researchers agree that organisational change implies cultural change (Deal &
Kennedy, 1982; Schein, 1991). In creating a connection between culture and change,
Galpin (1996) proposes that changes should be passed through a cultural screen that
comprises ten interrelated components: rules and policies; goals and measurement;
customs and norms; training; ceremonies and events; management behaviours;
rewards and recognition; communications; physical environment; and organisational
structure.

An example of cultural change

A major retailer identified a decline in customer service as one of the reasons for loss in revenue.
Although the service was not poor, a competitor analysis indicated that their competitors
were ahead in customer service. Management responded by declaring excellence in customer
service and a policy dictating that poor service would not be tolerated. They also spent a
large amount of funding and management and employee time in training employees in new
service behaviours. Although a brief increase in service ratings was noted, the ratings again
dropped once the training had been completed.
This example illustrates that measuring only one or two aspects of an organisation’s culture
(in this case, training and communication) is not sufficient enough to implement or sustain
change. Instead, the company should have implemented and managed as many of the ten
components as possible.

Cultural change can be viewed from a systems thinking perspective (a discipline which
sees interrelationships, rather than ‘snapshots’, generating change by highlighting the
cause of problems and how these can be solved effectively) as the need to focus on change
implications (where the organisation’s corporate culture should be compatible with its
new business strategies). To manage cultural change, patterns of basic assumptions are
invented, discovered or developed by groups to handle problems of adaptation and
internal integration. To change culture is probably the most difficult thing to achieve,
especially because an organisation’s culture is a function of individual perceptions, and
members of an organisation are bound to have varying perceptions.

3.10 Communicating with groups and teams

Effective organisational communication is not directed at individuals but is rather
aimed at groups (formal and informal) or teams that exist in the organisation.
Furthermore, communication is now gaining precedence in organisational decision

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making and it has therefore become essential to investigate the role of communication
in decision-making groups and teams.

3.10.1 Defining groups and teams

A group refers to a cluster of two or more people who work together for a specific
purpose, usually to the benefit of the individual members of the group (for example
students studying together for their own benefit).
A team refers to a group of people working towards a common, co-operative action
to achieve a specific outcome for the benefit of the group through synergy, rather than
for the benefit of the individual members (for example a group of lecturers writing a
study guide that can benefit all their students).

3.10.2 Group communication
Made up of individuals, groups have specific characteristics. These can be composites
of the characteristics of the individuals or they can be unique to the groups without
being presented by any one individual within the group (Spinks & Wells, 1995).
A group is therefore two or more people who interact with and influence one another.
Groups can be classified in many ways, most notably as follows:
„„ Formal groups are selected, and members are appointed, by the organisation. These
groups function effectively and in harmonisation with other formal groups for the
organisation to obtain its goals and objectives. Formal groups are characterised by
organisational rules, regulations and policies.
„„ Informal groups form by themselves and members join voluntarily. These groups can
exist alongside the formal groups. Informal groups are characterised by similar
values and attitudes, group norms, conformity and sanction, group cohesiveness,
group defensiveness, and group roles.
The implications of communication regarding formal and informal groups are
generally the same. As group members, individuals are subject to the group’s norms in
terms of values, attitudes, performances, and so on. They are also expected to exhibit
a high degree of cohesiveness to group expectations and goals, and to be protective of
the group and its members. Communication should be directed towards the group and
not towards specific individuals within it (Spinks & Wells, 1995). The advantages and
disadvantages of groups are presented in Table 3.3 (Neher, 1997).

Table 3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of groups

Advantages Disadvantages

Possess more knowledge and information Conflict of ideas may exist between leaders
(formal or informal)

More open courses of action Conflict can destroy morale

Group criticism of proposed alternatives Members of groups may lack training,

should produce a more highly refined experience and the competence needed to
selection of possible approaches make good decisions 

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Advantages Disadvantages

Various tasks can be assigned to individuals Ongoing struggle to establish and maintain
within the group who possess the most roles that can either strengthen or weaken
expertise related to these tasks an individual’s role within the group

A high human relations value – working Time needed for group action or to make
towards a concerted effort without the risk decisions
of sanctioning the group

To achieve their goals, members in a group work together through task and transactional
processes that carry, develop and focus on the give and take of communicating in task
groups and teams. Task processes are specific work-oriented interactions that focus on
gathering and sharing information; analysing problems; designing solutions; analysing
and testing evidence and reasoning; and making, implementing and evaluating
decisions. In transactional processes, verbal and non-verbal communication are used to
develop the climate and identity of the team and include give-and-take interactions
involving messages about individuals, the team and the task processes. Transactional
processes require leadership, role taking and team members’ communication skills to
ensure accomplishments (Lumsden & Lumsden, 1993).

3.10.3 Team communication
Because a team includes diverse groups of people in which members share leadership
responsibilities, create an identity and work towards a mutually defined goal within the
context of other groups and systems (Lumsden & Lumsden, 1993), many organisations
have implemented team communication in an effort to work more intelligently, to
improve quality and customer service, and to enhance productivity. Team building
has become an encompassing goal in many organisations today. According to Manz
and Sims (1993), teams are emerging as a critical element in TQM programmes. It
is, of course, important to conduct team interactions in an open and co-operative
environment where everybody is encouraged to participate in the discussions. A central
notion in the team approach is that an individual’s responsibility is defined in terms
of the team’s responsibility – that is, everyone must recognise that action needs to be
taken at any given time to meet team objectives and goals, irrespective of individual
positions or categorisation. An emphasis on teams leads to the designation of group
leaders as team leaders (or even ‘superleaders’) who serve as instructors or facilitators
within the group (Neher, 1997).
There are two viewpoints regarding teams: the team concept can be presented as an
empowering programme for members or, alternatively, the move towards autonomous
teams can reduce the power of collective groups in scenarios where teams lead to a
fragmentation of concerns and interests (Neher, 1997).

3.10.4 Decision making in groups and teams

The term decision making describes the act of seeking and interpreting information
that is based on perceptions, to arrive at a conclusion that is based on strategic issues

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(Werner, 2007: 252), Table 3.4 indicates the types of decisions in the organisation
(adapted from Werner, 2007).

Table 3.4 Types of decisions in the organisation

Type of decision Description

Programmed versus Programmed

non-programmed Carefully considered solutions to specific problems
Tasks follow a defined set of guidelines that have
been tested through experience
Non-programmed
Unstructured solutions to more complex and
ambiguous problems
Regular policies and procedures are insufficient

Strategic versus operational Strategic

Long-term plans to address long-term goals
Various levels: corporate, business and functional
(including operational)
Operational
Day-to-day activities and work schedules
Expected crises such as absenteeism, technical
breakdowns, delays, and so on

Top-down versus worker empowered Top-down

Traditional approach, hierarchical
Saves time and might result in high-quality
decisions but the question of legitimacy might
arise
Worker empowered
Direct: A delegation is formed, or added
responsibility is given to members or teams
Indirect: There is participation in the decision-
making process by lower-level employees

Decision making can therefore occur at any of these levels, or at a combination of

them. Various models of the decision-making process exist, of which the following six
are the most notable:
1. Analytical model or rational model: According to the classical theories of organisational
behaviour, decision making is seen as a rational and logical process in which a
set of options exists and criteria are developed to ensure effective outcomes. This
model suggests eight steps that groups of individuals can take to solve problems
and to enhance decision making in the organisation. The steps are: identify the
problem; define the objectives that must be achieved to solve the problem; make
a pre-decision; generate alternative solutions; evaluate the alternative solutions;
make a choice on the possible and best solution; implement the chosen alternative
or choice, and follow up by monitoring the effectiveness of the decisions that
have been put into action; if the process proves to be unsuccessful, return to
generating alternatives until the problem is solved. The main limitations of this

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model are that it does not take into account either the filtering and constraining
influences of an organisation on the entire decision-making process or the effects
of power.
2. The rational-economic model: Although the rational models seem to be the ideal
decision-making approach, they do not explain the manner in which organisational
decision makers function in reality. This model follows the same steps indicated
in the analytical model but tries to maximise profits by searching systematically
for the optimum solution, based on accurate information and impartiality from
an economic perspective. This approach is considered to be a normative or
prescriptive model and does not adequately describe how the decision maker
should behave.
3. The bounded rationality model: This model suggests alternative viewpoints and
argues, firstly, that it is more realistic to look at organisational decision making
as a satisfying process, which seeks not only a single optimal solution but also one
that is suitable for dealing with the entire situation. It is, arguably, impossible to
make an ideal rational solution because decision makers are cognitively limited
(humans are not always perfectly logical) as well as limited in more practical
terms (that is, as a result of time constraints, resources limitations, and so on).
Secondly, organisational decision making can be ascribed to the intuitive process of
managers, which cannot simply be seen as illogical but rather as analogical in that
their decisions are made by looking at the way in which similar situations have
been addressed in the past. More recently, theorists have proposed that decision
making is a process in which problems, solutions, participants and choices are
grouped together and suitable solutions are tailored to address these problems in
a collective manner. Thirdly, available heuristics (decisions made on information
accessible from memory) or representative heuristics (decisions made based on a
person’s tendency to estimate the probability of an event occurring) can be used.
The problem with using heuristics is that the occurrence of the event can be over-
or underestimated and the decision can also be influenced by bias.
4. The political model: According to this model, the distribution of power in the
organisation determines the tactics used by the members of the decision-making
process and often draws on self-serving, unethical principles like the hedonistic
principle (self-interest), the might-equals-right principle (one party is strong enough
to take advantage without showing any respect for others’ social rules and customs)
and the conventionalist principle (a decision maker can bluff and take advantage
of any legal opportunities and other practices). The main criticism against this
model is that it can be used to satisfy one particular party’s own interests at the
expense of others’.
5. The garbage-can model: This model developed as a result of the shortcomings of the
rational model and maintains that decisions in the organisation are random and
unsystematic; in other words, the organisation is a garbage can where decisions
are the result of complex interactions between problems, solutions, participants
and choice opportunities. The main limitations of this approach are that there
might be some oversight or the presence of unseen opportunities when decisions
are made; political or power motives might be driving the decision; and there might

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be some sensitivity to the number of problems with the result that time-consuming
and important problems might be more likely to be solved than unimportant ones
because of their significance to the participants.
6. A contingency perspective: This perspective views each of the above models as effective
only under specific conditions and that different situations require different
models. Hence, the analytical model is appropriate when information and goals are
clear; the rational-economic model is applicable when information and goals are clear
and all alternatives have been considered and the best solution implemented; the
bounded rationality model is relevant when information is incomplete but goals are
clear; the political model is pertinent when power dominates the organisation and
personal goals are more important; and the garbage-can model is suitable in loosely
structured organisations that have incomplete information and no clear objectives
(Miller, 2003; Werner, 2007).
Werner (2007: 133) outlines the following decision-making styles which can be
implemented during the decision-making process:
„„ Directive style: This is typical of people with a tendency to be autocratic, who use
status aggressively to achieve results, have a low tolerance for ambiguity, are
task orientated and have a technical orientation when making decisions. They
are logical, efficient, practical, systematic, action orientated, decisive and factual,
making decisions quickly and considering few alternatives.
„„ Analytical style: This is used by people more willing to consider complex solutions
based on ambiguous information; they have a higher tolerance and a tendency
to over-analyse, often taking longer to decide because they want the best possible
answer.
„„ Conceptual style: These people are socially orientated when approaching problems,
and consider broad alternatives; they are future orientated and like initiating
new ideas; and they have a high tolerance for ambiguity, taking risks and usually
focusing on people or social aspects. They tend to be idealistic and indecisive.
„„ Behavioural style: These individuals focus more on the people aspect of decision
making and usually have a deep concern for the organisation and the personal
development of their co-workers. Hence they are supportive, enjoy social
interaction, encourage shared opinions, are open to suggestions and tend to rely
on meetings to make decisions. They find it difficult to say ‘no’ to others and to
make difficult decisions.
To make good, ethical decisions therefore requires some knowledge of the impact of
choices and recognition that there is a need for the integration of different insights and
perspectives, depending on the situation.
Group decision-making processes can stimulate new solutions to problems through
mutual influence, encouragement and synergy. Table 3.5 presents the main advantages
and disadvantages of group decision making.

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Table 3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of group decision making

Advantages Disadvantages

Knowledge and information creation Group polarisation, which might shift to

extreme attitudes among members

Diversified perspectives Domination by forceful or powerful

members

Specialised ideas improve the quality of Possible social pressure among group
group efforts members to conform and fit in

Increased understanding, acceptance and Goal displacement in order to win an

commitment to problems argument and ‘groupthink’, which can
override sound judgement

Exposure and learning opportunities for Time consuming

inexperienced staff

The above section briefly captures the main theoretical paradigms of decision making
in an organisation. Decision-making theories have significantly progressed from the
rational model of decision making proposed by the classical theories to the current
focus on decision making as a matter of satisfaction, intuition or advantageous synergies
between problems and solutions. In addition, individualistic and collectivistic cultures,
and the cultural differences that can exist between the two, will also impact on the
decision-making process as a result of the differences in the way people do things, the
nature of decision making and who is responsible for the decisions.

3.11 Organisational communication technology

The inception of the Internet and other technologies in the 1990s in South Africa
has had a huge impact on organisational communication. New communication
technologies become widely accepted only once a critical mass of individuals in an
organisation uses them. In the next section, the theories of the use of communication
technology and its effects in an organisational context are briefly discussed.

3.11.1 Theories of communication technology use

Various theories have been used to analyse the choice of media for communication
technology use:
„„ Social presence theory proposes that communicators choose a medium for messages
based upon the degree of social presence, which includes the psychological perception
of the presence of a communication collaborator (Straub & Karahanna, 1998).
„„ Social influence theory postulates work-group norms, and co-worker and supervisor
influences which in turn affect choices regarding media use in the organisation
(Fulk & Steinfield, 1990; Schmitz & Fulk, 1991).
„„ Critical social theory emphasises the context and norms of social action as central
to the process to ensure accurate and complete communication (Ngwenyama
& Lee, 1997).

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„„ Information richness theory (IRT) suggests that communication choice decisions are
made among available media and proposes that choice of communication media
ranges from lean to rich (Daft, Lengel & Trevino, 1987: 355–368) In terms of
this theory, managers will choose rich media (like face-to-face meetings which
allow for immediate feedback and communication cues to both the sender and
receiver of messages) to address ambiguity problems, whereas lean media (like
memos and other written documents with fewer communication cues) will be
selected to deliver factual information on management decisions. This is the
most widely used theory.
According to Miller (2003), the following theoretical models for organisational media
use are the most prevalent: the media richness model, the social information processing
model and the dual-capacity model. The main themes of each model are summarised
in Table 3.6 (Miller, 2003; Straub & Karahanna, 1998; Fulk, Schmidz & Steinfield,
1990: Ngwenyama & Lee, 1997; Daft, Lengel & Trevino, 1987).

Table 3.6 Theoretical models for organisational media use

Media richness model Social information Dual-capacity model

processing model

Founded by Daft and Lengel Proposed by Fulk, Schmitz Proposed by Sitkin, Sutcliffe
(in Staw & Cummings, 1994) and Steinfeld (1990) and Barrios-Choplin (1992)

Provides a framework for Argues that communication Communication media

understanding members’ with co-workers, supervisors, are not simply ‘rich’ or
choices concerning customers and others ‘lean’– every medium has
communication media use influences media usage the ability to carry two
kinds of messages, namely
data-carrying capacity (the
degree to which a medium
is able to effectively and
efficiently convey relevant
task data), and the symbol-
carrying capacity (which
can be manifested by
conveying the core values
and assumptions of the
organisation’s culture and
which can attain the status
of a symbol apart from
the actual message being
transmitted)

Sees media choice as a Sees the role of Highlights the ability of

rational process of matching communication as a communication media
the richness of the medium determining factor in media to carry both data and
to the ambiguity of the task choice symbolic meaning 

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Media richness model Social information Dual-capacity model

processing model

To make choices, members Sees the use of technology Choice of communication

rely on ambiguity as a complex function of channel depends on both
(conflicting and multiple the objective characteristics the data-carrying and the
interpretations of an issue) of the task and media, symbol-carrying capacity of
experience and knowledge, the medium
individual differences and
social information

Identifies four characteristics Supports the media richness

to differentiate the model because of the
information-carrying objective characteristics
capacity of media: of task and media (that is,
availability of instant task ambiguity and media
feedback, use of multiple richness)
cues, use of natural
language and personal
focus of the medium

Rich media have all four In support of this model,

criteria; lean media have evidence suggests that
none or only one of these communication patterns
characteristics do have an influence on
technology adoption

Critique includes the fact

that a great deal of media
use behaviour is not
accounted for by the match
between task ambiguity and
channel richness, nor by the
extent to which managers
are rational in media choice
behaviour, nor by the
degree of objectivity of the
characteristics

According to Miller (2003), and as indicated in Table 3.6, it is clear from the media
richness model hypothesis that effective managers match the richness of the medium
to the ambiguity of the task. The other two models add complexity to this model.
The social information processing model considers communicative influences on
media perception and choice, and the dual-capacity model considers the symbolic
value of the communication media. It can be argued, therefore, that a combination
of these factors should be considered in organisational media choices.

3.11.2 Effects of organisational communication technology

New communication technology continuously impacts upon the functioning of an
organisation and creates new opportunities to enhance organisational communication.

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The main effects of organisational communication technology on organisational

communication can be considered in terms of the following:
„„ Effects on communication content: Electronic media can inhibit communication
of social and emotional content owing to the unavailability of non-verbal cues
often associated with such content (for example anger made evident in facial
expressions). Electronic messages can also be more difficult to interpret than
face-to-face messages. The distance and anonymity allowed by electronic media
can also reduce inhibitions and can even lead to ‘flaming’ (that is, name-calling,
disrespectful address, the use of obscene language, and so on).
„„ Effects on communication patterns: New technologies result in an increase of
communication which can lead to data overflow (also referred to as data smog or
data drowning) in the form of e-mails, pager messages, cellphone communication,
the Internet and faxes. Electronic messages also increase the prevalence of upward
communication, more diverse communication contacts, and greater equality or
participation in group interactions.
„„ Effects on communication outcomes: The effect can largely be viewed in terms of the
inhibition of leadership (the interaction equality hampers efforts by individuals
to dominate group interaction), less identification of individuals with groups
(especially because of the anonymity allowed by computer systems), and the
quality of group decision making (the use of group decision support systems results
in higher-quality decisions).
„„ Effects on organisational structure: New technology allows for communication over
greater distances and at asynchronous times; it even creates virtual organisations
with no ‘brick and mortar presence’ (allowing for the use of multiple information
and computer technologies at different times and in different places). Advantages
include reduced office expenses; access to global markets; environmental benefits;
probable increased productivity; enhanced customer services; and improved
returns. Disadvantages include costs and isolation from the organisational culture
(Miller, 2003; Rice & Gattiker, 2001).
This section highlighted the contributions of technology to organisational communication
by considering the impact these technologies can have on the organisation. It is clear
that the technological innovations of the postmodern era have changed the nature
of information access and communication in the organisation. Another aspect of the
postmodern world which is especially important to organisational communication is the
rise of globalisation, which has been facilitated by these new technologies.

3.12 Globalisation and organisational communication

Miller (2003) sketches the changing landscape of organisational communication in
terms of two main phases: the modern era (or the industrial age) and the postmodern
era (or the information revolution). According to Miller, the organisational world was
brought on by the Industrial Revolution, also known as the modern era; the world was
typified by the logic and rationality of science and technology, and governed by the
managerial search for effectiveness and efficiency (Miller, 2003). This era formed the
basis of organisational ideas about systems and culture, decision making and conflict,

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and technology. Similarly, the information revolution led into the postmodern era, where
everything moves faster and existence is more segmented and less consistent.
Two main factors contributing to the rise of globalisation are the economic philosophy
of creating wealth through free trade (laissez-faire capitalism), and technological factors,
including the use of the Internet, the World Wide Web, facsimiles, video conferencing,
and so on, which make it possible to conduct business across distances (Conrad &
Poole, 2002). Globalisation has changed the way in which organisations carry out
their business. Zahra (1999) postulates two perspectives according to which such
changes can be viewed. From a positive perspective, globalisation continuously
escalates, transfers technologies and brings cultures and societies together, resulting
in co-operation, goodwill and service excellence. From a more pessimistic perspective,
globalisation can undermine the integrity of the political and social institutions of a
country as a result of its over-reliance on technology to address social and cultural
problems, weakening its culture as a result.
Monge (1998) identifies the following notable influences of globalisation on
organisational communication:
„„ It results in time and space compression, changing communication patterns and
perceptions, because functions can take place quickly when and where time and
space are no longer connected.
„„ It enhances a sense of global consciousness and reflexivity. People need to be
sensitive to the cultures, attitudes, behaviours and beliefs of others in global,
multinational and multicultural organisations.
„„ It leads to the disembeddedness of organisations and people in a single location
because behaviour and interaction are lifted out of the local context and
restructured across time and space.
The following two patterns of viewing the challenges of globalisation in the organisation
are crucial (Stohl, 2001; Werner, 2007):
1. Convergence: This approach emphasises the need for organisations to adapt to global
marketplaces by coming together and working together collectively and with
unity. This can be used to competitive advantage to survive in a globally diverse
environment.
2. Divergence: This approach identifies cultural distinctiveness around the world; it also
focuses on the ways in which meaning is constructed in the various cultural settings
and the impact it can have on the norms and functioning of the organisation.
Multiculturalism and diversity needs to be embraced within the organisation
to actively and collectively enhance the organisation by bringing together and
empowering members with knowledge, experience and different perspectives.
It is clear that a combination of economic, political and technological forces has
changed the global business place. Communication in organisations has to balance
the forces between convergence and divergence by bringing people together and
encouraging them to adapt to cultural differences worldwide.

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3.13 Summary
This chapter explores a number of factors that are critical to the continuing
understanding of organisational communication. One such important factor is
that communication within the organisation should be in support of the overall
communication efforts and corporate brand of the organisation in order to ensure
alignment of the entire organisation’s internal and external communication.
The changing nature of organisational communication has been highlighted
above in terms of various relevant concepts in a systematic outline to facilitate clarity.
Organisational communication has been discussed in terms of key terminology;
communication networks; management of conflict; organisational culture and climate;
the organisational change process; communication with groups and teams (including
decision making); and the effects of communication technology and globalisation.
Knowledge of the various concepts of the organisational landscape can prove useful
when pinpointing crucial performance areas in the organisation and thus managing
the changing nature of organisations in the future.

Case study
Bankseta South Africa
Bankseta SA is the sector education and training authority (SETA) for the broader banking
sector, including microfinance organisations. It has a staff complement of 16 and it outsources
non-core functions to large and small service providers. Its goal is to implement good
management practices through good governance, good strategy and good culture.

The intention
The Standard, Investors in People, was developed for Bankseta SA as a means of ‘growing’
people and the organisation, and complements other managerial objectives as well as
Bankseta SA’s quality management system. In preparation for the assessment it was essential
that the staff understood precisely what the Standard entailed. The next step was to assess
how Bankseta SA measured up in terms of the Standard. As part of their strategy to be a cost-
effective, efficient, world-class organisation, Bankseta SA wanted to obtain the Standard and
to confirm that its current practices compared favourably in international terms, using the
same benchmark used by the best international company.

The result
After an assessment by a registered practitioner, Bankseta SA received the Standard, which
means that it is on a par with other world-class organisations in terms of its people development
practices. This was a major boost for the organisation and its staff, as well as for the sector.
Investors in People highlighted certain areas and made the organisation more aware of particular
issues, particularly matters relating to culture, and the impact of people at different levels in the
organisation and their interpretation of where the organisation is headed. The testing of the
Standard enhanced their understanding of the importance of working towards a common goal,
which crystallised through their involvement in the Investors in People pilot.
 

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According to Mr Groenewald, MD of Bankseta SA, complying with the Standard reveals a great
deal about the communication culture of the organisation and how it operates. He explains: ‘It
said things to us about trust, commitment, teamwork – all of which are extremely important
for a small group of people to be successful. It’s nice to know that you’re part of an organisation
where everybody feels that they’re cared for, that their needs are listened to, that they know why
they’re here.’ Some of the functions that Bankseta SA has implemented since the Standard was
awarded in 2000 are:
„„ two-weekly management meetings involving all staff to keep them updated on
everything that is occurring at the operational level
„„ informal gatherings on a regular basis, where information is shared openly and possible
solutions are offered to problems
„„ bi-annual strategic planning sessions
„„ regular team-building events
„„ a culture of recognition that acknowledges individual contributions.

Although it is easier to introduce these measures in a small organisation, managers can also
replicate this model in large companies.
In 2004, Bankseta announced that, after the recognition review assessment, its recognition
as an Investor in People has been extended for a further three years. It is currently the only
South African organisation with re-recognition status.
(Permission to use this case study was obtained from BanksetaSA: www.bankseta.org.za)

Activities
1. Describe the organisational culture of your organisation or an organisation with
which you are familiar.
2. List the differences between organisational culture and organisational climate.
3. Write down an organisation’s visible activities and elements that constitute
its culture, and provide an example of each element from your own working
environment and experience.
4. Do organisations have an ethical responsibility to decorate their organisational
space with sensitivity to the culture of the organisation? Illustrate your answer
with practical examples.
5. Identify and discuss the various networks in the organisation. Which of these
networks are prevalent in your organisation and why?
6. Critically evaluate the importance of communication during organisational
change.
7. Critically discuss the differences between the two main theoretical paradigms on
decision making in the organisation.
8. Study the different communication technology approaches. Indicate the effects
the new technology has had on your organisation.
9. Critically evaluate the impact of globalisation on organisational communication.
10. Carefully examine the case study. Identify the elements of the organisation
implemented that could help to improve the culture in the organisation.

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Rice, R E & Gattiker, U E. 2001. ‘New media and organisational structuring’, in Jablin, F M &
Putnam, L L (eds), The New Handbook of Organisational Communication: Advances in Theory, Research
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 The role of communication and

4
CHAPTER

management approaches in the

organisational change process
Lize ll e van d e r Wal t

Continuity gives us roots; change gives us branches, letting us stretch and grow and reach
new heights.
Pauline Kezer

4.1 Introduction
This chapter aligns itself with and elaborates on the discussion on change in
Chapter 3. Where the previous chapter emphasises the role and impact of change
on organisational culture, this chapter aims to indicate how communication- and
organisational management approaches can be adapted and/or transformed to meet
the demands associated with changes in the organisation. Van der Walt (2003) indicates
that nowadays change takes place so quickly that the next change occurs before a
current one has even been fully adopted. Change is often referred to as a whirlpool
that sucks everything into its never-ending spiral. Although this description implies an
overwhelming effort to continuously adopt and adapt, it also implies that organisations
which cannot adapt and cope with this continuous process of change have little hope
of a successful future. Because an organisation is defined by its collective pool of
individuals who work towards similar goals, it is assumed that the more information
that is properly communicated to employees regarding occurring changes, the more
knowledgeable and comfortable they will be with the process of change.
Although changes in organisational operations have been occurring throughout
the modern era, it has only been during the last 25 years that, in light of new results on
managerial practices in the modern organisation, it has become evident to management
that mere adjustments of existing communication- and managerial practices are no
longer sufficient. Totally new conceptualisations of organisational communication,
management, purpose, impact and significance – especially with regard to enhancing
organisations’ competitive advantages in an extremely competitive environment –
have become topics of discourse. In the face of constantly changing trends, today’s
organisation is confronted with the enormous practical and conceptual challenge of
transforming itself into an economically and environmentally sustainable enterprise.
However, for the successful transformation of an existing organisation into
something more than it appears to be, a total shift in the conceptualisation of business
is required. In the corporate environment business has become a verb, a concept of
action. It is no longer merely about rigid and stagnant policies and regulations. Now the
process of change often entails a transformation of the bureaucratic communication-

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and managerial approach (with its resistance to change, its cost-control policies and
its centralised powers) to a more proactive, open and participative communication-
and managerial approach which displays a preference for innovation, flexibility and
decentralisation of power (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts et al., 1999). This chapter seeks to
familiarise the reader with both the need for adaptive communication during change
processes in the modern organisation, and committed and accessible management
approaches.
Because change is all-encompassing and requires a total transformation of
organisational operations rather than mere adaptation, it has an impact on all levels
of the organisation. It is therefore important to note that for the process of change
in the organisation to be accessible to employees there must be a communication of
information on most topics discussed in this book; for example: changes in the vision,
mission and strategising processes of the organisation (Chapter 1); information about
cultural change (Chapter 3); changes in its marketing perspectives (Chapter 6); new
approaches to corporate social responsibility and media relations (chapters 6 and 7);
and the organisation’s continuous assessment of change strategies (Chapter 11).
The nature of change in the organisation will be discussed before various
management and communication approaches will be carefully considered so as to
explore each approach’s ability to deal with the changes occurring in the organisation.
The following topics will be addressed:
„„ Change in an organisation.
„„ Change models in the organisation.
„„ More and less accessible managerial approaches that can be adopted during the
process of change.
„„ Effective and ineffective communication approaches during the process of change.

4.2 A requirement for change in the modern organisation

In this chapter, where change as a concept is explored within the organisation, a
fitting definition of change in the organisation is described by Van der Walt (2006: 72)
as ‘constant, certain, and continuous actions with the purpose of adjusting and/
or modifying existing practices towards new practices’. Grobler (2003: 191) further
describes the nature of change as either incremental or profound:
„„ Incremental change is perceived to be unusual and generally restricted to individual,
localised change. Incremental changes are small changes that can be applied to
the modification of processes and structures.
„„ Radical or profound change, on the other hand, is perceived as revolutionary. Radical
change represents a complete break from an established orientation or notion.
Not only does such change imply something new but also results in ways of doing
things differently, such as building the capacity for ongoing change. It induces a
decisive break with the past and initiates transformation towards a new future
(Van der Walt, 2006: 72).
Change inside the organisation often originates from changes in the surrounding
external environments. Van der Walt (2006) argues that changes in society can
significantly impact on the organisation itself because the organisation is an open

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system that serves the society in which it operates. As such, any changes in the needs
of societal members, whether for new products or improved services, will necessarily
reflect in the organisation when employees or customers have new demands for
products or services.
As an open system, the organisation is necessarily affected by change and often has
to adapt its internal policies, management and communication structures accordingly.
Constant changes in the technological, political, market and competitive environments,
to mention but a few, continuously elevate the role and significance of both internal
communication between management and employees, and external communication
between the organisation and its customers.
However, despite continuous research that contributes to the growing realisation
that changes in communication and organisational practices are important, change
is still a complex process which is not easily implemented in organisations, mainly
due to the human component in the organisation. People often continue to behave
in ways that promote selfish interests and coalitions rather than the best interests of
the organisation. A complex paradox exists between what is needed and what is wanted:
for example, managers and employees might want to respond to demands for change
in the working environment but might simultaneously long for stability (which is the
opposite of change). This paradox is implicit in what is referred to as forces of change.

4.3 Forces of change
Complex forces influence a person’s attitude and receptivity to change. There are two
types of forces identified within the organisation.

4.3.1 Driving forces of change

If these forces are considered driving forces, which encourage change, growth and
development in the organisation with the promise of improved circumstances, people
in the organisation would generally be more supportive of such change.
Driving forces of change are often required in the organisation when employees
are unhappy with insufficient practices in the organisation and demand changes that
will lead to improvements. The following situations provide examples of what typically
contributes to a need for change in the organisation (Lewis, 1987; Van der Walt, 2006):
„„ Increasing demands made by employees for greater job satisfaction and greater
participation in decision-making processes that involve them.
„„ A desire for learning and increased knowledge in a wider range of organisational
practices beyond the employee’s limited scope of responsibilities.
„„ Demands for more effective appeal systems and greater recognition for work well
done.
„„ Shorter and hastened product life cycles that have resulted from time constraints
and which have led to poor-quality products.
„„ The need for more effective channels of communication or information distribution
to enhance both the production and distribution of products.
„„ A shortage of raw materials (inputs), which inhibits the production process of
products.

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„„ New or different top managers who join the organisation and have oppositional or
different ideas of power.
„„ An increase in consumerism which creates an increase in the production of
products.
„„ Initiatives towards improved environmentally beneficial practices, for example
obligatory employee involvement and participation in community projects on
behalf of the organisation.
„„ More government regulations concerning employee rights, such as the requirement
that an organisation employs a greater number of disabled people and those from
different cultures and religious denominations.
„„ Changing cultural and social values in the organisation which result from the
employment of diverse groups of people.

4.3.2 Resisting forces of change

If resisting forces of change encourages stability and maintenance of the status quo
because it is convenient and change implies effort, people in the organisation are less
willing to change and therefore frequently resist such change. The following situations
provide examples of what typically contributes to a resistance to change in the
organisation (Lewis, 1987; Van der Walt, 2006):
„„ Complacency: If the organisation is successful and no one feels that change is urgent.
„„ Threats to status: A realignment of organisational duties creates feelings of status
reduction among those directly affected by change.
„„ Responsibility: Fear of increased responsibility.
„„ Economic factors: If change threatens employees’ economic security and hence their
physiological, safety and esteem needs.
„„ Existing powers and social relationships and traditions in the organisation.
„„ Security: The security and certainty that is manifest in the existing situation and the
fear that any changes might disrupt this security.
„„ Reason for change: An inability to perceive the actual need for change.
„„ Lack of confidence: A lack of confidence in management’s ability to cope with change.

Contextualising the above forces of change, Van der Walt (2006) indicates that while
there are many complexities and forces that are responsible for either driving or
constraining the change process in the organisation, these forces become meaningful
only when they actually bring about or prevent change. Although the restraining
forces of change cannot prevent change from happening, they can contribute to an
understanding of ways in which to approach change. Two models of change that
can be used individually or concurrently in the organisation to introduce the change
process are discussed below.

4.4 Models of change
Two models of change are considered instrumental for guiding the modern organisation
through change processes, namely the three-step process model of change and the
organisational development model of change. The numbers in brackets indicate those

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 Chapter 4: The role of communication and management approaches

guidelines and statements that need to be seriously considered during the application
of either model to a scenario.

4.4.1 The three-step process model of change

Step 1: Unfreezing
This stage encourages people to (1) recognise the need for change. Driving forces of change
make it easier to comprehend the need for change, whereas resisting forces of change
can be more difficult to overcome when persuading employees to change.
In circumstances where there is an unwillingness to change, (2) it is required that
employees are shown how forces of change in the organisation, of which they may or may not be aware,
inhibit growth in the organisation. Examples of these inhibiting forces and their consequences
should be explained clearly; for example, how the amount of conflict experienced
among employees in the organisation, or between employees and management,
can contribute to unproductivity and low morale (Van der Walt, 2006), or how an
inhibiting factor such as complacency can negatively impact upon the competitiveness
of the organisation. In situations that are predictable and comprehensible, individuals
are able to maintain their position and attitudes without effort. Change can involve the
loss of this sense of security and may therefore be resisted.
It is also essential that individuals within an organisation understand the way in
which (3) forces of resistance freeze people in their current situations and patterns of behaviour.
There can be no progress in a situation that remains static.
The next stage, (4) unfreezing, thus becomes a prerequisite for preparing members
of the organisation for the change process that is to be introduced. Explaining what
the predicted outcomes of the change will be and how such changed might affect
them will make them more willing to accept the necessary changes. At this stage,
and having discussed the problems of maintaining the status quo with them, (5) some
employees might resign and others might (on their own initiative) start to (6) display increased
levels of awareness regarding hidden problems of which they were not previously aware (Arnold &
Feldman, 1986; IIE, 2010).
An example of when the unfreezing process might be required would be when
two companies merge and need to establish a new organisational culture. This would
entail new organisational symbols, artefacts, organisational behaviour and cultural
networks (see Chapter 3). Employees might be expected to work and communicate in
a different way, participate more, or become more innovative. Although this might be
difficult at first, especially if employees are unused to the new organisational culture, it
is with the explanation of how they will benefit from these changes that the unfreezing
process can begin.

Step 2: Changing/moving
Change necessarily involves (1) a movement away from patterns that existed in the past towards
new patterns of planned behaviour and operational activities. Once people have been prepared
for change through the process of unfreezing, change can be advocated by explaining
what these planned changed behaviours and operational activities will be and how
these will serve, for a specified period of time, as an experiment that all employees and

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managers should embrace. Another integral aspect of change is that (2) planned change
often involves a number of different types of change – individual behaviour, organisational
processes and strategic direction, for example – all of which might be accomplished
through a variety of methods such as different or improved communication- and
knowledge management approaches and a change in managerial methods and styles
(Miller, 2003).
After the experimental phase, (3) employees and management can discuss the proposed
changes in behaviour and operational activities to determine their effects, advantages and
disadvantages, and make more changes where applicable, or introduce alternative
ideas to replace the experimental ones. (4) Following this experimental phase of introduction
and re-introduction of new behaviours and operational activities, they can be implemented as actual
changes in the organisation.
An example of this second step in the change process would be when two companies
that have merged invite ideas from employees and management alike as to how
changes in organisational culture should be implemented. A document with guidelines
as to what needs to change can be distributed. Ideas that might suit the majority of
people in the organisation can be implemented as part of the experimental phase for
three months, after which the success of these changes can be assessed. Should some
decisions be revealed to be counterproductive, new changes can be introduced and
later re-assessed. When the experimental phase expires, the changes that have most
benefited organisational activities and the majority of staff members in the organisation
are written into policies and accepted.

Step 3: Refreezing
The refreezing stage occurs when (1) new behavioural patterns and operational activities are
adopted, reinforced and internalised. Once changes have been implemented and movement
or change has occurred, there is a universal tendency for people and organisations to
regress into old habits and patterns of behaviour. They should instead (2) make constant
and critical efforts to adapt to and maintain ‘the new way of doing’ until it has become a habit. To
avoid regression it is necessary that new modes of behaviour are constantly reinforced
and supported. This process can be thought of as (3) ‘refreezing’ newly acquired methods of
operating and managing. This stage is crucial because (4) without refreezing, change is likely
to be temporary and to have a minimal impact on the organisation and its employees (Arnold &
Feldman, 1986).
An example of this final stage is when two companies that have merged now become
one organisation. The new policies are in place but management must still constantly
remind employees of the changes that have been made. If constant communication
about the changes and how to maintain them does not occur, there is a danger that
employees will fall back into the old habits that they practised when the companies
were still separate. Regular communication and assessment of employee behaviour
and organisational activities thus need to occur to maintain the changes that have
been made.

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 Chapter 4: The role of communication and management approaches

Unfreezing Movement/change Refreezing

Creating the Designing and Reinforcing
motivation implementing and stabilising
and desire to actual change new methods,
change procedures and
behaviours

Figure 4.1 The three-step process model of change (Van der Walt, 2002: 152)

Another way to understand how change can be effected throughout an organisation

is to study it using an approach known as organisational development (OD). OD is a
planned change effort that is implemented to facilitate and cope with the process of
change in the organisation. It involves the total system of creating an effective, healthy
organisation, and is based on the idea that changed human behaviour has only limited
value if the organisational environment does not support it.

4.4.2 Organisational development model

OD represents a planned attempt to use what is known about organisations and
employee behaviour in the facilitation of organisational change (Arnold & Feldman,
1986). Some characteristics of the OD model are the following:
„„ OD emphasises that management must recognise that people’s emotions, attitudes
and perceptions play a large part in influencing their behaviour, specifically their
willingness to undertake changes where the outcomes appear uncertain, risky or
threatening.
„„ OD addresses the above by actively involving members of the organisation in the
change process. People are less likely to fear and more likely to accept change
when they have an active voice in designing and implementing it.
„„ The collaborative nature of OD implies that employees in the organisation who
will be directly affected by the proposed change are actively involved in diagnosing
and suggesting solutions to the problems.
„„ OD is based on certain assumptions about people in general, people in groups and
people in the organisational system. Because it is assumed that people will adapt
to change more easily if they feel that they are understood, understanding people
forms the basis of these assumptions.
The OD model identifies specific attributes of people and makes crucial assumptions
about the change process to which attention should be paid. Arnold and Feldman
(1986) summarise these assumptions from an OD perspective:

Assumptions about people

„„ Most employees strive for personal growth and development. Their drives are most
likely to be fulfilled in an environment that is both supportive and challenging.
„„ Most employees desire to make, and are capable of making, a high level of
contribution to the attainment of organisational goals.

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„„ Employees wish to be accepted and to interact co-operatively with at least one

small reference group, and usually with more than one group. The work group
or team is one of the most psychologically relevant reference groups for most
employees.
„„ Most employees are capable of greatly increasing their effectiveness in terms of
helping their reference groups to solve problems.
„„ For a team to optimise its effectiveness, the formal leader cannot perform all of
the leadership functions in all circumstances at all times. All group members must
assist each other with effective leadership and group member behaviour.

Assumptions about people in organisational systems

„„ The broader organisation is able to affect small work groups, and vice versa.
„„ What happens to one subsystem affects and is influenced by other parts of the
system.
„„ The organisational culture in most organisations suppresses employees’ expressions
of feelings about each other, their needs and their views of the organisation.
„„ A high level of interpersonal trust, support and co-operation should be built and
maintained.
„„ Good performances regarding organisational development efforts have to be
sustained by means of appropriate changes in areas of appraisal, compensation,
training and task specialisation.
However, even an idealised model of change such as that proposed by OD might
not always be successful. For example, management could devise ideal processes for
changing organisational activity and simply inform employees what changes are to be
made without participative inputs from the employees themselves, which, in essence,
could relate to the three-step process model of change. It is proposed that consideration
be given to a significant component of change in the organisation which addresses the
improvement of manager-to-employee communication approaches. This is basically
representative of the OD model and as such a combination of the three-step process
model of change and OD needs to be considered.
Changes that occur in the organisation generally originate in managerial decision
making. Whether the three-step process model of change or the OD model – or a
combination of both – is considered, the managerial approach to these models will
largely determine the success or failure of change in the organisation. Some of these
managerial approaches are discussed below.

4.5 Viewing managerial approaches and communication styles as

instruments in organisational change
Before discussing the nature of management in the process of organisational change, it
should be noted that since 1990 progressively more research has been done concerning
the differences between an organisational manager and an organisational leader (Smith-
Kuczmarski & Kuczmarski, 1995; Zohar, 1997; Kotter, 1998; Zaleznik, 1998; Goleman,
2002). The reason behind this distinction is emphasised by Zaleznik (1998), Goleman
(2002) and April, Macdonald and Vriesendorp (2003), who argue that the focus and

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purpose of management is different from that of leadership. Because the managerial

approaches that will be assessed in this section emphasise either management or
leadership, it is necessary to make a distinction between these two concepts:

4.5.1 Defining management
According to Harman (1992), Goleman (2002) and Zohar (1997), the focus and purpose
of an organisational manager is to:
„„ direct resources (including employees) that must be managed to accomplish
predetermined tasks. This is not so much about the person behind the task as
about the task itself.
„„ provide the order and procedures necessary to cope with the complexities in
organisations. It is assumed that managers perceive themselves as conservators and
controllers (or regulators) of the organisation’s affairs, with which they personally
identify.

4.5.2 Defining leadership
According to Harman (1992), Goleman (2002) and Zohar (1997), the focus and purpose
of an organisational leader is to:
„„ empower individuals (for example employees) to respond creatively to a changing
situation (for example changes in the organisation).
„„ adopt personal and active attitudes towards individual and organisational goals.
This contributes to resonant (meaningful or significant) leadership practices.
„„ be self- and socially aware and therefore able to recognise, understand and react
empathetically to his or her own and others’ emotions and goals. A leader is
also equipped with skills such as self- and relationship management, which are
characterised by transparency, adaptability, collaboration and inspiration.
From the above definitions, Kotter (1998: 41) concludes that ‘management is concerned
with control, planning and organisation, whereas leadership is concerned with setting
a meaningful direction with a vision that is obtained by aligning employees to this
vision through communication, participation and a culture of values’.
In establishing a management or leadership approach with an associated
organisational culture that would be able to support change in the organisation,
the next sections will explore various approaches that relate to management and
leadership within the organisational context. A manager’s or leader’s approach to
communication practices is also in alignment with organisational management.
However, before exploring the relationship between management and communication
in the change process of an organisation, communication as a concept first needs to be
contextualised.

4.6 Defining communication from two different views

In Chapter 1 various views about communication were discussed in detail. The following
discussion serves rather as a means of contextualising the ability of communication to
assist in the change process. Each view contributes to a lesser or greater extent to the

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change process in the organisation. Steinberg (1999: 4–5) argues that in the scientific
study of communication, two general views about communication are prevalent:
„„ The first view is a technical one which is concerned with how accurately and
efficiently messages can be transferred from one person to another along a channel
such as a telephone wire or air waves that carry sound and pictures to radios and
television sets. According to Steinberg (1999), this view attempts to identify ways
of increasing the clarity and accuracy of the message through the channel, and
concentrates on improving the tools and techniques that can promote efficient
communication. This view also perceives communication as a linear (one-way)
sequence of events from person (A) to person (B), which implies that communication
is simply about the transmission of messages from one person to another, and not
about the sender’s or receiver’s perceptions, opinions or attitudes that can impact
on how the message is interpreted. Based on the earlier definition of a manager,
it can be argued that this view is in alignment with the focus and purpose of
an organisational manager who views his or her role as that of a regulator of
any communication which takes place in the organisation. According to Van der
Walt (2006), the technical view implies that communication will not significantly
contribute to change processes in the organisation.
„„ A second and more complex view of communication is that, in addition to the
transmission of messages, communication involves the meaningful interpretation
of messages. This view considers communication to be a complex human process,
and further states that one’s ability to communicate is what distinguishes one from
other forms of life. Steinberg (1999) also argues that defining communication as a
process brings one closer to an understanding of the complexity of communication.
In contrast to the technical view, which considers communication as a mere
isolated component, considering communication as a process implies that it is not
fixed or static but, rather, dynamic, never-ending and ever-changing. This view is
more closely aligned with the purpose and focus of an organisational leader who
aims to establish and maintain resonance in the organisation by means of a well-
established communication process.
As the above definitions suggest that communication can be defined as a complex
process of meaningful transactions between mutual, participating individuals who
create meaningful messages through the transmission of messages, it therefore also
needs to be contextualised within the organisation itself.

4.7 Defining communication within the organisation

Neher (1997) argues that there is no single theory or definition of communication that
can be considered to be the only true or correct theory. This is because communication
does not adhere to universally valid laws or theories. This explains why a manager
might have a different communication style to that of a leader. In addition to the
definitions of organisational communication provided in Chapter 1, the following are
viewed as a means of contextualising communication as a means to change:
Neher (1997: 15–19) distinguishes between the two organisational communication
concepts – namely that of organisation and of communication. Neher (1997) maintains that

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the concept organisation refers to an ongoing, observable pattern of interactions among

people and that these interactions are usually planned, sequential and systematic.
In defining communication, Neher (1997: 31) states that it represents the process of
two or more people engaging in mutual awareness and the sharing of facts, feelings
or intentions through the use of verbal and non-verbal signs which are observable in
some medium.
Kelly (2000: 92) defines organisational communication as the process by which
information is exchanged and understood by two or more organisational members,
usually with the intention of motivating or influencing behaviour. Schultz (2003a: 118)
concurs and further states that this definition of organisational communication focuses on
its intent to influence the receiver to act in accordance to the requirements of the sender.
From these definitions it is clear that organisational communication should
play a role in any changes that occur in the organisation. If mutual and continuous
communication between a manager and his or her employees concerning changes in
the organisation does not take place, the opportunity to persuade employees to adapt
their behaviour accordingly might be lost. Communication is thus more than a mere
transmission of information. It is also about persuasion, motivation and influencing
perceptions, beliefs and attitudes. To elaborate on this point, the following propositions
are considered in terms of the role of communication in the organisation.

4.8 Propositions regarding the role of communication in the

organisation
To illustrate the role of communication in the organisation, Neher (1997: 19–22)
formulates five propositions in this regard:

Proposition 1: Communicating is the fundamental process of organising

human actions
Neher (1997: 19) maintains that the process of organising requires the gathering of
people to accomplish some purpose. Organising is therefore the primary requirement
when bringing people together to achieve individual or organisational goals. He states
that an organisation consists of a pattern of interactions among people and, in bringing
these people together and in establishing interactions between them, the process of
communication is necessarily required. This proposition further argues that the act of
organising is essentially communicating. Neher (1997) argues that nearly all activities
that are associated with the existence of human organisations are communication
activities, because these activities require communication as a means of directing the
co-ordination of sequential and interlocked behaviours of employees. According to
Neher (1997), such co-ordination can only be achieved when people communicate
with one another.

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Proposition 2: Understanding communication in the organisation provides

insights for understanding the working and role of an
organisation in people’s lives
According to Neher (1997: 20), this second proposition maintains that the study of
communication in the organisation can enable the organisation to become more
effective in its relations with other organisations and the ever-changing environment.
Neher (1997) also states that organisational members cannot escape the pervasive
effects that organisations have on their lives because they are surrounded by them and
are often dependent on the organisations for which they work. Furthermore, when
considering the ways in which organisations can directly impact on people’s lives, it is
becomes evident how much influence organisations can have on them. Consider, for
example, insurance companies, churches, government departments, local authorities,
management boards, the receiver of revenue, and so on.

Proposition 3: Communication skills form the basis for effective leadership in

the organisation
Neher (1997: 21) argues that this proposition highlights the importance of leadership
skills in the effective functioning of an organisation. Neher (1997) states that a leader
[manager] is an individual who has usually been designated to carry out a specific
role within the organisation which requires that he or she directs and controls the
behaviour of others. In contrast, leadership refers to behaviours that move people
towards desired goals or ends. Neher (1997) continues his argument by maintaining
that behaviour that motivates others to act towards desired goals and ends usually
occurs only when they are acted out in a communication activity. Concurring with
Neher (1997), Puth (2002: 69) states that, in contrast to management, leading involves
influencing others through communication. The style and substance of communication
therefore distinguishes dynamic leadership from traditional management, because, in
contrast to management, leaders communicate not just information but attitudes and
assumptions as well.

Proposition 4: Communication is the key to sound decision making within

the organisation
Neher (1997: 21–22) states that effective organisations are characterised by both
excellent leadership and sound decision making. Within an organisation, decision
making is often a co-operative or joint activity. The decisions that are made are often
the end product of a long and complex process that might have involved several group
gatherings and data analyses, the development of alternatives, and the discussion
of the ramifications of various options. According to Neher (1997), decision making
emphasises an individual’s ability to interact with other people while developing an
understanding of a problem that needs to be resolved or that requires a decision.
Decision making therefore involves the ability to formulate the issues involved in the
problem and the possible outcomes of the decision. Thus, making and implementing
good decisions requires communication skills.

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Proposition 5: Diversity characterises modern organisations

Neher (1997: 22–23) maintains that this proposition recognises the fact that organisations
are becoming more and more heterogeneous. Not only are modern organisations
characteristically multicultural but they also provide more opportunities for women
and disabled people at all levels of the organisation. At the same time, organisations are
becoming more ethnically and culturally diverse, reflecting changes in society as well
as the increasingly global nature of modern organisations and corporate society. This
growing diversity of organisations implies that the communication process in modern
organisations should recognise and support increasingly prevalent cultural differences
and, as such, should become more intercultural. According to these five propositions,
communication has a prominent role in the organisational context because it:
„„ reflects a process that is fundamental to organising employee actions
„„ provides insight into the role of organisations (and society) in the lives of employees
„„ forms the basis for leadership as opposed to managerial interaction with employees
„„ is a necessity in sound decision-making practices
„„ creates awareness in terms of the consideration of diversity and, as such, promotes
flexibility in the organisation.
In light of these propositions which maintain that communication is the foundation of
managerial practices, the following section views the relationship between management
and communication in the organisation.

4.9 Managerial and communication approaches in the organisation

during change
It should be kept in mind that management is usually responsible for investigating,
implementing and maintaining change in the organisation. Without management’s
commitment to change, the transformation of organisational culture (Chapter 3),
or communication and managerial approaches, could not be realised. Regarding
communication in the organisation, it was mentioned earlier that Steinberg (1999)
differentiates between two approaches to communication, namely the mechanistic and
the interactional views.
The first view describes communication in the organisation as a mechanistic
phenomenon whereas the second describes it as a social, interactive and often
transactional phenomenon. (These differing views are also mentioned in Chapter 1.)
However, in addition to the discussion of communication as the transmission of
messages (mechanistic) or as the production and exchange of meanings (transactional),
there is a third view that elaborates on the transactional perspective. Neher (1997:
27–28) and Van der Walt (2002: 22, 24) identify this third view of organisational
communication as a critical one in that it discusses the creation of value and purpose
by addressing relevant issues of concern, such as the use and abuse of power and control
in the organisation. Because researchers such as Lewis (1987), Neher (1997), Du Plooy-
Cilliers (2001; 2003), Van der Walt (2002) and Bakke (2005) assume that many modern
organisations still function according to either mechanistic or interactional principles,
it can be argued that too few attempts have been made to explore a different perspective

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that could address more value- and purpose-seeking principles among employees, in
addition to mechanistic or interactional organisational ones.
One of the most frequent complaints among employees today is that management
does not keep them sufficiently informed about changes. This expression of the need for
communication implies that people wish to participate and to be heard, appreciated and
wanted. They also need greater communication to accomplish tasks and achieve goals.
An open communication policy can help companies to develop good management–
employee relations and improve overall job performance amidst changes. However,
despite these arguments which emphasise the importance of communication, there
are still a number of executives who remain ignorant of the value of effective, two-way
communication and thus fail to effectively realise their organisation’s human resource
potential, especially during environmental turbulence.
There are a number of different types of managerial and accompanying
communication approaches that can be used in the modern organisation. Because it
is evident that employees have a need to participate in decisions regarding changes
in the organisation and to be sufficiently informed about such changes, the following
discussions consider which management and communication approaches are able to
meet these needs.

4.9.1 The classical management approach

This approach is typically associated with what Steinberg (1999) refers to as the
mechanistic view, which maintains that control and regulation should be reflected in
the managerial and communication approaches used in the organisation.
Van der Walt (2006) indicates that the classical management approach is typically
found in larger, formal, bureaucratic organisations. Attributes of the management
style associated with the classical approach are as follows:
„„ Management is based on scientific, managerial methods. These methods imply
that the organisation is an isolated, closed system that is not influenced or affected
by the environments that surround it, even if changes occur in these environments.
„„ Management focuses on production outputs rather than human relations, and as
such is perceived to be materialistic.
„„ Management often manipulates and exploits employees so as to achieve
predetermined, capitalist goals. Each employee is responsible for his or her own
specific task, which is usually broken down into smaller units or tasks.
„„ Instructions are issued from the top, and people at each successive level are
expected to follow them unquestioningly. It is believed that the more sections the
task is divided into, the greater the necessity for a single controlling manager who
has a clear picture of the total operation.
„„ Management applies cost control and regulations which act as a means to inhibit
innovativeness and creativity among employees.
„„ Management believes that it is more skilled and knowledgeable than its employees
(who are perceived as mere subordinates), and that employees should be controlled
and manipulated to ensure productivity and loyalty. Power is therefore centralised
and the organisation is managed according to bureaucratic practices.

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„„ Management believes that tradition plays an important role in maintaining the

organisation’s culture and that any employee who is perceived as deviant from the
organisation’s culture is replaceable.
„„ The use of rules is important. Organisations that adopt this approach assume that
employees are undisciplined and untrustworthy, and do their work efficiently only
if they have routine guidelines to follow. It is also assumed that employees attempt
to avoid work and that they must therefore be pushed by external forces such as
financial incentives.
„„ Standardisation and systematisation are essential. Work is broken down into
simple units of actions, and employees are trained in the most efficient and least
fatiguing methods for carrying out these steps.
„„ The primary function of the manager is to plan how the work should be performed
and to direct the workers in the execution of that plan. The manager must have an
overall picture of the organisation and its goals in order to do this.

Advantages and disadvantages of the classical management approach

Although many researchers in the field of human relations often view the classical
management approach negatively, it has both advantages and disadvantages.

Table 4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of the classical management approach

Advantages of the classical Disadvantages of the classical

management approach management approach

„„ Ensures uniformity and predictability „„ Unable to deal with changes,

in the quality of the organisation’s complexities and challenges in the
products because standardised same- surrounding environments
method guidelines are followed in „„ Employees are perceived as production
creating these products costs rather than valuable sources
„„ Most effective in those organisations of creativity that can assist the
that provide either a limited range organisation during transformation
of goods and services, or those that processes
specialise in the mass production of „„ It has a simplistic view of human
goods that need to be standardised, motives and motivations which implies
for example food outlets with branches an ignorance of the complex nature of
across the world, such as McDonald’s employees and their needs
„„ Ensures simple, large-scale order in the „„ Communication in the organisation
organisation, where everyone knows follows a scalar, downward and
what he or she needs to do. Thus one-directional chain without the
it produces efficiency through the opportunity for participative feedback
division of labour „„ Opportunities for alternative or
„„ Creates a sense of fairness (due to rigid, workable solutions to problems are
impersonal policies that apply to all) limited. Does not provide intensive
„„ Helps managers enforce tough cross-functional communication and
discipline and make tough decisions continual peer-level co-ordination
based on rigid regulations and policies 

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Advantages of the classical Disadvantages of the classical

management approach management approach

„„ These rigid regulations and policies „„ Can lead to insensitive treatment of

maintain the status quo employees as a result of rigid and
„„ Furnishes strong supervisors required controlling methods
by rapid employee turnover in „„ Cannot quickly assimilate the influx
uninteresting or monotonous jobs of new technology and can hinder
(Arnold & Feldman, 1986: 276) innovation or adaptation to new
developments
„„ Can cause problems when
unanticipated and complex challenges
that require changes arise
„„ Not flexible and adaptable to changing
environment. Responds slowly to
change
   (Arnold & Feldman 1986: 276–277;
Hodgetts, 1990: 55; Pinchot & Pinchot,
1996: 37; Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2001: 32)

The nature of communication in the classical management approach must also

be examined.

The nature of communication in the classical management approach

In this approach communication is continuously controlled, regulated and formal
despite the fact that human relations research which claims that this type of
communication is ineffective. Recent studies have also shown that employees feel
uncomfortable with the classical model because it tends to breed mediocrity and low
morale among employees (Neher, 1997; Van der Walt, 2006).
The model of the verbal communication process used in most classical management
approaches is illustrated in Figure 4.2. This model is characteristic of the classical
period in which communication flowed in one direction (downward) and employees
were expected to respond to instructions and directives without questioning the source
of information or providing any innovative feedback.

Message: one-way flow (down)

Management Employees
(senders) (receivers)
(various hierarchical levels)

Figure 4.2 Downward, one-way flow of communication in the classical management

approach

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The following section presents the basic principles of this model and then assesses
whether or not it has the ability to contribute sufficiently to change. In line with
Figure 4.2, the following are basic principles of communication in the classical
management approach:
„„ Communication flows downwards through the formal, basic media of
communication, such as oral and/or written and visual communication.
„„ There is limited feedback given to any inquiries and even this feedback moves
through various organisational levels from the sender to the receiver.
„„ The main purpose of communication is to regulate and instruct.
„„ Communication is used to create and use opportunities to make the long- and
short-term goals of the organisation clear.
„„ Communication is used to change ‘unacceptable’ attitudes and opinions by
moulding new ones through manipulation.
„„ Communication aims to prevent or correct misunderstanding that might
have arisen from a lack of information. If information gaps are not adequately
addressed, communication-starved employees become susceptible to rumours and
can become apathetic.
„„ Some managers who experience mounting pressures might distort downward
communication by withholding, screening and manipulating information. This
results in an organisational climate of suspicion and distrust.
„„ Although there is a limited feedback system, upward communication from
employees to management is accomplished chiefly by written status reports.
Employees who attempt to communicate ideas, suggestions or recommendations
to their managers usually find them to be unreceptive.

Assessing communication in the classical management approach

Van der Walt (2002) argues that although downward communication has the
objective of ensuring that employees act in the best interests of their manager and the
organisation, managers often fail to see the value of encouraging employees to discuss
the changes in policies and the plans of the organisation.
The illustrated model of communication depicted in Figure 4.2 is characteristic
of the classical approach where communication takes place along formal lines and
is therefore linear, and one way (from management downwards to employees) with
little opportunity for feedback. Communication channels are therefore limited and
prescribed and, as such, there is a probability that messages about change can be
distorted due to the various levels through which a message is transmitted. According
to Lewis (1987) and Van der Walt (2006), instructions from management to employees
at a lower level lack the information, insight and expertise that employees require
in their day-to-day work. In addition, once they have been passed down through
several layers, the instructions do not always make sense because they do not retain
their original meaning. It is assumed that employees receive only 20% of the original
message from top level management if it has passed through four or five hierarchical
levels. This phenomenon is illustrated in Table 4.2.

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Table 4.2 Information reception in downward-only communication networks from top-

level management to lower-level employees

Hierarchical levels Accuracy and completeness of

information received at each level

CEO 100%

Deputy CEO 80%

Regional supervisors 60%

Branch managers 50%

Departmental managers 35–40%

Employees 20–30%

In organisations where a ‘speak when you are spoken to’ attitude prevails, superiors
do most of the talking. Some managers might listen to employees, only to reject the
suggestions offered while others appear to pay attention to subordinates but fail to take
any action. In both cases organisational communication fails as a result of management
resistance or inertia.
There is the argument that the classical management approach can work well in
stable environments where there is little uncertainty and incremental changes; in light
of this, the managerial approach will only function well in an organisation where
few or no changes are required. Because so many of the production processes can
be standardised, a well-defined division of labour, strict communication channels
and centralised decision making can arguably increase the organisation’s efficiency
without requiring profound changes. The principal problem with this type of approach
is that the environments in which the modern organisation operates today is primarily
defined by change.
In light of the above assessment and the current turmoil and ever-changing
environment in which organisations function, a different managerial approach should
be considered where models of change such as the three-step process model or the OD
model are basic requirements for innovative developments in the organisation. Because
organisations associated with the classical management approach do not support
change, models of change are not a requirement in this approach. This is problematic
because change is a constant and cannot be ignored. Managerial approaches that do
acknowledge the inevitability of change are the humanistic management and knowledge
management approaches. These stand in opposition to the classical management
approach and might be considered more suitable for the changes that the modern
organisation faces.

4.9.2 The humanistic management approach

This approach embodies the second view that Steinberg (1999) examines as a social,
interactive and often transactional phenomenon. The traditional principles of the

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classical management approach are no longer seen as representative of the heart of

management but, rather, form only a small part of the managerial function, such as
administration and the enforcement of codes of conduct.
Contrary to the perspectives and theories embodied in the classical management
approach, Van der Walt (2006: 50) maintains that perspectives and theories in the
humanistic management approach are associated with the following attributes:
„„ Management is replaced by leadership which is based on humanistic and
knowledge-enabling approaches. These approaches imply that the organisation is
an open system that involves itself in environmental scanning with the purpose of
implementing proactive changes or adaptation.
„„ This approach explores the impact of the environment on the organisation, as well
as how it affects the internal functioning of the organisation.
„„ The organisation is a system in continuous interaction with its environments.
Should the organisation fail to adapt, it will experience entropy or conflict.
„„ Employees are intelligent, creative, innovative, adaptive and flexible members
who contribute to the organisation’s existence and survival.
„„ Employees share a common rhetorical culture, such as a corporate vision, mission,
goals and identification, as well as prescribed ways of arguing, evaluating, problem
solving and decision making.
„„ A department can function effectively if its employees share a vision, learn together
and focus on mental models and personal mastery.
„„ This approach recognises that the organisation is an emerging and evolving
(changing) system of interpersonal roles, norms and rules that govern the co-
operative, organising behaviour in the organisation.
„„ This approach supports face-to-face interaction and meetings because people
in group gatherings tend to share ideas and build on these as open discussion
progresses (Miller, 2003). Problem solving and brainstorming also work better
when open communication and free participation are encouraged.
„„ Formalities are set aside and management shares personal understanding with
and shows appreciation for the employees.
„„ The management style of this approach encourages supervisors to allow
subordinates to make their own decisions about their work and to show initiative
without the necessity of close supervision.
„„ Managers offer a range of rewards in addition to money, and encourage trust and
upward, horizontal and downward communication.
„„ There are no unnecessary conflicts between the goals of the employees and those
of the organisation. Given a proper reward and communication system, employees
make the organisation’s goals their own and show commitment to its success.
„„ Employees who are included in participatory decision making are more satisfied
than those who are excluded from this function.
Systems theory is one of the most important theories of the humanistic management
approach and is used to support the role of management and communication in the
organisation in relation to changing environments. This theory hinges on both the

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humanistic and the classical management approaches. As this theory is often applied
to the organisational context, it needs to be considered here.

The systems theory

Theorists have suggested that this theory facilitates the view of an organisation
for the purpose of understanding communication as a social system. Here,
‘system’ denotes any set of interrelated elements that forms a unified or complex
whole, and the concept of ‘holism’ suggests that the whole is more than the sum of its
parts. Thus the organisation can succeed as a whole only if all its departments work
well together.
The system can be explained only as a totality because, by definition, it requires
interrelationships among the various parts to constitute a whole. This theory
therefore views organisations as consisting of components or parts (departments) that
interact with one another. These components also strive towards states of relative
balance – for example, departments strive to meet deadlines and deliver products or
services on time.
There are various approaches to and applications of the systems theory. The
first approach deals with the interrelatedness of the parts of an organisation – that is,
departments rely on each other for information and provide each other with required
inputs to continue their individual activities. This implies that the different parts of an
organisation can either fit well together and function effectively, or fit poorly together
and create problems and dysfunctions that result in the departments performing
below their potential. An organisation, as a system, is in continual interaction with
its environment(s). If the system fails to adapt to environmental changes, it tends to
move towards entropy, which is a state of severe conflict among its internal subsystems
(Neher, 1997).
A second approach to systems theory is cybernetics theory, which deals with
regulation and control in systems, and emphasises feedback. Cybernetics theory
examines qualities such as wholeness (a portion of the system cannot be understood
as separate from its interrelatedness with subsystems); interdependence (subsystems
are constrained by mutual feedback); self-regulation (a system maintains balance
and changes by responding appropriately to positive or negative feedback); and
interchange with the environment(s) (Littlejohn, 1996: 47–52). This theory relates
in many ways to the humanistic management approach and the way in which it
supports adaptation and change.
A third approach that is related to systems theory is information theory, which
developed as a result of investigations in physics, engineering and mathematics.
This theory investigates the individual components of the process of communication
in relation to its environments. For example, the meaning of a message could be
determined by the receiver’s ability to interpret the message correctly. The intention
is therefore to isolate and examine the individual components (that is, the receiver’s
ability to interpret the message correctly) instead of exploring the relationships
between them (that is, viewing variables that might prevent the receiver from

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interpreting the message correctly, for example language or cultural barriers). Thus
it can be said that this theory is founded on a classical approach (Littlejohn, 1996).
The basic principles of the systems and related cybernetics and information theories
are as follows:
„„ The organisation is an emerging and evolving system of interpersonal roles,
norms and rules that govern the co-operative, organising behaviour. These
theories recognise the significance of interaction between the organisation and
its environments. For example, should the law (legal environment) implement
legislation demanding equal rights in the internal structure of an organisation,
that organisation will have to adapt its structure and policies accordingly or,
failing this, face judiciary punishment.
„„ The theories focus on the interrelationships of all the parts in the organisation
as they fit together to create a whole. While the cybernetics and information
theories prefer to isolate variables and components as opposed to investigating the
relationship(s) between them, the theories nevertheless agree that ineffectiveness
in one part of an organisation affects all the other parts. For example, without
proper market research an organisation cannot deliver a much-needed
product, and without a well-skilled production and development team, the
same organisation is also unable to deliver any useful product or service. One
department cannot work in isolation; it needs others.
„„ Communication is seen as an important component in relating the parts of
an organisation so as to clearly understand how they form a whole. People
therefore use communication to establish role expectations and standard
operating procedures. However, cybernetic theory focuses strongly on feedback
whereas information theory isolates and investigates each component in the
communication model. It appears that the more levels of authority there are in
an organisation, the slower and less accurate is the communication that flows
from the top level of the organisation downward through each consecutive level.
Similar to the classical approach, the humanistic management approach consists of
various advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages and disadvantages of the humanistic management approach

Although the humanistic management approach is often viewed more positively
than the classical management approach, it too has advantages and disadvantages.
See Table 4.3 on the following page.

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Table 4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the humanistic management approach

Advantages of the humanistic Disadvantages of the humanistic

management approach management approach

„„ This approach recognises the „„ Although feedback and a two-way

important interaction between the communication process is established and
organisation and its environments. maintained, when a problem occurs this
For example, if the law (legal approach still tends to view the elements
environment) tables a legislation in the communication process in isolation
that demands equal rights in the instead of taking all the variables into
internal structure of an organisation, consideration. In other words, the context
that company will either have to in which elements of the communication
adapt its structure and policies in process occur is ignored or neglected
accordance with the legislation or „„ The responses to these isolated elements
face judiciary punishment often become routine, which implies that
„„ This approach focuses on the inputs are processed in a programmed
interrelated relationships of all the rather than an innovative or adaptive
subsystems, that is, participation manner, implying that problems are
between all departments in the solved in a routine manner and according
organisation. It is also implied that to regulations. In other words, these
change in one department will responses do not change internally, not
necessarily create change in another even in response to different and diverse
„„ Communication is perceived as the relationships with other departments
important component in relating „„ This approach argues that the organisation
the parts of the organisation to tends to develop habitual responses to
the whole. Mutual, open, two- the environmental feedback; this implies
way communication is a basic that it becomes more specialised and
requirement complex. It therefore makes organisations
„„ Earlier theories focused primarily on less adaptable to change and, in a sense,
the productive and management moves them back towards the classical
subsystems. In relation to the model
systems theory, cybernetics „„ This approach is mainly concerned with
highlights the importance of populations (all subsystems in relation to
maintaining good relations each other) and shows little consideration
with significant elements in of individual subsystems that function as
the environment (supportive units on their own
subsystem); maintaining good „„ Although it is argued that if parts of a
internal relations and developing system change all other parts of that
the human resources of the system system will change as well as a result of
(maintenance subsystem); and their interrelatedness. This is not necessarily
acting to adapt to changes in the true, however
environment (adaptive subsystem) (Arnold & Feldman, 1986: 5–7; Neher, 1997:
(Neher, 1997: 110; Van der Walt, 105–109, 111; Zohar, 1997: 52–53)
2002: 48)

The nature of communication in the humanistic management approach

Miller (2001) maintains that people engage in communication with others in the
hope that the outcome might lead to mutual trust. Only through reciprocal (two-
way) sharing can people learn about themselves and about others. In communication
practice, sharing occurs only when people develop trust in each other. The idea that

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trust and openness lead to better communication between two or more people applies
to the humanistic management approach. This approach focuses on organisational
development through the establishment of effective group communication and
participation. Figure 4.3 below illustrates the process of communication in an
organisation with a humanistic managerial approach.

Message: Two-way flow

Management
(senders/ Employees
receivers)
(receivers/
senders)

(Flat organisational level with mutual

participation and sharing of knowledge)

Figure 4.3 The flow of communication in the humanistic management and knowledge
management approaches

As illustrated in Figure 4.3 above communication in the humanistic management

approach is usually an interactional and continuous process. There might or
might not be various organisational levels. However, this approach differs
considerably from the classical management approach in that any level can
communicate directly with the one above or below it without following the route of
formal, one-way communication.
The basic principles of communication in the humanistic management approach are:
„„ The competence of the persons receiving the communication must be adequate
because communication is established only when meaning between the sender and
the receiver is shared. Further, participation by both the sender and the receiver
will only be possible if sufficient information is transmitted and received.
„„ Information provided to employees in a specific department should be relevant
and familiar. Only then can they contribute and participate effectively. This
implies that information should be limited to what is relevant to each department.
„„ Detailed communication provides each member of the group in a department
with sufficient information, assumptions, goals and attitudes that influence his or
her decisions as well as a set of stable and comprehensive expectations as to what
the other members of the group are doing and how they are likely to react to the
actions of others.
„„ Organisational communication should reflect the goals of management and the
processes of change, innovation and growth.
„„ It attempts to place communication in an open system in which sharing can
take place.
„„ In order to establish communication, communication channels should be
open, two directional and clear (Gore & Gore, 1999; Lewis, 1987; Miller, 2003;
Neher, 1997).

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Van der Walt (2002) argues that communication between the sender and the receiver
should provide clear, undistorted information, assumptions, goals and attitudes; this
will then enable a process of sharing and understanding that in turn contributes to a
similar interpretation of transmitted messages. Thus, sharing of meaning can occur
only if both the sender and the receiver agree on the meaning and importance of a
message; only then can communication take place as intended.

Assessment of communication in the humanistic management approach

Proponents of the humanistic management approach contend that a crucial link
exists between communication and employee participation and satisfaction.
Therefore, in creating a working environment that is open, honest and responsive to
all employees, it is critical to establish participation and support among employees.
Enlisting employee participation in management decisions encourages employees’
control of tasks and maximises their contributions to the organisation.
It has also been found that managers who encourage two-way communication,
use participatory decision making, favour teamwork over competition and show
concern for each employee also manage to minimise conflict in the organisation.
Employees also participate more readily in any changes that might occur in or
be introduced into the organisation. Conflict that does arise is usually dealt with
successfully as a result of management’s supportive attitude towards employees, to
their stance on collaboration, to their emphasis on diversity and to their insistence
that each employee expresses his or her ideas freely.
Organisations that have adopted this approach have proven that employees’
involvement virtually ensures the completion of objectives; improves performance
and productivity; enhances motivation; and results in a more focused mission
and empowered team implementation. To maximise the benefits of participatory
management, however, organisations should be headed by creative and capable
leaders who are committed to effective and mutual communication processes.
In environments characterised by turmoil, organisations often need to adapt or
die. Change is therefore a reality with which it is necessary to cope. Participation
is always the leading change variable in the humanistic management approach
towards strategic change.
However, a point of criticism is that the sender and the receiver of a
communication message will be unable to share similar meanings with regard to
a message unless they share similar beliefs, values and attitudes. The importance
of a shared context has been ignored, neglected or taken for granted in this
approach. This means that change in an organisation will only occur successfully
if both management and employees share similar beliefs, values and attitudes
towards the change that will take place. In levelling this criticism, it is maintained
that the humanistic management approach does not account for differences and
diversity between the sender and the receiver. To maintain a sense of similarity
between the two implies control and predictability (again related to the classical
management approach).

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Although the humanistic management approach is more supportive of change in

the organisation than the classical management approach because it recognises
and examines the ways in which changes in the environment can impact on the
organisation, the knowledge management approach not only fulfils this requirement
but, in addition, also focuses on the shared context that exists between the sender
(manager) and the receiver (employee).

4.9.3 The knowledge management approach

Although the humanistic management and knowledge management approaches
are founded on similar principles, there are various distinctions that need to
be highlighted.

Table 4.4 A comparison between the humanistic and the knowledge management approaches

Humanistic management approach Knowledge management approach

The humanistic management approach The knowledge management approach

supports creativity, innovative actions, seeks, in addition, to create and maintain
employee empowerment and employee value, meaning and spiritual welfare in the
participation, with the intention of improving organisation
productivity by caring for employees

The humanistic management approach The knowledge management approach

might at times hark back to the classical aspires to maximise both organisational
management approach because it might productivity and individual need satisfaction
at times still consider organisational by emphasising the contributions that
effectiveness and productivity as employee ideas and experience can make to
benchmarks of success; at other times, effective organisational functioning
however, organisational effectiveness is seen
as a mere extension of the human relations
framework, where higher-order human
needs for challenge and self-actualisation
are fulfilled through organisational activities
(Miller, 2003)

The humanistic management approach It is recognised that the value of

maintains that consideration and support organisational performance rests not in
for employees will primarily enhance the factories and buildings used for the
organisational performance and add quality. production of goods or services but in the
This approach maintains, however, that a diverse minds, values and beliefs of the
diversity of values, beliefs and behaviour people who create those goods or services
need not be considered seriously because
all employees will have similar values and
beliefs when treated fairly and equally 

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Humanistic management approach Knowledge management approach

Physical and human assets contribute to The ability of organisations to exploit their
an organisation’s success; therefore, when intangible assets has become far more
employees are trained and supported they decisive than their ability to invest and
will create and maintain a competitive manage their physical assets. As markets
advantage shift, uncertainty dominates, technologies
proliferate, competitors multiply, and
products and services become obsolete,
successful organisations are characterised
by their ability to consistently create new
knowledge, to quickly disseminate it, and
to embody it in their new products and
services. As the knowledge-based activities
that are needed to develop new products,
services and processes become the
primary internal function of organisations
attempting to ensure long-term
competitive advantage, it has been argued
that knowledge may be an organisation’s
greatest competitive advantage today

According to Gore and Gore (1999), the management of knowledge also depends
on the organisation’s commitment to and understanding of the individual’s valuable
beliefs concerning behaviour and his or her attitude towards the organisation. The
basic principles of the knowledge management approach are as follows:
„„ There is a strong focus on creating greater value for both the organisation and its
members.
„„ This approach maintains that it is important to establish environments and systems
(body of methods, tools, techniques and values) for creating, encapsulating, storing,
organising, managing and communicating both explicit information and tacit
knowledge in the organisation; this will create and retain greater organisational
value. Neither the classical nor the humanistic management approaches consider this
important.
„„ It values individual competencies, internal organisational activities (organisational
cultural and communication networks) and external organisational activities
(creating and delivering innovative products or services; managing and enhancing
relationships with existing and new customers, partners, and suppliers through
open communication).
„„ The organisation that adopts this approach is typically change seeking, and values
change as much as it fears failure to change.
„„ Knowledge management addresses organisational problems relevant to its own
context. Knowledge in the organisation comprises corporate knowledge and the
shared understanding between management and employees, and is believed to
have similar characteristics to individual knowledge.
„„ Progress is made in the organisation when knowledge moves from the domain of
the individual to that of the organisation.

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„„ Employees are viewed as assets with valuable skills and experience.

„„ Knowledge management creates constructive and helpful relations to enable
insight and sharing and to purge distrust, fear and dissatisfaction.
„„ Knowledge is closely attached to human emotions, aspirations, hopes, intentions
and experiences.
„„ New knowledge is essential for capitalising on new opportunities. New knowledge
requires new ideas from employees who can exercise their own will, make up their
own mind and maintain their own way of thinking.
„„ To create and maintain new knowledge, existing structures and the status quo
need to be continuously questioned.
„„ Organisational knowledge is equally associated with actions and is also created
within the organisation by means of information and social interaction. This
form of knowledge is the heart of knowledge management, while the association
between knowledge and action serves as the driver for organisational change in
the organisation (Gore & Gore, 1999; Snowden, 2000; Tiwana, 2000).
Although this approach is more popular among organisational researchers than
the classical and humanistic management approaches, it has both advantages and
disadvantages as well.

Advantages and disadvantages of the knowledge management approach

Table 4.5 Advantages and disadvantages of the knowledge management approach

Advantages of the knowledge Disadvantages of the knowledge

management approach management approach

„„ It recognises knowledge as justified, „„ It is easier to discuss the concept of

true beliefs based on experiences knowledge than to practise it in the
„„ It believes knowledge is both individual organisation
and social, and both tacit (subjective) „„ The emphasis is often on quantifying
and explicit (objective) pieces of information; the use of
„„ It believes that knowledge is obtained technology that might limit the free
through experience, and such flow of ideas; rigid procedures; and
knowledge indicates a heightened an overarching assumption that
state of consciousness, especially knowledge can be controlled
when this knowledge is invested „„ Information and knowledge are often
(shared). Knowledge is thus not merely equated and it is believed that both
information; it is also experience which can be captured and transmitted via
can be useful during change in the technology. Knowledge is, however,
organisation experience based and employees can
„„ It recognises that knowledge creation, choose to share their experiences and
shared understanding and experiences, knowledge, or not
and open, participative communication
are important values 

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Advantages of the knowledge Disadvantages of the knowledge

management approach management approach

„„ It recognises the importance of „„ Many organisations interested in

innovative and value-based social knowledge management practise
participation that provides the potential it by means of emphasising tools
for both employee and organisational and instruments that attempt to
development make knowledge explicit. Individual
„„ Diversity of beliefs, values and opinions awareness, creativity and innovation can
are considered beneficial because they potentially be constrained as a result
increase the potential for alternatives „„ The concept management in
knowledge management implies
control, which indicates support for
classical management principles,
whereas knowledge enabling relies
on the expansion and maintenance of
leadership

The nature of communication in the knowledge management approach

Similar to the humanistic management approach, the knowledge management approach
is also associated with support for employee needs and motivations, participation,
open communication and flat, organic managerial practices. Based on humanistic and
knowledge-enabling approaches, leadership is encouraged. These approaches imply
that the organisation is an open system that involves itself in environmental scanning
with the purpose of proactive changes and/or adaptation when required.
This approach argues that mere adjustments of classical managerial practices
towards changes in the organisation are insufficient. A total transformation of
organisational vision, managerial practices, employee involvement and relationships
with the macro environment are required. With this in mind, employees are perceived
as intelligent, creative, innovative, adaptive and flexible members of the organisation
who contribute to its existence and survival. Communication is, therefore, not only
an interactive exchange of messages but a transaction between participants during
which a relationship develops between them when they empathetically come
to an understanding of the other person’s situation or context. All elements in the
communication model are perceived to be integrated. Communication is a dynamic
process in which both participants are actively engaged in encoding, transmitting,
decoding and receiving messages. These elements should not be isolated.
Meaning does not exist in itself. It is negotiated between communicators during the
process of communication and when a new understanding is established.
To be aware of the other person is to imagine what he or she is thinking and
feeling, although neither the sender nor the receiver can predict the other’s thoughts
and actions. They can merely attempt to understand it by engaging in a contextual
relationship. Every context created when engaging in a communication relationship
with another will differ in a next engagement of communication.
In this approach, consideration is therefore given to feedback and two-way,
continuous and unrestricted communication. Constant, mutual flow of information
between the sender and the receiver is a basic necessity.

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Assessment of communication in the knowledge management approach

It is argued that although the knowledge management approach is an improvement
on the humanistic management approach because it recognises the context of
‘relationships’ in which communication takes place, it essentially still emphasises role
taking – that is, the sender role plays the receiver’s position and vice versa as a means
of creating empathy. It is argued that one should ignore one’s own opinions, beliefs and
attitudes, and so on, so as to enable an understanding of the other person’s point of
view within a communication relationship. However, Van der Walt (2006) maintains
that one should not, and indeed cannot, deny one’s own context and one’s own beliefs
and values by merely exchanging them with those held by the other participant. Even
if one attempts to ignore one’s own context to enable communication, it is not possible.
Although one can choose to confront one’s own perceptions and attitudes, this does not
imply an absence of them.
Communication is used to establish comprehension, support and meaningful
developments in the organisation. Problems and conflict are resolved through
negotiation, communication and compromise rather than through coercion,
manipulation or argument. Neher (1997) argues, however, that the norm in modern
organisations is to actively suppress authenticity and communication that could be
important for the development of the organisation. The organisations that adopt
classical and humanistic approaches do not allow for the expression of genuine feelings,
whereas an organisation that has adopted a knowledge management approach does
attempt this. Stewart (2002: 665–667) argues that there are two problems that could
affect communication in an approach such as the knowledge management approach:
„„ Communication will not occur if the people involved are only concerned with
their own views, perceptions and opinions. It is only when one attempts to
empathetically see the other person’s point of view that successful communication
and negotiation become possible.
„„ The main prerequisite for communication is an awareness of the other person as
an essentially unique being. However, this kind of awareness is impossible if one
perceives the other person as an object with little significance other than that he or
she is someone to instruct. Only when one imagines what the other person is really
thinking and feeling can one make direct contact with him or her.
The interpersonal emphasis that the knowledge management approach places on
communication distinguishes it from communications interactions such as debates,
discussions or deliberations, because this emphasis implies both the freedom to speak
in any way that makes it possible for others to listen, and to listen in a way that makes
it possible for others to speak. Usually, in debates and discussions the communicators
aim to impose their ideas and opinions on the audience without considering a process
of dialogue through which a new reality or a new meaning could emerge.
From a communication point of view, Griffin (2003: 78–79) argues that true
communication is defined only when the other communicators are recognised as being
authentic. However, Neher (1997) argues that the norm in modern organisations is to
actively suppress authenticity and communication which could be important for the
development of the organisation. These organisations do not allow for the expression

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of genuine feelings. Neher’s (1997) argument is that for individuals to be authentic, they
should be able to express their thoughts without fear of retribution, yet according to
Zohar and Marshall (2004), this is not possible in the modern organisation as it is still
primarily designed according to a classical management approach. It is argued that
although the knowledge management approach is an improvement on the humanistic
management approach because it recognises the context of ‘relationships’ in which
communication takes place, it nevertheless still emphasises role taking. This approach
maintains that one should ignore one’s own opinions, beliefs and attitudes so as to
enable one to understand the other person’s point of view within a communication
relationship. This is not possible.

4.10 Summary
Change is a constant phenomenon, especially in today’s society which tends to
operate within unstable environments that have a direct impact on any organisation.
Frequently, management is not in favour of change because it intrudes on the well
known, the stable and the controllable. They therefore resist change in various ways,
and this contributes to significant problems between the organisation and its internal
and external environments. Many communication theorists argue that communication
needs to be the solution to problems pertaining to change. By using communication
proactively rather than reactively, the organisation can effect change more successfully,
which in turn contributes to relational harmony and therefore to the promotion of the
organisation’s corporate brand.
This chapter suggests that humanistic management and knowledge management
approaches are key survival strategies for the modern organisation that has to face
constant changes in its environment(s). Although it is not compulsory for an organisation
to drastically change its existing structure, it is nevertheless evident that knowledge
management and all it entails has proven more viable in an organisation with an
organic management and operational structure. Building a strong learning capability
is crucial for knowledge-intensive organisations and for companies operating in a highly
competitive environment where corporate branding often sells a product or service. The
rate at which individuals and organisations learn can become, along with knowledge
itself, the sustainable, competitive advantage in the future of an organisation.

Case study
Challenges and changes in X-PLOR Telecoms
X-PLOR Telecoms was established in 1998 as a new force in the South African and international
telecommunications industry. It was committed to state-of-the-art evaluation and
improvement of all network services through the provision of a unique test platform. The
company was formed through the partnership of two companies:
1. BSW Telecoms, a Dimension Data company with extensive experience in software design
and implementation for the telecommunications market since 1984
2. Instrumach, a company skilled in quality of service and revenue assurance data recording
and valuation for its network customers


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Given the need for a product which could collect technical data from cellphone networks to
enable network operators to analyse and optimise their cellular network performance without
direct interaction, network service providers such as MTN soon realised the value of such a
product and adopted it with great success. With its growing business in the South African market,
X-PLOR Telecoms was quick to identify the need for a versatile product that focused on revenue
assurance. This entailed the simulation of normal cellphone usage on cellular networks so that
network providers could have audited records of all call charges to prevent claims of inaccurate
call charges. With these products, X-PLOR Telecoms was fast becoming a market leader.
X-PLOR Telecoms had a growing team of employees in their Gauteng branch, consisting of
a managing director; a development manager; production, development and support teams
and administrative staff. Although not a large company, X-PLOR Telecoms was able to stand its
ground in the face of various financial, organisational and environmental challenges. However,
certain challenges intensified. In particular, after the X-PLOR Telecoms’ development manager
left the company, the managing director came under tremendous pressure both to address
growing workplace conflict and to ensure the continued provision of a quality product to the
clients.
During this time, destructive symptoms started to plague the company. Employee turnover
was high, time management was poor, and there were many grievances and complaints
regarding insufficient communication and/or information overloads; insufficient opportunities
for creative product development; the absence of team spirit and loyalty; and a lack of general
direction and shared vision. The trend towards a lack of discipline became evident, employee
motivation and productivity levels dropped, and conflict between employees and management
obstructed the operational activities of the company, thus affecting its annual turnover.
In 2004, the managing director of X-PLOR Telecoms appointed a development manager to
take control of these pressing, debilitating issues. Jobs were defined more specifically, with clearly
demarcated job descriptions and an emphasis on stability, order, a less hierarchical managerial
approach, and more general direction regarding projects allocated to the production and
development teams. Communication became more open and participative (although at first it
was still rigid and controlling), and criticism was viewed to be more constructive.
However, despite the efforts to improve the general climate in X-PLOR Telecoms, it seems
that the experiences of distrust, poor relations among employees and management, and
unsatisfying communication practices in the workplace had resulted in cynicism among
several of the younger employees, who questioned rather than accepted the changes.
Management was of the opinion that the employees were ungrateful and had no
understanding of the situation. Employees, in contrast, continued to complain about the
lack of support and trust from management and their colleagues; the absence of recognition
for their efforts and roles in the successes and functioning of the company; insufficient
equipment; poor working conditions; and the lack of challenges and opportunities for skills
and self-development. They also expressed the need for a more people- and less product-
oriented leadership. They demanded better career opportunities for themselves as well as
much more training; they also wished to be paid on the basis of the new skills they had
acquired and not according to the actual use of these skills. Despite management’s efforts
to improve conditions in the work environment, employees continued to be dissatisfied and
the problems appeared insurmountable.
(Permission to use this case study was obtained from Dr Werner van der Walt (Manager
Telecoms Development))

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Activities
1. You are appointed as organisational communication consultant to deal with the
problems that X-PLOR Telecoms faces. Answer the following questions:
1.1 Which management style do you identify in X-PLOR Telecoms that could
explain why employees are continuously frustrated and demanding?
1.2 Identify the restraining and driving forces of change in this company.
1.3 Propose a strategy for change in X-PLOR Telecoms based on organisational
development and the three-step model of change.
1.4 Assess the communication processes in X-PLOR Telecoms, and propose a
more efficient communication network system.
2. Describe the various forces of change in today’s organisations.
3. Apply the three-step model of change to any organisation of your choice.
4. Apply OD to any organisation of your choice.
5. Compare the classical management approach to the humanistic management and
knowledge management approaches.
6. Discuss the role and applicability of the systems theory in an organisation with a
knowledge management approach.

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 The marketing

5
CHAPTER

context
Charmaine du Plessis

Excessive reliance on a company’s traditional ways of executing marketing can leave the
company with no way of seeing how things could be done differently and even potentially
better.
Wyner (2004)

5.1 Introduction
The discipline of marketing is another of the more prominent focus areas of
integrated organisational communication. This book examines the communication
of organisations and, as a great deal of the organisation’s communication is related to
its marketing, it is therefore imperative to understand marketing and the marketing
context of organisations’ communication. Communication that is related to an
organisation’s marketing is usually carefully planned and integrated with other
organisational communication processes. Marketing management has the challenge
of creating a coherent corporate brand image of the organisation in the minds of its
various stakeholders through integrated messages in the marketing strategy.
This chapter explores the diverse approaches to the practice of marketing theory
and attempts to contextualise these in terms of marketing communication. In this
chapter we discuss the following:
„„ The history and development of marketing as a discipline.
„„ The marketing mix.
„„ Marketing theories.
„„ Marketing management.
„„ The marketing plan.

5.2 History and definitions of marketing

Various definitions of marketing exist. Over the years these have expanded from a
narrow viewpoint that focuses only on the needs of the organisation to a much broader
perspective that also accommodates the needs and wants of its customers. Marketing
is currently also acknowledged as an educational process that includes non-marketers
and which can play an important role in society. One of the earliest definitions of
marketing that acknowledges the point of view of the customer is that of Drucker
(1954: 37), which reads as follows:
Actually marketing is so basic that it is not just enough to have a strong sales department
and to entrust marketing to it. Marketing is not only much broader than selling; it is
not a specialised activity at all. It encompasses the entire business. It is the whole

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business seen from the point of view of the final result – that is, from the customer’s
point of view. Concern and responsibility for marketing must therefore permeate all
areas of the enterprise.

Boone and Kurtz’s (1999: 9) definition of marketing expands on the emphasis on the
customer by also including relationships:
Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion
and distribution of ideas, goods, services, organisations, and events to create and
maintain relationships that will satisfy individual and organisational objectives.

The above definition identifies the four Ps of the marketing mix, namely product,
price, promotion and distribution (see section 5.4), and organisational functions, and
emphasises the establishment of meaningful interaction with the customer.
The 2004 definition of marketing by the American Marketing Association
acknowledges the mutually beneficial relationship between the organisation and
its customers when it states that ‘[m]arketing is an organizational function and a
set of processes for creating, communicating and delivering value to customers and
for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its
stakeholders’. On the other hand, its 2008 definition now also includes society at large:
‘Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating,
delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners,
and society at large’ (American Marketing Association, 2009).
The 2008 definition by the Marketing Association of America (2009) is adopted
as the working definition of marketing for this book. The different concepts in this
definition are elucidated in Table 5.1:

Table 5.1 Key elements of the 2008 definition of marketing by the American Marketing
Association (2009)

Activity, processes Marketing is no longer a function – it is also an educational

process

Set of institutions Marketing is a science, an educational process and a

philosophy, and not just a management system

Creating Through creative messages, marketing management must

endeavour to change unfavourable conditions in the market
place into opportunities

Communicating Marketing communication must include messages and media

about the product or service which, nowadays, must include
new media and social media platforms

Delivering Marketing must ensure that promises that have been made to
the customer are kept

Exchanging Marketing must persuade customers to buy; in other words, to

engage in transactions 

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Offerings Marketing must facilitate product, price, distribution and

marketing communication, as well as efficient service from
people and processes

Value for customers, It is possible to market a product to ‘do good’

clients, partners, and Customers, clients, partners and society can obtain satisfaction
society at large. from the resources and abilities of the organisation
Marketing can promote the well-being of society in the longer
term
Source: American Marketing Association (2009)

Modern marketing has evolved over many years through the eight stages indicated in
Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 The eight stages through which the marketing discipline has evolved

First stage Selling (ancient times) (18th and early 19th centuries)

Second stage Selling, advertising (late 19th century)

Third stage Selling, advertising, marketing research (20th century)

Fourth stage Marketing department develops a balanced marketing programme which

co-ordinates all the marketing mix instruments (20th century)

Fifth stage Market-oriented companies (20th century)

Sixth stage Cause-related, social and relationship marketing (20th and 21st centuries)

Seventh stage Online marketing (21st century)

Eighth stage Social media marketing (21st century)

Sources: Boone & Kurtz (1999); Cant, Strydom & Jooste (2004); Evans (2008); Kotler & Mindak
(1978); Strydom (1999)

The first marketing activity occurred in the 18th and early 19th centuries with the
ancient selling function when goods were sold by street vendors who shouted out the
benefits of their product in public. However, in the late 19th century, manufacturers
started to realise that repeated advertising could greatly enhance their sales activities.
The swift growth of national markets in the 20th century increased the need for
marketing information on which marketing management could base their planning,
and this led to the second evolvement of marketing: advertising. During the third
stage, sellers realised that they could reduce their risk by spending money to establish
what customers really wanted and how they perceived the organisation and its
products and services. Initially the sales, advertising and marketing research functions
operated independently of each other, but the fourth stage saw these three functions
combined into a marketing department. The market-oriented fifth stage evolved when
the various departments of the organisation all adopted and practised a customer
philosophy (Kotler & Mindak, 1978: 15).

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During the sixth stage, managers’ attitudes towards the marketing function in the
organisation have changed considerably over the years. Top management have realised
how important it is to actively market the organisation’s products and/or services in
order to compete effectively in the marketplace. Marketers also realise how important
it is to accommodate the needs and wants of the organisation’s customers and that
credibility and trust are crucial to improved productivity and long-term relationships
(Strydom, 1999: 11).
The development of the Internet led to the seventh stage and concepts such as
online marketing (or e-marketing, e-tailing and mass customisation); it is now possible
to create a marketing strategy for a single customer (Cant et al., 2004: 21) (see Chapter
10 for a more detailed discussion on this).
The rise of various social media platforms resulted in social media marketing,
the eighth stage and most recent application of marketing. Social media marketing
strategically uses natural conversation that occurs on various social media platforms
to benefit the organisation’s brand by means of viral marketing (Evans, 2008: 13).
During viral or word-of-mouth marketing (WOM), consumers discuss, appraise,
criticise or recommend an organisation’s brand on social network platforms used
by consumers, their friends and peers (Cheung, Lee & Rabjohn, 2008: 229) (see
Chapter 10, Section 10.7).

5.3 Marketing perspectives
Marketing has evolved as a result of various perspectives. It has progressed from
constricted production and sales-orientated perspectives to the more customer-
orientated perspective typical of modern marketing.
The organisation’s mission and vision determine whether it is predominantly
sales or market orientated. For instance, a marketing-orientated organisation may be
highly active in sales but be driven by the principles of the marketing concept as the
motivating force behind these sales activities (Helgesen, Nesset & Voldsund, 2009: 27).
Seven important marketing perspectives are discussed in this section. These are
the production-orientated, sales-orientated, marketing-orientated, the marketing
concept, cause-related marketing (CRM), social marketing and relationship marketing
perspectives.

5.3.1 Production-orientated perspective
The production-orientated perspective (prevalent from the time of the Industrial
Revolution until the 1920s), purported that customers favoured products that were
available and that products sold themselves. With this in mind, management focused
on the production of a few specific products which were mass produced by machines
in factories, and on improving production efficiency. The major focus was therefore
on production, not marketing, and the needs of consumers were seldom taken into
account (Pride & Ferrell, 2007: 11). The underlying assumption at this time was that
consumers would buy products that were produced at low cost and in great volumes
(Kumar, 2001: 11).

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However, consumers were relatively poor and unsophisticated, and bought new
products only when they could afford them. Consequently stocks began piling up,
which made management realise the importance of stimulating demand to increase
sales. This change in management thinking led to the sales-orientation era of marketing
(Strydom, 1999: 11).

5.3.2 Sales-orientated perspective
During the sales-orientated perspective stage (from the early 1930s and into the
1960s), sales-orientated organisations believed that consumers would buy enough of
the organisation’s products only if a special promotion and selling effort were made.
During this stage it was believed that maximising sales volumes was the key to
profitability (Pride & Ferrell, 2007: 11).
At this time it had become more difficult to ascertain the requirements of the
market, and organisations began to pay more attention to their competitors and what
they offered. In sales-orientated organisations, advertisements were placed to inform
consumers of the availability of products while sales representatives promoted products
through direct personal contact (Strydom, 1999: 13).
The most important characteristics of the sales-orientated perspective include
concepts such as sales volumes, short-term profitability, selling skills, sales promotion,
sales techniques and sales tricks. Organisations were therefore more transaction rather
than relationship orientated (Helgesen et al., 2009: 29).

5.3.3 Marketing-orientated perspective
The marketing-orientated perspective stage is considered to be the foundation of
contemporary marketing philosophy. This perspective is based on the understanding
that the organisation must research the needs of its customers and respond to them
accordingly. Understanding and addressing these needs was now an activity that was
done throughout the organisation and not only by the marketing department (Pride &
Ferrell, 2007: 11).
During the marketing-orientated perspective stage (originating in the early 1950s),
attention was focused more on marketing than selling; the top executive responsible
for this activity was called a marketing manager or a director of marketing (Stanton,
Etzell, Walker et al., 1992: 9). The marketing era emphasises the sales message; the
price; product quality; packaging; methods of distribution; and which ways were
most effective for communicating messages to the target audience through marketing
communication. It was further characterised by the adoption of the marketing concept
as a management philosophy (Strydom, 1999: 13).

5.3.4 The marketing concept

The marketing concept is a direct result of the market-orientation stage. It is
a straightforward and logical idea, which puts the customer at the focal point of
overall organisational activities. Its emphasis is on consumer orientation, which
is a management philosophy that incorporates the marketing concept into the
organisation. The organisation commits to proper planning so as to transform

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the consumer orientation philosophy into specific actions (Loudon, Stevens

& Wrenn, 2005: 2).
Strydom (1999:  13) defines the marketing concept as one that ‘holds that
achieving organisational goals depends on determining the needs and wants of
the target market and delivering the desired products or services more effectively
and efficiently than competitors’. The marketing concept plays a dominant role in
business and dates as far back as 1952. For example, General Electric’s annual report
in 1952 describes the new management philosophy that underlies the marketing
concept thus:
[The concept] introduces the [marketer] at the beginning rather than at the end
of the production cycle and integrates marketing into each phase of the business.
Thus, marketing, through its studies and research, will establish for the engineer,
the design and manufacturing [person], what the customer wants in a given product,
what price he [or she] is willing to pay, and where and when it will be wanted.
Marketing will have the authority in product planning, production scheduling,
and inventory control, as well as in sales, distribution, and servicing of the product
(Boone & Kurtz 1999: 13).

In the 1960s the marketing concept was ‘proclaimed’ as the saviour of organisations. As
a result it received a great deal of attention from the academia. It was maintained that
if organisations were to adhere to the principles of this management philosophy, they
should strive to satisfy the needs of consumers through a co-ordinated set of activities
that would also allow the organisation to achieve its objectives. The marketing concept
therefore requires an awareness of the wants and needs of the consumer but not at the
expense of the goals of the organisation. All members of the organisation must accept
and adhere to the marketing concept in order for it to be successfully implemented
(Pride & Ferrell, 2007: 10).
The essence of the pure marketing concept is expressed in three core principles
(which might vary according to different authors and theorists). According
to Cant, Strydom, Jooste and Du Plessis (2009: 11), the core principles include
a profit orientation, a consumer orientation and the integration of all
organisational activities directed at profitability. These core principles gave rise
to the societal marketing concept – or the social responsibility of marketers –
because they were considered inadequate for addressing consumer needs in the
long term. (Corporate social responsibility maintains that organisations are part
of the larger society in which they exist and are accountable to society for their
performance.) The principles of the marketing concept are explained in Table 5.3
on the following page.
However, the extent to which implementation of the marketing concept is successful
depends on various variables, for example the organisational structure and the demand
of internal operations (Morgan, 1996: 21).

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Table 5.3 The various principles of the marketing concept

Marketing concept principle Explanation

Profit orientation Maximisation of profitability is the primary

objective of any profit-seeking organisation
but this can only be achieved if consumer
needs are met

Customer orientation All marketing activities of the organisation

should take into account consumer needs,
demands and preferences

Integration of organisational activities All departments in the organisation must

work together to accomplish marketing
objectives. This is best achieved within an
IMC approach (see Chapter 6)

Societal marketing When marketing policies are set, marketers

also need to consider organisational profits,
consumer needs and the interests of society
Source: Cant et al. (2009: 11–13)

This marketing concept is further developed in the following perspectives: cause-

related marketing (CRM), social marketing and relationship marketing.

5.3.5 Cause-related marketing (CRM)

CRM is based on the societal approach that proposes that organisations should be
considered accountable to society in general. The societal approach maintains that
organisations are part of society and therefore need its approval if they are to operate
effectively (Nielsen & Thomsen, 2009: 86).
Organisations have become increasingly active in co-operative development
programmes and partnerships with non-profit and charity organisations. These
programmes not only benefit the charities or non-profit organisations involved but the
organisation itself. This approach is now referred to as CRM. It links specific products
or services with a specific cause and can be defined as ‘a commercial activity by which
businesses and charities or causes form a partnership with one another to market an
image, product or service for mutual benefit’. Benefits of CRM include an increase in
sales; the enhancement of the organisation’s reputation and brand; new customers;
and an increase in employee loyalty (Cant et al., 2004: 17). Table 5.4 depicts the six
principles of successful CRM.

Table 5.4 The six principles of successful cause-related marketing

Integrity The organisation must adhere to the highest ethical

standards in all its CRM activities and relationships

Transparency The organisation must ensure that communications

between the partners and with consumers are legal,
decent, honest, truthful and clear 

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Sincerity The organisation must provide strength and depth

to the relationship with a non-profit organisation or
cause

Mutual respect The organisation must appreciate the intrinsic value

that the non-profit organisation brings to the CRM
partnership

Partnership The organisation must ensure that both sides share

the risk and rewards

Mutual benefit The organisation must ensure that all parties’

objectives are being met
Source: Barrett (2002), in Cant et al. (2004: 17)

5.3.6 Social marketing
Social marketing is an approach similar to corporate social responsibility (see also the
public relations section in this book), which is also relevant to the marketing context.
The core of the social marketing perspective is illustrated by the marketing
concept’s management philosophy that customers’ unmet needs should be fulfilled.
Social marketing is often used when an organisation requires behaviour change
which cannot be achieved by information dissemination alone. The marketing mix is
subsequently used in an integrated manner while formative research is undertaken to
better understand consumer wants and needs (Sublet & Lum, 2008: 47). Social change
marketing programmes are implemented using marketing principles and techniques
in areas such as health care, family planning, traffic safety, substance abuse, ethnic
tolerance and even green marketing, to name but a few (Koku, 2009: 137). Social
change can be promoted by influencing social norms or attitudes or by persuading
individuals to engage in new behaviours, such as increasing daily physical exercise or
reducing binge drinking. Social marketing addresses behaviours which are influenced
by intrinsic values, therefore a deep understanding of cultural values is vital for
successful research and effectively segmenting target audiences (Douglas, 2008: 152).

5.3.7 Relationship marketing
Relationship marketing was introduced in the 1990s and presents a paradigm shift
away from the marketing-orientated approach towards the more modern way in
which marketing is now practised, with the basic focus on customer needs still intact.
This perspective encourages customer-centric marketing and largely aims to retain
customers and encourage their loyalty (this is also referred to in the literature as
retention marketing) (Keiningham, Aksoy, Perkins-Munn & Vavra, 2005: 33).
The relationship marketing perspective focuses on identifying and establishing,
maintaining and enhancing and, if necessary, ending relationships with customers and
stakeholders (while still profitable to both parties) so as to meet both parties’ objectives
through mutual exchange. This emphasises a paradigm shift away from competition
and conflict towards mutual collaboration; from self-reliance and choice to mutual

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dependency (Cant et al., 2004: 18). See Chapter 6 for a more detailed discussion of the
relationship marketing perspective.

5.4 The traditional marketing mix

The marketing mix concept was introduced by Neil Borden in the 1950s and consists
of 12 elements intended to guide marketers in different situations. Jerome McCarthy
soon labelled and reduced these to the ‘four Ps’, to enable students and teachers to
more easily remember the instruments of the marketing mix (Kitchen, De Pelsmacker,
Eagle & Schultz, 2005: 218). This marketing mix theory has dominated the marketing
approach for the last four decades and, although the four Ps have expanded and
changed over the years, McCarthy’s original four Ps are still very popular. Many
definitions of marketing still focus on the traditional marketing mix, which is the focus
of this section (Kitchen et al., 2005: 218) (see also Section 5.4.6).
Kumar (2001: 66) defines the marketing mix as ‘the amounts and kinds of marketing
variables the firm is using at a specific time. Under marketing mix we include mainly
product mix, distribution mix, communication mix and service mix’. The marketing
mix therefore consists of everything the organisation can do to increase the demand
for its product(s). These many possibilities can be collected into the four Ps. The
marketing mix is a blending of the four variables or strategy elements to fit the needs
and preferences of a specific target market. Each strategy is a variable in the mix.
A specific combination of these variables determines the success of marketing efforts
(Boone & Kurtz, 1999: 24).
There are four variables which the marketing management team must take into
account when making marketing strategy decisions, namely the product itself; the
place where it is to be sold (distribution of the product); the marketing communication
methods that will be used to inform the consumer about the product; and the price of
the product, which should reflect its value to the consumer (Cant et al., 2004: 21). The
organisation develops a marketing strategy which usually includes these four variables
(or marketing tools generally known as the four Ps of the marketing mix) to align
the organisation’s operations and to satisfy the needs and wants of its target market.
A target market is the specific section or group of consumers that the organisation
directs its marketing efforts towards (Kumar, 2001: 78). The traditional four Ps are
the following:
„„ product
„„ price
„„ place (distribution channel)
„„ promotion (marketing communication).

An organisation’s marketing plan includes strategies that indicate how the various
elements of the marketing mix contribute to the achievement of marketing objectives.
When a marketing plan is compiled, consideration is given to each of the four Ps,
while the focus is on strategic issues which are based on the competitive, differential
advantage. The basic task of marketing is to combine these four elements into a
marketing programme that can enhance its effectiveness when dealing with customers
(Boone & Kurtz, 1999: 24). According to Brink and Berndt (2004), this marketing

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mix model has become outdated for consumer goods marketing, is too restrictive
for business-to-business and services marketing, and does not present a customer-
orientated perspective.
The traditional four Ps are explained in more detail below:

5.4.1 Product
Product refers to ‘the bundle of attributes and features’ – both tangible and intangible
(that is, touchable and untouchable) – which an organisation offers. It includes the
parts that support the physical product – that is, its packaging, warranty and colours,
as well as its emotional components, namely brand loyalty, status, self-esteem, security
and convenience (Burnett & Moriarty, 1998: 35).
Koekemoer (2004: 7) points out that every marketer starts out with at least a basic
concept of a product or service that will be attractive to a certain number of consumers.
This ‘product offering’ forms the basis of the business enterprise and strategy. The
strategy that an organisation adopts for its product plays a fundamental role in its
long-term financial success. An organisation should therefore adopt a product-market
strategy. For this, the organisation establishes which of the marketing mix elements will
best enhance the sale of its product(s). Other important considerations are customer
needs, current markets, sales trends and the competitors’ products (Pitt, Bromfield &
Nel, 1994: 155).
If the aim of an organisation’s new product is to gain a competitive advantage,
product planning is managed by means of strategies to improve existing products and
to develop new ones, as well as a consideration of product elements such as branding,
packaging and other product features (Stanton et al., 1992: 15).

5.4.2 Price
Burnett and Moriarty (1998: 55) define price as the ‘total value assigned to the product
by the seller and the buyer’. The price of a product, however, has different meanings
for sellers and buyers. For the seller it is a series of cost components and is related to
profit, while for the buyer it is the historical price of the product, the competitive price,
the expected price, the financial risk involved in buying the product, and the perceived
need for the product (Burnett & Moriarty, 1998: 54).
According to Koekemoer (2004: 9), price is used to differentiate products from one
another and as such it provides consumers with very valuable information. Burnett
and Moriarty (1998: 54) argue that pricing decisions are important in the marketing
strategy because the price of the product should always be related to the achievement
of corporate and marketing objectives and be established in relation to factors such as
the product life cycle, the requirements of the total product portfolio, and sales as well
as market share objectives.
Pitt et al. (1994: 159) state that the procedures and methods which an organisation
uses to meet its pricing goals are dependent on the market and competitive circumstances
as well as on costs. In fact, the right price has a direct effect on an organisation’s profits
because it determines the difference between the cost of producing an item and the

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price at which it is eventually sold. However, a higher price can reduce demand while
a low price can often lead to increased sales.
An organisation should always consider pricing objectives; prices charged by the
competition; legal restrictions on pricing policies; and the perceived relationship
between the organisation’s prices and product quality (Pitt et al., 1994: 159). The
management of an organisation should determine the right base price for its products
and then decide on strategies concerning discounts, freight payment and many other
price-related factors (Stanton et al., 1992: 15).

5.4.3 Place (distribution channel)

The place or distribution channel is ‘the marketing mechanism used to present, deliver,
and service the product for customers’ (Burnett & Moriarty, 1998: 53). Koekemoer
(2004: 10) explains distribution as the ‘process of ensuring that the marketer’s product
offering is made available to the targeted consumers in the right place(s), at the
right time, in the right quantities, in the “right” (good) condition, and at the “right”
(competitive) cost’.
A distribution channel includes all the institutions, processes and relationships that
facilitate the product’s journey from the manufacturer to the buyer. The marketing
channel (which is a network of institutions through which products move) also plays
a vital role because decisions about the choice of the channel should be seen as an
integral part of the organisation’s marketing strategy and one that can be adapted to
changing circumstances (Burnett & Moriarty, 1998: 49).
The outlets determine the place where customers buy their products – that is,
where these products are made available to them. The planning of the organisation’s
distribution channel should be based on a careful assessment of the market requirements
and the ability of the organisation to meet them. This is part of the organisation’s
marketing plan (Pitt et al., 1994: 156).

5.4.4 Promotion (marketing communication)

Promotion is the component of the marketing mix which is used to inform and persuade
the target audience to buy or use an organisation’s product(s). Promotion is the element
in the marketing mix that communicates the key messages to target audiences (Belch
& Belch, 2009: 18). Promotion is also known as marketing communication and these
concepts are, for all intents and purposes, the same. However, in this book we refer to
marketing communication.
The main purpose of the marketing communication mix (promotional mix) is to
develop effective communications by focusing on what to say, how to say it, to whom to
say it, as well as through which media , and how frequently. These elements form part
of the organisation’s marketing communication plan to optimally use the promotional
mix, and they are based on the marketing goals which have been set. The preferred
marketing communication mix elements are those that are considered best for the
organisation if it is to achieve its marketing objectives (Lamb, Hair & McDaniel,
2008: 14).

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Each element of the marketing communication mix is designed to fulfil a specific

function and can be used either alone or in combination to create meaningful
marketing communication with potential customers. In marketing, it is essential to
establish which elements of the promotional mix will work for the product and its
target market, and then to enhance the performance of the appropriate elements by
integrating them into a cohesive marketing communication strategy. This concept
of ‘integrating’ illustrates the relevance of the integrated marketing communications
(IMC) approach, especially the way in which it introduces the concept of integrated
promotional management. Integrated promotional communication accentuates the
co-ordination of the marketing communication and other marketing concepts. In
practice, an effective marketing communication mix will include all the elements,
albeit in different proportions. Various authors consider the following elements to be
part of the marketing communication mix, although they might exclude or include
some and not others:
„„ personal selling
„„ sales promotion
„„ publicity/public relations
„„ marketing public relations (MPR)
„„ advertising
„„ direct marketing
„„ sponsorship
„„ the Internet/online marketing.

When developing a marketing communication strategy, marketers blend together

the various elements of marketing communication to communicate most effectively
with their target market. Many organisations use an IMC approach to co-ordinate
all marketing communication activities so that the consumer receives a unified and
consistent message. See Chapter 6 for a more detailed discussion of both the elements
of the marketing communication mix and of IMC. Especially take note of the meaning
of the concept of ‘sales promotion’ and how it differs from the concept of ‘promotion’ –
that is, marketing communication.

5.4.5 Interrelation of the elements in the marketing mix

The four marketing tools in the marketing mix, discussed above, complement one
another in the organisation’s marketing plan. The organisation must regularly evaluate
the blending of these tools to ensure maximisation of profitability and satisfaction for
the organisation and its stakeholders (Kumar, 2001: 67).

5.4.6 Expansion of the marketing mix elements

Even though McCarthy’s four Ps framework is still popular, theorists increasingly
add more Ps to the marketing mix, especially when they are applicable to the service
industry (for example Booms and Bitner’s (1981) extension of the four Ps to seven Ps to
include process, physical evidence and participants). In this instance, ‘process’ refers
to the procedures, mechanisms and flow of activities within a specific service industry;
‘physical evidence’ refers to the environment in which the service is delivered; and

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‘participants’ refer to the customers who buy the service and other customers in the
service environment (Rafiq & Ahmed, 1995: 7). This seven Ps framework has gained
widespread acceptance in the services marketing literature (Rafiq & Ahmed, 1995: 6).
The Nordic School of Services Marketing adds to this view by including the customer as
an active participant in the service process. Because consumers are active participants
in the service offering and even product development, the consumer can be considered
to be part of the service he or she buys and consumes (Grönroos, 2006: 318).
Another perspective is that the four Ps of the marketing mix are inadequate to
ensure full consumer satisfaction on their own. Two further variables, namely people
and processes, must be added to the four existing marketing instruments. The variable
‘people’ refers to the employees of an organisation who should be trained in customer
service and who realise that their sense of job satisfaction is connected to the success
of the organisation. The variable ‘processes’ refers to integral parts of the production,
administration and marketing functions (Christopher, Payne & Ballantyne, in Cant
et al., 2004: 18).
The four Ps were also adapted to the four Cs of the marketing mix. These were
developed by Robert Lauterborn (1990) and advanced by Philip Kotler (2000) The
four Cs constitute a more client-oriented marketing perspective, with more focus on
customer needs and wants; costs necessary to satisfy those needs; convenience; and
communication. The central tenets of this approach are the following:
„„ Product becomes customer needs and wants: What does the customer need and want?
The traditional definition of ‘product’ now also includes experiences, add-ons,
privileges, information, partnerships, and so on. However, within this context the
product remains the value of the product in terms of what customers are willing
to pay.
„„ Price becomes cost to satisfy need: What is the cost to the customer, both in money and
time? The old definition of ‘price’ should now be changed to include value, add-
ons, partnerships and other factors that are relevant when weighing how customer
needs are satisfied
„„ Place becomes convenience: How is the customer demanding convenience and how
is the organisation responding? These days the concept of ‘place’ includes
more than just a physical area. For instance, purchasing online, delivery and
manufacture on demand are just some of the ways in which ‘place’ has changed
over recent decades. Where and how a customer buys a product is no longer
necessarily the same place as where and how they pay for it and where and how
they consume it.
„„ Promotion becomes communication: What is the most effective way for the organisation
to communicate with its customers? Nowadays, it is important to cultivate
relationships with customers through online marketing and social media
marketing platforms (see Chapter 10). Integrated marketing communication
(see Chapter 6) is also important to align sales and marketing efforts (Teneric
business [Sa]).
After Kotler (2000) advanced the four Cs of marketing, many non-academics also
began renaming the four Cs. Some examples include the following:

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„„ commitment, consistency, connection, change

„„ communication, customisation, collaboration, clairvoyance
„„ customer value, convenience, change, communication
„„ community, citizenship, customer, conversation
„„ customer, competition, cost, communication (Ling, 2009).
Chekitan and Schultz (2005) propose one of the more recent and academically sound
changes to the traditional four Ps. They maintain that the four Ps are no longer relevant
to the marketing mix because they do not reflect 21st-century market realities in terms
of how organisations now relate to customers. They therefore propose a new customer-
centric marketing mix that includes solutions, information, value and access (known
as SIVA). Using this model to respond to customer questions, marketers can respond
better to current market dynamics. The marketing approach is ‘reconceptualised’
from the customer’s viewpoint as follows:
„„ Product becomes solutions: The customer asks the question: How can I solve my
problem?
„„ Promotion becomes information: The customer asks the question: Where can I learn
more about it?
„„ Price becomes value: The customer asks the question: What is my total sacrifice to get
to this solution?
„„ Placement becomes access: The customer asks the question: Where can I access it?

5.4.7 The marketing mix in the age of the Internet

The 1990s is generally acknowledged as a turning point in the field of information
technology (IT). This turning point is symbolised by the Internet, whose role has become
more important in society as well as in the organisation. The Internet has resulted in
a new marketing context – that is, the content of marketing activities as well as the
process of controlling these marketing activities. Online marketing involves more two-
way interaction between organisations and consumers, and this increased involvement
has changed many aspects of the marketing mix. Consequently, organisations have
also adopted an e-marketing mix (Krishnamurthy 2006: 243). See Chapter 10,
Section 10.7 for a more detailed discussion of online and social media marketing.

5.5 Marketing management
Marketing management consists of a continuous process that involves planning,
organising, leading and controlling marketing activities. These activities include
identifying opportunities and threats in the marketing environment; compiling
marketing data; selecting a specific target market; selecting the strategy of the marketing
mix (see Section 5.4); compiling a detailed marketing plan; dealing with marketing
personnel; and controlling the marketing process (Cant et al., 2009: 24).
Cohen’s (1988: 11) early definition of marketing management, although formulated
two decades ago, still includes all the elements of good marketing management. Cohen
states that ‘[m]arketing management is the analysis and planning leading to selection
of one or more market targets – the design of an integrated marketing strategy to reach

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selected market targets – and implementation and control plan strategy to achieve
corporate marketing objectives’.
Part of marketing management is the development of a marketing plan. An
organisation should have a marketing plan as well as a strategic marketing plan. A
marketing plan consists of various steps that accommodate marketing activities over
a period that can be from one week to one year. A strategic marketing plan, however,
assists in developing and implementing marketing strategies to achieve specific
marketing objectives, which in turn lead to the achievement of an organisation’s overall
objectives. The strategic marketing plan’s scope is usually over a period of three to five
years. It includes the organisation’s mission or strategic direction, its objectives and
goals, its growth strategies and the business portfolio (Paley, 1999: 248).
This section only deals with the marketing plan. Although the marketing
manager is typically responsible for the marketing plan, participants in the plan
comprise all the functions in the organisation, including finance and production.
According to Ferrell and Hartline (2008: 141), a marketing plan generally accomplishes
the following five purposes:
„„ It explains the current and future situation of the organisation.
„„ It states the anticipated outcomes so that the organisation knows what to expect.
„„ It specifies all actions that will be taken and who will be responsible for each
one.
„„ It identifies the resources needed to accomplish all planned strategies and
actions.
„„ It allows for each action to be monitored and carefully evaluated so that necessary
controls can be implemented.

5.5.1 The steps in the marketing plan

It is important to bear in mind that the five proposed steps that are followed in the
marketing plan differ among authors. According to Paley (1999: 248), a marketing
plan consists of the following five steps:

Step 1: Situation analysis

The marketing manager describes in factual and objective terms where the organisation
stands in relation to the total marketing mix, for instance the sales history of the
product, its position in the industry, evaluation of the organisation’s and competitors’
pricing policies and pricing trends, and so on (see Section 5.4).
In addition, the marketing manager also considers the organisation’s target
market, for instance its customer profile, the geographic aspects of product usage and
customer awareness. It is also important to perform an analysis of the competition
and consider its strengths and weaknesses during this step. Table 5.5 on the following
page summarises the most important aspects of the situation analysis step.

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Table 5.5 Important aspects in the situation analysis step

Current position/product A market analysis should be confirmed by means of proper

market research. Both the internal and external environments
should be analysed using a SWOT analysis (to determine
the organisation’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats)
Is the current product or service adding value to the
customer?
What is the sales history of the product?

Target market Who are the customers? (It is best to draw up a customer
profile).
Where are the customers residing?
What is their demographic profile?

Competition What similar products and/or services are being offered by

the competition?
Who are the competitors?

Step 2: Marketing opportunities

The marketing manager considers marketing opportunities such as current markets;
buyers; growth markets; product service development and innovation; and targets that
provide an opportunity for the organisation’s products and/or services.

Table 5.6 Marketing opportunities considered by the marketing manager

Present markets Where is the product currently being sold?

Buyers Who are the buyers?

Growth markets Which markets are still unexplored and can

add to the growth of the product and/or
service?

Product service development and Can the current product(s) be changed to

innovation better suit the needs of the customer?
Is there an opportunity for better service
delivery?

Step 3: Marketing objectives

During this step, the marketing manager considers the relevant factual data that was
obtained during the situation analysis step. He or she interprets their meaning and
consequences to the organisation’s product line in terms of opportunities that have
been identified. Goals are then set in terms of what the organisation wants to achieve
during the current planning period. However, goals without objectives can prove to
be a meaningless exercise. Objectives need to be attainable, measurable, continuous
(that is, they must be applicable from one planning period to another) and set so that
they are achievable within a reasonable time frame. Responsibilities should also be

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 Chapter 5: The marketing context

assigned to employees who can achieve these objectives (Ferrell & Hartline, 2008: 141).
The marketing manager also needs to generate assumptions and projections about
future conditions and trends with regard to the economy, technology and socio-
political aspects such as legislation, taxes, education, and so on.
Primary objectives include financial objectives (current and projected sales, profit
margins, market share objectives), while functional objectives are set when the careful
blend of the marketing mix is considered in detail. Table 5.7 summarises the most
important aspects of the marketing objectives step.

Table 5.7 Important aspects in the marketing objectives step

Data gathered from situation analysis Based on the market analysis and the analysis
of the competition, what objectives can be set
to improve the situation?

Opportunities identified Which new opportunities exist for the

organisation’s product and/or service?

Setting goals and objectives What exactly are the goals and objectives for
the next marketing period?

Assigning responsibilities Who in the organisation will be responsible for

achieving these objectives?

Projections for the future Which aspects might impact on the

organisation’s product and/or service in the
future?
Conduct a trend analysis

Step 4: Strategies and action plans

In this step, specific strategies are designed and implemented through specific
marketing actions that are in accordance with the objectives that have been set. Ferrell
and Hartline (2008: 323) point out that strategies and action plans are usually also
designed in line with the organisation’s mission and vision, and organisational culture.
A marketing strategy is a guideline for co-ordinating resources such as money,
people and material to achieve a set objective, for example more profit for the
organisation. Responsibilities that have been assigned to relevant staff in terms of
objectives are elaborated upon, schedules are determined and budgets are established.
Personnel who are involved, such as the sales, service and manufacturing departments,
are included in the planning exercise. Marketing strategies include product, pricing,
advertising, media and marketing communication strategies. Smith and McDonald
(2003) explain that a strong marketing strategy:
„„ defines homogeneous targets – that is, it defines targets in terms of real segments
and groups of people with similar needs
„„ contains proposals for fulfilling each market segment’s needs
„„ is unique and differs from that of the competitors
„„ maximises strengths and minimises weaknesses of the organisation

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„„ creates synergy (that is, integration, when all the pieces working together ensure
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts) in the use of internal resources
(for example manufacturing or sales) or between customers
„„ is aligned with marketing objectives
„„ anticipates the future and does not concentrate only on today’s market
„„ is properly resourced – that is, the resource implications of the strategy are
considered in careful detail
„„ makes clear the basis of competition, for example better product performance
than that of the competitor.
An organisation’s traditional marketing strategy should be fully integrated with online,
social and mobile media for maximum effectiveness (see Chapter 10, sections 10.7, 10.8
and 10.9).

Table 5.8 Important aspects in the strategy and action plans step

Objectives Marketing actions should be designed to realise all

objectives. For each marketing objective, several
marketing actions could be set

Mission, vision and Marketing actions should incorporate the mission, vision
organisational culture and culture of the organisation

Schedules Marketing actions should be scheduled according

to attainable deadlines and assigned to responsible
personnel

Budget Marketing actions should be planned and implemented

according to a budget that has been predetermined

Step 5: Financial control and budget

The marketing strategy of the marketing plan is devised according to a carefully planned
budget. Once the marketing plan has been designed, the marketing manager must decide
how to monitor and control the finances during the implementation of each marketing
action. Procedures to control and review the marketing plan and its budget must be
developed and in place even before the marketing strategy can be implemented.

Table 5.9 Important aspects in the financial control and budget step

Implementation How will the budget be implemented according to each

marketing action that has been set?
What will each marketing action cost?

Monitoring How will the expenditure of each marketing action be

monitored?

Review of the marketing plan Is it necessary to review the marketing plan? How much
will the review cost? Was the campaign effective? What
were the results? Can the budget be justified in terms of
the results?

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 Chapter 5: The marketing context

5.6 Summary
In this chapter we have discussed the history and definitions of marketing; how the
marketing discipline evolved through various marketing theories; the marketing mix;
and marketing management. We also discussed how, although the traditional four Ps
of the marketing mix are still popular, theorists increasingly add more Ps to the mix,
according to the specific needs of the target audience.

Case study
Zoom PEP Generations
Executive summary
Here’s the challenge
At the start of 2007, PEP Stores, with 1 100 outlets and the country’s biggest single-brand
retailer, was stagnant. Its numbers were solid but the brand status was unimpressive. Its
positioning was entirely linked to price in a market that increasingly demanded and could get
quality as well. Its main rivals were moving ahead. The marketing team and its agency, Zoom
Advertising, were tasked with shifting perception of the brand away from a focus on price
without losing any of its integral ‘value’ attraction. At the same time they had to immediately
spike sales and energise staff.
Here’s the solution
A new pay-off line was developed. ‘Lowest prices for everyone’ was replaced with ‘Best
prices… and more!’

Figure 5.1 PEP logo

It was essential that this new positioning was communicated in a bold, clear and broadly
appealing way. The soapie Generations was an obvious media vehicle because the audience
of the nation’s most popular daily soap opera was an almost perfect demographic match for
PEP’s target market.


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Understanding this was the result of a conventional piece of analysis and the conventional plan
would either have been to advertise during Generations or use product placement. But Zoom
wasn’t interested in thinking conventionally. They decided to effectively ‘own’ Generations for
a period of two months. This was the first time that what is known in the USA as ‘branded
entertainment’ was seen in South Africa. The iconic TV programme is set in an advertising
agency, so Zoom proposed that the development of the new PEP campaign could become
part of the storyline and that one of Generations’ most popular characters, Queen Moroka
(played by Sophie Ndaba), could be promoted from the reception desk and prove her worth
in characteristically soapie fashion by ‘winning’ the PEP account. She could even be wearing
PEP clothes as she does so and then those outfits could be available and marketed in store
the next day.
Then the marketing team suggested that viewers could SMS their pay-off line suggestions
as the campaign evolved in the storyline. The new advert could break within the show as
the culmination of the virtual campaign without any station identification to separate it from
the programming. All PEP stores could have a complete make-over for the morning after the
‘campaign launch’ on Generations. And then, why not use Queen Moroka and her on-screen
son, Prince, as ongoing brand champions?
Here are the results
The Generations campaign started in June 2007 and ran until it peaked with the launch of
the new TV advert within the Generations storyline on 26 July 2007. The stores’ new look was
in place the following day. Retail Liaison Committee (RLC) monthly figures show a sharp and
highly significant leap for PEP’s market share of the Clothing, Footwear and Textile (CFT) sector,
from 9.5% to over 9.8% between end-May and end-July 2007. This increase was preceded by
five months of consistent loss of market share.
This leap turned out to be more than a mere one-hit wonder. In the last five months of 2007,
at a time when PEP’s competitors were feeling the effects of a tightening economy, PEP’s
market share grew by a further 5% and customer numbers increased by 7.67% to an all-time
high. PEP’s annual turnover rose 20.75% and its rand per customer sales grew by R2.45 after
two previous years of decline. Queen Moroka’s slogan SMS competition received over 98 000
entries in a two-week period. In the brand perception arena, PEP scored a 4.6% increase in
its total brand relationship score in the IPSOS Markinor/Sunday Times Top Brands survey and
further qualitative research conducted at the end of 2007 found that key communication
objectives of the re-positioning project had been impressively met. The total cost of the
campaign, including Point of Sale, was R12.6 million. With an annual turnover of R8 billion
and an annual turnover growth in 2007 of R1.3 billion, the cost of the campaign represented
serious value for money. With the Generations campaign from Zoom, PEP very definitely got
‘Best price…and (much much) more’.

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RLC Stats: Pep % Market Share

CFT Only – Nov 08
12 Month Moving Average

Figure 5.2 Market share – CFT

Project title – Zoom PEP Generations

The brand
PEP is South Africa’s largest single-brand retailer, with 1 100 outlets conducting 200 million
transactions per year. There are also PEP stores in Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland,
Zambia, Mozambique, Angola and Zimbabwe. The brand history is a classic South African
retail marketing story. From its beginnings as a single-store clothing and footwear retailer in
Upington in the 1950s, the thinking that drove the company was that even if you were poor
you still had to be able to dress yourself and your family well. Renier van Rooyen opened
that original store in the Northern Cape and it was one of the first white-run establishments
to cater to the black community by providing quality, durable clothing at much-discounted
prices. He allowed black customers to see, touch and hold merchandise before buying – a
break from the established segregated practice of displaying all stock behind a counter. Van
Rooyen soon opened other stores in small towns throughout the country, trading as BG
Bazaars. By the early 1960s it became necessary to change the brand name because it was
colliding with that of OK Bazaars.
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Van Rooyen settled on a suggestion made by a travelling shoe salesman and PEP Stores was
created in 1965. The name struck a chord with Van Rooyen. It characterised the man himself, a
hard worker who always demanded tasks be done ‘with pep’. The word also had punch, and it
was easy to remember, pronounce and read in all South African languages. It promised vigour,
zest and energy, qualities that he believed characterised his staff. It wouldn’t have been called
a brandprint (unique identity) in 1965 but that’s what Van Rooyen had instinctively created.
This brandprint informs the management and marketing of PEP to this day, even though
the chain has massively expanded both its footprint and its product range. For example,
top cellular products, airtime, appliances, homeware, health, wellness, beauty products and
insurance have been added to the CFT base. Brand studies up to 2007 showed that the PEP
brand indeed carried all the characteristics which Van Rooyen had attributed to the word.
It also enjoys very strong value as a community brand – that is, engaged, involved and very
much present in the lives of ordinary South Africans. However, the PEP brand has remained
firmly anchored in price. The brand statement was clear: ‘Lowest prices for everyone’.

Campaign/strategy dates
Strategic reassessment of PEP’s brand positioning began in 2005. Brand research by Yellowwood
Brand Architects was commissioned in February 2006. The Generations campaign idea was
approved in November 2006 and the new pay-off line was approved in January 2007. The
campaign was developed over four months, culminating in its first appearance on Generations
on 19 June 2007. The new TV ad was launched within the Generations storyline on 26 July 2007
with all Point-of-Sale (POS) in-store the following day. From 26 July until 18 August 2007, the
new TV commercial ran with 25 flightings on SABC1, 2 and 3 as well as on e.tv. The initial TV
burst was supported by three insertions of press ads in the Daily Sun.

Situational analysis
In 2005, the company was in good financial health and had no debt. However, its relationship
with its customers (and its trading numbers) appeared to be reaching a plateau. The
customers had begun to experience PEP as over-familiar and predictable. Jet Stores was the
clear sector leader and it was increasing its lead. The other primary competitors were Mr Price
and Ackermans, while major food retailers like Shoprite/Checkers were also broadening their
range of offerings to include the CFT sector. In February 2006, Yellowwood Brand Architects
was commissioned to conduct a qualitative survey among more than 1 000 PEP customers.
The long-standing pay-off line, ‘Lowest prices for everyone’ was found to be out of touch with
the majority of the LSM 2–6 (Living Standard Measurement) customers. Customers weren’t
simply after the lowest prices. They wanted value for money. They wanted quality assurance.
They wanted customer service. They wanted style. In a nutshell, they wanted more. Based on
this, the brand’s positioning was shifted from the one-dimensional price position to one that
communicated a value proposition in line with PEP’s brand essence.
‘Best prices for everyone’ became ‘Best prices… and more’.

Target audiences
PEP’s target audience consists of two segments:
Family segment 1 (LSM 2–4) and Family segment 2 (LSM 5–6).
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Family segment 1 (LSM 2–4)

Household income: R500–R1 400
Rural: 65%
Race: 97% black
Age: 25–49 years
Family segment 2 (LSM 5–6)
Household income: R1 400–R4 000
Metro/city: 58%
Race: 80% black
Age: 25–49 years

Business objectives
By effectively communicating a new, broader brand offering PEP hoped to:
„„ retain and grow spend from existing customers
„„ attract new customers
„„ offer a viable brand platform for expansion into higher premium offerings
„„ re-energise staff
„„ burnish the business image of PEP.

Marketing objective
This was to effectively communicate a new, broader brand offering without compromising
the current value positioning. The solution applied must work across a range of target markets
– that is:
„„ existing customers
„„ potential customers
„„ staff
„„ the community
„„ business opinion makers.

The solution had to work on both a brand level and as an immediate sales driver.

The strategy campaign

The perfect platform
The iconic Generations (on SABC1) is South Africa’s favourite soapie. It is beamed daily into the
homes of over five million viewers and is set in the fast-paced world of an advertising agency.
The overlap between Generations’ viewers and PEP’s market, together with the glamorous
and inspirational characters and the sheer viewer numbers, made this soap opera the perfect
platform from which to launch PEP’s re-positioning. By using the virtual advertising agency
to solve PEP’s marketing problem in front of millions of viewers, PEP’s re-launch became an
integral part of the storyline – every day, for three months.
The ideal spokesperson
The popular and likeable Queen Moroka – an under-appreciated receptionist at the agency –
takes the initiative to strategise the re-positioning and is duly appointed project leader. Amidst
a flurry of personality clashes, power struggles, looming deadlines and late nights, she and her
team of creatives pull off the pitch that defines the agency.
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This was a rags-to-riches story that gripped South African viewers and offered them a rare
and realistic glimpse behind the scenes of a successful advertising campaign. Apart from
becoming a credible and much-loved spokesperson for the brand, on occasion the stylish
Queen Moroka also treated viewers to a fashion show, outfitted in PEP clothing.

Figure 5.3 Queen Moroka and scenes from Generations

In-store image transfer

Queen’s image and clothing selection were transferred to the in-store environment, and each
outfit was available and extensively promoted in every branch across the country the very
next day. These promotions were backed by point-of-sale and press advertisements in the
Daily Sun as well as by magazine advertisements in Drum, You and Huisgenoot.

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Figures 5.4 and 5.5 Point-of-Sale

Integrated viewer participation

To reinforce the real-time nature of the launch, Queen invited viewers to help the agency
choose the new slogan via an SMS competition. The response to this competition was almost
100 000 SMSs over a two-week period. Queen later announced the winners on-screen.

Figure 5.6 SMS competition

Drama–advertising interaction
However, the real coup occurred on the night that the virtual agency finally revealed the new
positioning in the form of PEP’s first-ever brand TV commercial. The actual ad was fed in as the
first ad in a commercial break and the transition from the Generations storyline to the actual
PEP commercial was seamless. The network even dropped its regular station marker for this
break to ensure a flawless and world-first drama–advertising integration.
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Figure 5.7 PEP’s brand television commercial during the showing of Generations
Real-time transformation
The night the new slogan and branding were unveiled, PEP staff across the country worked late
in order to update every branded element in- and on-store. The staff – or Dynamos, as they are
referred to – were entertained and encouraged via the in-store radio station, Feel Good FM. Not
only did South Africa experience the announcement live on TV, they were also treated to the
new look nationwide the very next day. This world-first in branded entertainment succeeded in
blurring the lines between soap opera and real life. Viewers, together with their on-screen idols,
became part of the brainstorming sessions. They worked the late nights, weighed up the options
and came up with the winning effort. They became champions of the brand. Queen’s association
with the brand was so well received that her son in the Generations storyline, Prince, also became
an ambassador for the brand. Since the beginning of 2008 he has become the recognisable face
of Student Prince, the quality schoolwear brand manufactured by PEP and sold in all PEP stores.

Figure 5.8 Student Prince 

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Queen’s celebrity status also enabled her to spearhead a PEP blanket-collection drive for
various homeless charities during the winter of 2008. This community service project was
also written into the script, where she bought blankets from PEP and distributed them to
the homeless. This was followed by an appeal to viewers to drop off blankets at PEP stores
for distribution to selected charities. PEP then matched this effort in blanket donations. By
tapping into the high production values and celebrity status of Generations, PEP managed
to run an extremely cost-effective campaign whilst targeting the majority of both
lower- and middle-income markets. Long after the launch of the new positioning, PEP’s
involvement with Generations continues. Queen Moroka continues to be an ambassador
on-screen for the brand and features prominently in PEP promotions. Her image is a
constant presence in-store and on printed advertising material. Sophie Ndaba, who plays
Queen, has had an even greater impact on the campaign because, in the words of a
leading local entertainment website, she has ‘transformed herself from a budding actress
to a prime-time diva’. She describes herself as ‘a five-star freak’ who loves luxury – and yet
she’s wearing PEP!

Figure 5.9 PEP’s blanket drive

Budget
The budget for writing PEP’s re-positioning into the Generations storyline for three months
prior to the launch, including licensing and character fees, was set at R5 million.
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Table 5.10 An example of the budget for the campaign

Production of the brand TV ad R1 million

Flighting of the brand TV ad R0.8 million

All supportive Queen campaign advertising R0.5 million

All Point-of-Sale R1.5 million

All tag-line Point-of-Sale replacement cost R3 million

Total budget R12.6 million

In addition, the value of the editorial PR surrounding the campaign was estimated at around
R5 million.

Results
High volume retail is one of the most closely monitored business sectors, with a multitude of
matrices to measure performance in a variety of ways. One of those finely tuned measuring
instruments provides exemplary evidence of the impact of the Generations campaign. The
Retail Liaison Committee (RLC) tracks market share in the Clothing, Footwear and Textile (CFT)
sector on a monthly basis.

RLC Stats: Pep % Market Share

All catagories – Nov 08
12 Month Moving Average

Figure 5.10 Market share – all categories 

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Figure 5.10 shows that from January 2007 to a low point at the end of May 2007, PEP dropped
market share from 9.69% to 9.57%. Such a seemingly minor decrease nevertheless represents
a huge amount of turnover in a high volume/low margin business. At a time when the entire
sector was feeling the pinch of four successive interest-rate hikes, union strikes and a falling
rand, the RLC/CFT graph for PEP turns sharply upwards from the end of May and by the end
of July is at 9.83%. The Generations campaign ran from 19 June and peaked at the end of
July. This is a market share figure which means sales were being gained from competitors.
It is not a reflection of growing turnover in a growing market. And, as the chart shows, that
market share growth continued more or less unabated until the end of the year.
As can be seen in Figure 5.11, which represents sales in its entirety, the performance in the
CFT sector was mirrored across the range. During the same six months, customer numbers
grew by 7.67% to an all-time high, a further indication that PEP was expanding its customer
base. Looking at the whole year, PEP’s turnover growth in 2007 was 20.7% compared to 17.4%
the previous year, which, by general consensus, provided a more optimistic and expansive
trading environment.

Figure 5.11 Number of transactions of PEP SA

They also improved their average rand sales per customer by R2.29 to R36.72 (6% increase),
having seen that number decrease in the previous two years.
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Figure 5.12 Sales per customer, PEP (SA)

One extra, hard data piece of responsiveness to the campaign is that Queen Moroka’s slogan
SMS competition received 98 100 entries over a two-week period. In addition, a campaign that
cost R12,6 million achieved PR exposure valued at R5 million. The clear correlation between
the dates of the advertising campaign and the improved performance data demonstrates that
this unique marketing solution triggered business success.
Might there possibly have been any other alternative contributory factors? The broader
economic context was essentially negative. Some other retailers in the sector also grew in late
2007 but others contracted. The turnover numbers combined with market share growth for
PEP shows that it was a true winner in the year and was not simply riding a rising tide. PEP did
not cut prices any more than usual to drive new sales. There were special drivers and offers
attached to the Generations-linked product but value rather than price was the key to the offer.
And those drivers were executed as part of the campaign. (Interestingly, previous price-driven
campaigns over the past two years had produced nothing like these results). The stores did
improve their look and feel but, again, this was part of the campaign. PEP staff – the ‘Dynamos’
– were more motivated and their improved performance was important. The campaign had
also been specifically designed to help achieve this increased motivation and performance,
not least by using a programme which many of the staff loyally watched.
It must be acknowledged that cellphones and airtime had increasingly contributed to the
company’s bottom line throughout 2007. This particular market growth was driven by some
factors external to this campaign in what is a very price-sensitive area. However, CFT remains
the major focus of the business. There were managerial decisions and efficiencies within
the group that increased profitability but, while such measures might improve margins and
would possibly influence spend per customer, they would never significantly increase feet
through the door and turnover to the extent revealed by the data. PEP management and
their marketing team were also the prime motivators of this entire process. They recognised
their brand weakness, sought informed research, promoted introspection and then boldly
championed both a new strategic approach and a risky, untried marketing solution.
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Allowing for all of that, the hard numbers in this hard-nosed business demonstrate that
Zoom’s campaign resulted in significant short-term effects on sales. They changed the retail
landscape. Achievements in changing brand perceptions are far less tangible and more
difficult to measure but the available data is also uniformly positive. The IPSOS Markinor/
Sunday Times Top Brands survey provides an annual brand relationship score. The clothing
score category was not measured in 2007 but the improvement in PEP’s brand relationship
score during 2006–2008 rose from 16,4 to 21 (a growth of 28%). This was significantly greater
than any other brand in the sector. The gap has closed on market leader Jet Stores. Qualitative
research conducted by Yellowwood Brand Architects at the end of 2007 found that key
communication objectives of the re-positioning project that had been met were:
„„ a positive change in the perceptions of PEP as a retailer of quality goods
„„ an increase in value and style associations following the Generations campaign.

Figure 5.13 Ipsos Markinor top brands

Qualitative research conducted by Yellowwood Brand Architects at the end of 2007 found that
key communication objectives of the re-positioning project that had been met were:
„„ a positive change in the perceptions of PEP as a retailer of quality goods; and
„„ an increase in value and style associations following the Generations campaign.

The Yellowwood research further concluded that, of the strategic objectives, notable areas
that saw improvement were:
„„ the maximising of PEP’s strength as a low-cost provider
„„ a successful positioning move from ‘Lowest prices’ to ‘Best prices… and more’
„„ an increase in perceptions regarding quality
„„ an increase in perceptions of ‘Simple style or stylishness’
„„ the regaining of PEP’s position as an iconic South African brand.
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Yellowwood then followed up this qualitative research with a quantitative survey, to provide
a statistically accurate reading on the subject. A sample of 500 people from seven provinces
was used. Key findings from this survey were:
„„ an increase in regular usage of the brand
„„ a decrease in brand rejection
„„ a strongly maintained association of price
„„ a sense of ‘value’ added to existing perceptions of the brand.

Figure 5.14 Yellowwood sample

Regarding the advertising successes specifically, the survey found:

„„ high levels of advertising awareness
„„ high levels of Generations link (almost 10 months after the launch)
„„ a very strong association with Queen Moroka
„„ great recall for ‘Best prices … and more’.

Figure 5.15 Yellowwood: Pay-off recall 

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.

Figure 5.16 Strategic objectives achieved

The confirmation from Yellowwood that the Generations campaign had made its mark and
achieved key objectives was reassuring but certainly came as no surprise. Everyone involved
knew it. This was one campaign that, ground-breaking as it was, felt right all along. The media
fit was perfect and the idea was big and highly original. The execution was superb and the
numbers jumped almost immediately and then sustained their strength. One can’t ask for
much more than that. And the client agrees:
Looking back it’s hard to imagine how the PEP/Generations campaign could have gone
any better. We needed to shift our brand perception away from price-only to a brand
that offers more. It was a multi-tiered approach that required us to re-look at every
aspect of the brand, paving the way for the next era in PEP’s life-cycle. We also wanted
to re-invigorate the company at every level, especially within the stores. The new
campaign developed by Marcus Banga (Marketing Director PEP) and Zoom Advertising
was brilliant. Even if you locked me in a room for a week, I couldn’t conceive such an
idea! The response from our customers was overwhelming and PEP was a HOT topic
in the communities because of the Generations connection. The campaign certainly
has changed the way people perceive PEP and has established PEP as an inspirational
brand.
George Steyn
MD PEP

The above marketing campaign won a Grand Prix and Gold at the Sunday Times Marketing
Effectiveness Awards and also at the APEX Awards in 2009.

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Figure 5.17 An example of publicity for the advertising campaign

(Case study provided by Steve Massey of Zoom Advertising, Cape Town and used with his full
permission. Issues related to copyright were addressed.)

Activities
1. Explain how different definitions of marketing are noticeable in the various stages
of the evolution of marketing.
2. Discuss how the four principles of the marketing concept are extended in the
cause-related, social marketing and relationship marketing perspectives.
3. What is the role of marketing communication in the marketing strategy?
4. What is the difference between a marketing plan and a strategic marketing plan?
5. What role should the marketing concept play in marketing management activities
and why?
6. Why is the traditional marketing mix considered by theorists to be no longer
adequate to prepare a proper marketing strategy?
7. According to you, which elements could also be added to the marketing mix?

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8. Indicate how you would market a new product of your choice by referring to the
five steps of the marketing plan. Your discussion should include an explanation of
each step and how each step relates to your new product.
9. Do you think social marketing necessitates a discussion in the context of marketing?

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6.6.1 Personal selling
Personal selling, which is sometimes confused with marketing, is only one of the
marketing communication mix elements and entails the presentation of information
on an organisation’s products or services from one individual to another or to a small
group of people (Semenik & Bamossy, 1995). Du Plessis et al. (2010: 141) define personal
selling as ‘the oral, person-to-person presentation of a product, service or idea’ (in other
words the brand) to a potential consumer where the seller tries to satisfy the consumer’s
needs and wants by offering suitable goods and services to ensure a successful sale.
Personal selling aids the communication flow between an organisation and its
consumers in two ways. Firstly, salespeople are responsible for implementing marketing
strategies; the sales force is the embodiment of the entire marketing programme.
Secondly, the responsibilities of the salespeople need to be expanded to include a wide
variety of marketing activities, such as market analysis, sales forecasting, new product
ideas, buyer behaviour analysis, communication, sales co-ordination, consumer service
and relationship building (Semenik & Bamossy, 1995). To be effective, personal selling
should be integrated with:
„„ other promotional elements
„„ other organisational functions, such as distribution and production
„„ the consumers and competitive structures in the market.

The role of personal selling is threefold:

1. Information role: Personal selling is part of a two-way process through which
information about the organisation’s product or offering needs to be communicated
to existing and potential consumers. This process, which allows for feedback,
ensures that consumers’ perceptions are correctly interpreted and understood by
management.
2. Persuasive role: It is necessary to convince consumers that their needs have been
identified and that the product or offering provides competitive benefits.
3. Relationship-building role: Salespeople have to initiate, build and develop
relationships between the organisation and its consumers, which brings the role of
the ‘relationship manager’ to the fore (Kitchen, 1999; Semenik & Bamossy, 1995).
Different types of personal selling are identified in the literature, with the most notable
being:
„„ order taking, which refers to accepting orders for merchandise or scheduling service
either in written form or verbally
„„ creative selling, which is a process of selling in which a consumer relies on the
salesperson for technical information, advice and service
„„ supportive communications, where the objective is to provide information and services
to consumers, ensure that consumers are satisfied, and to create goodwill (Semenik
& Bamossy, 1995).
In terms of an integrated approach, personal selling is designed to support the various
elements of the promotional mix, and offers several advantages and disadvantages.
These are outlined in Table 6.3 (Du Plessis et al., 2003; Du Plessis et al., 2010;
Koekemoer, 2004; Gilligan & Wilson, 2009).

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Table 6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of personal selling

Advantages Disadvantages
„„ Personal contact enhances the level of „„ Salespeople can contact only a small
consumer satisfaction number of potential consumers per day
„„ Personal selling brings the human „„ It is expensive to call on potential
element into selling, which personalises consumers in terms of cross-country
the brand of the organisation travel
„„ Salespeople can provide instant „„ Poor selling skills can do more harm
feedback on questions, supply detailed than good
explanations, and transmit complex „„ It is time consuming
information „„ Message inconsistency can occur if
„„ Salespeople can educate consumers different salespeople do not deliver
through demonstrations of the a unified message in support of the
product and/or the use of visual aids overall brand
to communicate complex and large „„ It is difficult to keep salespeople
amounts of information motivated, especially if they are not
„„ Tailored messages and communication successful or have negative experiences
can be directed at qualified „„ Unethical behaviour (in other words
prospective customers to improve the when socially accepted rules of conduct,
possibility that a sale will take place honesty and fairness are broken) can
„„ Salespeople can build more compromise the organisation and its
personalised relationships with brand
consumers

Environmental effects on personal selling

Three main environmental influences impact on personal selling. These include the
external environment, the organisational environment and the sales environment
(Du Plessis et al., 2003).
The external environment cannot be controlled, and marketers and salespeople
should adapt their strategies to accommodate such changes. External environment
variables include:
„„ Economic environment: This influences the potential demand for a product in terms of
a country’s growth rate, unemployment rate and the level of inflation.
„„ Ethical and socio-cultural environments: These set standards for ethical behaviour and
foster the rights of people through equity, fairness and impartiality.
„„ Legal-political environment: Economic goals are set within the framework of legislation
to ensure appropriate corporate behaviour and to eliminate misrepresentation of
products, for example.
„„ Natural environment: This refers to the raw materials and energy resources needed
for packaging, promotion and distribution (which should be considered in the
development of marketing and sales plans).
„„ Technological environment: Rapid technological development needs to be taken into
account in sales plans and sales activities as this can improve transportation,
communication and data processing.
The organisational environment also influences the sales process through policies, resources
and abilities. Elements of this environment include:

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„„ Goals, objectives and culture: The marketing goals and objectives should fit into the
overall goals of the organisation, and the organisational culture emanates as a
result.
„„ Training programmes: To ensure that salespeople have the skills and knowledge to
function competitively.
„„ Financial resources: These affect the sales budget and salesforce size.
„„ Production and technological capabilities: These determine whether the organisation
can develop new products, enter new markets and serve increased demand.
„„ Research and development initiatives: These serve as a basis for marketing and sales
activities.
The sales environment determines various responsibilities for the salespeople which
include the following:
„„ Retail sales: Consumers visit the organisation with the intention to buy, and
salespeople assist from behind the counters of retail outlets.
„„ Wholesale sales: The selling process takes place in an organisational environment
where wholesalers buy in bulk, add a mark-up to the products’ prices and sell them
directly to the retailers.
„„ Manufacturer sales: Manufacturers sell to wholesalers or large retailers who use their
own sales force to sell products, set up point-of-sale material, and ensure that stock
is displayed and clients are notified of new products, promotions, and so on.
„„ Service sales: An organisation sells a service.

The future of personal selling

The evolution of selling from merely selling a product (whether the consumer wants
it or not) to emphasising the value of helping consumers buy products or services that
satisfy their needs will change the future of personal selling. This is the case both in
terms of the profile of the salesperson as well as in terms of the focus on the quality
of the product or service. Koekemoer (2004) identifies the following issues that will
influence the future of personal selling:
„„ Consumers are more sophisticated, more educated and more discerning.
„„ The buying function is professionalised, as buyers attend courses and seek to
improve profits.
„„ Better sales training for salespeople enables them to better understand what buyers
want; this training also enhances their product knowledge, selling skills and their
awareness of how to build long-term relationships.
„„ Improved telecommunications is used as an effective cost-cutting and revenue-
generating selling method.
„„ Technological developments such as the Internet, social networks, cellphones and
e-mail make salespeople more accessible, and websites can provide product and
ordering information on a continuous basis.
Ethical issues are a primary area of concern with personal selling. Salespeople are the
intermediaries between the organisation and the consumer; therefore it is important
that they fulfil their promises. Other ethical issues include lying, abusing entertainment
allowances and expense accounts, offering bribes, false reporting, using vehicles for

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personal use and criticising the competition. The salespeople’s value systems, which
include integrity, are crucial to addressing these issues (Koekemoer, 2004).
In terms of IMC, it is clear that personal selling should emphasise interests that
are mutually beneficial to both parties; be stakeholder orientated with a focus on the
needs of the consumers; operate according to two-way communication; and be value
driven in that selling is based on the desire to meet the needs of the consumers, respond
to market trends and support the corporate brand of the organisation. This is only
possible through creating, building and sustaining relationships.

6.6.2 Sales management
Although salespeople must manage their own efforts, a sales management team
oversees the overall performance of the sales force. Sales management is defined as
the management process directing strategy, devising tactics and implementing policies
that fulfil the organisation’s sales, marketing and corporate objectives (Kitchen,
1999). The team is responsible for managing, controlling and motivating the sales
force so that it is correctly positioned to fulfil its role(s). The three main problems sales
managers face are the high cost of personal selling, the time involved and the changing
patterns of consumer buying. A marketing or sales manager who is responsible for the
management of the sales force should be able to make decisions on the following:
„„ Agents versus direct sales force: Should agents (manufacturer representatives) or a direct
sales force be used?
„„ Sales force structure: How should the sales force be organised to achieve the best and
fairest results?
„„ Sales force size: How many salespeople should be assigned to achieve the objectives
and address the needs of consumers?
„„ Territory deployment: How should potential sales territories be divided to facilitate
effective sales force operations (Kitchen, 1999; Pitt, 2002)?
According to Baker (2003), sales management teams need to accommodate changes in
the market conditions if they are to establish closer relationships with consumers. They
should also adapt traditional approaches to determine an appropriate sales force size,
territory deployment and sales targets so as to ensure a consumer-orientated and quality-
based strategy. Organisations therefore need to employ people with multidisciplinary
skills who are relationship oriented, financially aware, marketing trained, computer
literate and skilled in negotiation. Baker (2003) identifies the following issues that need
to be considered when addressing sales management:
„„ Recruitment and selection: To ensure that the most suitable applicants are appointed,
recruitment should comprise position analysis, person-power planning, job
description, job specification, screening and selection.
„„ Leadership and supervision: Appropriate leadership styles should be selected to ensure
that the best characteristics of the subordinates are brought to the fore.
„„ Effective management: Managers should spend time with their salespeople; they
should listen to them, take their concerns seriously and follow up the resolution
of problems.

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„„ Remuneration: Basic financial rewards and incentives can be used to motivate

salespeople. Usually a balanced approach to salary and commission as well as a
bonus or performance-related pay are used.
„„ Evaluation and control: The efficacy of sales management practices such as territory
deployment, recruitment and training should be evaluated, which can be done
through an audit of current performance.
It is clear that, in future, the crucial role of sales management will be to recruit, train,
monitor and evaluate effective sales performance to ensure long-term beneficial
relationships with consumers.

6.6.3 Sales promotion
Baker (2003: 458) defines sales promotion as ‘marketing activities usually specific to
a time period, place or consumer group, which encourage a direct response from
consumers or marketing intermediaries through the offer of additional benefits’.
Semenik and Bamossy (1995) see it as the employment of motivational methods for
the creation of direct reactions within a consumer, trade or business market. Kotler
(2000: 597) makes this distinction: ‘Where advertising offers a reason to buy, sales
promotion offers an incentive to buy’. Sales promotion impacts on IMC in many ways,
with the most notable being the impacts on purchase behaviour; distribution (having
the right product or service at the right time at the right place in the right amount);
attracting consumers and encouraging them to purchase; and the impact of packaging,
pricing and profitability.
According to Du Plessis et al. (2010: 179), three main areas for sales promotion
occur. These are outlined in Figure 6.2.

Sales promotion

Business-oriented or Consumer-oriented Sales-force-oriented

trade sales sales promotion sales promotion

Techniques to Techniques to
Techniques to pull
push products into motivate sales teams
consumers into stores
distribution channels to sell more

Figure 6.2 The three categories of sales promotion

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It is apparent that sales promotion is an action-focused marketing event, the purpose

of which is to have a direct impact on the behaviour of consumers. Emphasis is also
placed on sales promotion being viewed as an incentive, which can be developed as
either a push or a pull strategy. Push strategies refer to promotion that is directed toward
trade members in an effort to encourage them to handle products. Pull strategies are
the result of an organisation’s successful advertising and sales promotion effort that is
directed at the consumer. Consequently, sales promotion is continuously growing in
importance, mainly in terms of the following eight key factors:
1. Increased respectability (professionalism) and the growing power of retailers.
2. Increased impulse purchasing (through in-store promotions).
3. Decreasing time horizons (time pressure makes fast responses attractive, especially
through the Internet).
4. Micro-marketing approaches (more tailored and targeted communication).
5. Declining brand loyalty, increased competition and brand proliferation (caused by
greater choice; more brands which need unique differentiation; the narrowing of
perceived differences between brands; and the increased attractiveness of retailers’
own-label products – that is, ‘no name brands’).
6. Snowball effect (when organisations match their rivals’ sales promotions) and
short-term focus.
7. Affordability (promotions allow national coverage at a lower cost) and demand for
accountability (that is, pressure on marketers to justify their existence).
8. Interactivity (that is, the increase in interactive media such as the Internet and
interactive TV-online promotions) (Baker, 2003; Du Plessis et al., 2010).
The main aims of sales promotion are to attract new consumers, to stimulate repeat
purchases, to stimulate larger purchases, to increase store traffic, and to introduce a
new product or service (Semenik & Bamossy, 1995). All of these aims should be based
on the needs of the consumers. Sales promotion comprises a range of techniques that
can be used to attain cost-effective sales or marketing objectives by adding value to a
product or service for the benefit of its intermediaries or end users. These techniques,
which include price allowances, contests and deals, can be used in conjunction with
advertisements to encourage consumers to buy and resell products. The most widely
used sales promotions are coupons and discounts; others include free samples and trial
offers, rebates, premiums and competitions. Hence, sales promotions can be classified
into the following three main categories, depending on the initiator and the target of
the promotion:
1. Retailer and consumer promotions that are initiated by retailers, organisations or
manufacturers, with the consumer as the ultimate target.
2. Sales promotions that are directed towards an organisation’s own sales force as an
incentive to improve productivity.
3. Price cuts, coupons, displays and feature advertising and/or a combination of
these (Kitchen 1999).
Different types of sales promotions and objectives with examples are identified in
Table 6.4 (adapted from Kitchen, 1999).

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Table 6.4 Types, objectives and examples of sales promotion

Type Objective Example

Trade promotions To push products from „„ Guarantees on

manufacturers to retailers and to products (for example
persuade retailers to add brand a three-year guarantee
support through price reductions on a television set or
to consumers, featuring price cuts, cellphone)
in-store advertising, and products „„ Extended credit (for
displayed prominently example the Edgars red
card)

Consumer promotions To create a demand for „„ Free gifts (for example

products and therefore pull Clinique cosmetics)
them from retailers. It is used „„ Free service (for
to increase brand awareness example Vodacom)
among consumers, induce
brand switching, attract new
consumers and promote purchase
acceleration with existing
consumers

Organisation To generate added store traffic, „„ ‘Red hanger’ sales

promotions move excess product inventory, at Edgars or end-of-
enhance store image, and create season clearance sales
an overall perceived price image at Woolworths to
to attract consumers into the store attract consumers

Importance and growth of sales promotion

Sales promotion has grown dramatically, principally at the expense of the mass media,
owing to various factors that have arisen within the organisation’s uncontrollable
macro environment. These factors include the following:
„„ Balance of power has transferred from manufacturers to retailers: The main reasons for this
are the abolition of resale price maintenance, the growing retail concentration, the
spread of own-label brands and the use of optical scanning equipment.
„„ Stagnating markets and increased brand similarities: The gradual stagnation of consumer
goods markets and inflationary conditions, which has kept profits low, has also
meant that organisations have had to find alternative ways to improve shares; the
primary method has been to spend more money on sales promotions to increase
sales impact. Without genuine, significant product differentiation, consumers have
become more reliant on price or price-related incentives such as coupons, ‘pence-
off deals’, refunds, give-aways, frequent-shopper programmes, bonus packs,
warranties and competitions.
„„ Reduced advertising efficacy: Reasons for advertising’s reduced efficacy are the
dramatically higher costs of advertising, media clutter, and audience fragmentation
and receptivity (for example, there are many different target groups in South
Africa alone).

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„„ Demographic changes: Major demographic changes include the growth in the rate of
unemployment, the growing number of employed women, and the fact that the
population in most economies has grown very little.
„„ Demassification and fragmentation of markets: The erosion of television audiences and
the development of multi-set households; remote-controlled television consoles;
video recorders; teletext; computer and television games; cable and satellite
television; micro television; the World Wide Web and Internet; touch keypads;
and CD-Roms, as well as the emergence of a multiplicity of other promotional
activities, have had a direct impact on the effect of sales activities on target markets
(Kitchen, 1999).
In spite of these factors, sales promotion continues to be regarded as a low-status area,
and few organisations use it effectively.
A crucial aspect of sales promotion is the formalisation of the planning process. The
steps of sales promotions planning are:
„„ Environmental or situational analysis: Identifying problems and opportunities in
terms of brand performance, competitive performance, competitive promotional
activities, and consumer responses and needs.
„„ Setting of objectives: Addressing the identified problems, which can include trade
objectives (to encourage greater shelf space and price cuts in store) or consumer
objectives (to increase sales, build brand loyalty, and so on).
„„ Development of promotional strategies: Accomplishing the set objectives, taking into
consideration the market type, competitive conditions and the cost effectiveness
of activities.
„„ Implementation of plan and activities: Creating brand awareness and interest.
„„ Evaluation of results: Assessing whether the objectives have been met within the set
budget. This serves as the benchmark for future activities.

Sales promotion strategy

The sales promotion strategy involves activities aimed at meeting the sales promotion
objectives. Koekemoer (2004) identifies four factors that need to be considered when
developing a sales promotion strategy:
1. Product-related factors: These factors include the product type (certain types of
products lend themselves to sales promotion more than others); price (sales
promotion is either more or less effective, depending on the price); brand image
(extremes include either an exclusive or a value-oriented brand image); and the
product’s stage in its life cycle (promotional strategy differs in each stage, from the
introductory, growth and maturity stages to the decline stage).
2. Consumer-related factors: These factors include the characteristics of the target market;
the type of buying decision involved; the involvement level of the consumer (high
or low); and the psychological risk level, especially for high-involvement products
where consumers tend to minimise their exposure to economic, psychological and
performance risks.

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3. Organisation-related factors: These factors include the fact that sales promotion is
only one component of the overall marketing communication strategy, and the
resources allocated to that strategy.
4. Situation-related factors: These refer to the prominence of the organisation in its
environment and the activities of its competitors.
An effective sales promotion strategy is based on clearly defined objectives that are
integrated with the overall objectives of the organisation and other IMC activities;
target audience analysis, with clear messages to ensure maximisation of efforts; and the
implementation of well-planned activities to ensure the required results are obtained.

6.6.4 Publicity and media

Publicity, also referred to as corporate or marketing publicity, can be defined as non-
personal communication, not directly paid for, in the form of a media release to
ensure exposure of a product, services and brands to a known target audience. This
differs from public relations, which has routinely been seen as an ingredient of the
promotional mix, with the purpose of managing strategic relationships and establishing
and maintaining mutual understanding between an organisation and its internal and
external stakeholders. Media refers to all the channels used for public communication,
including broadcasting, print, out-of-home and any form of interactive communication.
Usually a media plan is developed which is used as a guideline in the media selection
process to find the most suitable medium or combination of media to communicate
messages with the most cost-effective reach and richness, in support of the corporate
brand of the organisation.
Product publicity is clearly part of media planning, and is a series of decisions to
deliver the advertising message(s) to the consumers and users of the product or brand
(Belch & Belch, 2001) with specific objectives and through marketing communication.
It can be argued that if public relations and publicity are included in the IMC
programme, product publicity relates to the functions that each element performs and
the value that they and their related activities can add to the broader IMC effort.
When the media plan is completed, media buying takes place and negotiations between
buyers, publishers, broadcasters and other representatives commences.
Du Plessis et al. (2003) present the following reasons for integrating publicity,
media and public relations functions and techniques in the IMC programme to fulfil
marketing objectives. As the result of such integration, the programme:
„„ targets and manages relationships with important stakeholders
„„ can be used to communicate with inaccessible stakeholders, such as opinion
leaders and business decision makers
„„ enables organisations to analyse emerging trends and changes in the environment
„„ enables organisations to plan for crises or to prevent them
„„ allows for more flexible communication
„„ adds credibility, especially through news stories
„„ is more cost effective if publicity is generated through public relations activities
„„ can position and create a positive corporate image of the organisation
„„ can create the basis for sales.

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The following methods can be used to obtain positive media publicity:

„„ Media releases can be distributed to the media for publication or broadcast.
„„ Media conferences or launches can be arranged to announce important events or
endeavours.
„„ Exclusive rights to information can be granted to ensure coverage.
„„ Interviews with key personnel can be conducted.
„„ Community involvement can be implemented to create awareness and recognition
of the organisation’s contribution to the well-being of a community.
Public relations (and publicity) are often also involved with corporate advertising,
sponsorships and other initiatives beyond the borders of the promotional mix, hence
the term ‘marketing public relations’, which is discussed in the next section.

6.6.5 Marketing public relations

Marketing public relations (MPR) is a new promotional discipline that comprises
specialised application techniques garnered from activities which support both
marketing and public relations. The premise in this book is that MPR, publicity,
and public relations – which are generally differentiated from one another because
they are not always used for the same purpose – can be used as alternative methods
for communication information about the organisation and products and services in
support of the overall brand. This can be seen as a separate management function.
There are various viewpoints concerning whether public relations should fall
under the marketing function, or whether it should rather be viewed alongside
advertising and promotion as part of the promotional mix. To explore the question
of whether public relations should be a new marketing discipline, it is important to
look at it from a marketing perspective. In terms of this perspective, it is suggested
that public relations be incorporated as an additional element into the promotional
mix so as to influence current or potential audiences, markets or publics, with the aim
of achieving marketing objectives.This perspective views marketing as the dominant
communication function and public relations as a promotional tool, and therefore
ignores the fact that non-marketing problems cannot be solved by marketing
management methods and techniques.
Thus, in many circumstances, public relations might be used as a corrective of and
complement to marketing. For example, public relations can play an important role in
encouraging support for an organisation’s marketing activities (that is, by keeping the
organisation’s publics informed about new product development), in explaining policy
changes (to prepare the ground for marketing activity), and in offering a either public
explanation or an apology in the case of a crisis. The complementary use of marketing
and public relations ensures synergy and facilitates the provision of information
and techniques of communication to support product and sales promotions, the
development of a social environment conducive to effective marketing, and the focus
on growth and consumption. It is therefore necessary to realise the importance of
public relations in the marketing function, and vice versa; and to understand the role
that public relations can play in the promotional mix.

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Figure 6.3 The merging fields of adverting, public relations and marketing communications
It is necessary to differentiate here between public relations and corporate public
relations (see Chapter 7), marketing public relations and product publicity. Where
public relations attempts to promote goodwill and mutual understanding between an
organisation and its internal and external stakeholders and is therefore sensitive

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to public opinion, corporate public relations (which includes public relations activities
such as crisis communication, issues management, corporate identity/image, social
responsibility and social investment, and corporate advertising, and which are discussed
in more detail in chapters 7 and 10) makes use of public relations programmes that
are designed to create or build the corporate brand through corporate positioning,
to address the needs of the different stakeholders, and to enhance the overall success
of the IMC activities. Product publicity consists of activities aimed at securing editorial
space (not paid-for space) for the specific purpose of assisting in sales goals.
MPR, however, goes beyond publicity in that it uses both public relations and
marketing techniques to build a product or service brand as well as a corporate image
and identity that reflect favourably on products through brand-positioning, brand-
image and brand-differentiation strategies. MPR therefore focuses on consumers and
prospects and is not used only to generate product publicity. In terms of an integrated
approach, it is clear that a combination of these elements enhances an organisation’s
overall strategy. However, for the purpose of this chapter it is argued that MPR tools
and techniques are also important elements of the IMC promotional mix.
Although definitions and interpretations of MPR vary widely, in this context the
term can be defined as the process of planning, executing and evaluating programmes
that encourage purchase and consumer satisfaction through credible communication
of information that is aimed at the needs, wants, concerns and interests of consumers
(Harris, 1993). In the promotional mix, MPR not only complements other marketing
efforts but also serves the unique purpose of giving a product, service or market added
credibility, exposure and newsworthiness. Figure 6.3 illustrates the concept of MPR
further.
The benefits of MPR for IMC are summarised as follows:
„„ The credible and positive relationships can be established with the consumers and
the increased market penetration that results.
„„ Effective allocation of the budget.
„„ Increased skills for handling a miscellaneous set of communication and promotion
activities.
„„ Public relations can remain a management function that is concerned with the
organisation’s relationships with its public (Kitchen, 1999; Koekemoer, 2004).
According to Kitchen (1999), the uses of MPR can be summarised as follows:
„„ Introduction or publicity of new products through launches (for example Vodacom’s
launch of the BlackBerry 6210 cellphone).
„„ The building of brand loyalty by focusing on the credibility factor and its role
in relaunching, revitalising, re-positioning, and sustaining mature and declining
brands (for example Cell-C’s revised new image).
„„ The building of consumer trust and positioning an organisation in the market
as a provider of help (for example Sasol’s social responsibility programme, and
Nedbank’s support of wildlife trusts and involvement in nature conservation).
„„ Cause-related marketing (CRM) through which the organisation makes donations
to a worthy cause on the consumer’s behalf if the consumer buys their product

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(for example ABSA’s involvement in Casual Day) (see Chapter 5 for more details
on cause-related marketing).
„„ Sports marketing through which an organisation that is involved in the sports
industry recognises and accepts its value as a promotion tool (for example Puma
sponsors the South African soccer team, Bafana Bafana).
The potential contribution of MPR to marketing practitioners is made apparent in the
literature. MPR manages a miscellaneous set of communication or promotion activities
that marketing practitioners normally neglect or lack the skill to handle. These activities,
also referred to as the ‘pencils’ of public relations, include, among others, publications,
events, news, community relations, identity media, lobbying and social investments.

6.6.6 Advertising

Advertiser

Can be a manufacturer, retailer, service organisation

and so on.

Message

Usually prepared by an advertising agency using copy,

artwork, typography, music, sound effects and so on.

Media

Includes newspapers, magazines, TV, radio, outdoor

advertising, cinema, point of purchase, direct mail, the
Internet, and so on.

Perception

Audiences decode and adopt the message depending

on their attitudes, values, experiences and so on.

Audience

Specific market audiences with geographic,

demographic and psychographic characteristics.

Figure 6.4 The advertising process

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A detailed discussion of advertising is presented in Chapter 8. Advertising has

traditionally been the most evident form of marketing communication. Baker
(2003: 419) presents a broad definition of advertising as it is relevant to this
chapter: ‘[Advertising is] promotion via an advertisement in a chosen advertising
medium, guaranteeing exposure to a general or specific target audience, in return
for an advertising rate charged by the media owner plus the cost of producing the
advertisement’. To be more specific, advertising is the planned, paid for, non-personal
presentation of information related to a product, service or idea to a multitude of
existing and prospective consumers through the mass media with the aim of creating
awareness, persuading, informing and/or reminding the target audience (Du Plessis
et al., 2003). Advertising is also referred to by some authors as an ‘awareness builder’
(Du Plessis et al., 2010).
Advertising is a creative, mass-communication process. Its objective is to
communicate an idea change or reinforce an attitude, or provide important information
about a particular product or service. The advertising process involves five steps, as
illustrated in Figure 6.4 on page 204 (Kitchen, 1999).

The creative advertising process

The creative advertising process is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. Succinctly,
creativity in advertising is defined as the ability to devise original approaches to
situations – either with new or improved solutions to problems – which will persuade
consumers to act. Although it is difficult to measure ‘creativity’, Du Plessis et al.
(2010: 66) indicate that the ultimate goal of the creative advertising process is to be
unique. This uniqueness is determined in terms of impact, the creative platform, the
message, the brand and the final communication. Du Plessis et al. (2003) identify the
following seven types of creative strategies:
1. Generic strateg y: No attempt is made to differentiate a brand from that of competitors.
2. Pre-emptive strateg y: An attempt is made to take ownership of an ordinary claim,
which obstructs competitors that wish to emphasise the same attribute.
3. Unique selling proposition strateg y: The advertiser makes an ascendancy declaration (a
major statement) based on a distinctive product attribute (or feature) by focusing
on a marked consumer (or distinct) benefit.
4. Brand image strateg y: This refers to the highlighting of the particular psychological
appeal of different products.
5. Positioning strateg y: This is a direct effort to make comparisons with competitors’
products.
6. Resonance strateg y: This refers to attempts to appeal to consumers’ pleasant memories.
7. Emotional strateg y: Advertisements play on emotions such as fear, love, disgust,
nostalgia, guilt and regret.
Advertising is physically more distant from its target audience than many other
elements of the promotional mix and is therefore unlikely to be able to secure a sale
except in the case of direct-response advertisements. Today, it is generally agreed that
advertising’s primary role is longer-term brand building, which it achieves through
building awareness, conveying information, telling a story, establishing an identity

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and creating a predisposition. While advertising has certain common aims, specific
advertising campaigns set more precise objectives. It is a broad principle that these
objectives should be established before the planning and implementation of an
advertising campaign because a campaign can be evaluated only if formal objectives
exist against which performance can be measured. For an advertising objective to be
workable and effective, it must be explicit, precise and specific, and it must be carefully
considered, calibrated and measured. These criteria dictate that each person who
has an interest in the aims of the advertising campaign must have an opportunity to
influence the content of the objective during the planning process. The objectives must
be specific and should also offer more guidance than merely to ‘increase consumer
awareness’. Any advertising objective should ideally also be able to be measured by
realistic, accessible research methods.
The important roles of advertising in terms of an IMC programme are to build
awareness, inform the target audience, overcome false impressions, generate interest,
develop consumer preferences, support the sales force, generate leads, position the
product or service, build credibility and a positive image, reassure purchasers, create
trust and remind consumers about the availability of products or services.

6.6.7 Direct marketing
The concept of direct marketing came into being in the late 15th century, when in 1452
Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable type that revolutionised printing (it was
now possible to inexpensively produce large quantities of books that were sold through
catalogues) (Koekemoer, 2004). Although Claude Hopkins, an advertising pioneer,
referred to it as ‘scientific advertising’ in 1923, the term ‘direct marketing’ was first used in
1961 when Leser Wunderman employed it as a more comprehensive description of ‘mail
orders’. Wunderman’s methods of marketing included new methods of ordering through
telephone communication, as well as magazine subscriptions and continuity publishing of
books and music series (Baker, 2003). Today, direct marketing is a sophisticated method of
distribution, mainly due to the power of the Internet, which enables organisations to trace
the purchase and payment behaviour of consumers on a one-to-one basis.
Although direct marketing has until recently been seen primarily as a method of
distribution through one (or more) medium of advertising to gain a measurable response
and/or transaction (Du Plessis et al., 2003), it has also been defined as a method of
distribution in which transactions between buyer and seller are concluded without
the intervention of a salesperson or retail outlet. A more up-to-date definition, which
incorporates database usage, views direct marketing as the process in which individual
consumers’ reactions and transactions are recorded and the data are used as a basis
for targeting, executing and measuring these actions (Baker, 2003; Koekemoer, 2004)
through an interactive marketing system using one or more advertising media. Any
organisation that uses these media to gain a measurable response and/or transaction
on or off line and maintains a consumer database is using direct marketing (Baker,
2003; Du Plessis et al., 2010).
From these definitions, it is evident that direct marketing is an interactive process
in that the marketer and the consumer engage in two-way communication. Direct

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marketing is implemented through various media, for example TV, radio, print, direct
mail, the telephone or cellphone, and the Internet. It also provides the consumer with
the opportunity to respond to the marketing effort via telephone, cellphone, social
networks, mail, fax, the Internet and personal visits. The main distinguishing feature
of direct marketing is thus its ability to develop personal relationships with consumers
and to refine those relationships over time by matching product or service benefits
with the unique needs of individual consumers through exact targeting, immediate
action, subtle strategies and measurable responses. Two primary objectives of direct
marketing are identified in the literature:
1. To establish relationships by requesting a direct and instantaneous response
from consumers in the form of a purchase, the request for information, or a data
response concerning consumers’ needs.
2. To maintain and enhance consumer relationships, irrespective of the elements of
the communication mix through which it has been established (Du Plessis et al.,
2003; Kitchen, 1999).
Direct marketing media include direct mail (personally addressed communication such
as direct-mail packages, letters, brochures, and so on); telemarketing (direct marketing
via telephone, through inbound telemarketing like FreeCall 0800, ShareCall 0860 or
MaxiCall 0861 numbers, or through outbound telemarketing via telephone to acquire
information, support sales, encourage re-orders, and so on); direct-response print
media (advertising in the media, that is, in magazines, newspapers and catalogues);
direct-response broadcast media (such as direct-response advertisements on radio and
television); and interactive media for global reach (such as the Internet; cellphones;
social networks such as Twitter, blogs, Facebook, YouTube; and mailing lists).
The following direct marketing drivers are identified in the literature:
„„ Market changes: Direct marketing came into demand as a result of changes in market
behaviour and in the efficacy of traditional media. Fragmentation of the markets
(a major trend that strengthened the growth of direct marketing) resulted from
greater independence within households and within communities. Other changes
include an increase in the number of working women who are seeking time-saving
purchasing methods (such as direct mail and telemarketing); the escalating divorce
rate, which has resulted in a number of smaller and single households (this has
affected the buying patterns of both genders – for example men are now deciding
which washing powder to buy, and more women are buying cars and pensions for
themselves); and the replacement of cash with credit cards as a means of payment.
„„ Less-effective traditional promotional tools: In recent years organisations have become
dissatisfied with the more traditional promotional tools (such as advertising). Reasons
for this include market fragmentation, which resulted in decreasing audiences for
individual media, increasing media costs, and consumers experiencing clutter
and information overload. Direct marketing is considered to have the potential to
overcome these obstacles, because the message can be personalised.
„„ More individualised consumer information: Marketers need to use more effective media
and to treat consumers as individuals; therefore they seek to acquire more detailed
and personalised information about consumers.

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„„ Marketing databases: A marketing database is defined as a ‘comprehensive set of

interrelated data that serves multiple applications and allows for timely retrieval
of information’ (Koekemoer, 2004: 373). Marketing decisions should be taken
regarding segmentation and targeting. Databases are lists from which consumers
can be targeted via direct marketing activities; these lists provide a wealth of
information about the market, its consumers and potential consumers.
„„ Data mining: This refers to the process of investigating databases to discover links
between consumer behaviour and almost any variable that might potentially be
useful. In other words, marketers need to link consumer behaviour with its cause
(Kitchen, 1999).
To address the needs and preferences of demanding and discerning consumers in a
growing service industry, in which personal relationships are a key component, direct
marketing has become an integral part of business-to-business (B2B) activities in which
sophisticated databases and new media are used to build consumer loyalty. An essential
element of direct marketing is interactive marketing, which entails direct marketing
through new media. Baker (2003) lists ten distinguishing characteristics of interactive
marketing:
1. continuous availability (that is, 24 hours a day)
2. marketing in real time
3. personalisation
4. data volumes and integration of data
5. many-to-many communication
6. comparison shopping
7. global reach
8. keeping in touch
9. low transaction costs
10. a website is more like a shop than a catalogue is.
Evidently, interactive marketing, having developed with the aid of technological
innovations, offers the marketer revolutionary challenges and opportunities.

6.6.8 Sponsorship
The rapid development of sponsorship is being documented in terms of regulatory
changes (for example those affecting alcohol and tobacco promotions); changes in
government policies (that is, its commitment to funding more discretionary activities
which has led to sponsorship becoming vital for cultural and sporting activities);
the increased clutter and cost of the mass media (resulting from advertising); and
globalisation (which has resulted in the breaking down of traditional marketing
barriers) (Kitchen, 1999; Meenaghan, 1991; Mescon & Tilson, 1987).
Sponsorship is defined as a commercial agreement from which both parties (the
sponsor and the organisation) expect a return on their investment, in both monetary and
non-monetary terms, before, during and after the sponsorship campaign (Baker, 2003).
According to Du Plessis et al. (2010: 276), sponsorship is a modifiable form of tailored
IMC and can prove extremely successful if integrated with other IMC elements in a
comprehensive campaign. It involves a marketing communication activity with financial

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(or other) support from a sponsor which includes the right to use the sponsor’s name
and logo during the sponsored activity (Koekemoer, 2004). This definition implies that
the beneficiary receives funds directly, while the sponsor’s expectations are ultimately
measured and met in terms of consumers’ behaviour. For sponsorship arrangements
to be successful, both parties need to have clearly defined and attainable outcomes
and, because of the commercial benefits, should see the sponsorship agreement as a
business arrangement. Different types of sponsorship have been identified, such as arts,
entertainment, social investment (cause-related), education and philanthropy, and sport
sponsorship. For the purpose of this book, it is necessary to consider the following main
categories of sponsorship (also see Section 6.6):
„„ Cause-related marketing (CRM): An organisation contributes to a designated cause,
and a consumer engages in revenue-producing exchanges with the organisation
(for example, a bank supports a sport trust or wildlife fund).
„„ Sport: This is one of the fastest growing and dominant benefactor sectors, mainly
because of the high level of interest and awareness of sport fans, and the fact that
sporting events can attract media both nationally and internationally (for example,
the national rugby and soccer teams have a great deal of sponsorship).
„„ Event-sponsorship: An individual, team, organisation or activity is sponsored and
linked exclusively to the sponsor’s name (for example with golf challenges or the
FIFA Soccer World Cup).
According to Koekemoer (2004), sponsorship creates a feel-good factor among
consumers. He argues that the appearance of an organisation’s brand name at, for
example, a sporting event communicates to sports fans that the organisation shares the
fans’ values and interests, and therefore provides the type of product that they should
favour. A typical example is that of Castle Lager, which has sponsored the Springbok
rugby team. In return for paying for some of the team’s expenses, Castle Lager’s name
has been embroidered on the team’s rugby jersey; thus every rugby spectator is aware
that Castle Lager supports the Springbok team and therefore is more likely to buy a
Castle Lager rather than another brand of beer.
Compared with more traditional promotional tools such as advertising, sponsorship
is a fairly new promotional tool. However, some organisations already use a sizeable
proportion of their overall promotion budget for sponsorship, and it is anticipated that
this figure will rise in the future. It is therefore important to include sponsorship in an
IMC plan. Sponsorship can extend the impact of other elements of the promotional
mix – such as advertising, sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing and
personal selling – in an environment where consumers are more receptive (for example
at sporting events) and key messages are therefore more relevant and persuasive.
Koekemoer (2004) identifies the following benefits of sponsorship:
„„ Flexibility: Sponsorship allows for niche marketing in that it fits the demographic
and psychographic requirements of consumers.
„„ Brand equity: Sponsorship provides brand exposure, builds association value or
brand exclusivity, and can alter brand personality traits through association with
a specific event.

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„„ Media exposure: Sponsorship can create a competitive advantage and extend the
value of advertising campaigns by creating an interactive, dynamic environment
for relevant and persuasive messages.
„„ Industrial labour relations: Sponsorship can enhance the image and reputation of an
organisation, increase staff morale and encourage future job expectations.
„„ Cost effectiveness: Sponsorship creates coverage and brand awareness more quickly
than traditional advertising.
„„ Global and national unification: Sporting success can facilitate access to international
markets, create long-term relationships with consumers and with the nation, and
inspire feelings of nation-wide goodwill.
„„ Challenges: Marketers require creativity and ingenuity to maximise return on
sponsorship investment.
Methods to determine whether sponsorship is successful include the following:
„„ Media audits: Sponsorship requires advertising support. The fact that news
coverage of the sponsored event is at the discretion of the media means that
sponsorship has elements in common with public relations activities. Perhaps not
surprisingly, therefore, one method of evaluation entails a straightforward analysis
of media coverage. This method assesses, as a measure of advertising efficacy, the
frequency with which an advertisement has been broadcast. However, the number
of insertions is not a measure of exposure, nor does it indicate whether any change
in behaviour has occurred. Media audits, therefore, are of limited practical use.
„„ Awareness measures: This approach recognises that any marketing communications
success depends on the communication being noticed by consumers. Awareness
has long been a popular variable in the evaluation of advertising. There are two
reasons for this. Firstly, awareness is simple and inexpensive to measure and,
secondly, awareness is regarded as highly responsive to levels of advertising
intensity. However, this method of measurement still does not reveal whether or
not there has been a change in consumers’ behaviour.
„„ Image and attitude: Image and attitude variables are popular objectives to be
measured. Researchers investigate whether consumers who are aware of an
organisation’s sponsorships view that organisation more favourably. They have
found that, while some elements have been viewed more favourably, this has not
consistently been the case.
„„ Persuasion and preference: Sponsorship is seen as a form of indirect persuasion that
works through the strength and duration of the sponsorship link, the gratitude felt
and the perceptual changes that might have occurred in response to this link. To
investigate these components of persuasion, researchers measure awareness, and
have found it to be critically dependent on the level of advertising support and the
time period that this support is present.
„„ Behavioural messages: If sponsorship is undertaken to achieve behavioural outcomes,
it would seem logical to measure the behaviours that are thought to be affected.
But such measurements are complicated. Numerous authors have acknowledged
that sales are affected by more than just advertising, sponsorship or any other
promotional variable that might have been employed in a given campaign.

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In other words, sales are a function of many variables, and the belief that sales
can be predicted on the basis of promotional activity alone ignores many other
variables that are considered to affect purchase behaviour.
The problems inherent in the use of awareness, image or behaviour as indications of
sponsorship effectiveness inevitably raise the question of whether sponsorship can be
evaluated effectively. Although it is difficult to measure the effectiveness of sponsorship,
researchers and theorists agree that it is usually beneficial to an organisation when it
uses sponsorship as part of the promotional mix. Sponsorship forms an integral part of
IMC because it can extend the impact of the other elements of the promotional mix.
The following provides an example of the use of sponsorship as an integral part of IMC.

6.6.9 The Internet
The new millennium is characterised by rapidly changing technology, especially
IT, which is having a revolutionary effect on the study and practice of IMC (as most
marketing communication media is technology based). Many of the old ways of
marketing are being questioned, and new media opportunities have developed as a
result, most notably the Internet, the World Wide Web, e-mail and mobile technology.
(These concepts are defined and discussed in detail in Chapter 10.) In this section, the
focus is on the applicability of technological developments and the Internet to IMC.

Technological developments
According to Kitchen (1999), the following points summarise the most important
emerging technological trends applicable to IMC:
„„ The growing importance of electronic commerce, especially in business-to-
business (B2B) marketing.
„„ Rapid internationalisation of small and medium-sized enterprises, made possible
through effective Internet marketing.
„„ Innovative approaches to market segmentation and the move towards one-to-one
marketing.
„„ New developments in market research and marketing information systems as a
result of electronic communications, data-mining techniques and the Internet.
„„ The changing role of marketing intermediaries, with IT facilitating direct buyer–
seller relationships.
„„ The growing importance of virtual communities and electronic networks.
„„ New approaches to marketing communications, promotion and advertising.
„„ Changing power relationships between consumer and supplier, as well as
innovative, digital approaches to consumer service and support.
„„ The impact of IT on market structure, conduct and performance.
„„ New consumer-driven approaches to product development which incorporate IT.

IMC and the Internet

The Internet has become an indispensable global marketing tool. Especially for small
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), effective online marketing (on the Internet) can
provide a low-cost ‘gateway’ to global consumers. However, the Internet provides a

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 Public

7
CHAPTER

relations
Gibson Chauke and Danie du Plessis

Public relations is a relationship-building professional activity that adds value to organisations

because it increases the willingness of markets, audiences and publics to support them
rather than to oppose their efforts.
Heath (2001)

7.1 Introduction
Public relations functions as a specific application in the broader field of organisational
communication. At times it is referred to as corporate communication or communication
management (see the discussion of these concepts in Chapter 1).
Section 7.2.2 provides a discussion of the definitions and the problems related to
these definitions of public relations. For the purpose of contextualising the term in this
book, public relations can be defined, in an adaptation of the Public Relations Institute
of South Africa (PRISA)’s definition (www.prisa.co.za), as:
[T]he management, through communication, of perceptions and strategic relationships
between an organisation and its internal and external stakeholders, aligned and
co-ordinated with other communication to contribute to the corporate brand.

All communications in an organisation have an impact on other processes and aspects,

and public relations is no exception. Every decision taken by management, and indeed
all other levels of the organisation, has communication implications, both external and
internal. Public relations represents the public face of an organisation and can have an
unparalleled impact on its credibility and image. The products or services provided by
the organisation can prosper or fail in the context provided by public relations.
The organisation’s other communication and marketing efforts, such as the
identity elements, customer relations, product presentation, pricing, packaging and
distribution, can also affect its public relations efforts. All elements of the marketing
and promotional mixes are interdependent and reinforce each other; they should be
co-ordinated and aligned to maximise the benefit for the organisation.
In this chapter the following will be discussed:
„„ the context of public relations
„„ public relations theory
„„ the functions of public relations
„„ public relations practice in business organisations, non-profit organisations and
government
„„ public relations and corporate social responsibility
„„ public relations campaign planning

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 Chapter 7: Public relations

„„ the media of public relations

„„ public relations and crises.

7.2 Public relations in context

In the first section of this chapter, public relations is contextualised with a brief
description of its historical development and a discussion of its various definitions.
Moreover, the publics of public relations and the relevance of their opinions
are explored.

7.2.1 A brief history

Public relations is considered a 20th-century phenomenon; however, it has its
roots in ancient times (Seitel, 2011). In every phase of human history, whenever
people needed to be mobilised or convinced to co-operate, the basic principles of
public relations were applied in one form or another. Seitel (2001) identifies one
such example as a farm bulletin, carved on stone tablets (from 1800 bc), that was
discovered by archaeologists in what is now Iraq, and which explains to farmers
the latest techniques of harvesting, sowing and irrigation. Furthermore, the ancient
Greeks emphasised the importance of communication and rhetoric, while Aristotle
is considered to be one of the fathers of modern persuasion.
Before Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1452, Western society relied
primarily on oral and visual media. The Reformation of the 16th century was one
of the first movements to capitalise on the printed media to distribute its messages all
over Europe. According to Lindsay (1963), Martin Luther’s 95 propositions, nailed to
the church door of Wittenberg in 1517, were published and, within two weeks, read in
Germany. In the course of a month, these propositions had been distributed throughout
Europe and changed history as a result. The history of the Reformation and the role
of people like Martin Luther and John Calvin can, in a certain sense, be interpreted
as a public relations campaign beyond compare. Both these men had relied heavily
on the printed word to spread their ideas. Reid (1982: 40) calls Luther a prolific and
productive pamphleteer, ‘firing off pamphlets like canon shot about every two weeks to
the discomfort of the enemy and with the help of friends and supporters’. The whole of
European society was transformed over a relatively short period of time by this ‘public
relations campaign’, although at the time this was not perceived to be the case.
Modern public relations practice can be traced primarily to the American
experience, and Americans such as Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays are recognised to
be pioneers of modern public relations. According to Tench and Yeomans (2009), the
emergence of the concept ‘public opinion’ is considered to be one of the factors which
gave rise to modern public relations as a tool of persuasion. In its early years, public
relations in America was mainly used by politicians and corporate organisations. A
few historical highlights are identified in Table 7.1 (Baskin & Aronoff, 1992; Cutlip,
Center & Broom, 2009; Endres, 1976; Seitel, 2001, 2011; Tench & Yeomans, 2009).

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Table 7.1 Historical highlights of public relations

Date Event

1643 The first fund-raising campaign and accompanying brochure (New England’s
First Fruits) was produced for Harvard College

1770s Samuel Adams rallied public opinion during the American Revolution
War by using symbols (the Liberty Tree) and slogans (‘Taxation without
representation is tyranny’), by staging events (such as the Boston Tea Party)
and by utilising all available media

1787–1788 Publication of The Federalist Letters by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison

and John Jay led to the ratification of the US Constitution and was described
as ‘history’s finest public relations job’

1820s–1830s Amos Kendall was responsible for the first campaigning attempts and served
as publicist for President Andrew Jackson

1870s–1900 The Industrial Revolution changed the nature of business and politics, and
introduced the era of the Press-Agentry. People like PT Barnum acted as
press agents who exploited the media for publicity

1889 Westinghouse established the first corporate press agent department

1897 The American Association of Railroads first used the term ‘public relations’

Early 1900s George Michaelis, Herbert Small and Thomas Marvin established the
Publicity Bureau in Boston. Thereafter, in the first few years of the 20th
century, other agencies in other cities were quickly established

1904 Parker and Lee opened their New York firm

1906 During a strike, Ivy Lee issued the ‘Declaration of Principles’ to all newspaper
editors in an attempt to ‘open up’ to the media on behalf of his client,
George F Baer and Associates

1912 AT&T proposed ‘a public relations bureau’

1917–1919 George Creel led the First World War Committee on Public Information

1923 Edward Bernays used the term ‘public relations council’ in the first public
relations book

1927 AT&T hired Arthur Page as the first corporate vice-president of PR

1942 The US government established the Office of War Information. This was the
forerunner of the US Information Agency

1944 The first Public Relations Journal was published by Rex Harlow

1948 The Public Relations Society of America was founded

1957 The Public Relations Institute of Southern Africa (PRISA) was established

1969 The Internet was invented; this inevitably transformed the way in which
modern public relations is practised as a result of a new ‘online’ platform for
the practice of public relations 

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 Chapter 7: Public relations

Date Event

2000s The emergence of social media like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube
increased the platforms available to public relations endeavours

2007 The Queen of England launched her own YouTube video site, thereby adding
another dimension to the way in which the Royal Family interacts with its publics

7.2.2 Defining public relations

Public relations is the process of influencing public opinion by establishing and
maintaining effective relationships between an organisation and its publics. In
influencing public opinions, public relations uses communication that is both
persuasive and purposive. A formal definition of public relations has always been
and remains the subject of constant debate among practitioners and academics.
The dynamic nature of public relations and its definition is a result of the many
approaches to public relations that exist, as well as the various changes that public
relations has undergone in its attempts to adapt to the needs and contexts of the
societies in which it is practised.
Over the years, literally hundreds of definitions for public relations have been
formulated and discarded. This can be attributed to the different perspectives that
authors and practitioners have in terms of how they define public relations. In many
instances public relations is viewed as a management function which helps build
effective relationships between an organisation and its publics. According to Cutlip
et al. (2009), public relations is about managing the organisation–public relationship.
In their definition Cutlip et al. (2009) emphasise the management function of public
relations. However, Seitel (2011) views public relations as an interpreter for both
management and the publics. According to Seitel (2011), on one hand public relations
seeks to interpret the publics’ opinions, views, concerns, and so on to management,
while on the other it seeks to interpret the policies, philosophies, strategies, decisions
and actions of management to their different stakeholder groups. This view regards
public relations as a link between management and its publics.
The Chartered Institute of Public Relations (www.cipr.co.uk), views public
relations more as something that involves reputation management. Looking after
an organisation’s reputation is considered to be the main aim of any public relations
function in an organisation. Defining public relations from this perspective implies
that it starts with what the organisation does. If an organisation engages in positive
actions, and its publics then convey positive messages about the organisation,
then the organisation is practising good public relations. Whereas the Chartered
Institute of Public Relations views public relations from a reputation-management
perspective, the International Public Relations Association (www.ipra.org) defines
public relations as having a counselling role (Cutlip et al., 2009). Public relations
departments counsel management on relevant changes in the perceptions and
opinions of the publics with the aim of facilitating the organisation’s adaptation
to such changes. From this perspective, public relations should therefore be closely
aligned to management and should have a voice in strategic planning.

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Another element that is emphasised in some definitions of public relations is its

persuasive nature, although Tench and Yeomans (2009) maintain that some authors
have ignored ‘persuasion’ in their definitions of public relations. Nevertheless, planned
and persuasive communication in public relations is undoubtedly used to influence the
opinions of publics. Persuasion is one of the earliest methods used to influence publics
to accept an organisation’s position on certain issues.
An interesting case study that has emerged during the ongoing attempt to settle on the
perfect definition is provided with PRISA and the way in which it changed and adapted
its own definition. During the 1980s and early 1990s, PRISA used this long-standing
definition for public relations: ‘Public relations is the deliberate, planned and sustained
effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between the organisation and its
publics, both internally and externally’ (Skinner & Von Essen, 1993: 8).
Variations of this definition, which remove some elements and add others, have
developed over time. In 1998, a radically new definition was created for the 21st
century, as it was realised that additions and alterations to the traditional definition
only emphasised its shortcomings. PRISA came up with the following definition
which, over the next few years, will form the basis for a dynamic definition (until such
time as a new definition is needed to suit the changing nature of, and views on, public
relations practice):
Public relations is the management, through communication, of perceptions and
strategic relationships between an organisation and its internal and external stakeholders
(www.prisa.co.za).
In this definition the emphasis is on public relations as a management function with
communication as a means to manage perceptions and strategic relationships. In
the previous definition, other concepts were emphasised. The following comparison
between the two definitions highlights the development of the practitioners’ basic
philosophy regarding how to perceive the discipline:

Table 7.2 Comparison of PRISA definitions

Old PRISA definition New PRISA definition

… deliberate, planned and sustained … management …

effort …

Comment: Initially viewing the task of public relations as a one-sided (and almost
mechanistic) effort undertaken by the organisation to intentionally spread its message,
PRISA later shifted its approach and now views public relations as fulfilling a facilitation
role.

… to establish and maintain … … through communication …

Comment: The words ‘to establish and maintain’ emphasise the active and aggressive
nature of public relations in contrast to the more neutral description of the ‘how’ (it is to be
managed), which is now ‘through communication’. 

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Old PRISA definition New PRISA definition

… mutual understanding … … perceptions and strategic relationships …

Comment: For a long time, mutual understanding was a desired outcome of any
communication – that is, to formulate a message in such a way that the recipient understood
it as closely as possible to the intended meaning. This approach put the sole responsibility to
unilaterally communicate to audiences – with the aim that these audiences then understand
exactly what the organisation’s intentions are – on the organisation and practitioner. In
the new definition the emphasis is on the management of perceptions and strategic
relationships, which implies that the organisation recognises its dependence on these. There
is a shift in the power relationship; the organisation depends on its stakeholders and their
perceptions, and on its relationships with them.

… between the organisation and its … between an organisation and its

publics … stakeholders …

Comment: The concept ‘publics’ implies passive recipients, whereas ‘stakeholders’ are active,
interdependent entities that have a specific relationship with the organisation.

It is interesting to track the evolution of these definitions of public relations. The

discussion of public relations theory in Section 7.3 reflects the changes in the way that
public relations practice is viewed in dynamic times and environments.

7.2.3 Publics (stakeholders) and their opinions

The first word in the concept of public relations is the word ‘public’. Taking the latest
definition provided by PRISA, the word refers to the other party (the stakeholders)
in the relationship (and their perceptions) which an organisation must take into
account. According to Guth and Marsh (2000: 88–89), a public is any ‘group whose
members have a common interest or common values in a particular situation’. Publics
are also generally defined by the type of relationship they have with an organisation.
Traditionally, publics in public relations can be grouped into these categories:
„„ traditional and non-traditional publics
„„ latent, aware and active publics
„„ intervening publics
„„ primary and secondary publics
„„ internal and external publics
„„ domestic and international publics
„„ proponents, opponents and the uncommitted.

Contemporary views are highly critical of the traditional meaning of the term ‘public’,
which implies a passive audience to whom a message from the organisation is directed
(an asymmetrical approach to public relations). The purpose of public relations was
seen as communicating in such a way as to ensure the compliance of relevant publics
with an organisation’s planning. A popular way of looking at publics today is as
‘stakeholders’ with whom the organisation enjoys a certain relationship – that is, a two-
way, interdependent and reciprocal bond between the two parties. According to Seitel
(2011), new technology has created greater interdependence between organisations and

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their publics. Not only are publics connected to the organisation but they have become
connected to each other. The challenge for public relations practitioners is to manage
and monitor not only a web of interrelationships between the organisation and its
various publics but also the extensive webs of interrelationships that exist among their
publics. It is now common for publics or stakeholder groups to organise themselves
around certain issues without the involvement of the organisation concerned.
Steyn and Puth (2000) identify two strategic issues relevant to the management
of stakeholders: firstly, the need to identify the stakeholders and, secondly, the need
to determine the nature and size of their interests. Once the stakeholders have been
identified, research is needed to determine the type of influence they can exert. The
complex nature of stakeholder management necessitates exploring the stakeholders’
characteristics, aspirations, limitations, attitudes, perceptions, hopes and fears.
Guth and Marsh (2000) believe that organisations need answers to the following questions
about stakeholder groups in order to successfully manage relationships with them:
„„ How much can the stakeholder group influence the organisation’s ability to
achieve its goals?
„„ What is the stakeholder group’s stake or value in its relationship with the
organisation?
„„ Who are the opinion leaders and decision makers in the stakeholder group?
„„ What is the demographic and psychographic profile of the stakeholder group?
„„ What are the stakeholder group’s opinions and perceptions of the organisation?

In line with the latest definition given by PRISA and modern thinking about the
processes involved in the formation of attitudes and the establishment, maintenance
and adaptation of behaviour, the concept ‘public opinion’ has also been replaced with
the idea that stakeholders not only have opinions but that their perceptions of and
relationship with an organisation must be carefully managed. As is evident above,
research has become the key word in understanding stakeholders and their perceptions.

7.3 Public relations theory

A great deal of what public relations entails, how it is practised and what is expected
from it depends on the theoretical starting points that are selected. Authors such as
McCoy and Hargie (2003) argue convincingly that a thorough understanding of
theory can lead to the setting of realistic objectives for public relations and thus enable
practitioners to evaluate their success according to relevant and appropriate criteria.
As indicated above, public relations is a fairly recent topic in the social sciences
and, as such, theorists and practitioners have shown their intent to develop a body
of knowledge that confirms public relations as a distinct and growing discipline.
Nonetheless, its theories are based on and share many commonalities (such as
fundamental theoretical paradigms and research methodologies) with other disciplines
in the social sciences (for example psychology, sociology and anthropology).
Development of theory in public relations was for a long time based on the practice
of public relations, which was at times limited to finding answers to questions such
as: ‘How to do it?’ and ‘How to do it better?’ (see Du Plessis, 2000: 21). Botan (1989)
claims that public relations has not yet fully succeeded in addressing the development

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of theory or the relationship of the practice of public relations to research and theory
development. According to Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman and Toth (2009), no one
theory can explain all the practices of public relations.
In the following section, a variety of approaches and theories of public relations
are discussed (though it is beyond the scope of this book to cover all of them). The
discussion will demonstrate the diversity of the approaches and the difficulties that
occur when attempting to explain the practice within a theoretical framework.
However, theorising about public relations is the only way in which to develop the
discipline as a social science and to build up a body of knowledge that will bring
cohesion and consistency to the profession.

7.3.1 Grunig and Hunt models

Grunig and Hunt (1984) facilitated a greater understanding of public relations by
distinguishing between four models. Although these models developed historically, all
of them continue to be practised in one form or another. They are:
„„ Press agentry/publicity model: This model is characterised by one-way communication
that emphasises the importance of persuasion and a philosophy of publishing
so as to defeat the opposition at all costs. Communication is often incomplete,
distorted or only partially true, and the objective is to ‘tell’ rather than to ‘listen’.
Historically, the press agents and people such as PT Barnum are associated with
this model. The model represents the era and practices from the mid-19th century
to the 1900s. Many public relations practitioners today still see their primary role
as one of generating publicity, although they attempt to do so within a more ethical
framework.
„„ Public information model: The primary objective in this model is the dissemination
of information, still from a one-way perspective of communication. The emphasis
is less on a persuasive approach to public relations although there is a belief that
providing as much information as possible will serve the source’s best interests.
Ivy Lee is the historical figure associated with this model, which characterised the
period from 1900 to just prior to World War II. Today, this model is still present
in some public relations practice in government, educational institutions and non-
profit organisations (Lattimore et al., 2009).
„„ Two-way asymmetrical model: In this model, persuasion that is based on scientific
principles is the purpose of communication. Formative research is done to establish
the current situation of the public(s) and their attitudes, views and behaviour,
and a programme of communication is developed to either maintain or change
the situation. Communication is driven by the formulation of objectives, which
provide the criteria for regular evaluation of progress to establish whether these
objectives have been reached. Although communication and public relations
are still in the service of the organisation, the former is two way, although it has
imbalanced effects. Feedback exists in the form of understanding the ‘receivers’
in order to maintain or change their attitudes, perceptions and behaviour, and
to enable the communicator to effectively target them. Although this model has
historically been associated with the period during and after World War II and

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the Cold War era, many aspects of it remain in public relations practice today.
Organisations expect public relations practitioners to contribute in a tangible
manner towards the reaching of certain targets and to justify the existence of
public relations by producing results that can be converted into rand and cents.
The organisation’s best interests are often still the most important objective of such
public relations efforts.
„„ Two-way symmetrical model: The purpose of this model is to achieve mutual
understanding between an organisation and its publics. Communication is two way,
with balanced effects. According to this model, public relations practitioners serve
as mediators between an organisation and its publics. Formative research is used
to learn how the public perceives an organisation and to determine the impact of
an organisation’s actions on the relevant public(s). Evaluative measurement is also
applied to determine to what extent a public relations intervention has impacted
on the understanding that an audience has of the organisation and, conversely,
management’s understanding of the publics. Educators and professional leaders in
public relations practice were the main influences in this model during the 1960s
and 1970s.

7.3.2 A process approach

A process approach assumes that public relations involves a series of routine or accepted
procedures in an ongoing and systematic process that is not limited to a specific time
frame. A prime example of such a process-oriented approach is the four-step process
approach that Cutlip and Center (1952) developed during the 1950s and 1960s. In
South Africa, H P Fourie developed the communication-by-objectives approach,
which systematically and analytically takes the practitioner through each step of a
public relations campaign.
Cutlip, Center, Broom and Du Plessis (2002: 98) describe public relations as a
‘scientifically managed part of an organisation’s problem-solving and change processes’.
The following four-step problem-solving process is then applied:
„„ Step 1 – Defining the problem (or opportunity): In this step, the attitudes, opinions,
behaviours and knowledge of those concerned with and affected by the acts and
policies of an organisation are elicited and monitored. By determining the relevant
facts, research and fact finding provides the foundation for all the other steps.
„„ Step 2 – Planning and programming: Information gathered in the first step is used
to make decisions about the publics, objectives and procedures; to identify
relevant publics and to plan the strategies that need to be used in the campaign or
programme.
„„ Step 3 – Taking action and communicating: This step involves implementing the
programme of action and communication which will achieve the specific objectives
that should enable each of the publics to accomplish the goal.
„„ Step 4 – Evaluating: In this final step, the preparation, implementation and results
of the programme are assessed. Programmes are either continued or terminated
in light of whether or not objectives have been achieved.

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7.3.3 A systems approach

Although Cutlip and Center’s four-step process approach was later seen, and treated,
as a different approach, it originally developed from a systems perspective on public
relations. In 1952, when they produced the first edition of their well-known book they
were the first authors to utilise a social systems perspective in this context (Cutlip
et al., 2002). They were also the first to use the concept of ecology in public relations,
which until then had been used only in the life sciences. This helped students and
practitioners to understand that public relations deals with issues of interdependence
between people and organisations and their environments. They emphasised that
organisations need to adjust and adapt to changes in their environments. Cutlip et al.
(2002: 2) believe that:
organisations depend upon their environments for everything they need to survive. If they
want to survive and prosper, all organisations must (1) accept the public responsibility
imposed by an increasingly interdependent society, (2) communicate (despite multiplying
barriers) with publics that are often distant and diverse, and (3) achieve integration into
the communities that they were created to serve. In short, the purpose of public relations
is to help organisations to adjust and adapt to their environments.

The systems approach is widely used and multidisciplinary. In its most basic form,
the approach emphasises the importance of maintaining the equilibrium and
interdependence of the various systems and subsystems in society. However, sophisticated
and highly technical views on this approach developed over time, describing the
intricate nature of the relationships between different parts of a system and the impact
the approach has on these. In an organisational context, specifically with regard to
the public relations of an organisation, the system can be seen as involving mutually
dependent relationships that are established and maintained between organisations
and their stakeholders. An organisation can either be a closed or an open system.
A closed system does not allow any flow of information between the organisation and
its environment, whereas in the open system there is constant exchange of information
between the organisation and its environment or stakeholders. Ideally, public relations
should operate in an open system where it links the organisation and its stakeholders.
According to Cutlip et al. (2009), public relations should be an adaptive subsystem
which is sensitive to its environment. The systems approach is discussed in detail in
Chapter 4.

7.3.4 Relationship management theory

In the discussion of definitions of public relations, PRISA’s latest definition highlights
the management of relationships as the core task of public relations. Although this
theory probably fits into a systems approach to public relations, it is seen by some as a
general theory of public relations.
Traditionally, the literature of public relations focused on the use of communication
as a means of manipulation. In the 1980s, in their depiction of the four models of
public relations, Grunig and Hunt (1984) emphasised the necessity of recognising
that both organisations and publics need to benefit from their relationship (that is, the

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symmetrical approach). Thus, they planted the seed for a relational perspective on public
relations.
Ledingham (2003) proposes that relationship management theory be accepted as
a general theory of public relations. He believes that the appropriate domain of public
relations is the relationship and that the theory can serve as an organising concept
for public relations scholarship, teaching and practice. He suggests that organisation–
public relationships should rely not only on communication but also on organisational
and public behaviours (Ledingham, 2003). Based on his research, Ledingham (2003)
offers the following axioms of organisation–public relationships. The relationships:
„„ are transactional
„„ are dynamic; they change over time
„„ are goal oriented
„„ have antecedents and consequences and can be analysed in terms of relationship
quality, maintenance strategies, relationship type and actors in the relationship
„„ are driven by the perceived needs and wants of interacting organisations and
publics
„„ are dependent on the degree to which expectations are met for their continuance
(that is, the expectations being expressed in interactions between organisations
and publics)
„„ involve communication (but communication is not the sole instrument of
relationship building)
„„ are affected by relational history, the nature of the transaction, the frequency of
exchange, and reciprocity
„„ can be described by type (personal, professional, community, symbolic and
behavioural), independent of their perceptions
„„ form the correct focus of the domain of public relations rather than communication
„„ cannot be sustained by communication alone – that is, in the absence of supportive
organisational behaviour
„„ are effectively managed in a way that supports mutual understanding and benefit.

7.3.5 A values-driven approach

Guth and Marsh (2000) propose a values-driven approach to public relations, with
the basic point of departure being that an organisation’s core values should govern the
public relations process from inception to conclusion. They compare such an approach
to the process involved when planning a holiday:
As you begin your research where to go, you first identify your values: fun, companionship,
safety, price, and so forth. Those core values establish the framework within which you’ll
gather research, plan your trip, go on your trip, and finally, evaluate its success. … To
illustrate what we mean: If an organization says it values the opinions of its employees, it
would not make any sense for that organization to conduct research that doesn’t take into
account the employees’ opinions. And it would make even less sense to launch a plan that,
in the pursuit of some other short-term gain, winds up showing that the organization is
insensitive to employee concerns (Guth & Marsh, 2000: 15).

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These authors propose an adapted form of the four-step process approach, incorporating
the concept of values (and ethics) as a core element in each step (Guth & Marsh, 2000).
Their alternative definition for values-driven public relations reads as follows:
Public relations is the values-driven management of relationships between an organisation
and the publics that can affect its success. Values-driven public relations is the process
of uncovering not just where an organisation wishes to go but also the principles the
organisation will observe in getting there. … Values-driven public relations also means
being accountable for adherence to those values when we evaluate our actions (Guth &
Marsh, 2000: 17).

In general, the public holds public and private organisations (socially) accountable for
what they are doing. An example of the influence of public activism is the environmental
issue. Producers of wood are not allowed to sell wood or wooden products in Europe,
Asia or the Americas without a certificate, issued by an independent international
body, that certifies that the wood was produced in an ethical way – that is, the producer
has to meet specific criteria related to where and how the wood is planted, maintained
and cut down. In another example, expensive Persian carpets dropped in value when
international society became aware that forced child labour was used to produce these.
Now, in many countries, only ethically produced carpets may be sold.
The May 2004 issue of the magazine Insig features an article that describes the
movement from capitalism to social responsibility that has been made by many huge
corporations (Brynard, 2003). In an era of transparency, globalisation, the rise of
activist groups such as Greenpeace, consumer activism and the development of social
consciousness in society in general, few organisations can afford to be seen to be
ignorant of these issues. A new set of business ethics has developed, resulting in the
so-called triple bottom line, against which organisations are measured. This triple
bottom line refers to social responsibility, environmentally friendly business practices
and, less importantly, profits.
The task of public relations practitioners is to ensure that these values are the
driving forces of an organisation and its communication practices.

7.3.6 A postmodern critique

A postmodern perspective on public relations is not so much an alternative paradigm
as one which views society in general differently, and in the case of public relations in
particular provides an alternative understanding of practitioners’ experiences, as well
as a critique on some of the modernist expectations of public relations. Holtzhausen
(2002: 29) formulates the position as follows:
It might help practitioners to understand the many contradictions in public relations
and might explain why their well-intended practices do not always come up with the
expected results.

Furthermore, Holtzhausen (2000) links modern public relations practice to politics

(in the broad sense) and examines, from a postmodern viewpoint, the power of public
relations practice as an active agent in society. Various authors explore the implications
of modern public relations practice for society (Duffy, 2000; Holtzhausen, 2002;

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Holtzhausen & Voto, 2002; Mickey, 1997). The following public relations issues arise
from a critical postmodern perspective:
„„ Public relations as a management function: The emphasis in traditional public relations
activities is on planning, classifying and regulating experience systematically. The
basic assumption is that communication from an organisation must be controlled
in service of that organisation. Public relations activities therefore aim to exert
power and control over the organisational environment while excluding any
viewpoints that might differ.
„„ Public relations as a power function: Holtzhausen (2002: 33) distinguishes between
management and managerialism, where the latter implies ‘the co-option of workers
by management into suppressive workplace practices that benefit managers more
than workers and that can lead to the formation of a new class’. Public relations
practitioners can become agents who, through the use of organisational media
and the public relations media function, legitimise the discourse of the powerful
by presenting the perspectives and actions of corporate managers as objective
knowledge. In this way, public relations practitioners are ‘agents who create
societal meta-narratives that are transmitted through the rules, practices and
norms of modernist organisations’ (Holtzhausen, 2002: 33). The practitioners
establish corporate ideologies and create meaning in the service of power.
„„ Public relations and representation: Modern public relations create the hyper-reality
of those they represent through image contests and sign struggles. Unrealistic
images are actively created to establish a demand for products or services.
The real intentions of wealth creation for the few are obscured by meaningless
communication that denies external groups useful information.
„„ Public relations and the issue of symmetry: Postmodern critique questions the notion
of a two-way, symmetrical model of public relations. For example, Duffy (2000)
wrote an article entitled: ‘There’s no two-way symmetric about it: a postmodern
examination of public relations text books’, in which she criticises the illusion that
modern public relations seek consensus and intend to balance the scales between
organisations and their publics. The organisation’s interests (and profitability) are
at stake, and the public relations practitioner is hired to serve these (Duffy, 2000).
However, postmodernists not only criticise but also propose an alternative for the
practice of public relations – that is, the postmodern public relations practitioner as
organisational activist. The postmodern perspective sees change as a positive result of the
ongoing struggle for power, especially that which has occurred between entrenched
dominant groups and those on the outside wanting to be heard. Holtzhausen (2002)
suggests that postmodern public relations practitioners should become activists and
should serve as conscience and change agents for organisations – that is, through
facilitating articulation of dissenting voices.

7.4 Public relations functions

The purpose of public relations can be found in the definitions of public relations. For
the purposes of this book, PRISA’s definition is used (and is worth repeating):

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Public relations is the management, through communication, of perceptions and strategic

relationships between an organisation and its internal and external stakeholders.

The ultimate aim of public relations is to manage perceptions and relationships

between an organisation and its stakeholders. In order for this to be achieved, Lubbe
(2000) identifies three functions that public relations must fulfil:
1. Interpretation of the needs, attitudes and opinions of people, groups or organisations
(stakeholders).
2. Communication of these to relevant stakeholders.
3. Management of this process of communication to change or maintain needs,
attitudes and opinions.

7.4.1 Public relations as communication and interpretation

Public relations’ interpretive function involves the responsibility of understanding and
meeting the needs of the organisation, stakeholders and society in general. This implies
translating the organisation (that is, its policies, values, aims, image and actions) to its
stakeholders and, in turn, understanding and communicating the stakeholders’ needs,
expectations, motives and values to the organisation.
An important tool available to the public relations practitioner if he or she is to fulfil
this interpretive function is research. Research is essential to the management of the
adjustments, adaptations and responses of the organisation to changing environments.
Almost all process models of public relations have research as the first step (and the last
step) of planning a public relations programme or campaign. Cutlip and Center’s four-
step model and the Research, Adaptation, Communication and Evaluation (RACE)
formula provide examples of this emphasis on the imperative of research.
Dozier (1995) believes that public relations managers are in a good position to
provide an interpretive function, as they have wide contact with the external and internal
environment, as well as access to research and research findings. Moreover, they know
what management and other stakeholders are thinking, have first-hand knowledge
of the reasons for management’s decisions, and understand the rationale behind the
organisation’s policies. Grunig and Hunt (1984) describe this role as a boundary role.
Seitel (2001) suggests that public relations practitioners should form an impartial
outlook. They should explain stakeholders’ views to management, whether or not it
is what the latter wants to hear, and understand the impact that an organisation’s
decisions and actions have on its stakeholders (Seitel, 2001).
Organisations that practise public relations as an interpretive function are able to
do so proactively, anticipating changes within the environment, adjusting their policies
and procedures, and actively influencing the environment – as well as allowing the
environment to influence their actions and decisions.
Furthermore, communication is more than simply a technique that the public
relations practitioner applies as a tool of the trade. The PRISA definition can be
interpreted as reducing communication to the status of a tool by describing it as
‘management through communication, of perceptions and strategic relationships’.
On the contrary, communication is the foundation and essence of the public relations
practitioner’s function.

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Historically the objective of public relations was to inform the public, and this resulted
in the publicity model of public relations. However, communication entails more
than simply providing information; nowadays it is seen as a transaction between
participants during which a relationship develops (Steinberg, 2000). This means that
people who are communicating are held to be mutually responsible for the outcome
of the communication encounter in which they transmit information, create meaning
and elicit responses. The quality of the relationship that develops depends on the
efficacy of the communication.
It can therefore be stated that the communication function of public relations is well
managed when transactional communication occurs between an organisation and its
stakeholders. The efficacy of public relations practitioners depends on their ability to
communicate and to persuade and allow others to do the same. As Seitel (2001: 156)
argues: ‘Just as the controller is expected to be an adept accountant, and the legal
counsel is expected to be an accomplished lawyer, the public relations professional
must be the best communicator in the organisation’.

7.4.2 Managing communication of the organisation

According to Grunig (1992), public relations as communication management extends
beyond being a mere communication technique and a practice that involves specialised
public relations programmes, such as media relations or publicity programmes. Public
relations as a management function also entails the overall planning (based on research)
and execution of public relations management programmes which are specifically
focused on the evaluation of an organisation’s stakeholders and the optimisation of its
relationship with them.
Like other management processes, communication management is concerned
with clear strategies and objectives that develop specific tactics, each with a budget,
timetable and allocation of resources.
The broad environment in which the organisation finds itself will dictate its
objectives, which in turn will inform the communication aims and strategies for
reaching those objectives (Seitel, 2001). Lubbe (2000) sees this management function
as follows:
„„ It initiates research to obtain insight into the environment and stakeholder
perceptions, attitudes, values, expectations and needs, as well as to establish how
the organisation can meet these. Research on internal and external stakeholders
can also contribute to identifying barriers that prevent optimal communication
from taking place.
„„ It plans communication programmes or activities to change or shape the attitudes
and perceptions of the stakeholders and the organisation itself.
„„ It uses the organisation’s resources to implement programmes.
„„ It evaluates communication programmes to determine whether they have achieved
the desired effects.
The primary objectives of communication management are to manage optimal
relationships with stakeholders and to minimise conflict with stakeholders and activist
groups. Organisations should not wait until issues surface before dealing with them;

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communication managers should be able to predict problems and proactively manage

the organisation’s response to them. This approach can give the organisation a
competitive advantage in dealing with problems before they become crises.
Communication management also entails knowing when, what and how to
communicate. This can be done only by monitoring the environment and the relevant
stakeholders to establish perceptions of the organisation and how best to communicate
in light of these.

7.4.3 The strategic role of public relations

Steyn (2000) maintains that the public relations strategist should be involved at the top
management level, providing strategic information on the stakeholder environment
through the use of research techniques such as environmental scanning, issues
identification and analysis. The practitioner should:
„„ identify the organisation’s strategic stakeholders and their concerns
„„ determine the consequences of organisational decisions and behaviour on
stakeholders; and
„„ identify and monitor issues around which publics or activists converge before
these cause intense difficulty (and anticipate their consequences for organisational
strategies and policies).
The strategist should then provide this information to top management, who should,
in turn, carefully consider and use it. Steyn (2000) identifies the following activities as
constituting the role of a public relations strategist:
„„ Doing environmental scanning in the macro, task and micro environments.
„„ Analysing the organisation’s links to key stakeholders and drawing up a stakeholder
map.
„„ Assisting in the identification of key strategic issues through issues monitoring and
analysis.
„„ Identifying the public and activist groups that emerge in response to issues.
„„ Analysing the consequences of corporate behaviour and external events, trends
and issues on strategic stakeholders and publics.
„„ Determining stakeholder concerns, sensitivities, feelings and attitudes towards the
organisation.
„„ Forecasting the behaviour of stakeholders, publics and activists, and the potential
consequences of these for the organisation.
„„ Feeding this strategic intelligence into the organisation’s strategic thinking and
planning process for the purpose of strategic decision making, thereby contributing
to the organisation’s strategy formulation.

7.5 Public relations practice in business organisations, government and

non-profit organisations
Public relations is practised in different sectors of society and therefore the roles
and functions it plays in these sectors differ accordingly. The following section gives
a brief overview of public relations in three sectors, namely business organisations,
government and non-profit organisations.

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7.5.1 Public relations in business organisations

Public relations in a business organisation aims to develop mutual understanding
between the organisation and its publics. Over the years, the environments in which
business organisations operate have become more and more complex. Business
organisations have to deal with issues like economic recessions, the exposure of corrupt
practices, misconduct by management, terrorism threats, environmental issues, and
increased demand for accountability from the public, among others (Cutlip et al.,
2009). These external pressures have increased the importance of public relations and
their role in restoring public trust in business organisations. Public relations help to
interpret the environment for the organisation while simultaneously communicating
the organisation’s position on various issues to the organisation’s publics. The role of
public relations is therefore to counsel management and act as a link with the various
publics. This important role attempts to ensure that business organisations adapt to the
ever-changing external environment and that the publics understand the policies and
management philosophies and actions of an organisation.
The primary motive of business organisations is profit, and public relations
contributes to this profit motive by creating and maintaining relationships with
various key publics and stakeholder groups. According to Lattimore et al. (2009), public
relations in business organisations can be in the form of media relations, employee
relations, community relations, consumer relations, financial relations, marketing
communication and public affairs. Good relations with all the various publics are
important to the attainment of profit in a business organisation.
However, not only do business organisations need to have successful relationships
with publics who are important to their attainment of profits but they also need to
maintain a mutual understanding with their social environment. Corporate social
responsibility and corporate philanthropy are some of the activities in which public
relations engage to enhance an organisation’s corporate or brand image, and foster its
good reputation and credibility in the social environment. Corporate social investment
is one of the important functions of public relations which illustrates organisations’
accountability and obligation towards the society in which they operate. A detailed
discussion on corporate social responsibility is provided in Section 7.6.
The main role of public relations in business organisations can be summarised as
one that is intended to create and maintain co-operative relationships with publics
who are key to the organisation’s goal of sales and profits.

7.5.2 Public relations in government

Public relations in government, as in corporate organisations, seeks to establish and
maintain mutual understanding between government and citizens. However, unlike
public relations in business organisations, public relations in government is commonly
referred to as public affairs, public communication or public information. The main
role of government public relations is to communicate or inform citizens about
government policies and actions. Public relations therefore play an advocacy role
on behalf of government policymakers by seeking citizens’ support for government
programmes and actions (Cutlip et al., 2009). Public relations also provides accessible

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channels through which citizens can communicate their demands and requirements to
government. The challenge of public relations in government is to make government
more responsive to citizens’ wishes and also to understand and affect public opinion
(Lattimore et al., 2009).
In South Africa, there are three government levels, namely national, provincial
and local government. In all three levels, a public relations function exists to serve both
government and citizens. Related to the public relations function is the Government
Communications and Information System (GCIS), which is the government’s
centralised communication function. The GCIS provides communication services,
support and advice to government, the media/press, the public and the international
community (www.gcis.gov.za). Cutlip et al. (2009) list the following as the main purposes
of public relations in government:
„„ informing constituencies about the activities of a government agency
„„ fostering citizen support for established policies and programmes
„„ serving as the public’s advocate to government administrators
„„ managing information internally
„„ facilitating media relations
„„ building community and the nation.

7.5.3 Public relations in non-profit organisations

Non-profit organisations are becoming more important and prevalent in today’s
society. Unlike business organisations, non-profit organisations do not have a profit
motive attached to the products and services they offer. They might offer services that
either government or the private sector sometimes fail to do, often filling the gap left
by government and private sector in the provision of social services. Examples of non-
profit organisations are cultural organisations, hospitals, schools and social welfare
organisations.
Given the unique environment in which non-profit organisations operate, public
relations plays a very important role in the functioning of non-profit organisations. The
environment of non-profit organisations is usually characterised by limited resources,
increased competition in the non-profit sector, increased demand for social services,
and an ever-increasing demand for accountability in terms of government grants and
financial and material donations that have been received from private organisations
and individuals. Non-profit organisations face the constant challenge to come up with
fund-raising initiatives to support their operations.
Public relations in non-profit organisations functions so as to manage some
of the challenges mentioned above. Non-profit organisations have multitude and
sometimes complex publics who have different public relations needs (Lattimore et al.,
2009). These publics include government, the private sector, the board of directors,
volunteers, and so on. The function of public relations is to manage and satisfy all these
publics, therefore building and maintaining quality relationships between non-profit
organisations and various publics is one of the primary roles of public relations.
Another important function of public relations is its involvement in fund-raising
efforts necessary for the continued survival of non-profit organisations. Public relations

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helps organise fund-raising campaigns through a managed process of active and

open communication between a non-profit organisation and its donor community.
This managed communication process invariably involves constant feedback to the
donor community, which enhances the credibility and accountability of non-profit
organisations.
Many non-profit organisations depend very much on volunteerism to support
their activities. Volunteers are therefore a very important public of any non-profit
organisation. Public relations assists in communicating the needs, benefits and value of
volunteerism to these volunteers (Lattimore et al., 2009). Maintaining and nourishing
relations with volunteers is an important role of any typical public relations practitioner
in a non-profit organisation.
According to Seitel (2011), typical public relations departments do not have
many resources at their deposal and as a result public relations practitioners must be
masters of many functions. Seitel (2011) summarises the main roles of public relations
practitioners in non-profit organisations as:
„„ positioning the organisation
„„ developing a marketing/promotional plan
„„ media relations
„„ supporting fund-raising.

7.6 Corporate social responsibility

Since the 1970s, the public has become much more critical of the role of large
organisations in society. For example, interest groups in Europe and the USA exerted
pressure on large corporations to pull out of apartheid-era South Africa and to refuse
to deal with the government of the time. These anti-apartheid sanctions played a
significant role in bringing about change in South Africa. A new government, elected in
1994, elicited the opposite reaction, with many of the large international corporations
supporting the new South Africa with new investments and other types of support.
The public not only expects large organisations to be active in social issues but also to
act responsibly towards the environment (see the discussion of the values-driven model
of public relations in Section 7.3.5). The basics of corporate social responsibility are
described by Cutlip et al. (2002: 238) as follows:
The business community’s efforts to solving social problems must be integrated with
long-term profit growth. If done properly, solving social problems is both good business
and good citizenship, for the two goals are wholly compatible.

Organisations express and demonstrate corporate social responsibility by including

their intentions in mission and value statements, speeches and advertising, and by
contributing to causes such as education, health care, welfare, the arts and community
development. Organisations thus contribute, for example, to increasing skills in
society, improving the quality of life for employees in their homes, creating attractive
communities, and so on. As government support for various causes decreases, pressure
is mounting on organisations to increase their contributions to charities and other non-
governmental social institutions.

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Corporate philanthropy, once seen as generosity, has thus become an obligation that is not
only expected from companies but is also seen as a component of corporate citizenship.
Such philanthropy is now a public relations tool used to build relationships with
stakeholders. Large corporations are evidently most affected by this but small, local
businesses can also contribute to community causes and are frequently also expected
to fulfil a socially beneficial role.

7.7 Media and public relations

Because public relations is concerned with communication, it is inevitable that the
media will provide the major tools that facilitate the process of communication.

7.7.1 Media for internal publics

A variety of media exists to communicate with an organisation’s internal publics. The
following overview highlights only some of the many that are utilised in organisations.

Print media
Although the new media and IT have developed quickly over the past decade and
are now used extensively, the print media are still the primary medium for internal
communication in most organisations. Examples of print media are the following:
„„ Formal organisational documents (newsletters, magazines, and so on): The purpose of
these newsletters is to serve specific organisational objectives that are directed at
employees.
„„ Supplemental publications (pamphlets, brochures, manuals and books): These publications’
major uses are for the integration and orientation of new employees, to serve as
reference and for institutional purposes.
„„ Written memoranda and reports.
„„ Training and job instruction: These can include handbooks, instruction manuals and
job descriptions.
„„ Letters: Letters remain the backbone of internal and external communication.
Word-processing technology makes it possible to establish direct and speedy
communication with employees in a personalised manner. The customary flow
of letters and memos in an organisation constitutes an important and influential
means of communication.
„„ Reprinted speeches, position papers and background information: An organisation’s position
on specific issues can be expressed by printing important speeches, position papers,
and so on, and making them available to employees.
„„ Bulletin boards: In addition to the legal notices that increasingly have to be displayed
on bulletin boards in the workplace, organisational messages can be disseminated
on bulletin boards throughout the organisation. The organisation has to enable
readers to access the information easily, thus messages need to be short and clear,
and the bulletin board should be updated regularly so that interest is not lost. An
innovation in this regard is the electronic bulletin board which could potentially
replace the traditional one in years to come.

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Images and words

The following are examples of image and word media:
„„ Closed-circuit television (CCTV): Regular broadcasts via a closed-circuit television
system are an effective way of communicating to large numbers of staff in one
location. If staff members are geographically dispersed, another option is the use
of videotapes.
„„ Video- or teleconferences: It is possible to reach a large number of people via
videoconferencing; small groups from different areas can also benefit from these
technologies (see, for example, the issues surrounding groups and networks). These
technologies create new possibilities for establishing and maintaining networks.
„„ Satellite broadcasts: Closely linked to the above, advanced satellite technology makes
it possible to broadcast either live or recorded productions to internal publics at
relatively affordable prices. DStv in South Africa’s service arena (Global Access)
already provides such a service.
„„ Displays and exhibitions: Displays aimed at internal publics can serve a motivational
purpose.
„„ Storytelling: Various authors emphasise the value of storytelling in organisational
communication and organisational leadership. This fits in with the African oral
tradition. As Collison and Mackenzie (1999: 38) comment: ‘The story is one of the
basic tools invented by the mind of man for the purpose of gaining understanding’.
Modern organisations make use of various storytelling techniques to communicate
with stakeholders, and these can range from industrial theatre to anecdotes and
stories told by executives. Simple stories are easily remembered and circulate
quickly, making for potentially powerful management tools.

Electronic media
In most organisations, most employees have access to computers which are usually
linked to a network. In Chapter 10, online public relations and the use of electronic
media is discussed in detail. For the purpose of this chapter, some of the most commonly
used media for internal audiences are:
„„ E-mail: E-mail provides the organisation with a medium via which information
can be sent instantly to a large group of employees without the interference of
delivery times and the availability of postal mail. Many of the letters between staff
members have been replaced by e-mail. The flow of communication (upward,
downward and horizontal) is greatly enhanced by e-mail.
„„ Internet/intranet: Internal websites for organisations have replaced many of the
traditional media, such as policy files and instruction manuals. It is quick and easy
to edit or replace information, and unlimited amounts of information are readily
accessible to everyone in the organisation.

7.7.2 Media for external publics

Public relations practitioners utilise the printed word, the spoken word, images and
a combination of these to communicate with external publics. They make use of
controlled media – that is, those over which they have some control concerning what

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is said, how it is said, when it is said and to whom. Practitioners also make use of
uncontrolled media (over which they have no control). Media gatekeepers decide what
is reported, how, when and to whom.
The most economical and effective method of communicating with large and
widely dispersed audiences is through mass media such as newspapers, magazines,
radio, television and books. Practitioners need to understand the role of information,
the various kinds of media and how they work, as well as the values of the people
who control access to them. In addition, practitioners can create their own media to
carry messages. ‘Media’ are created, for example, when more management visibility
is advisable. In this case, the public relations practitioner would arrange for members
of top management to visit specific divisions on a regular basis. Another example
would be when the practitioner arranges an open day in an organisation and invites
stakeholders to experience the organisation first hand.
A brief list of examples of media follows. (New media are discussed in Chapter 10,
in which online public relations is explored in detail.)

Newspapers
Newspapers are the work-horses of the public information system; they continue to be the
primary medium people think of when they think of publicity. The world’s intellectuals,
opinion leaders, politicians and ordinary citizens rely heavily on newspapers to provide
information about their environment and to do surveillance of that environment on
their behalf. The power of the press lies in its ability to disseminate information, set
the agenda and focus people’s attention on certain issues. It allows the practitioner to
reach publics in an era of specialised and fragmented audiences. Although they no
longer constitute the primary source of news for most people, newspapers are still a
powerful force for shaping the public agenda and influencing the outcome of debate.
Cutlip et al. (2002) claim that newspapers offer the following advantages as a public
relations medium:
„„ The range of newspapers, from national to community newspapers, reaches an
incomparably huge audience (in terms of size and demographic spectrum).
„„ Newspapers have a standardised definition of news.
„„ The number, localisation and variety of newspapers enable practitioners to pinpoint
the geography of publicity, as well as audiences, with precision.
„„ Newspapers are considered desirable rather than necessary.
„„ They are a medium of sustained interest and information.
„„ Readers are generally the most interested and influential people.
„„ Most newspapers reach their readers regularly and therefore are valuable in providing
a cumulative publicity build-up.
„„ Newspapers are the most credible of all media.

News agencies (wire services)

As regards high-interest stories and news of regional, national or international
significance, news agencies such as Reuters, SAPA and Associated Press offer the public
relations practitioner the most economical and effective outlet for news distribution.

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They provide fast, simultaneous transmission to all the media on a network, especially
in times of an emergency.

Magazines
In addition to general popular magazines such as Huisgenoot and You, there are
thousands of special-interest magazines available to particular audiences. Business
and professional publications, for example, serve the needs of professional groups,
trade associations, business and industry. These magazines are available for specially
prepared news releases when the content serves their readers’ needs. Each publication
caters to a carefully defined audience that usually represents the membership lists of
the organisation that publishes the magazine.
The advantages of magazines are that opinion leaders read them, they provide
durable information (they have a longer life than newspapers), and they can reach
readers with specialised interest(s).
Before utilising a particular magazine, public relations practitioners should make a
careful analysis of a magazine’s readership, editorial formula, advertising content and
the market it serves.

Radio
Radio offers a wide range of publicity possibilities as a mobile medium that addresses
mobile audiences. Radio reaches the bedroom and the breakfast table; it accompanies
people as they travel to and from work. It provides a flexibility which no other medium
can match. In South Africa, 19 million people listen to the radio daily (Cutlip et al.,
2002).
Although radio is a mass medium, it possesses the qualities of a direct, personal
contact because it uses the spoken word. It is a person-to-person medium, and call-in
talk shows can play a major role in setting the public agenda and providing a forum
for public debate.

Television
Of all the mass media, television is the most intimate medium. It attracts huge
audiences and for many people it is the main source of information. Television
greatly heightens citizen awareness of the conduct of public institutions, and
emphasises the impersonal, interdependent nature of the environment. Television’s
influence is potent and pervasive because many people spend hours watching it –
more than half of the South African population spends some time in front of the
television every day (Cutlip et al., 2002), with news broadcasts revealed to be one of
the most popular programmes.
The success or failure of entertainment programmes is determined not by their
quality alone but by their ratings and the consequent amount of advertising they
can attract. These same criteria are applied all too often to television news. Because
television programmes are affected by time limitations, news programmes are forced
to rely heavily on visual impact, and the dominance of dramatic pictures inevitably
oversimplifies and distorts news stories.

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7.7.3 Criteria for newsworthiness

Shoemaker (1996) theorises that biological forces prompt human beings to attend to
unusual events and occurrences in the environment and, furthermore, that the need
for surveillance is genetically programmed in humans (see Eicholz, 2000). Despite this
biological homogeneity among humans, the value of news is not, however, the same
in every culture. According to Shoemaker (1996), culture-based differences occur
as a result of varying definitions of deviance and newsworthiness that are based on
a news item’s social significance for a particular society. Shoemaker’s (1996) theory
structures these indicators by linking traditional news values with the two constructs:
‘deviance’ and ‘social significance’. These reflect the influence of biological evolution
(the genetically inherited tendency to survey the environment) and cultural evolution
(culture determines the definitions of what is deviant and socially significant).
Although a news item can be both deviant and socially significant, certain news
values tend to cluster around either one or the other.

Deviance
The first construct – deviance – refers to news items that are unusual, different or
odd – that is, events, persons or things that are not considered normal according to
a society’s generally accepted social values, norms or expectations (Eicholz, 2000).
These can be either positive (good news) or negative (bad news).
Shoemaker (1996) distinguishes between three theoretically distinct components
of deviance that are relevant for determining a news item’s newsworthiness, namely
statistical deviance, potential for social change deviance and normative deviance (see
Shoemaker, 1996; Shoemaker, Chang & Brendlinger, 1987). These components provide
a basic theoretical rationale for people’s degree of interest in certain news items:
„„ Statistical deviance: This refers to the likelihood of a news event actually happening.
The more unlikely the event, the more statistically deviant it is (that is, unusual and
unexpected) (see Cohen, 1993; McQuail, 2000; Soloski, 1997; Weimann & Brosius,
1991). Statistical deviance is closely related to events occurring in a specific society.
The terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in New York serves as an extreme
example of this type of deviance. Although there is generally consensus about
extremely unusual news events, other serious events such as corruption or murder
do not necessarily represent statistical deviance, depending on the frequency with
which they occur in a specific society and their proximity to that society.
„„ Potential for social change deviance: This refers to an event’s potential to threaten or
change the status quo at a local, regional, national or international level. Again,
reports on the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center and the war in Iraq
serve as extreme examples of the potential news events have to threaten the status
quo at an international level. When Nelson Mandela was released from prison,
news of the event clearly signalled a fundamental change in the South African
status quo. When a news item contains elements that might influence the society to
such an extent that it threatens the status quo, the item tends to be reported in the
most prominent positions (for example on the front page of a newspaper).

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„„ Normative deviance: This refers to a behaviour, attitude or opinion that violates

or breaks a social collective’s existing norms, rules or laws. In society, a basic
consensus exists about generally accepted norms and values. A news item about a
person or an organisation that moves beyond that society’s accepted boundaries
is usually considered to be highly newsworthy. A news item on child abuse is an
example of reporting on an event that is normatively deviant.

Social significance
The second construct – social significance – refers to whether a news item deals with
an event, institution or person that is considered important in, or has an impact on, a
certain social collective. These news items are not necessarily unusual but might have
a deeper meaning for the social collective (see Carey, 1987; Jensen, 1986, Molotch &
Lester, 1999; Rosengren, 1973). Social significance is based on specific cultures. The
four dimensions to which it refers are political, economic, cultural and public:
1. Political significance: This implies the extent to which the content of a news item has
potential or actual impact on the relationship between people and government
or between governments. The alleged involvement of Tony Yengeni (the former
parliamentary chief whip of the ANC) in corruption is an example of a news event
that can have political impact.
2. Economic significance: This refers to the extent to which the content of a news item
has potential or actual impact on the exchange of goods and services (including
the monetary system, business, tariffs, labour, transportation, job markets,
resources and infrastructure). A violent strike by a car manufacturer’s employees
can impact on the economic system of the country and this will then be reported
on as economically significant.
3. Cultural significance: This refers to the extent to which the content of a news item has
potential or actual impact on a social system’s traditions, institutions and norms
(such as religion, ethnicity or the arts). A news item on corruption in one of the
provincial arts councils can be presented as culturally significant.
4. Public significance: This implies the enhancement or threat a news item represents for
the public’s well-being. It is assumed that the more people are affected by a news
item, the more significant it is for their well-being, be it positive or negative. This
indicator makes provision for items not covered by the other socially significant
developments, for example a breakthrough in the combat against AIDS.

Predictions about news coverage

The impact of Shoemaker’s (1996) theory on practitioners (and educators) is that it
assists in understanding the amount of coverage certain news items receive. To an
extent, it also makes it theoretically possible to predict the newsworthiness of specific
news items by assessing the following:
„„ If both deviance and social significance are high, the news item is likely to be
defined as extremely newsworthy and most probably will be covered prominently.
„„ If deviance is high and social significance low, the news item is still newsworthy
but not as much as in the first case.

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„„ If deviance is low and social significance is high, the news item is still newsworthy
but not as much as in the second case.
„„ If both deviance and social significance are low, the item might not be used in the
news at all.
There was a time when people suggested that public relations practitioners were often
just ex-journalists who wanted a quieter, more regular and better-paid job. Their
intentions were therefore simply to gain free publicity for the organisation by producing
press releases prepared in the journalistic style and to defend the organisation when
it came under attack. Their success was measured by the number of positive stories
that were published and how well any undesirable ones were silenced. Media relations
was associated with the occasional lunch and drinks parties, the aim of which were to
establish personal relationships with journalists in case something went wrong one day
and personal influence would help to sort out the story.
All this has changed. Public relations professionals are now perceived to be
communication specialists with academic backgrounds who play a strategic role in the
management of communication and relationships with stakeholders in an organisation.
Elliot and Koper (2002: 32) maintain that this change in attitude towards public
relations practitioners results from the recognition that the way in which ‘people and
their communities relate to an organisation will influence all manners of decisions they
take, and these may improve or prejudice its performance’. Therefore, public relations
training should concentrate on preparing the strategist who builds and maintains
relationships rather than on creating replicas of the manipulators of the past.
Media relations should perform a professional role, strategically aligned to
the objectives and aims of the organisation, they should be ethically and socially
responsible, and they should act in the service of the stakeholders (which include the
communities affected by the actions of an organisation). In addition, the postmodern
perspective sees the public relations practitioner as an organisational activist who
articulates dissenting voices; this should also be reflected in the way in which media
relationships (constituting a deliberate move away from media relations) are managed.

7.8 Planning a public relations campaign

In the public relations definition discussed earlier, the management function of
public relations was identified as essential, and planning is an important part of this.
A key activity for public relations practitioners in an organisation is planning and
implementing public relations campaigns. Planning a public relations campaign
not only helps give direction to the campaign but also helps win support from top
management (Seitel, 2011). Public relations campaigns inform, create awareness of
or persuade publics on certain issues or organisational activities. Public relations
campaigns are used to create awareness among publics on an organisation’s policies,
programmes and activities. Informing publics about certain issues or situations such
as strikes or industrial accidents is another objective of a public relations campaign.
In instances where there might be organisational restructuring, the closing down of
certain departments or mergers, public relations campaigns are used to persuade
affected stakeholders to support the organisation’s position.

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There are various models and approaches to public relations planning. Rensburg
and Cant (2009) identify three models, namely the Cutlip et al. model, the
communication by objectives (MBO) model, and the Public Relations Institute of
Southern Africa (PRISA) model. Rensburg and Angelopulo’s (1996) interactive
model of communication campaign can also be used in public relations planning.
Although this interactive model of communication campaign is a general one, it
nevertheless applies to public relations campaign planning. (Chapter 13 provides a
detailed discussion about the interactive model of communication campaign.)
Different models suggest different steps when planning public relations campaigns.
The PRISA model has seven steps, the MBO model has 21 steps, Rensburg and
Angelopulo’s (1996) interactive model of communication campaign has four phases,
and Cutlip et al.’s (2009) model has four steps. The latter is fairly similar in structure to
Rensburg and Angelopulo’s (1996) interactive model in that is uses a similar four-step
process. The following section summarises the four-step process of planning a public
relations campaign according to Cutlip et al. (2009: 324).

7.8.1 Step 1: Defining the problem

In the first step the problem has to be defined, which is done after a thorough
formative research has been carried out. Research helps to identify the underlying
problem or issue which has necessitated a public relations campaign. Situations like
organisational crises, organisational mergers or acquisitions, image or brand-building
initiatives require a public relations campaign so that the organisation can understand
and monitor the opinions and attitudes of its various publics regarding these issues.
Accurate and reliable facts about an organisation’s situation or problem are gathered
using research and this is why it is such an important tool for public relations planning.
Today’s public relations practitioners face an ever-increasing demand for tangible facts
and evidence from organisational top management before any actions or decisions
are implemented.
Part of defining the problem involves a situational analysis. The organisation has
to analyse both its internal and external environments. It needs to analyse its internal
structures to identify key aspects of the internal environment which are relevant to the
current situation or problem. The external environmental analysis helps to identify
outside factors which are relevant to the organisation’s situation. Public relations
practitioners must ascertain what external stakeholders know, how they feel and
how they are related to the problem before they compile an analysis of the external
environment (Cutlip et al., 2009).
In planning a public relations campaign a SWOT analysis is done to assess the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats posed by the problem or situation.
The SWOT analysis is carried out by posing the following questions:
„„ Strengths: What are the strengths of the organisation which can be used to its
advantage?
„„ Weaknesses: What are the perceived weaknesses of the organisation which have to
be minimised?

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„„ Opportunities: What opportunities does the situation present?

„„ Threats: What are the environmental threats posed by the situation or problem?
Overall, the main question that must be posed during the defining of the problem
should be: ‘What is happening now?’. The answer to that question helps to determine
and measure the current situation in which the organisation finds itself. Defining the
problem allows the organisation to determine whether the current situation can be
resolved by a public relations campaign.

7.8.2 Step 2: Planning and programming

In planning and programming, the public relations practitioner formulates a strategy for
the campaign. The overall plan of action and communication that will be implemented
to achieve the campaign goals and objectives is referred to as strategy. Based on an
adequate situational analysis that has been done during the first step, the strategic plan
identifies the main objectives of the campaign. Decisions concerning campaign goals
and objectives are made in the planning and programming step. Campaign objectives
identify in detail the desired outcomes of the campaign and must be relevant to the
problem or situation that the organisation faces. Measurable, specific and time-bound
objectives must be set so that they can be evaluated against the ultimate results or
outcomes of the campaign.
Policies and guidelines are drawn to give direction to the strategic plan. These
help to outline who is supposed to do what and how it is supposed to be done, and
state exactly how authority and duties are to be delegated during the campaign. The
strategic plan also contains the key messages that the campaign must communicate.
Specific key messages must be formulated and in such a way that they appeal to
the selected audiences or stakeholder groups. Key messages communicate what the
campaign intends to inform or persuade the targeted publics about, as well as elaborate
on what the publics are supposed to do after getting the messages.
The media strategy that is to be used during the campaign must also be identified.
Choosing the correct media or communication channel depends on three important
aspects, namely the targeted audiences of the campaign, the timing of the messages
and the budget available to the campaign. (A detailed discussion on various types of
media or communication channels which can be used in a public relations campaign
were elaborated on in Section 7.7.)
The public relations practitioner must select and define the target publics or
stakeholder groups that are to be the focus of the campaign. Publics are defined
according to how they are involved and affected by the current problem or situation.
Publics can be selected based on various criteria, including their geographic locations,
demographics, psychographics, position, power, membership of particular groups, or
role in the decision making (Cutlip et al., 2009). Whatever criteria are used to select the
publics that are considered most important, the most important criterion is that these
publics must be relevant to the campaign and its objectives.
Budget is an important element of planning and programming. Most public
relations departments operate on limited resources. Budgeting provides the much-
needed structure and discipline in terms of the time and money expenditure involved in

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a campaign (Lattimore et al., 2009). According to Seitel (2011), there are two budgeting
systems used in public relations, namely functional budgeting and administrative
budgeting. Public relations agencies usually use the functional budgeting system
when money that has been allocated to them is linked to specific revenue-generating
activities, and usually use the administrative budgeting system when money from the
organisation’s budget is allocated to the public relations department to cater for staff
and other campaign expenses. Costs related to a specific public relations campaign
form part of the public relations department’s budget. According to Lattimore et al.
(2009), compiling a campaign budget follows a three-step model:
1. Required resources, such as people, time and materials, must be listed.
2. The extent to which these resources will be used is estimated.
3. The costs of the resources are determined.

7.8.3 Step 3: Taking action and communicating

It is during this stage that all the plans and strategies that have been formulated
during the planning and programming are put into operation. These strategies
are implemented so as to communicate specific messages to targeted audiences or
publics. Taking action and communicating is the most visible step of the public
relations campaign and involves delivering or disseminating formulated messages
to the target audiences. Activities such as exhibitions, seminars, publicity events,
media conferences, corporate websites and newspaper articles give visibility to the
campaign. During action and communicating, time charts are compiled which
indicate the specific activities to be carried out, the people who are supposed to do
this and the deadlines.
According to Cutlip et al. (2009), an organisation should not only communicate
messages but should also act on the initial problem or situation that necessitated the
public relations campaign. If the objective of an organisation is to build a strong brand
or organisational image, the organisation must communicate this commitment both
through a public relations campaign and appropriate action. For example, acting on
customer complaints and producing quality products and services should complement
the messages communicated in a public relations campaign. In other words, all
communication of the public relations campaign should reflect the actions of an
organisation.

7.8.4 Step 4: Evaluating the campaign

Evaluating the results of a public relations campaign is the final step. Outcomes of
the campaign are evaluated against the objectives that were set during the planning
and programming step. An assessment is made of the effectiveness of the campaign
implementation. Some of the important questions asked during the evaluation step
include the following:
„„ Were the proposed objectives of the campaign achieved?
„„ Were proposed strategies and activities implemented?
„„ Did the intended messages reach targeted audiences and stakeholder groups?
„„ Did the targeted publics or audiences act on the messages of the campaign?

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The answers to these questions provide crucial information concerning the success or
failure of the campaign. However, the campaign is not only evaluated at the end as
evaluation occurs in the form of monitoring as the campaign progresses. Monitoring
the campaign helps to counter any problems that might arise during the campaign.
Internal or uncontrollable external environmental factors might necessitate a change
in the objectives or strategy direction of the campaign. After this monitoring and
evaluating process, the following might occur:
„„ The campaign is terminated if it has failed and is beyond corrective measures.
„„ Measures can be taken to correct problematic aspects of the campaign.
„„ The campaign can continue if it is successfully achieving its intended objectives.

7.9 Crisis communication
A crisis is an unexpected event that can threaten the existence of an organisation.
Pauchant and Mitroff (1992: 15–16) define a crisis as ‘a disruption that physically
affects a system as a whole and threatens its basic assumptions, its subjective sense
of self, its existential core’. They believe that crises can threaten the legitimacy of an
industry, reverse the strategic mission of an organisation, and disturb the way people
see the world and themselves (Pauchant & Mitroff, 1992).
The terror attack on the World Trade Center on 11 September 2001 had an
enormous impact globally, and specifically on the US and New York City (NYC).
Today, the NYC government is still being questioned about its emergency and rescue
measures. In May 2004, investigations were conducted on the performance of the fire
brigade and the police service, and the co-ordination of their activities. The NYC
government continues to face accusations that they lack a proper emergency plan that
would enable them to handle a similar or even a smaller crisis.
Another major crisis that changed the way that people think and act was the
February 2003 NASA disaster, when the space shuttle Columbia, after a mission to the
International Space Station, disintegrated during its return to earth. This incident
threatened the future both of space shuttle flights and of the International Space
Station. The basics of manned space flight are still being questioned. Fink (1986)
characterises crises as situations, often marked by forewarnings, that run the risk of:
„„ escalating in intensity
„„ falling under close media or government scrutiny
„„ interfering with the normal operations of business
„„ jeopardising the positive public image enjoyed by an organisation and its officers
„„ damaging an organisation’s bottom line.

Guth and Marsh (2000) cite Meyers, who identifies seven potential benefits that can
result from a crisis:
1. Heroes are born and people become the focus of attention.
2. Change is accelerated because a crisis becomes a trigger mechanism for accelerated
change.
3. Latent problems are faced.
4. People can be ‘changed’ – that is, their attitudes can be changed or the people
themselves can be replaced.

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5. New strategies evolve and lessons are learnt.

6. Early-warning systems develop.
7. New competitive advantages can arise.

7.9.1 Crisis communication planning

Guth and Marsh (2000) provide the following model which can be used for planning
for a crisis:

Step 1: Risk assessment

Proactive crisis communication requires proper risk assessment which identifies the
various threats under which an organisation operates. Some crises are common,
such as those created by bad weather, fires, financial difficulties and accidents in the
workplace; others are more specifically related to the type of industry in which the
organisation is involved.
The purpose of risk assessment is not only to identify the threats but also to attempt
to eliminate or lessen the risks as much as possible.

Step 2: Developing the plan

Crisis communications planning involves developing communication strategies that
can be used for identified risks. This means that an organisation should make as many
decisions as possible before the crisis occurs. The benefit is that the organisation then
has time to consider all the implications of these decisions.
It is best to have a flexible crisis plan, the content of which should include crisis
definitions, a list of crisis managers, stakeholder communication strategies, planned
co-ordination and information sites, and an employee training programme.
A special crisis management team should be assigned the responsibilities of
monitoring and responding to any crisis. Members of this team should be identified
by their job titles rather than by name (because people change jobs). Moreover, there
should be backup personnel for when these people are not available. Ideally, the team
should consist of:
„„ the CEO or a designated crisis manager
„„ legal counsel
„„ public relations counsel
„„ financial counsel
„„ appropriate technical experts (these might vary according to the particular type
of identified crisis)
„„ support personnel – that is, those with secretarial skills, computer skills, artists or
illustrators, and so on.
The plan should identify the various stakeholders that might be impacted upon by
each potential crisis, and appropriate telephone numbers, fax numbers, and so on must
be made available. Key stakeholders would be:
„„ Employees: These, as well as their families, should be notified of the crisis and
updated at regular intervals.

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„„ Media: The organisation should speak with one voice and therefore the plan should
designate an official spokesperson. A procedure should be established for timely
release of information and also for monitoring media reports. A media information
centre should be established.
„„ Other key stakeholders: The plan should designate individual(s) who can act as
liaisons with the people who require special attention (for example members
of the board of directors, major shareholders, public officials, unions and
community leaders).
„„ The curious public: Some crises can attract public attention, in which case it is a
good idea to have a rumour control centre that people can contact to have their
questions answered promptly.
It is important to establish an emergency operations centre which can serve as a
command post for the organisation’s crisis response. The centre should be at a safe
location where members of the team can work without interruption from journalists,
other employees or other types of disturbance. Furthermore, this venue should have
adequate communications capabilities, such as televisions and radios for monitoring
the media, as well as fax, telephone and Internet/e-mail facilities. It should also be
close to the place where the media are to be briefed.
The place set aside for meeting with the media is the media information centre.
This should be the only place that journalists can go to for information during a crisis.
It should be close enough to ‘the action’ to satisfy reporters but far enough away for
them not to be in the way. The media centre should have the facilities to hold press
conferences and should provide media access to their newsrooms, telecommunications
equipment, adequate lighting and an appropriate area for photography, and a place
for distributing and posting news releases. Separate entrances should be provided for
journalists and officials, and a media centre co-ordinator should be appointed to be in
charge of the centre.
Every employee should know what is expected of him or her when a crisis occurs.
A disaster preparedness manual can be compiled for the employees’ information. Mid-
to upper-level managers should receive rigorous training, which should include role-
playing scenarios.
Everyone in the organisation should know whom they can and should call at the
first sign of a crisis. The most important person in a crisis is often the first one to
recognise the problem. That person’s actions (or inactions) strongly inform the nature
and quality of an organisation’s response.

Step 3: Response
When a crisis occurs, the response should be the execution of the crisis communications
strategies. If all the proper steps have been taken, critical decisions – such as whom to
call and how to respond – have already been made.
However, every crisis is unique and, therefore, the crisis communications plan
should be flexible; it should guide and not dictate the response.

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Step 4: Recovery
When the crisis ends, the organisation should evaluate the quality of its response
and take appropriate action from the lessons it has learnt. The questions it asks after
the crisis could avert or minimise the next one. (Refer to Chapter 10 for a detailed
discussion on online crisis communication.)

7.10 Summary
This chapter has historically contextualised and defined public relations. Various
theories of public relations have been discussed and its functions have been carefully
examined. Public relations practice in the context of business organisations, government
and non-profit organisations has been discussed. The social responsibility function of
public relations has been highlighted, and the media for internal and external publics
elaborated upon. Planning a public relations campaign has been explained using the
four-step process. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the role of public relations
in times of crisis. A case study related to a crisis is provided below.

Case study
Pick n Pay under extortionist attack
Crises are unexpected; organisations cannot completely plan for a specific crisis – if it was
expected it would not be a crisis. Potentially, any organisation can be affected.
One such a crisis was experienced in 2003 when, for seven weeks, an extortionist targeted the
retailer Pick n Pay by threatening to poison food in the store. Reports were received of people
genuinely falling ill. The Pick n Pay executive decided to go public. Pick n Pay campaigned
extensively in both advertising and news media. The store’s CEO, Sean Summers, discussed
the matter on radio and television and in the print media. The public announcement was
carefully planned.
Established in 1994, Media Tenor is an international research institute currently operating in
five countries (including South Africa). The organisation’s mission is to provide independent,
objective, continuous and comprehensive monitoring and analysis of the media. Media Tenor
researched Pick n Pay’s problem and found that of the total of 1 438 media statements on
Pick n Pay in June and July 2003, 24% came from company sources (with Sean Summers
representing 45% of the Pick n Pay sources). Although journalists contributed 64% of all
sources, Sean Summers represented Pick n Pay in 10% of all news items, which indicated that
the strategy of Pick n Pay was to give its customers ‘a face they could trust’. In its July 2003
newsletter (issue 11, volume 4), Media Tenor made this statement:
 Pick ‘n Pay’s communication strategies traditionally have been centred exactly around customers and their
satisfaction, as well as establishing themselves as a champion of the people against governmental price
policies … In line with this, continuous assurance from the CEO that all actions against the extortionist were
in the best interest of the consumer, Pick ‘n Pay, normally not communicating vastly on its products through
the news media, increased the focus on the latter … Media in general seem to have been convinced that
Pick ‘n Pay has done everything correctly. Considering the large negative context, media have been positive
in its relation to Pick ‘n Pay.


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 … it is indeed a positive example of active communication to turn a potentially negative issue into a success.
It was made possible by a few factors: A large focus on customer relations and product safety during the
crisis, but also continuous communication on products before the time … Contrary to strategies of many
other organisations, it proved positive for Pick n Pay to have a strong communicator in their CEO – actively
communicating to the public through the media, thereby influencing those bodies that have an impact on
Pick n Pay’s share price, which did not decline at all, but instead rose.

Note: Since the above quote was written, Pick n Pay has dropped the apostrophe from their
brand name.
(Permission to use this case study was obtained from Mr Wadim Schreiner of Media Tenor
South Africa.)

Activities
1. Read the above case study and consider whether you think it was important that
the CEO of Pick n Pay was the visible spokesperson for the organisation.
2. Study various definitions of public relations by different authors and try to relate
these to the specific theoretical approaches that have been followed by those
authors.
3. In this chapter, a values-driven approach to public relations is discussed.
Do you think that values are important only in the context of this specific
theoretical approach, or should they be of importance to public relations in
other ways too?
4. ‘Public relations is about publicity and free public media exposure.’ Discuss this
statement by looking at the functions of public relations.

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Lattimore, D, Baskin, O, Heiman, S T & Toth, E L. 2009. Public Relations: The Profession and the
Practice. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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 Contextualisation of traditional

8
CHAPTER

advertising
Janet te Hanekom

Advertisers are the interpreters of our dreams – Joseph interpreting for Pharaoh. Like the
movies, they infect the routine futility of our days with purposeful adventure. Their weapons
are our weaknesses: fear, ambition, illness, pride, selfishness, desire, ignorance. And these
weapons must be kept as bright as a sword.
White (www.biz-community.com)

8.1 Introduction
Advertising is a complex and vibrant field of study and one of the most fascinating
phenomena in business. Tellis and Ambler (2007) describe the advertising phenomenon
as pervasive, perplexing, multidimensional and unfathomably rich. It therefore
necessitates a thorough knowledge of the theory behind the onslaught of those well-
executed and daunting advertising messages with which each of us is ambushed every
day. Experts from different disciplines disagree about the role of advertising. Some
economists accuse advertising of inflating the prices of goods while some religious
leaders claim that it is materialistic because it ‘creates desires for worldly goods and
pleasures’ (Tellis & Ambler, 2007). Experts in sociology maintain that advertising
undermines the values of society, and politicians, despite their own high advertising
expenditure, accuse advertising of wasting scarce resources (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).
Whatever the opinions and attitudes toward advertising may be, it is a significant
component of the society in which we function. Nobody can escape the phenomenon
entitled advertising, therefore it is with enthusiasm and interest that the important
conceptions of this phenomenon are presented and discussed in this chapter.
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarise the reader with the concepts, theories
and models of traditional advertising in order to establish a foundation on which
advertising in general can be practised. It is impossible to practise, develop and create
effective advertising messages without a keen understanding of the composition of
the advertising phenomenon. A discussion of the remarkable evolution of advertising,
advertising media and advertising content is therefore included, with particular
emphasis on the evolution of advertising in South Africa.
Once advertising’s fascinating development is known and understood, it is
important to examine its intricate nature. Therefore, this chapter provides a section
on important definitions of advertising, after which it develops and explains an original
definition of advertising. The diverse nature of the subject is further illustrated with
the classification of advertising, and a discussion of the different roles it plays in society.
Advertising should be contextualised in terms of its role and place in the overall
communication strategy of an organisation, as well as in the promotional mix and

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marketing mix. These form part of the external communication activities of the
organisation and should be aligned with the internal organisational communication
activities (intra-organisational communication) in order for the organisation to present
a unified corporate brand to internal and external stakeholders.
Although this chapter examines advertising as a separate communication function,
it should be understood as an integrated and interdependent part of all the internal
and external communication activities of the organisation. Advertising therefore does
not function in isolation; rather, it is part of the marketing communication mix.
All internal and external communication messages, which include marketing and
marketing communication messages (that is, public relations, advertising, online and
all other marketing communication messages), should send out a unified message to
internal and external stakeholders in order to build a unique and cohesive overall
corporate brand for the organisation. For the advertising practitioner, this means that
advertising messages, together with all other communication messages, should be
effectively executed so that individual stakeholders will capture a positive corporate
brand out of a multitude of contacts and impressions (Cornelissen & Lock, 2001).
Significant consideration is then given to the societal role of advertising. It is important
to know whether advertising creates social values or merely mirrors them. It is additionally
important to know and understand the different types of advertising messages that might
pose a threat to society in general, and most especially to vulnerable groups.
The final section of this chapter deals with advertising consumer response
theory, which includes several traditional advertising consumer models, as well as
the integrated marketing communication internal consumer response model. This
integrated model explains, in an integrated manner, the internal consumer response
process through which consumers proceed when exposed to advertising messages.
The comprehension of these models will assist the advertiser in the development of an
advertising message that is based on thorough knowledge of the cognitive processes
involved in the processing of advertising information.
In this chapter, the focus is on the contextualisation of traditional advertising, therefore
the following are discussed:
„„ the history of advertising
„„ definitions of advertising
„„ classification of advertising
„„ the roles of advertising
„„ advertising and its role in the marketing mix and the overall communication
strategy of the organisation
„„ advertising’s role in society
„„ advertising consumer response theory
„„ the ethics of advertising.

8.2 A brief history of advertising

Advertising is regarded both as an art and a science; it can therefore be considered a
complex field of study. This complexity necessitates knowledge of how the advertising
phenomenon, its media and content have evolved. This section briefly explores the

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7 000-year-long history of advertising in the context of the evolution of advertising

in general, and the evolution of both the media of advertising and the content of
advertising in particular.

8.2.1 The evolution of advertising

Early civilisations
Advertising is estimated to have been a facet of society as far back as 7 000 years ago,
emerging almost as soon as commerce began (Tellis & Ambler, 2007). The Babylonians
stencilled inscriptions on bricks approximately 3 000 years bc and these can be called
the first advertisements (Presbrey, 1968). Later, there were barkers and criers who
advertised orally.
Merchants then hung the symbol of their trade over their doors, which indicated
the nature of their business. These were found from the early civilisations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, Greece and Rome. After the spread of literacy in ancient Rome (from
200 bc onwards) written advertising became prevalent, with advertisements painted
on walls in the form of announcements. Such advertisements were controlled by an
advertising contractor. During this early advertising developmental period, advertising
and production remained primarily local. Items such as land, slaves and transport
were advertised (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).
From its earliest days, advertising served the purpose of informing, persuading,
selling and reminding consumers to buy or act (Tellis & Ambler, 2007). Advertising
today is much more persuasive because of the multitude of media available as well as the
large number of goods that are advertised.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution that took place between 1760 and 1830 transformed every
aspect of society and the economy, with developments such as the possibility of mass
transportation, for example. These changes necessitated the need for mass marketing,
which in turn led to mass advertising through mass printing. The advertising message
was now more widely distributed through handbills, posters and newspapers. Because
of advertising, consumers now demanded brands with which they were familiar and,
as a result, retailers then stocked the advertised brands (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).

The mid-19th century onwards

Mass production of industrial goods emerged during this period of the evolution of
advertising, which also saw a shift from a focus on simply supplying products to more
of a focus on satisfying consumers, which in turn led to the creation of demand from
consumers. Because most men were employed in the military, women did the shopping
and they became increasingly willing to buy ready-made products, such as food and
clothes, rather than making these items themselves (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).
They demanded products that could make their lives easier, and markets began to shift
from local to national as a result of products becoming popular in the broader national
context instead of only locally. This in turn resulted in much more choice available to
consumers. Advertising was now more cost effective than personal selling and could also

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both create and increase demand. Print media were more established and respectable, and
were instrumental in increasing the importance of branding. Consumers demanded that
products should be unique, with unique brand names, and that the unique advantages
should be communicated to them through advertising (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).

Post World War II

During this period in the evolution of advertising, marketing was regarded as a
function that was separate from sales. With the arrival of television, access to mass
markets became much easier. Television changed the way in which advertising
messages were structured and delivered and was beneficial for developing brand names
and introducing new products. Since this period, new technological developments
have accelerated even further and have again changed the way in which advertising
messages reach and engage markets (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).

8.2.2 The evolution of advertising media

Similar to the evolution of the advertising phenomenon in general, the media of
advertising have also evolved. At the arrival of each new medium, communications are
transformed in order to adapt, although the history of advertising media demonstrates
that no advertising medium has ever ceased to exist with the onset of a new advertising
medium. They have, in fact, simply co-existed to function in an integrated partnership
(Tellis & Ambler, 2007). Today, this is evident in the manner in which organisations
attempt to integrate the elements of the marketing communication mix; this has led to
the integrated use of different media. This section considers the main media avenues
available to advertising and explains how these have evolved over time.

Outdoor
Today, outdoor advertising is seen on billboards along highways; on trains, buses and
taxis; and in airports, bus stations, phone booths and public bathrooms; it even appears
on car parking tickets. In addition, with the development of technology, moving and
still advertising images can be displayed on any type of surface. Outdoor advertising
as it is known today began as a means of mass communication in ancient Egypt, where
five-foot-high basalt tablets, carved with hieroglyphics, announced laws, decrees and
warnings (Tellis & Ambler, 2007). Romans communicated their laws to the public by
means of inscriptions on tablets, buildings and monuments, while the earliest form
of sports advertising (the earliest form of sponsorship) was circulated with the use of
placards at gladiator contests and circuses for the purpose of promoting the event. Later,
in the 1400s, handbills and poster bills appeared and, 200 years later, outdoor signs in
London’s streets emerged. With Thomas Edison’s big invention, electric advertising signs
also became possible (Tellis & Ambler, 2007) and are still widely used today.

Newspapers
With the rising popularity of television and the Internet as advertising media, it was
predicted that newspapers as an advertising medium would cease to exist. Despite
these predictions, the popularity of newspapers continues to rise with over 400 million

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people buying a daily newspaper and readership that exceeds one billion people per
day (Tellis & Ambler, 2007). Newspapers have even embraced the popularity of the
Internet by increasing their online presence.
The development of advertising and of newspapers went hand in hand during the
18th and 19th centuries when newspapers began to emerge in Germany, England,
France, London and the US. In 1700, in England, newspapers charged a shilling for
an advertisement, regardless of the number of lines used (Presbrey, 1968). The first
printing press in the US – the Harvard University Press – was imported by Harvard
University in Cambridge in 1638, and printed advertising began in earnest, with
the earliest advertisements containing information about land, runaway slaves and
transportation (Du Plessis, 2000).

Magazines
The magazines that were launched during the mid-19th century did not contain
advertising and were primarily literary, but advertisers soon began to recognise the
opportunities for advertising in magazines and, therefore, by the end of the 19th
century, magazine advertising accounted for two-thirds of publisher revenues (Tellis
& Ambler, 2007). Although magazines were originally regarded as a medium for the
wealthy and well educated, they are now created for every possible type of audience
and have emerged as popular advertising media.

Radio
When the radio was invented in the US in the 1920s, it immediately embraced
advertising. This medium soon became very popular because it was available to most
American households during the Great Depression. Its popularity amongst advertisers
and marketers also grew quickly and it is therefore regarded as the first national
medium for mass marketing that created great opportunities for quickly introducing
new products and developing brand names (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).

Television
Television provided the added advantage of visual images, with the result that television
broadcasting and advertising became more popular than radio broadcasting and
advertising. Even nowadays, television continues to be the largest source of worldwide
advertising revenue. Because of the close relationship between radio and television,
television drew substantially from the knowledge that had been acquired during the
evolution of commercial radio (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).

Internet
Even though Internet advertising only began in 1994, it is the fastest-growing new
medium ever (Tellis & Ambler, 2007). It is estimated that Internet advertising
continues to grow by 27% each year, and it is predicted that it will soon overtake
outdoor advertising. One of the reasons for the popularity of the Internet as an
advertising medium is the fact that it is well suited for search applications involving

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online local, national, international, directory and classified advertisements (Tellis

& Ambler, 2007).

8.2.3 The evolution of advertising content

The evolution of the advertising phenomenon in general, as well as the evolution of
advertising media have thus far been discussed and explained. It is, however, important
to understand that with the development of advertising and the media it utilises, the
content of advertising has subsequently also evolved to adapt to the creative possibilities
that are available today.

The informational role of advertising content

During the 1800s and early 20th century, advertisements were regarded as informational
because the majority of them were classified, un-illustrated offers made to all citizens
in order to sell something specific. These types of advertisements specified what was for
sale, the price and where to find it. Because the advertisements during this time were
merely informational, advertisers soon realised that they presented limited creative
opportunities (Tellis & Ambler, 2007). In response to this realisation, by the early
1900s advertisements were required to show originality and creativity and to appeal
to audiences’ emotions. Advertisers had realised that human nature is often instinctive
and irrational and that audiences would respond more favourably towards emotional
appeals than logical arguments and reasons (Tellis & Ambler, 2007). Therefore, rather
than adhering to an explicit selling or informational approach, advertising content
now evolved to adopt a more entertaining approach.

The creative role of advertising content

Advertising messages evolved from being merely informational to include spectacular
creativity and appeals that focused on eliciting human emotion. The focus now was
on the ‘big idea’ and the ‘creative concept’. Creativity therefore became the focal point
when creating advertising messages. Although this creative approach certainly elicits
audiences’ attention and consideration, advertisers should bear in mind that the main
aim of advertising is to communicate brand messages. If effective branding does not
occur during the advertising message communication process, the advertisement is
unsuccessful. During this period, certain key personalities were prominent. David
Ogilvy championed research and copy testing, and encouraged his advertising agency
to create clean, powerful advertisements that were characterised by graceful, sensible
copy and a palpable respect for the consumer’s intelligence. Leo Burnett tried to find
drama in each product and presented it as believably as possible through warmth, shared
emotions and experiences. Bill Bernbach adopted the simple, creative philosophy of
finding the basic story in the product and presenting this in an articulate, intelligent
and persuasive manner. Theodore F MacManus’s style was influential, image oriented
and atmospheric, with elaborate layouts and emotional appeals, whereas Rosser
Reeves created the ‘unique selling proposition’ concept that focused on driving home a
central, research-based selling point. Jeremy Bullmore contributed to the development
of advertising content by realising that the advertisement or stimulus was not the most

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important aspect of advertising but, rather, that the consumer’s response was what
mattered most (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).
In the discussion above, it is evident that advertising in general, advertising media and
advertising content adapt to conditions and the current culture and society in which
they function. Although advertising has become more complex than ever before, it
still tries to inform, persuade and remind consumers and potential consumers of the
product or service’s value (Tellis & Ambler, 2007).

8.2.4 The development of advertising in South Africa

The evolution of advertising in general, its media and its content have been
discussed. It is additionally important to consider the evolution of advertising in
South Africa.
Advertising reflects the period in which it is produced, as do literature and art. The
traditional purpose of advertising is to sell a product or service to a consumer but, over
time, the purpose has evolved into an art that is intended to appeal to people’s thoughts
and emotions. This distinguished form of art reflects society’s moods, prejudices and
current concerns, and this is particularly evidenced in the way in which advertising
has developed in South Africa.
Advertising has been practised formally for 200 years in South Africa and had
developed into a highly sophisticated and specialised business. Changes in advertising
and the media environment occurred simultaneously and can be divided into
several phases:
„„ Phase 1: Posters developed into a colourful medium for advertising.
„„ Phase 2: Handbills preceded press advertising and are now seen as a creative
challenge for every modern advertiser.
„„ Phase 3: Cinema advertising regained the importance that it had held before the
advent of commercial radio.
„„ Phase 4: In the 1970s, commercial television resulted in changes in the industry as
agencies adapted first to the audio medium and then to the audio-visual medium.
„„ Phase 5: Retail advertising, considered to be the foundation of all advertising, still
receives a large portion of advertising spending today.
„„ Phase 6: Radio became an extremely important advertising medium, and radio
advertisements reached an unprecedented level of sophistication.
„„ Phase 7: When television became a popular advertising medium, South African
advertising agencies started to seek associations with international companies.
These relationships still exist today (Bryce, 1990).
The South African advertising industry was influenced by the development of
advertising in England in the 20th century, after which American internationalism
dominated the scene. However, the unique demands of Africa are becoming more
salient and these are now carefully considered in local advertising. South Africa has
its own history both of people who significantly influenced the advertising scene and
events that indicate the development of this phenomenon. Some of these developments
are the following:

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„„ In 1824, George Grieg’s weekly South African Commercial Advertiser was published.
More than four of its eight pages were filled with advertisements.
„„ Subsequent newspapers such as the Cape Argus became a medium of communication
with the general public for entrepreneurs and business people that used simple
advertisements to inform potential clients of their products and services.
„„ Notices of the departure times of ships; their destinations; who to contact for
freight and passage details; and bolder advertisements announcing the arrival of
mail ships were all part of early South African advertising.
„„ The Cape Times and Daily Advertiser were launched, in which personal advertisements
made their appearance.
„„ By 1910, crude cartoons were used to illustrate products, often for patent medicines
of dubious repute.
„„ Styles of advertisements changed constantly and by the 1920s line drawings were
being displaced by black and white photographs, which in turn were replaced by
colour, especially in magazines.
„„ At the end of World War I, magazines were offered to advertisers as a new medium.
„„ Advertising agencies rose to the challenge of the developing advertising scene in
South Africa, with staff doing everything from copywriting and layout design to
client liaison.
„„ Legends such as Stanley Ashmead-Bartlett, P N Barrett, Doug Cocksedge, Fred
Puzey, Hamilton Russell, Roland Wentzel, Eric Lindsay Smithers, Hannes van
Zijl, Nic Tredoux, David Hart and Tommy Young dominated the advertising
scene in South Africa.
„„ In 1957, advertisements on bus shelters were introduced in Johannesburg.
„„ A new system of ‘sound advertising’ was also introduced in 1957 when points-of-
purchase sound advertising systems were installed in trading stores on the Reef.
„„ Once the importance of creativity in advertising was recognised, research became
important and by 1960 had been incorporated into advertising campaigns.
„„ In 1962, the Anglican church in Natal decided to use advertising to encourage
people to attend church services for the benefit of themselves and the community.
„„ At the time of its 50th anniversary in South Africa, the advertising agency JWT
was still considered to be the largest agency in South Africa.
„„ The South African Advertising Research Foundation (SAARF) was started in
1974 to produce the All Media and Product Survey (AMPS), which is unique in
the world and has been produced annually since 1975.
„„ In January 1978, the first advertisement on television in South Africa, for Big T
Burgers, was broadcast. Bilingual advertisements were not allowed on television.
„„ The Loerie Awards were established in 1978 to highlight the best in advertising.
„„ The amount spent on direct response marketing, which included direct mail and
marketing; knock-and-drop flyers; mailers; and even advertising via fax machine,
more than doubled between1980 and 1985.
„„ By 1989, outdoor advertising was fully recognised as an advertising medium.
„„ By 1990, there were 17 daily newspapers, two national and three regional Sunday
newspapers, nearly 400 trade and 200 consumer journals, and a host of twice-

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weeklies, weeklies, fortnightlies, monthlies and quarterlies in South Africa. This

led to the specialisation of and within advertising agencies.
„„ In the 1990s, sponsorship gained popularity.
„„ In the last 20 years, agencies have changed markedly, with several, such as
Hunt Lascaris and Barker McCormack, aiming to service African needs when
creating advertisements and developing specifically South African concepts
(Bryce, 1990).

8.3 Defining the nature of advertising

It is clear that over the years the advertising phenomenon has evolved enormously. This
evolvement led to the regular redefining of advertising. It is important to understand
advertising’s intricate nature and to accurately define it. In this section, several
definitions of advertising are reviewed and analysed, and its nature is elucidated upon.
Because advertising is such a dynamic field of study it is difficult to devise a singular,
comprehensive definition, therefore a diverse spectrum of definitions is presented and
commented on in an attempt to guide the formulation of an original definition of
advertising. The most important consideration when defining advertising is to recognise
those elements that are unequivocally part of the nature of the advertising phenomenon.
By scrutinising several definitions of advertising, its complex nature can be thoroughly
considered. Koekemoer (2004: 67) defines advertising as
… any paid form of mass presentation of ideas, products and services by an advertiser,
addressed to selected target audiences with the objective of creating awareness,
informing, reminding, influencing, and persuading them to buy the product or service
or to be favourably inclined towards these ideas, products or services.

This definition describes advertising as commercial communication. In other words, it

is paid for. This particular phrase distinguishes advertising from publicity, which is
usually not paid for by the sponsor. In the case of advertising, the advertiser pays
for the advertising space or time and therefore has the prerogative to present any
persuasive message to the target audience. Low-cost mass communication is used to
present ideas, products and services to the target market. This means that mass media
is utilised with the intention of speaking to as many consumers as possible at the lowest
possible rate (Koekemoer, 2004).
Advertising is not only concerned with products; it also aims to make consumers
aware of ideas, goods and services different organisations offer. The advertiser could
be an organisation, a non-profit organisation, a political party or any individual that
wishes to influence a specific target audience. Specific products or services will satisfy
specific audience segments’ needs, and advertisements are therefore not aimed at every
consumer but rather at specific segments of consumers – that is, the selected target
audience (Koekemoer, 2004). Koekemoer (2004) furthermore defines advertising as
a means of making known, informing and persuading potential customers to respond
favourably to a product, idea or service. Advertising thus ultimately creates awareness,
reminds and positions the brand. Moriarty, Mitchell and Wells (2009: 9) provide a
more recent definition of advertising:

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Advertising is a paid form of persuasive communication that uses mass and interactive
media to reach broad audiences in order to connect an identified sponsor with buyers
(a target audience) and provide information about products (goods, services, and ideas).

This definition identifies five important factors:

„„ The advertisement is paid for by the advertiser, with the exception of public service
advertisements, or if the space and time is donated.
„„ The sponsor is identified in the advertisement.
„„ Advertisements are directed at target audiences. These are mass markets of a
broad audience of potential consumers.
„„ Advertising has many functions, of which the most important are information and
persuasion.
„„ Advertising is usually non-personal and directed not at a specific person but at a
mass market (Moriarty et al., 2009).
Belch and Belch (2009:18) contribute another comprehensive definition of advertising.
They define this phenomenon as ‘any paid form of non-personal communication about
an organisation, product, service, or idea by an identified sponsor’. Once more, the most
important aspect of the definition of advertising is the fact that it is paid for. The only
exception would be, for example, public service advertising where space and time is
sponsored by the media. Advertising furthermore involves mass media such as television,
radio and print and is therefore non-personal, as it does not communicate in a personal
manner with the individual. This allows for messages to be distributed to large audiences
with no immediate feedback necessary (Belch & Belch, 2009). Yet another perspective of
advertising is provided by Odih (2007) who defines advertising as follows:
Advertising congruity allies commodities with culturally constituted representations of
everyday life. Advertising achieves this by separating ‘the intrinsic qualities of being
human from actual living humans’ and this ‘reification imparts a timelessness to the
manufactured product’.

This definition clearly illustrates the link between culture and what is represented in
advertisements, and furthermore illustrates the various perspectives from which the
advertising phenomenon can be considered.
From the above discussion, it is apparent that various authors have differing
definitions of the advertising phenomenon. However, it is important to recognise
the elements that all of the above definitions regard as invaluable when describing
advertising.
Table 8.1 on the following page summarises the most significant elements that describe
the nature of advertising and which should be evident in the definition of advertising.
It is clear that, because of the intrinsically complicated nature of this phenomenon, no
single definition of advertising can be formulated. It is possible, however, based on the
definition provided above, to formulate an original and comprehensive definition of
advertising, which is used for the purpose of this book:
Advertising is the persuasive and influential communication of messages to a specified
segment of an audience by an identified advertiser who pays for unmodified messages to
be delivered through the mass media.

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Table 8.1 Important elements in the definition of advertising

Important Description/explanation
elements

Paid Advertisements such as public service advertisements (road safety

communication and anti-smoking messages) are not paid for, while the opposite
holds true for commercial advertising messages. The advertiser of
the latter is therefore allowed to provide any information on the
product, service or idea advertised because it is paid for by the
advertiser

Mass media The advertising message is usually communicated to the target

audience by means of mass media, which include newspapers,
magazines, outdoor advertising, radio, television, cinema and the
Internet. Because advertising messages are communicated through
these means, the messages are impersonal, and advertisers receive
delayed feedback from members of the audience

Identified The advertiser is introduced by the advertising message, the main

advertiser purpose of which is also to identify the advertiser’s product, service
or idea. The advertisement should also orientate the audience
positively towards the advertiser and the product, service or idea
advertised

Specified Advertising messages are aimed at specific individuals and not at every
segments of individual consumer. Certain products or services are advertised only
audiences to those audience members whose needs and wants will be satisfied
by using it

Persuasive/ The advertising message is usually not only informational or

influential entertaining but also aims to persuade consumers to buy a specific
message service, use a specific product, or believe a specific idea. The message
should therefore be influential in nature in that a response or reaction
should be elicited from audience members

Unmodified No gatekeeper may alter the advertising message. The message should
message convey only the information that the advertiser wants the target
audience members to receive

8.4 Classification of advertising
Embedded in the definition of advertising is an explanation that advertising messages
are aimed at different audience segments and different types of consumers. Advertisers
try to reach various audiences by means of numerous advertisements. It is thus crucial
for them to develop a system for the classification of advertisements.
Although advertisements can be classified according to purpose, target audience,
geographic area and medium (Koekemoer, 2004), it is important to bear in mind that
these categories overlap and that a single advertisement could be classified into two or
even three categories. Thus, these categories are not mutually exclusive; rather, they
provide a framework for structuring the different ways in which advertising is used to
communicate a diverse spectrum of messages.

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8.4.1 Classification by purpose
The categories of advertising covered here are primary and selective demand, product,
idea, corporate image, commercial and non-commercial, action or response, political,
personal, recruitment and retail (Koekemoer, 2004).

Primary and selective demand advertising

Primary demand advertising is designed to stimulate demand for the general product
class or entire industry, for example chicken, whereas selective demand advertising
focuses on creating demand for a particular manufacturer’s brand, for example
Rainbow Chicken. Advertisers usually concentrate on advertising a particular
brand to increase its market share. They believe that there is a primary demand
for the general product and that they must give consumers a reason to buy their
particular brand.

Product advertising
Other names for product advertising are brand advertising, manufacturers’ consumer
advertising and advertising by producers (Koekemoer, 2004; Wells, Burnett & Moriarty,
2000; Moriarty et al., 2009). People usually associate product advertising with the
term ‘advertising’. Manufacturers use it to communicate directly with their customers
by promoting, for example, drinks, food, tobacco, clothing, cars, household goods,
toiletries and leisure goods. It is the most visible type of advertising and focuses on the
development of a long-term brand identity and image. Products such as Koo canned
foods, OMO washing powder, Enterprise cold meats, Handy Andy household cleaner,
Mrs Ball’s chutney and Fatti’s & Moni’s pasta are well-known brand names in South
Africa, and all are extensively advertised by means of product advertising.

Corporate image advertising

Corporate image advertising is also referred to as corporate advertising, public relations or
institutional advertising (Koekemoer, 2004; Wells et al., 2000). This type of advertising
is specifically designed to promote an organisation’s mission or philosophy regarding
important issues and aims to establish a corporate identity for the organisation in the
minds of the target audience, rather than merely focusing on selling products and
services (Moriarty et al., 2009). The covert purpose of this type of advertising is to
convince the target audiences and publics to have a positive attitude towards the
organisation, which will lead them to buy the organisation’s products or use its services.
The radio station Jacaranda FM 94.2, with their Good Morning Angels project where
they raise funds for needy people, is one example of corporate image advertising. With
this project they raise awareness of their commitment to helping people in need and
therefore establish a positive corporate image in the minds of their target audiences.
Many organisations nowadays promote, for example, global warming awareness. This
involvement seeks to raise consumers’ awareness of the important issue of preventative
measures to combat global warming. It additionally promotes a positive attitude
towards the organisation itself.

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Non-commercial and commercial advertising

Non-commercial advertising includes charity, educational, government, cause, public service,
social, institutional and group advertising (Wells et al., 2000). Charity organisations like
the Salvation Army gather funds, inform supporters, volunteer and educate the public
about the services they provide. Advertisements such as these are usually sponsored
by associations, groups and committees rather than by individual organisations. They
do not try to sell a specific product but rather to raise issues, influence ideas, affect
legislation or alter behaviour in ways that they consider socially desirable. These
advertising messages therefore focus on a good cause, such as the dangers of drinking
and driving, or preventing the abuse of women and children.
Commercial advertising, by contrast, includes selective demand, product, direct response,
national and retail advertising.

Action or response advertising

Action or response advertising aims to bring about the consumer audience’s immediate
action and it is sometimes also referred to as direct-response advertising (Koekemoer, 2004;
Wells et al., 2000; Moriarty et al., 2009). Action or response advertising differs from
awareness or image advertising which focuses on creating awareness of and interest
in an image of a product. This type of advertising influences consumers to select a
specific brand the next time they shop.
Action advertising seeks an immediate, direct response from the consumer. A
direct-mail advertisement provides a telephone number or postal address, and tries to
stimulate a sale directly. The consumer can respond by telephone or by mail, and the
product is delivered to his or her door.
The majority of advertisements on television or radio are awareness or image
advertisements but some can be a mixture of awareness/image and action/response
advertising. The television advertisements, for example, might devote a few seconds to
image building and then focus on action or response messages by providing a telephone
number for immediate information and sales. The many infomercials on television
provide good examples of awareness/image advertising combined with action/
response advertising. The Verimark and Glomail advertisements make consumers
aware of the product and then attempt to persuade viewers that they will not be able
to survive without that product before they finally provide a telephone number that
viewers should immediately contact to obtain the product. The Internet, as the latest
advertising medium, has contributed significantly to establishing direct-response
advertising as a popular type of advertising (Moriarty et al., 2009).

Retail advertising
Retail advertising is sometimes also referred to as local advertising and focuses on the
place (that is, the store) where consumers can buy a specific product or use a service.
This type of advertising therefore sells the retail establishment as the place to buy
a number of brands and not individual products. Retail advertisements are specific
about the location, and the products that can be bought there. Every type of retail
store – such as department stores, chemists, grocery stores, sporting goods stores and

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speciality stores – offers goods bought from the producers. Retail advertising provides
facts about products that are available in local stores, and aims to create store traffic
and a positive image in the minds of the target audience (Moriarty et al., 2009).
Enterprises such as banks, restaurants, funeral homes and dry cleaners also offer
services to consumers and they too advertise by means of retail advertising. Although
the terms retail and local advertising are sometimes used interchangeably, local advertising
more specifically refers to a retailer, manufacturer or distributor who offers products in
restricted geographic areas (Moriarty et al., 2009). In South Africa, examples of retail
outlets are Spar, Shoprite Checkers and Game, and examples of restaurants are Spur,
Wimpy and McDonald’s.

Political advertising
Politicians use political advertising to persuade the general public to vote for them at
election time. Politicians address important issues by means of political advertising,
which also allows them to tell the public what they stand for (Koekemoer, 2004).

Personal advertising
Personal advertising is when individuals buy space in local newspapers to, for example,
sell cars or furniture, find new owners for pets, or sell camping equipment.

Recruitment advertising
Organisations make use of recruitment advertising to recruit staff for positions that
they have available (Wilmshurst, 1985).

8.4.2 Classification by target audience

Two broad categories exist under this classification, namely consumer advertising and
business-to-business (B2B) advertising (Koekemoer, 2004).

Consumer advertising
Consumer advertising includes end-product (brand or service) advertising on a
national or local basis, retail advertising and direct-response advertising. Consumer
advertising entails any advertising aimed at the consumer, who buys the product or
uses the service. This type of advertising is usually done on a national basis by national
advertisers, while local service providers (such as a hotel) or smaller manufacturers
might use local advertising (Koekemoer, 2004).

Business-to-business (B2B) advertising

Many companies need to advertise to other businesses or organisations or to a
particular industry or profession. The target of this type of advertising is people who
either use a product or service, or who influence a firm’s decision to purchase another
organisation’s product or service (Koekemoer, 2004). The three categories of B2B
advertising are industrial, professional and trade advertising:

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1. Industrial advertising: This is aimed at a small group of people that buy goods and
services for commerce, industry, government and other institutions (for example
hospitals, schools, hotels and catering chains). The people who buy these products
do not buy for themselves and they buy products such as factory machines, office
equipment and vehicles, bulk supplies of stationery, raw materials and components.
Products advertised under the banner of industrial advertising usually become a
physical part of another product (for example raw material or component parts), are
used in the manufacture of other goods (for example machinery or equipment), or
to help the manufacturer conduct business (for example office supplies, computers,
copy machines). Industrial advertisements are usually found in general business
publications (such as Financial Mail and Finance Week) or in publications targeted at
the particular industry (such as Engineering News).
2. Professional advertising: Professional advertising is directed at professionals such as
doctors, lawyers, dentists and pharmacists. This type of advertising encourages
professionals to prescribe or recommend specific products to others. For example,
by advertising a product like Panado in a medical journal, the sponsor hopes to
persuade doctors and pharmacists to recommend it to their patients and clients.
  It is important to distinguish between professional advertising and advertising done
by professional people. In the past, professionals such as doctors, lawyers and dentists
did not advertise their services; however, more recently, professionals have used
this type of advertising to attempt to gain an advantage over their competition
(Koekemoer, 2004).
3. Trade advertising: Trade advertising is seen in specialist publications addressed to
groups such as grocers, retailers, wholesalers and agents. This type of advertising
intends to persuade retailers and wholesalers to stock a particular product and
to promote the sale thereof. For example, a particular brand of dog food, such
as Epol, is advertised to a retail outlet like Shoprite Checkers or a wholesaler like
Makro. In this example, trade advertising tends to emphasise Epol’s profitability
and the consumer demand that will create a high turnover for Shoprite Checkers
or Makro.
One of the aims of trade advertising is to secure an initial trial for a product.
Manufacturers are interested in increasing the number of retail outlets that stock their
brands. With trade advertising, the manufacturer of a particular brand can persuade
the retailer to stock the brand and provide a distinct space in the retail outlet for
its brand. Furthermore, trade advertising can increase trade support for a particular
brand. It can encourage retailers to give a prominent position to an organisation’s
products, use a manufacturer’s point-of-purchase material, or take advantage of
dealer incentives offered by an organisation. Trade advertising announces consumer
promotions and offers a schedule that outlines when such promotions will occur in the
future. This is to let dealers know that they are being supported by specific advertising,
as well as to encourage dealers to co-ordinate local promotions with the manufacturer’s
national advertising efforts (Koekemoer, 2004; Wells et al., 2000).

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8.4.3 Classification by geographic area

Advertising can be used locally, regionally, nationally and even internationally
(Koekemoer, 2004).

Local advertising
To persuade local consumers to buy products at a specific retail outlet, local retailers
use local advertising. This kind of advertising can also be used to convince consumers
to use a local service such as a restaurant, hairdressing salon or bank. Whereas
national advertising focuses on persuading consumers to buy a particular brand, local
advertising attempts to persuade consumers to buy products at a specific retail outlet.
This type of advertising specifies general aspects such as trading hours, service, the
variety of products, sales promotions and sales.

Regional advertising
When an advertiser wants to devote the advertisement of a product or service to a
certain area, the advertising will specifically state, for example, ‘only in Gauteng’ or
‘only available in the North West province’. This advertising category overlaps with
local advertising where a retailer in a specific geographic area advertises products
available in store.

National advertising
National advertising is sometimes also referred to as retail advertising. Manufacturers
advertising a particular brand that is sold through different distribution outlets use this
type of advertising. The product is usually sold in major centres around the country.
National advertising contributes to building the image of and demand for a brand by
providing general product information. It is assumed that a consumer enters a retail
outlet with the intention of buying a particular brand that is promoted by national
advertising, ranging from consumables such as Coca-Cola and Bokomo to larger
products such as Mercedes-Benz and Philips.

International advertising
Multinational marketing companies use international advertising to promote their
brands to the trade industry and to consumers. Examples are Coca-Cola, Colgate
and Pepsi. Although these brands are well known all over the world, the advertising
approach cannot always be exactly the same in every country. Different models,
languages, cultural issues and international media are utilised to advertise a product
in each country.

8.4.4 Classification by medium
Advertisers can use any type of medium to present their advertising messages to target
audiences. The media include print advertising (newspapers and magazines), broadcast/
electronic advertising (radio, cinema and television), outdoor advertising (fixed sites
and transit) and the Internet. Internet advertising is often also referred to as interactive

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advertising. This type of advertising can be delivered only to individual consumers who
have access to a computer and the Internet. The medium is interactive in nature because
the consumer can respond to the advertising message, modify it, expand it or ignore it.
Table 8.2 (adapted from Koekemoer, 2004) summarises the different ways in which
advertising can be classified.

Table 8.2 The classification of advertising

By purpose By target audience

„„ primary and selective demand „„ consumer advertising
„„ product advertising „„ business-to-business advertising
„„ corporate image advertising „„ industrial advertising
„„ commercial/non-commercial „„ professional advertising
advertising „„ trade advertising
„„ action/response advertising
„„ retail advertising
„„ political advertising
„„ personal advertising
„„ recruitment advertising

By geographic area By medium

„„ local advertising „„ print advertising (newspapers and
„„ regional advertising magazines)
„„ national advertising „„ broadcast/electronic advertising (radio,
„„ international advertising cinema and television)
„„ outdoor advertising (fixed sites and
transit)
„„ the Internet

8.5 Roles of advertising
It has been demonstrated that advertisers prepare different types of advertisements
for different types of audience segments. Different products, services and causes
furthermore require diverse advertising messages. Taking this into consideration, it
is apparent that advertising also plays different roles in business and society. Thus,
because of the complicated nature of advertising and its influence on organisational
stakeholders and the broader society, advertising can no longer be regarded merely
as an element of the marketing mix which communicates marketing communication
messages on behalf of an organisation. The different roles that advertising plays in the
organisation as well as in the broader context of society are central to this discussion.
The two roles of advertising that will be focused and elaborated on in this chapter
are the marketing and societal roles of advertising, even though the marketing,
communication, economic and societal roles of advertising are also discussed below,
according to Moriarty et al.’s (2009) classification.

8.5.1 The marketing role

Marketing is the process whereby an organisation provides goods and services to
consumers based on their identified needs and wants. Anything from goods (such as

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vehicles, television sets and furniture) and services (such as restaurants, real estate
and insurance) to ideas (such as ‘stop smoking’ or ‘don’t drink and drive’) can be sold
by an organisation. Products are organised into product categories and presented to
target audience segments (Moriarty et al., 2009) the marketing mix, or the four Ps, are
the tools available to marketers (refer to chapters 5 and 6 for complete and detailed
discussions on the marketing mix and marketing communication mix). The marketing
communication mix or promotional mix is the most important communication
element of the marketing mix. Advertising is one of the elements of the marketing
communication/promotional mix, and assists in developing brands, which is,
according to Moriarty et al. (2009), the distinctive identity of a particular product
that distinguishes it from its competitors. From an integrated perspective, advertising
functions in unison with the other elements of the marketing communication mix in
order to communicate an organisation’s cohesive and integrated corporate brand.

8.5.2 The communication role

Advertising is a form of communication, and informs and persuades target audiences
about an organisation’s products and services. This is the most prominent role that
advertising plays in the marketing communication mix. Advertising is a form of mass
communication which is indirect and complex, and transmits product information
to connect buyers and sellers in the marketplace (Moriarty et al., 2009). As part of its
communicative role, it plays a branding role, transforming a product by creating an
image that goes beyond straightforward facts (Moriarty et al., 2009). Thus, in order
to successfully fulfil a communication role, the advertising message should clearly
communicate the brand message, which should then be comprehended and retained
by the target audience.

8.5.3  The economic role

Advertising plays an economic role because it brings cost efficiency to the marketing
effort (Moriarty et al., 2009). This is because advertising can reach a large audience and
therefore bring down the cost of marketing efforts. It is argued that the more people
know about the product, the higher the sales will be. It also follows that the higher
the level of sales, the cheaper the product can be. Moriarty et al., (2009) explain that
advertising flourishes in societies where supply exceeds demand and where its function
extends beyond the simple informational role to create a demand for a particular
brand. This is done through two techniques:
„„ hard-sell approaches where reasons are used to persuade consumers
„„ soft-sell approaches which build an image for a brand and play on consumers’
emotions.
Two schools of thought regarding advertising’s economic role exist. The first regards
advertising as a vehicle for helping consumers assess value through price cues and other
information such as quality, location and reputation (Moriarty et al., 2009). Adherents
to this school believe that advertising is a means to objectively provide price/value
information and thereby create more rational economic decisions. The second school
maintains that advertising appeals to consumers’ emotional responses by presenting

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them with images and psychological appeals that can influence their decisions. This
type of advertising is regarded as persuasive and causes consumers to stay loyal to a
brand, irrespective of the price.

8.5.4 The societal role

All of us are confronted daily with numerous advertising messages, even when we are not
aware of them. Advertisements not only play an important informational role but also
can have an immense societal effect upon the society in which they are presented. For
this reason, advertising’s effect on society should be evaluated, discussed and carefully
considered. Moriarty et al. (2009) concur that advertising has a number of social roles.
It is well known that advertising informs, persuades and educates audience members
regarding products, services and ideas, but it also both mirrors and creates fashion
and design trends, and therefore can shape a society’s aesthetic sense. By presenting
images of the world we live in, advertising helps to shape an image of ourselves and our
society by providing role models with whom we can identify, which in turn can affect
the development of own personalities and identities. The societal role of advertising
can be regarded as both positive and negative, however. (This is discussed in detail in
a subsequent section.)

8.6 Advertising and its role in the marketing mix and overall

communication strategy of the organisation
The most visible and publicly known element of the marketing communication mix,
namely advertising, is revealed, on a daily basis, by the creative, exciting, rewarding
and challenging advertising industry (Ouwersloot & Duncan, 2008). The challenge,
however, lies in the way in which advertising is integrated with the many other
marketing communication elements available. Section 8.5.1 (the marketing role), in
order to contextualise advertising’s prominent position in the broader framework of
organisational communication, explains advertising’s marketing role in terms of its
association and position in the marketing mix and marketing communication mix.
We now further this discussion by elucidating advertising’s role in the marketing mix
and overall communication strategy of the organisation. This discussion is necessitated
by the fact that advertising is frequently thought to be the same as marketing.
Advertising is not marketing; rather, it is an integral part of the marketing process
in an organisation. The marketing process traditionally consists of the four elements
of the marketing mix: product, price, channel of distribution (place), and promotion
or marketing communication (the four Ps) (see also Chapter 5). Although the four Ps
concept has evolved into different perspectives, such as the four Cs perspective, it is
still the most widely used marketing mix perspective. While each of these elements
is essential in communicating with different target audiences and markets, the most
visible communicative element is the promotional or marketing communication mix.
The main purpose of this element is to communicate marketing messages to
a diverse spectrum of consumers. The promotional/marketing communication
mix itself also consists of different elements or tools that can be used to facilitate
effective communication with consumers. These elements include advertising,

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sales management, sales promotion, direct marketing, personal selling, public

relations, publicity, sponsorship, marketing public relations and the Internet. It is
therefore apparent that advertising is only one element of the promotional/marketing
communication mix and that it is used in combination with the other elements of
this mix. The combined use of these elements is referred to as integrated marketing
communication (IMC). The concept of IMC has evolved since it was defined by
authors such as Smith (1995: 64) as:
… a concept of marketing communications planning that recognizes the added value
in a program that integrates a variety of strategic disciplines, e.g., general advertising,
direct response, sales promotion, and public relations – and combines these disciplines to
provide clarity, consistency, and maximum communications impact.

More recently, Belch and Belch (2009:12) defined IMC as:

… a strategic business process used to plan, develop, execute and evaluate coordinated,
measurable, persuasive brand communications programs over time with consumers,
customers, prospects, employees, associates and other targeted relevant external and
internal audiences. The goal is to generate both short-term financial returns and build
long-term brand and shareholder value.

At about the same time, Ouwersloot and Duncan (2008) defined IMC as:
… a collective term for all the various types of planned messages used to build a brand
– advertising, public relations, sales promotion, direct marketing, personal selling,
packaging, event and sponsorships, and customer service.

Naik (2007) regards the big idea in the IMC concept as:
… the holistic view of marketing communications so that the brand capitalize synergies
among advertising, direct response, sales promotion and public relations. The creative
combination of multiple activities should offer clarity, consistency and impact.

Shimp (2003) suggests that:

…IMC is a communication process that entails the planning, creation, integration,
and implementation of diverse forms of marketing communication (advertising, sales
promotion, publicity releases, events, etc.) that are delivered over time to a brand’s
targeted customers and prospects. The goal of IMC is ultimately to influence or directly
affect the behaviour of the targeted audience. IMC considers all sources of contact that
a customer/prospect has with the brand as potential delivery channels for messages and
makes use of all communications methods that are relevant to customers/prospects and
to which they might be receptive.

Chapter 5 explores marketing in detail, along with the role and place of advertising
in the marketing mix. Chapter 6 discusses IMC and the place of advertising in the
promotional mix; the nature of the different elements of that mix; and the importance
of the integration of the marketing communication processes with all other
communication processes in an organisation.
Even though most of an organisation’s visible communication messages are
disseminated under the marketing umbrella, all organisational activities and functions
send out communication messages, and these must be integrated. Truly integrated

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communication results from different internal and external communication functions

being produced and practised within a consistent framework. This essentially entails
the centralisation and constant delivery of all these messages. Therefore, the messages
should communicate the same idea in a related way to all internal and external
stakeholders so as to create a single corporate brand for the organisation.
Prior to the realisation that a coherent communication policy facilitates a favourable
corporate organisational brand in the eyes of its major target groups and that this
communication policy should be followed for the better operation of the organisation
in general, communication was practised in a fragmented way in most organisations.
It is now understood that the centralisation and synchronisation of communication
from all sources in an organisation, as well as in any internal or external organisational
activity, are imperative for its successful functioning.
Therefore, it is crucial to understand that integrated marketing communications (for
example advertising, sales promotion, product publicity, direct marketing, packaging,
and so on), and integrated marketing (product, price, place and promotion), each play
only a certain part in determining and implementing truly integrated communication
in any organisation.
Everything an organisation does or does not do sends a brand message. Thus,
the integration of all marketing messages, marketing communication messages,
intra-organisational communication messages and the organisation’s entire
communication effort is regarded as crucial and significant in terms of creating the
synergies that are generated due to the orchestration of multiple activities (Naik,
2007). Integrated communication thus emphasises the need for co-ordination,
harmonisation and integration of all forms of internal and external communication
in any organisation.
In addition to investigating the important marketing role that advertising plays as
an element of the marketing communication mix and in the overall communication
effort of the organisation, it is necessary to further investigate the role it plays in society.

8.7 Advertising and its role in society

The question as to whether advertising is good or bad for society has been addressed
by advertising scholars, researchers and practitioners but no conclusion has yet been
reached. Social criticisms of advertising stem from the manner in which it is used as
a selling tool and because of its impact on society’s tastes, values and lifestyles, which
has led many critics to believe that advertising plays a major role in influencing and
transmitting social values (Belch & Belch, 2009). Many of the techniques and methods
used by advertisers in their advertising messages constitute deception, untruthfulness,
offensiveness and exploitation. Most advertising messages attempt to provide
information about products (Moriarty et al., 2009) with persuasive messages which
aim to inform a specific target audience about products and services. This can be
done through mass media and by connecting an identified sponsor with the particular
audience segment. Because of advertising’s visibility and the significant role it plays in
society, it needs to act in a socially responsible manner, irrespective of the purpose or
role it serves (Moriarty et al., 2009; Belch & Belch, 2009).

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Different perspectives concerning the role of advertising as an institution in society are

presented below.

8.7.1 The demand-creation debate

The most important question posed here is whether advertising causes demand creation
or not. Do external advertising messages unnecessarily drive consumers to feel a
specific need or want for a specific product, service or cause? Are advertising messages
powerful enough to create demand for products and services which consumers do not
need? Many critics believe that, rather than merely providing information about the
products, advertising creates demand for products by persuading consumers to buy the
products (Belch & Belch, 2009). Generally, informational advertising which reports
on price, performance and other objective criteria is regarded as acceptable, whereas
persuasive advertising that plays on consumers’ emotions, anxieties and psychological
needs and desires such as status, self-esteem and attractiveness is regarded as
unacceptable. Moriarty et al. (2009) contextualise this debate by noting that people
did not, for example, realise that they had body odour until 1919 when a new body
deodorant, Odorono, was developed and advertised to women for the first time. Men
were expected to emit bad odours and therefore the advertisement was directed only
at women. When the advertisement was placed in the Ladies Home Journal, 200 people
cancelled their subscription to show their disgust with it. Despite this uproar, the
advertisement was effective, and sales for the deodorant rose by 112%. Moriarty et al.’s
example shows that consumers will buy an advertised product even if they do not
know or believe that they need it. This succumbing to advertising pressure still takes
place today, when consumers are persuaded by means of well-executed advertising
messages that they need a product or service which they appeared not to have needed
prior to the advertising. The converse, however, is also true. Consumers might buy a
product for the first time even though they do not really need it but they will certainly
not continue to buy it if they are dissatisfied with it. Therefore advertising might create
demand but consumers will refuse to purchase the product if they do not want or like
it (Moriarty et al., 2009).

8.7.2 The shape-versus-mirror debate

Ever since the onset of advertising there has been debate concerning whether advertising
shapes or mirrors social values. It should thus be determined to what extent advertising
influences society and public opinion. It has been argued that advertising influences
vulnerable groups such as children and young teenagers (Moriarty et al., 2009). It is,
however, impossible to substantiate this argument because so many different factors
can influence teenagers, children or other vulnerable groups. For example, advertising
might not be the only culprit responsible for the prevalence of eating disorders. Critics
ascribe to advertising the role of creating social trends and dictating how people think
and act. This, together with relentless television, Internet, radio and print messages, as
well as outdoor advertisements, creates ‘desirable’ images or objects which individuals
try to emulate or obtain. Critics maintain that these images that are presented in

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advertising messages influence members of society to believe that they should conform
to the ‘norm’ that has been established by such images.
On the other hand, advertisers and the creators of advertising messages defend
themselves by explicating that they only mirror trends that are already evident in
society in order to establish a connection with their target audiences (Moriarty et al.,
2009). If advertisers, for example, realise that society values honesty and ethical
behaviour or specific moral values, they will mirror those aspirations and values
in their advertising messages. This argument maintains that advertising messages
replicate societal values and norms, and therefore do not create them. For as long as
advertising as a phenomenon is part of our daily lives, this debate will continue.
It is concluded here that advertising and society’s values and norms are interactive
(Moriarty et al., 2009) and, therefore, that advertising both mirrors and shapes societal
values.

8.7.3 The over-commercialisation debate

During the second half of the 20th century, materialistic consumerism in the Western
world escalated dramatically. A question that has been posed is whether or not
advertising contributed to this by encouraging consumers to become more materialistic
(Moriarty et al., 2009). Many critics argue that advertising encourages materialism
and consequently has an adverse effect on consumers’ (and society in general’s) values.
Furthermore, advertising is blamed for creating a preoccupation with material things
rather than encouraging intellectual or spiritual concerns (Belch & Belch, 2009).
As with the discussion above, it can either be argued that advertising creates more
materialism in society or that it simply mirrors the materialistic values already present
in it. To argue that advertising directs commercialism and materialism is to suggest
that consumers do not have minds of their own. Consumers still have the opportunity
to decide for themselves whether or not they want to buy a product or use a service.
Another important point to remember is that materialism and commercialism are a
global trend and it would be unfair to ascribe its negative impact solely to advertising.
Belch and Belch (2009) determine that a major contributor to this increasing
materialism is advertising that
„„ creates needs rather than merely shows how a product or service fulfils them
„„ shows images of the good life and suggests that the acquisition of material
possessions leads to happiness and joy
„„ suggests that material possessions are symbols of status, accomplishment, and
success and that having them will lead to greater social acceptance, popularity
and sex appeal.
Arguments against this viewpoint emphasise that this emphasis on material possessions
does not necessarily eliminate society’s interest in intellectual, spiritual or cultural
values and therefore such advertising might simply be a reflection of societal values.
The question once again arises: Does advertising reflect or shape societal values and
norms? Does advertising cause materialism or does it reflect the materialistic culture
evident in today’s consumerist society?

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8.7.4 The untruthful or deceptive advertising message debate

One of the most important criticisms levelled against advertising is that it is deceptive
and untruthful and consequently misleads consumers (Belch & Belch, 2009). Studies
among consumers show that they do not trust advertising messages for most types of
products and prefer to rely on word of mouth from friends and family, which they
consider to be a more trustworthy source of information. Advertising regulations
insist that advertisers should have a reasonable basis for making claims about product
performance and that advertisers might be required to provide evidence to support
any claims made in advertising messages (Belch & Belch, 2009). Consumers perceive
deception somewhat differently and therefore have varied opinions about what
impacts on their beliefs, values and norms. This, together with the fact that advertisers
are allowed to use puffery (promotional statements and claims that project subjective
rather than objective views) in their advertising messages, complicates the issue of
untruthfulness and deception in advertising.

8.7.5 The advertising-to-children debate

Advertising to children is one of the most controversial topics in the advertising
industry and has been the subject of heated debate for many years (Moriarty et al.,
2009). Television is used by children as an information source and is therefore one of the
most important media through which advertisers can reach children. Approximately
80% of all advertising targeted towards children falls within four product categories:
toys, cereals, candy and fast-food restaurants (Belch & Belch, 2009). Children are
regarded as an important target market because of their direct purchase ability and
their influence on family purchase decisions.
Concerns have also been raised regarding marketers’ use of other marketing
communication elements such as radio advertisements and point-of-purchase displays.
One of the reasons why this topic draws so much attention is because children’s
vulnerability is frequently exploited in the market, while their inability to understand
and critically evaluate the purpose of persuasive advertising appeals complicates the
matter (Belch & Belch, 2009). Children have impressionable minds and cannot make
responsible choices without guidance from accountable adults. This is especially
the case with preschool children, who show an incapability to differentiate between
commercials and programmes, to comprehend the selling intent of commercials, and
to distinguish between reality and fantasy.

8.7.6 Advertising’s impact on other societal issues

Advertising’s impact on society’s values and norms is evidently an important debate
that will persist for some time. Advertising is not only accused of shaping societal
values and norms, over-commercialising consumers, being deceitful, and cunningly
advertising to children, however. It is also charged with other societal crimes. This
section therefore encourages the reader to think about what and how advertising
contributes to our daily lives, as well as the influence it has on our cultural norms
and values. The main issues surrounding advertising’s social responsibility were
highlighted in the previous section with the debate concerning advertising’s role in

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creating demand for products and its ability to shape societal values and creating
materialistic consumers. Moriarty et al. (2009), Drumwright (2007) and Belch and
Belch (2009) elaborate on the societal impact of advertising by adding six key societal
issues that need to be taken into account:
„„ Poor taste and offensive advertising: Whether or not advertising is considered to
be offensive or offered in poor taste usually depends on the context in which
the advertisement is viewed. A specific advertisement might not be offensive to
adults but when they view that same advertisement with children the different
context might make them feel differently (Moriarty et al., 2009). Usually
elements such as nudity, vulgarity and violence are considered to be offensive in
terms of general societal norms and values, and advertisers and marketers alike
need to pay due heed to the target audience’s specific needs, norms and values.
However, what might be regarded as poor taste and offensive advertising in
one context might well be acceptable to a different target audience. It is thus of
utmost importance that advertisers analyse their target audiences and, through
the process of audience segmentation, direct specific advertising messages to
specific audiences.
„„ Sex in advertising: Although sex or sexual suggestion in advertising is not a new
phenomenon, it is becoming increasingly more blatant (Moriarty et al., 2009).
The use of women or men as sex objects in advertisements, especially when sex is
irrelevant to the product being advertised, has also been a matter of heated debate
for many years.
„„ Portraying diverse people fairly and accurately: When a trait or group of traits of a
specific cultural group is not represented accurately, it constitutes stereotyping
(Moriarty et al., 2009). The issue of portraying diverse people fairly and accurately
in advertisements is linked to the ‘shape-versus-mirror’ debate. If on the one
hand it is acknowledged that advertising has the ability to shape societal values,
norms and views, advertisers should be sensitive to the way in which they portray
different groups of people. On the other hand, if it is believed that advertising
mirrors societal norms and values, advertisers have the responsibility to ensure
that the representation of any group is accurate and fair. Moriarty et al. (2009)
discuss common problems encountered in the way advertising portrays diverse
people and groups:
„„ Gender stereotypes: If advertising shapes societal norms and values, it teaches
society the way in which people supposedly fit into culturally shared gender
and racial roles. Advertising has historically portrayed gender according to
distinct and predictable stereotypes (Moriarty et al., 2009). Men are usually
portrayed as strong and independent whereas women are portrayed as
nurturing, empathetic, softer and dependent. In general, advertising messages
fail to recognise the changing role of women in society, which leads to the
common belief that advertising messages portray stereotypical images of
women.
„„ Body image and self-image: Advertising has a responsibility to portray healthy
body images yet many advertisements play on consumers’ insecurities about
their appearance. This is evident in the way in which supermodels are used to

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convey the ‘perfect’ appearance. According to Moriarty et al. (2009: 72), ‘the

standard of attractiveness is a sociocultural phenomenon that advertising both
mirrors and shapes’. Advertisers therefore have the responsibility to present
members of society with healthy cultural standards of physical attractiveness
and beauty.
„„ Racial and ethnic stereotypes: Advertisers also have the responsibility to accurately
portray racial and ethnic groups and their culture.
„„ Cultural differences in global advertising: Cultural differences around the world
are very real and need to be taken into account when designing advertising
messages. Concerns have been raised about the homogenisation of cultural
differences when advertisers impose their worldview on other cultures.
„„ Age-related stereotypes: Senior citizens are also regularly subject to stereotyping
and are often portrayed in a negative manner.
„„ Message-related issues: Advertising messages should communicate fairly and
accurately in order to avoid unethical and even illegal behaviour. Unethical
advertising messages include false, misleading and deceptive messages and
claims, and are therefore unacceptable in terms of social responsibility. One of
the most prevalent issues relating to advertising message content relates to the
distinction between providing information versus trying to persuade consumers
(Drumwright, 2007). The question remains whether the advertising message
merely informs with facts or persuades with emotional appeals, self-interested
benefits and/or visual representation. It is argued that persuasive advertising
content is objectionable because it creates desire in circumstances where
consumers are unable to distinguish between information and persuasion. Of
course, sometimes advertising messages need to be persuasive, for example
when they are to do with social issues such as drinking and driving, drug abuse
and HIV prevention.
„„ There are different types of misleading or false advertising messages:
„„ Misleading claims: Many weight-loss advertising messages are guilty of
exaggeration and are alleged to mislead consumers into believing that they
will easily lose weight if they use a particular product. Such misleading claims
are regarded as unethical advertising practice.
„„ Puffery: Puffery is defined as ‘advertising or other sales representations
which praise the item to be sold with subjective opinions, superlatives, or
exaggerations, vaguely and generally, stating no specific facts’ (Moriarty
et al., 2009: 74). Because puffery is not illegal this is regarded more as an
ethical issue. Puffery is evident when claims in advertising messages are based
on opinion rather than fact, and when they make false or misleading promises
(Drumwright, 2007). These types of advertising messages can be especially
unethical when presented to children who do not always know the difference
between opinion and fact.
„„ Comparative advertising: In some countries such as the US, comparative
advertising is legal and used regularly. Comparative advertising in South
Africa is against the principles set out by the Advertising Standards

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Authority (ASA) and is therefore not permitted. Comparative advertising can

easily be misleading and is therefore ill advised.
„„ Endorsements: An endorsement is a testimonial from a spokesperson who endorses
the brand. This type of advertising is legal and permitted except if the endorser
does not actually use the product. If consumers can reasonably ascertain that
a message does not reflect the spokesperson’s opinions, beliefs or experiences,
the message is then not endorsed but misleading. Celebrities are often used as
spokespersons for certain brands, which helps to build credibility for the brand
and the advertiser alike. Generally, consumers believe that the role models
they respect will provide them with truthful information. An example of
endorsements in advertising was the advertisement for Protex soap that had the
well-known Springbok rugby hero Bryan Habana as its spokesperson.
„„ Demonstrations: Product demonstrations must not mislead consumers. This
especially pertains to food advertising where substitutes such as a mixture of
glue and water are sometimes used to advertise milk because genuine milk
usually looks grey on television. Advertisers generally overcome this problem
by inserting disclaimers in the advertising message.
„„ Controversial message: Some authors, such as Drumwright (2007), believe that
sexual appeals, fear appeals and political messages are unethical.
„„ Product-related issues: It is essential that marketers carefully consider the type of
product they wish to advertise and, consequently, careful assessment of the
advertising message is essential. The key areas regarding product-related issues
are the following:
„„ Advertising controversial products: Because of its visibility, advertising is often
blamed for ‘selling’ controversial products. Advertising messages for
controversial products such as firearms, casinos, liquor, feminine hygiene
products and condoms have become acceptable but in some contexts might
still offend certain people.
„„ Unhealthy or dangerous products: In the era of social responsibility, advertising
agencies have become aware of the dangers of advertising unhealthy foods
such as fast food, and dangerous products such as cigarettes. Another strict
regulation has been imposed to prevent advertisements from advertising
liquor to underaged drinkers. In South Africa, advertisements for cigarettes
are no longer permitted and regarded as illegal.

8.8 Advertising consumer response theory

The evolution and nature of advertising, its classification, the different roles it plays in
society and especially its social responsibility role has been highlighted in the preceding
sections. It is nevertheless necessary to determine what happens after consumers have
been exposed to an advertising message. What are the response processes through
which consumers proceed when they perceive an advertising message, react to it and
subsequently go out and buy the product or use the service advertised?
This section focuses on the theoretical approaches to advertising with a discussion
of the various traditional advertising response models which elucidate the consumer
response process, as well as of the integrated marketing communication internal

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consumer response model (Hanekom & Barker, 2009). The latter model conceptualises
the internal consumer response process prior to purchasing a product, using a service
or proceeding to a certain type of action by identifying variables which could alter
internal consumer response at each individual consumer response level. A brief
discussion of these models is necessary in order to lay the foundation for effective
communication via advertising messages.
In order to be able to develop effective advertising messages the advertiser needs
to understand the processes through which the consumer proceeds when he or she
is exposed to an advertising message. This process comprises a specific sequence of
behavioural phases as the consumer travels toward behaviour such as purchasing a
product or using a service. The advertising consumer response models describe and
explain the communication process. Based on these explanations, the advertiser
can define what might be expected to happen as a result of the advertising message,
and can set out to measure whether or not it has elicited the desired response.

8.8.1 The three-order paradigmatic consumer response model

categorisation
The traditional advertising consumer response models are categorised into three main
paradigms that have been derived from the main premises of each of the models. This
is referred to as the three-order paradigmatic consumer response model categorisation
(Hanekom & Barker, 2009), as indicated in Table 8.3.

Table 8.3 The three-order paradigmatic consumer response model categorisation

PARADIGMS The traditional The factorial The inclusive facets

sequential variability paradigm
paradigm paradigm

MODELS „„ AIDA „„ Three-order „„ Association model

„„ Hierarchy of model of of the advertising
effects information communication
„„ Innovation processing process
adoption „„ Integrated „„ Facets model of
„„ Information information effects
processing response
„„ FCB grid
Source: Hanekom & Barker (2009)

The models and relevant response stages in each of these three main paradigms are
briefly discussed, based on Hanekom and Barker’s (2009) classification, in order to
provide a theoretical underpinning and basis for advertising consumer response.

The traditional sequential paradigm

The AIDA model
Strong’s (1925) AIDA model is one of the most well-known and basic consumer
response hierarchy models and is recognised for presenting the stages that are used to

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take the consumer through the personal selling process (Hanekom & Barker, 2009).
This model includes the following sequential steps that the consumer proceeds through
from the stage of being unaware of the product to the stage where action is taken when,
for example, they buy the product. These sequential steps are: (1) attention; (2) interest;
(3) desire; and (4) action.

The hierarchy of effects model

The hierarchy of effects model by Lavidge and Steiner (1961) is a paradigm for
setting and measuring advertising objectives. This model’s basic premise is that
advertising effects occur over a period of time (Hanekom & Barker, 2009) and
should be thought of as a force which has to move people up a series of seven steps.
These steps are the following:
„„ unawareness of the product
„„ awareness of its existence
„„ knowledge of what the product has to offer
„„ liking the product
„„ preference for the product
„„ desire to buy the product
„„ conviction that the purchase would be wise
„„ purchase.

The innovation adoption model

Rogers (1962) developed the innovation adoption model which explains the consumer’s
progress from being unaware of the product to purchasing the product, and consists of
the following stages of the advertising consumer response process:
„„ awareness stage
„„ interest stage
„„ evaluation stage
„„ trial stage
„„ adoption stage.

The information processing model

McGuire’s (1978) information processing model explains that consumers proceed
through the following stages (a response hierarchy) when exposed to advertising
messages:
„„ presentation via formal and informal media of communication
„„ the consumer attending to the message
„„ comprehension of the message content
„„ yielding to the correctly comprehended messages
„„ retaining the advertising message
„„ acting upon the inclination.

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The factorial variability paradigm

The three-orders hierarchy model of information processing
The three-orders model of information processing by Michael Ray (1973) is divided
into three quadrants, each of which depicts a different alternative response hierarchy
(Hanekom & Barker, 2009):
„„ The learning hierarchy exists when the audience is involved in the topic of the campaign
and when there are clear differences between alternatives.
„„ The dissonance-attribution hierarchy suggests a ‘do–feel–learn’ sequence and involves
situations during which the consumer first behaves or purchases a product, then
develops an attitude, emotional reaction or feeling as a result of that behaviour,
and then seeks information that supports the behaviour.
„„ The low-involvement hierarchy suggests a ‘learn–do–feel’ sequence of the consumer
response process and occurs when there are minimal differences between alternatives or
when low involvement makes actual differences unimportant to the audience. This
situation thus typically occurs when there is low involvement in the purchasing
process and little product differentiation, and when advertising messages are
important.

The integrated information response model

Smith and Swinyard (1982) developed the integrated information response model which
suggests several different consumer response patterns that can result from advertising.
They explain that different response sequences are likely for low-involvement purchases
(for example cold drinks and bubblegum) as opposed to high-involvement purchases
(for example cars and insurance).

The Foote, Cone and Belding (FCB) planning model

The following four quadrants are evident in the FCB matrix:
„„ The informative planning strateg y: This planning strategy portrays the consumer who
thinks about purchasing a specific product like a car, house or furniture. Because
of the importance of the product and the thinking related to it, this consumer is
highly involved in the purchasing decision and therefore requires an adequate
amount of information about the product.
„„ The affective strateg y: These product decisions occur when specific information is
less important than an attitude or holistic feeling. The affective strategy depicts the
consumer who wants to buy highly emotive products such as jewellery, cosmetics,
fashion apparel or motorcycles.
„„ The habit formation strateg y: This strategy represents the consumer who wants to
buy products such as food and household items that involve minimal thought and
a tendency to purchase as a result of buying habits and convenience. Consumers
are not deeply involved when purchasing these products and do not think about
them a great deal when doing so.
„„ The self-satisfaction strateg y: This low-involvement area involves decisions where
imagery and quick satisfaction lead to buying products that satisfy personal tastes.
This strategy includes products such as cigarettes, liquor and sweets. Consumers

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are not highly involved when purchasing these products although the products do
elicit certain feelings from them (Vaughn, 1980).

The inclusive facets paradigm

The association model of the advertising communication process
In 1982, Preston introduced the association model of the advertising communication
process with the intention of extending and improving on traditional response
hierarchy models like the AIDA model (Hanekom & Barker, 2009).
Preston (1982) clearly indicates how the consumer proceeds through the response
process when exposed to advertising messages with the following steps:
„„ distribution, vehicle exposure and ad exposure step
„„ ad awareness step
„„ product awareness
„„ association awareness
„„ association evaluation
„„ product perception, prior perception and integrated perception
„„ product stimulation, prior stimulation and integrated stimulation.

The facets model of effects

Moriarty et al. (2009) move away from linear models by presenting a model of
advertising effects that includes perceptual dimension, persuasion, association and
brand transformation that explains how advertising creates various types of consumer
responses. The model is explained in terms of six categories of effects:
„„ See/hear – the perception facet: Consumers select the advertising messages to which
they pay attention.
„„ Feel – the affective or emotional facet: The feelings associated with the affective facet are
desire, liking and resonance.
„„ Understanding – the cognitive facet: The key drivers of a consumer’s cognitive response
are need, learning, comprehension, differentiation and recall.
„„ Connect – the association facet: The factors driving association are symbolism,
conditioned learning and transformation.
„„ Believe – the persuasion facet: Persuasion changes attitudes and forms beliefs.
„„ Act – the behaviour facet: The behavioural response is often the most important goal
of marketing communication. The factors that drive a behavioural response are
try, buy, contact, advocate, refer and prevent.

8.8.2 An integrated marketing communication internal response model

The preceding section provided a brief overview of existing response models which
were categorised in terms of three main theoretical paradigms. The integrated
marketing communication internal response model was developed by Hanekom and
Barker (2009) in order to propose a comprehensive conceptual model to address the
main limitations of existing advertising response models, primarily in light of the lack
of the integration of all possible consumer response levels and phases, as well as the

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lack of the identification of specific variables which could alter consumer response
levels and subsequent phases (Hanekom & Barker, 2009).
The main criticism that has been levelled against most of the existing traditional
advertising response models is that they do not take into account all the variables/
factors which could alter or influence the order of the consumer response process.
The integrated marketing communication internal response model addresses the
significance of the variables that can influence the order in which consumers proceed
through the response process, as well as the impact these variables will have on the
order or sequence in which consumers proceed through the different response levels
and phases (Hanekom & Barker, 2009).
The integrated marketing communication internal response model in Figure 8.1
explains the six consumer response levels and subsequent consumer response phases
through which the consumer proceeds when he or she is exposed to advertising
messages. The consumer proceeds along these levels and phases from the stage of being
unaware of a product or service to the point of purchasing the product or using the
service. Although this model refers to the response process through which a consumer
proceeds when exposed to marketing communication messages, from the integrated
perspective that is advocated in this book, it can also be applied to the response process
through which consumers proceed when exposed to advertising messages. Because
advertising is one of the elements of the marketing communication mix, it is argued
that this model explains not only the consumer response processes with regard to
all elements of the marketing communication mix but also the advertising response
process. The last column in the model shows the variables that can influence or alter
the order or sequence in which consumers proceed through the response levels and
phases when exposed to advertising messages.
The purpose of the model in Figure 8.1 is the following:
1. To integrate all existing, additional and original levels and phases of internal
consumer response into one comprehensive model that indicates consumer
response as a transactional rather than linear process.
2. To identify variables that could influence the sequence of the consumer response
process at each consumer response level and phase.
This model identifies variables which could influence or alter consumer response
at each individual consumer response level. The two-way arrows indicate that
consumers that proceed through these levels simultaneously proceed through the
related response phases in a transactional manner. It is important to bear in mind that
these levels and phases might overlap, might be proceeded through simultaneously
and might even be omitted. The manner in which a consumer proceeds through
these levels might also be unique or adapted to each response process (Hanekom &
Barker, 2009).

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Consumer response Consumer response Variables

levels phases

Vehicle exposure Exposure

occasion/
condition

Awareness Attention
Advertisement Consumer
awareness interest
Exposure
Advertisement elements
level awareness Awareness
Product awareness Characteristic
Association awareness of individual
consumer

Product perception

Attention
Prior perception Consumer
interest
Advertisement/
Integrated perception product
relevance
Awareness level
Selective perception
Advertisement/
Perception product
level recognition
Perceptual distortion Characteristic
of individual
consumer
Perceptual vigilance Characteristic of
stimuli
Information
Perceptual defence processing

Perceptual equilibrium

Perceptual
organisation

Perceptual
interpretation 

Figure 8.1 The integrated marketing communication internal consumer response model
Source: Hanekom & Barker (2009)
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Consumer response Consumer response Variables

levels phases

Attention
Need
Type of learning
Recognition of needs
Brand
differentiation
Recall
Gathering of
information Symbolism
Conditioned
learning
Association
Transformation of brand Brand
transformation
Knowledge structures
Characteristic
Cognitive of individual
consumer
level Cognitive learning
Characteristic of
stimuli
Conditioned learning Information
Classical conditioning processing
Instrumental Informational and
conditioning transformational
motivations
Perceived product
Differentiation differentiation
Topical
involvement
Comprehension

Elaboration
High
Low

Knowledge

Message acceptance


Figure 8.1 The integrated marketing communication internal consumer response model
(continued)
Source: Hanekom & Barker (2009)

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Consumer response Consumer response Variables

levels phases

Recognition of wants
Want/desire
Individual’s
Shaping of emotions feelings
around the message/
product Liking
Resonance
Motivation
Interest
Influence
(opinion leaders)
Liking Involvement
Believability/
credibility
Desire
Preference and
intention
Loyalty
Preference
Affective/ Characteristic
of individual
emotional level consumer
Conviction
Characteristic of
stimuli

Persuasion Information
processing
Informational
Attitude formation and
Cognitive component transformational
motivations
Affective component
Behavioural component Prior product
knowledge
Perceived
Motivation formation product
Rational motives differentiation
Emotional motives Topical
Manifest motives involvement


Figure 8.1 The integrated marketing communication internal consumer response model
(continued)
Source: Hanekom & Barker (2009)

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Consumer response Consumer response Variables

levels phases

Consumer interest
Advertisement/
product relevance
Advertisement/
product
recognition
Association evaluation Need
Recall

Product evaluation Conditioned

learning
Brand
Prior evaluation transformation
Want/desire
Liking
Integrated evaluation
Motivation

Decision-making Involvement
level Affect referral Believability/
credibility
Preference and
Compensatory intention
heuristic
Loyalty
Characteristic
Conjunctive heuristic of individual
consumer
Characteristic of
Product stimulation stimuli
Information
processing
Prior stimulation Impact of
advertising
message
Integrated stimulation Interpretation of
message
Credibility of
advertising
message
Familiarity
Informational and
transformational
motivations


Figure 8.1 The integrated marketing communication internal consumer response model
(continued)
Source: Hanekom & Barker (2009)
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Consumer response Consumer response Variables

levels phases

Trial
Buying
Memory: recognition Contacting
Encoding and storing
Retaining and storing Advocating
Transferring, tagging and Referral
retrieving
Prevention/
avoidance

Memory: recall Characteristic

of individual
consumer

Conviction and Purchasing

preference situation
Conative/ Impact of
behavioural advertising
level Action message
Recall
Interpretation of
Trial message
Credibility of
advertising
Purchase message
Familiarity

Adoption Informational and

transformational
motivations
Perceived product
Commitment
differentiation
Topical
involvement
Loyalty

Figure 8.1 The integrated marketing communication internal consumer response model
(continued)
Source: Hanekom & Barker (2009)

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The integrated marketing communication internal consumer response model

indicates that consumers proceed through different internal consumer response
levels and phases when exposed to integrated marketing communication, including
advertising messages. Variables influence consumers’ sequence and progression
through the different internal consumer response levels and phases. Consumers
proceed through the exposure level, perception level, cognitive level, affective/emotional level,
decision-making level and conative/behavioural level, which all include numerous internal
response phases, in a different order at different exposure occasions. Hanekom and
Barker (2009: 162) explicate that ‘consumers may even proceed through some of
these levels and phases simultaneously, omit others and proceed through some in an
unsystematic manner’.

8.9 The ethics of advertising

To conclude this chapter, the ethics of advertising are considered. This topic is important
to a comprehensive discussion of the advertising phenomenon because advertising’s
social influence is so hotly debated. In the advertising industry, ethical decisions need
to be made on a daily basis, especially as there are no clear indications of good and
bad behaviour (O’Barr [A]). An immense grey area exists between the extremes of
good and bad behaviour, and advertisers must constantly strive to act ethically and
responsibly towards the society in which they function. According to Belch and Belch
(2009), ‘ethics are moral principles and values that govern the actions and decisions
of an individual or group’. Moriarty et al. (2009) elaborate on this by explaining that
ethics are the ‘shoulds’ and ‘oughts’ and the ‘right thing to do’ of behaviour. What
makes ethical behaviour in advertising a grey area is the dilemma posed by the reality
that advertisers and marketers can act within the law but still act unethically. Because
advertising is such a visible way of communicating with consumers, ethical issues
should be carefully considered and strictly adhered to. If ethics are ignored, actions
that are highly visible and often very damaging to an organisation might result (Belch
& Belch, 2009). As discussed in Section 8.7 (advertising and its role in society), the
role of advertising in society is a controversial one and has been debated for centuries
(Shimp, 2003), especially in terms of how it has the potential to shape norms and
values, encourage over-commercialisation, disseminate untruthful and deceptive
messages, and advertise to children and vulnerable groups in an inappropriate manner.
These are all ethical issues that should be addressed by advertisers in order that they
honour their social responsibility. Drumwright (2007) divides ethical issues regarding
advertising into three distinct perspectives:
„„ the macro perspective, which focuses on advertising’s effects on society
„„ the micro perspective, which focuses on a more individual level – that is, individual
consumers, individual advertising practitioners, individual advertisements and
specific advertising practices
„„ the meso perspective, which exists between the macro and micro levels, and focuses
on the level of the organisation or groups of organisations – that is, the agencies,
clients and media.

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Table 8.4 identifies five ethical questions regarding advertising.

Table 8.4 Ethical questions regarding advertising

How do consumers The question of how consumers make ethical judgements about
make ethical advertisements is answered by Drumwright (2007) who explains
judgements about that consumers’ perceptions of advertising ethics differ based
advertisements? on their personal perspectives on norms, values and morals.
Advertisers therefore have to resolve the dilemma of whether an
advertising message will offend all members of a target group
or if it will only offend those whose norms and values do not
correspond with those portrayed in the advertising message.

Are advertisements Another ethical question is whether advertisements are unethical

unethical because because of the product that is advertised. If the product or service
of the product advertised is dangerous is some way, does that mean that the
advertised? advertisement itself is unethical (Drumwright, 2007)? Advertisements
for liquor, cigarettes and guns can be regarded as unethical on
these grounds. More ethical issues are raised when advertisements
for products that are not regarded as dangerous, such as sugared
cereals and fast food, are considered. In abovementioned cases, the
advertising message in itself might not be unethical but the product
advertised might be considered so.

Is it unethical to Drumwright (2007) argues that if we assume that targeting

target certain vulnerable groups is unethical then we have to examine the
groups? characteristics of the individuals in the target segment. Should
high-sugar and fat products be advertised to young children who
do not have the ability to discriminate between right and wrong,
or should they only be advertised to older children who have the
knowledge to understand the risks of the product? It must also be
taken into account that advertising messages do not necessarily
reach only those primary target groups for whom the message
was originally intended because of the reach factor of advertising
media.

Do advertisements Exposure to advertising messages is generally unintentional. New

invade privacy? technology enables marketers and advertisers to access and share
consumer information even when consumers are unaware of these
processes (Drumwright, 2007). Consumers can, for example, limit
their exposure to print advertisements but it is more difficult to
completely avoid outdoor advertising which consists of billboard,
transit and poster advertising. Can these be regarded as invading
consumers’ privacy?

Is the behaviour According to Drumwright (2007), the role and behaviour of

of advertising advertising practitioners raise scepticism and mistrust among the
practitioners public. The major area of ethical concern includes the creation
unethical? of advertising message content, as well as the agency/client
relationship.

Advertising is regarded as one of the marketing communication mix elements that

is most subject to ethical discussions. This stems from its power to affect emotionally

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vulnerable individuals who are unable to distinguish between fact and fiction, reality
and fantasy, and right or wrong. Despite these vulnerable individuals, advertising
messages usually address consumers’ emotions and feelings in a persuasive manner
which is difficult to resist. It is thus of utmost importance to consider and take into
account the numerous ethical questions surrounding the advertising phenomenon.

8.10 Summary
This chapter introduces the complex nature of advertising by illustrating the evolution
of advertising through the ages, with particular emphasis on the evolution of advertising
media and content, and its development in South Africa. Significant definitions of
advertising are explored and an alternative definition is developed and examined.
The classification of advertising illustrates the diverse nature of the phenomenon,
while the section on advertising’s place in the marketing mix illustrates the
importance of the integration of advertising with other marketing communication
activities. Advertising and its role in society is regarded as an important topic
in the study of the advertising phenomenon, whilst the section on the theory of
consumer response explains the process through which consumers proceed when
they are exposed to advertising messages. An important consideration of the
ethics of advertising is additionally provided in order to contextualise advertising
in terms of its integration with other marketing communication elements. This
chapter concludes:
We find that advertising works the way the grass grows. You can never see it, but every
week you have to mow the lawn (Tarshis, www.biz-community.com).

Case study
Cheeky Kulula ads take on FIFA
Hannelie Booyens
01 April 2010
You have to chuckle at the cheek of budget airline Kulula’s witty advertisements that riled
mighty FIFA, the body that rules global soccer and the power behind the World Cup. Without
referring to ‘World Cup’ or ‘soccer’ one of the ads claimed Kulula to be the ‘non-official national
airline’ of the ‘you-know-what’.
FIFA complained, pointing out Kulula wasn’t among the official World Cup sponsors so
wasn’t allowed to refer to the tournament in any way in its marketing.
FIFA’s biggest gripe was that the combination of elements used in Kulula’s ad left no doubt they
referred to the World Cup. And that’s illegal, they say, because Kulula didn’t buy the right to use
the World Cup as a marketing tool. Many South Africans not familiar with FIFA’s strict marketing
rules can’t believe the soccer body can prescribe to local business what they’re allowed to do
with the country’s national symbols. Kulula’s group marketing director Heidi Brauer says, ‘It’s nuts
to say we can’t use the words South Africa or images of footballers in close proximity to footballs
or vuvuzelas or the national flag. No one owns these things. It’s like owning the sky.’


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Figure 8.2 Kulula advertisement: Unofficial national carrier of the ‘You-know-what’

But a law does prohibit such ‘ambush marketing’, says lawyer Janine Holessen.
SA’s trademark legislation says companies may not tie themselves to an event unless they’re
an official sponsor or have bought the advertising rights. So no one may unlawfully use any
images connected with the World Cup.
For instance it’s illegal to use the numbers ‘2010’ together with the words ‘South Africa’, ‘RSA’
or ‘SA’ in an advert unless the company is an official sponsor of the 2010 World Cup.
Marketing columnist Chris Moerdyk commented that FIFA should never have taken Kulula’s
campaign seriously. ‘All FIFA did was make the Kulula campaign even more of a success.’
Source: Booyens, H. 2010. Cheeky Kulula ads take on FIFA.
Available at http://www.you.co.za/articles/Local/Cheeky-Kulula-ads-take-on-FIFA
(accessed on 14 June 2010)

Budget airline takes on FIFA ahead of the World Cup

Rhea Singh
22 March 2010
Budget airline Kulula had felt FIFA’s wrath when the world football authority blocked their ad
in which it said that it was the ‘Unofficial National Carrier of the You-Know-What’. FIFA felt that
the advertisement which was framed by soccer balls, soccer players, vuvuzelas, and was in the
green and blue Kulula colour had pushed the limits of their copyright on the combined use of
these symbols too far. The airline felt that FIFA’s reaction had been a ‘bit over the top’ and that
 

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it was extreme to claim association with the representation of everything that relates to the
World Cup including the South African flag and vuvuzelas.
The airline had vowed then that there would definitely be another ad and they stuck to
their word. Only this time they are wittier! In yesterday’s Sunday Times, Kulula seemed to mock
FIFA’s approach to marketing which associates any company to the World Cup by publishing
a full page ad which refers to 2010 as ‘Not next year, not last year, but somewhere in between’.
Since FIFA has a problem with the South African flag being used, this ad on its borders has
two hanging pieces of cloth labelled, ‘Colourful beach towel? Flag?’
Knowing about the world football authority’s feelings towards the use of Vuvuzela’s in
advertisements, the ad is illustrated by golf tees which look a lot like a certain plastic trumpet
but to reassure FIFA is labelled, ‘Definitely definitely a golf tee’.
Continuing in the same spirit of not annoying FIFA, the ad is quick to point out, ‘No, they’re
running shoes’ next to a pair of what appear to be football boots without studs, towards the
bottom of the ad.
In the middle of the page is an imposing structure that, at first glance, looks like a football
stadium. Kulula had been told that they cannot use the Cape Town Stadium in their ads. So
not wanting to offend the mighty FIFA they assure you that the structure is, in fact, ‘Storms
River suspension bridge’.
FIFA who are notorious for their lack of a sense of humour are sure to react but it certainly
looks like they have met their match!
Source: www.rheasport.com. 2010. Budget airline takes on FIFA ahead of the World Cup.

Available at http://rheasport.com/2010/03/22/budget-airline-takes-on-fifa-ahead-of-the-world-
cup/ (accessed 14 June 2010)

Activities
1. Read the case study carefully and answer these questions:
1.1 Which type of advertisement did Kulula use to promote their services during
the FIFA Soccer World Cup?
1.2 How many of the different elements of the definition of advertising are evident
in the case study?
1.3 Explain the response process (consumer response levels and phases) through
which consumers will proceed when they are exposed to this advertisement.
1.4 How would Kulula be able to integrate this advertisement with other
marketing communication activities to sustain an integrated approach to
communication?
1.5 Consider advertising’s social role in terms of misleading claims, puffery
and poor taste, and offensive advertising, then enter the debate regarding
advertising’s responsibility towards society and relate Kulula’s controversial
advertisement to these issues.
1.6 Based on the ethical issues surrounding advertising, decide if Kulula’s
advertisement and behaviour were ethical.
2. Explain the important role that the integrated marketing communication internal
consumer response model can play in the development of an advertising campaign
or advertising message.

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3. Discuss the evolution of advertising media.

4. Discuss and explain the most crucial elements in the definition of advertising by
referring to several authors’ definitions of the advertising phenomenon.
5. Select at least 20 printed advertisements and ten broadcast advertisements.
Classify them into the different categories of advertising and provide reasons for
your classification.
6. Critically discuss and explain advertising’s place in the promotional mix and
marketing mix.

Bibliography
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Perspective. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Belch, G E & Belch, M A. 2009. Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications
Perspective. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Bryce, A (ed.). 1990. A Pictorial History of Advertising in South Africa. Cape Town: Don Nelson Publishers.
Cornelissen, J P & Lock A R. 2001. ‘The appeal of integration: managing communications in
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Du Plessis, D F (ed.). 2000. Introduction to Public Relations and Advertising. Cape Town: Juta.
Drumwright, M E. 2007. ‘Advertising ethics: a multi-level theory approach’, in Tellis, G J & Ambler,
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Moriarty, S, Mitchell, N & Wells, W. 2009. Advertising: Principles and Practices. 8th ed. New Jersey:
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Presbrey, F. 1968. The History and Development of Advertising. New York: Greenwood.
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Russell, J T & Lane, W R. 1996. Kleppner’s Advertising Procedure. 13th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Shimp, T A. 2003. Advertising, Promotion, & Supplemental Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications.
6th ed. Ohio: Thomson-South-Western.
Smith, J. 1995. ‘Integrated marketing’, Marketing Tools, November/December, pp. 63–67.

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 Advertising

9
CHAPTER

management
Charmaine du Plessis

Like the skills of tribal healers, advertising agencies’ powers and methods are seen to be all
the greater because of all the mystery that surrounds advertising.
Sutherland & Sylvester (2000)

9.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, advertising was contextualised, inter alia, in terms of its role in
marketing and society. This chapter deals with advertising management, which refers
to the overall process of overseeing the advertising campaign.
Advertising helps to build a stronger position for the organisation’s product(s)
or service(s) in the marketplace and to increase an organisation’s profits and sales.
However, in order for advertising to be effective it needs to be properly managed, and
planned and implemented according to thoroughly designed procedures – for instance
through various phases of an advertising campaign. The advertising campaign in
particular should create a coherent perception of the organisation in the minds of its
various stakeholders.
Successful advertising is about effective communication and is based on an
accurate definition of the target audience, a clear understanding of what needs to be
communicated, an understanding of the expected outcome of the communication,
and an understanding of how the communication process works (Mersham & Skinner,
2001: 95).
Advertising is one of the most visible demonstrations of a marketer’s communication
efforts within the marketing communications or promotional mix. Advertising
messages are delivered in a wide variety of formats using many different media,
including print, television, radio, outdoor and, more recently, the Internet (see also
Chapter 10, Section 10.9 for a discussion of online advertising).
Although marketers and advertisers have favoured traditional advertising for
many years, nowadays other kinds of communications are necessary to complement
advertising campaigns and to make the advertising message more successful (see
Chapter 10). The concept of broadening an advertiser’s communication mix to include
other tools is known as integrated marketing communication (IMC) (Hackley, 2009)
(see Chapter 6). In this chapter we focus on traditional advertising and discuss:
„„ the advertising agency
„„ media selection for advertising
„„ advertising media
„„ the consumer audience and consumer behaviour
„„ the traditional advertising campaign.

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9.2 The advertising agency

There are generally two types of advertising agencies:
„„ independent agency
„„ in-house agency (Tyagi & Kumar, 2004: 166).

An independent advertising agency can select its own clients and is free to compete in
the market with other advertising agencies. An in-house advertising agency, however,
is owned by its major client and cannot work for other clients.
Tyagi and Kumar (2004: 167) define an advertising agency as ‘an independent
company set up to render specialised services in advertising in particular and in
marketing in general’. They emphasise that the role of an advertising agency is to serve
advertisers and not to aid media.
Advertisers hire advertising agencies because an established agency has gained
expertise through many years of experience. Advertising agencies are also able to offer
objective advice to their clients (Koekemoer, 2004: 104).
An advertising agency is responsible for the design and the execution of an
advertising campaign, based on the specified expectations and needs of the advertiser.
The agency is expected to be an expert at communicating with potential clients because
its main task is to communicate an advertising message on behalf of its clients to the
target audience. In addition, an advertising agency is also expected to have the skills
and expertise necessary to ensure that the client’s advertising campaign enjoys optimal
exposure and that the agency can convey the most effective advertising message to the
target audience (Waller, Cusick, Matheson & Mille, 2001: 129).
Advertising clients select advertising agencies based on the nature of the product or
service to be advertised, the envisaged target audience, their available budget, media
considerations, and so on.
The advertising agency adds ‘perceived’ value to the product or service of its client.
This is achieved by providing a product with a perceived ‘personality’. This can be
done in various ways, for example by communicating in such a way that consumers
know what the product is all about thus creating an attractive image of the product
in the minds of the consumers, or by setting the product apart from its competitors
(Wells, Burnett & Moriarty, 2000: 77).
Advertisers like the advertising agency to be a partner in the development of
the advertisement, and aim to provide the organisation with a competitive edge.
Advertising agencies must therefore (MacRury, 2009: 55):
„„ understand the client’s product or service in detail
„„ understand how consumers think and what they want from the product or
service
„„ research and comprehend the wants and needs of the consumers they hope to
target
„„ plan and buy media space
„„ produce creative and successful advertisements.

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9.2.1 Types of independent advertising agencies

The advertiser can appoint different types of independent advertising agencies to fulfil
different needs. The following types are available to the advertising client:

The full-service agency

The full-service agency has four major staff functions, namely account management,
creative services, media planning and buying, and research. A full-service advertising
agency also has its own accounting department, a traffic department which internally
tracks the progress and completion of projects and regulates the flow of work in the
agency, a human resources department, and departments for broadcast and print
production. This type of agency analyses market data; proposes an advertising strategy;
prepares a recommendation; produces the advertisement(s); does media planning and
placement; ensures that the advertisement appears in different media, as ordered;
invoices the client against the approved budget; and collects funds from the client and
disburses them to media and suppliers.

Specialised agencies
Numerous advertising agencies do not act as full-service agencies but instead specialise
in certain areas, for instance creative or media buying; and appealing to a specific
target audience or industry such as health care. The following are specialised agencies:
„„ Industry-focused agencies: These agencies concentrate on certain fields or industries,
such as agriculture, medicine and pharmaceuticals, health care, and computers.
Their expertise is to the advantage of a variety of clients within that field of
specialisation.
„„ Minority agencies: These agencies are structured in a similar way to the full-service
agency but focus on an ethnic group in which they specialise in terms of media
selection and communication. Interestingly, such agencies are not yet found in
South Africa.
„„ Creative boutiques: A creative boutique is usually a relatively small agency that
concentrates exclusively on achieving the creative execution of their clients’
communications. It has one or more writers and artists, and is capable of preparing
advertising for print media, outdoor media, radio and television. This type of
agency focuses entirely on the idea and the creative product.
„„ Media-buying services: Such services consist of media experts that acquire media
space at the lowest possible rates. For instance, once the advertisement has been
created by a creative boutique, the advertiser will use a media-buying service to
plan or purchase media space.
„„ Vendors: Vendors assist advertisers, advertising agencies and the media, and are
called freelancers, consultants and self-employed professionals. They have a
variety of their own clients and do not work exclusively for one advertising agency.
„„ Virtual agencies: A virtual agency operates in the same way as a freelancer. Modern
technology plays a significant role in the trend towards abandoning conventional

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office space. Personnel in a virtual agency do not have permanent offices as they
work at home, in their cars or at their clients’ offices (Wells, Burnett & Moriarty,
2003: 17–20).

9.2.2 In-house agencies
In-house agencies are advertising agencies that are owned and supervised by the
organisations that advertise. A large retailer might, for instance, have its own inhouse
advertising department or agency because most outside agencies would not be able
to handle its daily advertising requirements and budget. The advantage of in-house
agencies is that they save money, they are suitably specialised because they know the
business, and they are immediately available for high priority projects. All advertising
can also be better managed by the organisation. This agency also requires minimum
personnel (Wells, Moriarty & Burnett, 2006: 14).

9.3 Advertising media
Media are an integral part of both the advertising and marketing decision-making
process. Specific media are used to reach particular target markets in order to
communicate unambiguous, designated creative messages (Koekemoer, 2004: 186).
Different advertising media can be selected to reach the organisation’s target audience.
Various advertising media communicate the advertising message to the advertiser’s
target audience. A medium is a single form of communication, for instance television,
radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, online media, and so on. The combined
media that have been selected for a particular advertising campaign are generally
known as the media mix (Wells et al., 2000: 196).
Media can be divided into primary and secondary media. Primary media (newspapers,
for example) deliver the advertising message to the target audience whereas secondary
media (brochures, for example) support the delivery of the advertising message.
Media that can be used in the media plan include print, electronic media, social
media, cinemas, outdoor media, direct marketing and other media such as theatre,
folk and traditional media. Let us take a closer look at the different media used for
advertising.

9.3.1 Print advertising
Even in the age of electronic communication, print advertising remains important.
The visuals that are used in this form of advertising are therefore of the utmost
importance. The print media can be defined as media that are (1) manufactured
by a printing process; (2) characterised by their public nature; and (3) produced by
unique communicators such as media workers (for instance journalists and advertisers)
(Wells et al., 2006: 213–282). The various types of print media are the following:

Newspaper advertisements
Newspapers are still the primary source of local advertising and are considered to
be one of the few types of advertising that is not considered disturbing to the reader,
unlike television commercials, which can be intrusive to the viewer. Newspapers

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can be divided into mass, local or speciality newspapers. Mass newspapers are
circulated nationally and are aimed at the general audience. The circulation of
local and speciality newspapers is more limited and these are aimed at special
target audiences.
Most people regard newspaper advertising as a form of news. As people who read
newspapers do not find newspaper advertisements intrusive, the copy in a newspaper
advertisement does not need to work as hard to catch the attention of its audience
as, for instance, a television commercial. Newspaper advertising copy tends to be
straightforward and full of information. Although newspaper advertising offers colour
advertisements to the client, newsprint in general cannot provide fine details in colour
because of the limitations of the printing process.
Most newspapers can either subscribe to an artwork service that supplies art for local
advertisers or use clip art. Alternatively, newspapers can employ their own graphic
artists. In some instances, the client provides the positives of their advertisement to the
newspaper.

Magazine advertisements
Magazine advertisements have become more market segmented and are aimed at the
needs of the specific target audience that reads a particular magazine. For instance,
a health magazine will mostly carry health advertisements. Within the advertising
context, a distinction is made between trade, technical and professional publications
on the one hand and consumer magazines on the other. Magazines are also categorised
according to frequency – that is, whether they are weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, quarterly
or half-yearly.
An advantage of a magazine advertisement is that can have more copy than, for
instance, a newspaper advertisement and can therefore also be more informative. In
general magazine advertisements are designed to attract the attention of the reader,
especially when there is more than one advertisement that takes up two facing pages
of the magazine. Magazine advertising therefore tends to be very creative, with colour
photographs and graphics; this is very suitable for image advertising because of the
quality reproduction of magazines (that is, better use of colour and better quality
paper).

Directories
An example of a directory is the South African Yellow Pages, a book with a list of
thousands of names, telephone numbers and addresses of organisations or people who
provide specific services to South African consumers. These services are normally
indexed alphabetically in catagories.

Out-of-home advertising
This form of print advertising includes posters, kiosks, billboards, kinetic boards,
inflatable billboards, painted walls and any other form of advertising that occurs
outside the home.

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These forms of print advertising include the following:

„„ Posters and kiosks: This form of print advertising is still a very powerful form of
advertising. Creative posters are frequently used by advertisers to advertise a variety
of events, services or products. Some posters include full-colour photography,
which makes them especially striking. Information kiosks in shopping malls are
designed for public posting of notices and advertisements. These kiosks are usually
strategically placed to capture attention – for instance at places where a lot of
people walk by or where people have to wait.
„„ Outdoor advertising: Outdoor advertising usually takes the form of billboards
or large-format posters. At places where traffic moves slowly – for instance, in
construction zones – billboards carry a lot of copy because the drivers have time
to read it. At places where traffic moves more quickly billboards do not carry a lot
of copy but are eye-catching instead.
An effective outdoor board has dominant visuals with minimum copy, communicates
messages instantly, attracts attention and is, most of all, memorable. Drivers usually
do not have the time to stop in the middle of traffic to read a billboard-advertising
message. It is therefore crucial that a billboard be designed to be visible even at night
and under all kinds of driving and lighting conditions.
„„ Transit advertising: Transit advertising includes both exterior and interior transit
advertising. Exterior transit advertising refers to advertising posters on the outside
of vehicles, municipal buses or taxis, for example. Interior transit advertising refers
to messages aimed at passengers inside vehicles, taxis or municipal buses, for
example. Interior transit advertising can come in the form of car cards, tear-offs
and take-ones. Car cards are mounted in racks above the windows and in panels at
the front and back of the vehicle. Tear-offs are pads of coupons or other information
that are glued to the car card. Take-ones are pockets filled with flyers or leaflets
that encourage an individual to seek more information or which provide in-depth
information about a product or service.
  In South Africa, ComutaNet effectively uses taxis for advertising with the use of
music tapes and large television screens at taxi ranks. ComutaNet even screens Ster
Kinekor movies on its giant Rank TV screens at several taxi ranks. The live soccer
matches broadcast on Saturdays are currently the most watched programmes on
Rank TV, and ComutaNet schedules the movies to start immediately after the
matches have finished (Marketingweb, 2004).
„„ Exterior advertising panels: These are similar to outdoor boards, and the same
guidelines are used in their design, namely simple, bold, eye-catching and legible.
„„ Product literature: Product literature is used to support an advertising campaign,
for example brochures and pamphlets which provide details about a product,
organisation or event. Product literature can also be used as part of a public
relations or sales promotion programme.

9.3.2 Broadcast media
Broadcast media, which transmit sounds or images electronically, include media
channels such as television, radio and interactive media.

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Television
Television is the most persuasive and powerful communication medium as a result
of the number of people it can reach and the impact that a single appearance of
an advertisement can have on the target audience. Advertisements that appear on
television also have more credibility because many people believe that television
provides viewers with regular, reliable news and information.

Radio
Radio is a more flexible medium that reaches a wider cross-section of the public
throughout the day and often provides the opportunity of talking directly to
a specific target market (for instance during talk shows). The basis of radio is
factual news value, public interest and clarity. Radio is flexible, portable, can
reach specialised publics and is a cost-effective medium which can reach people
of different ethnic groups and languages. Numerous community radio stations are
operating nationwide.

9.3.3 Interactive media
Interactive media refer to those media that allow for two-way communication, for
example telephones or e-mail. The Internet is still the most popular interactive medium
because users can contact the organisation online or deliberately seek information
about the organisation. (See Chapter 10, Section 10.7 for a detailed discussion of the
Internet, online marketing, online advertising and online public relations.)

9.3.4 Social media
Social media content platforms, social media marketing and popular social media
marketing tools/tactics are explained in Chapter 10, Section 10.7.

9.4 Media selection for advertising

According to Katz (2010: 128), selecting the right advertising media entails the
following important tasks:
„„ an accurate estimation of how to draw on the best media available to convey
the advertising message to the right target audience, based on years of media
experience (media planning)
„„ buying media space and time to convey the advertising message (media buying)
„„ selling space and time to the advertiser (media selling)
„„ researching the relationship between consumers, media and brands that advertise
to them in those media (research).
In this chapter, we only concentrate on media planning and media buying in terms
of how these relate to media selection for advertising. Media planning is at the core of
the advertising process that ensures that the advertising campaign reaches the specific
target audience, while media buying focuses on securing the media that will prove most
suitable for the advertising client.

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9.4.1 Media planning
Muller (1999) in Koekemoer (2004: 201) provides the following definition of media
planning:
Media planning is the development of a specific and detailed process of reaching the
right number of appropriate people, the right number of times, in the right environment
at minimum cost, to achieve the advertised brand’s marketing objectives.

Traditionally, media planning is part of a marketing problem that needs to be solved –

that is, the organisation’s marketing strategy. However, advertising clients can choose
to outsource media planning to an advertising agency or develop their own plan
(Wells et al., 2006: 293).
The starting point for a media plan is an analysis of a marketing situation. The
aim of this media plan is to provide both marketing and media planners with some
background on how a client’s organisation has been performing against its competitors.
In addition, it also provides information about the details of the problem, what
possibilities might lead to its solution, and the areas in the marketplace in which the
organisation can gain an advantage over its competitors (Sissors & Bumba, 1994: 8).
Media planners consider four primary elements that are central to the media
planning process. The four elements are known as the media square, which constitutes
reach, frequency, impact and continuity/time (Kelley & Jugenheimer, 2004: 12;
Koekemoer, 2004: 203).
„„ Reach is the percentage of the target population that is exposed at least once to
the advertiser’s message during a specific time frame. There are two kinds of
reach, namely numerical and percentage. Numerical reach usually includes the
exact rounded quantity; for instance, an advertiser wants to reach 30 000 females
or 100 000 households and not 30 050 or 100 020. Percentage reach refers to
the percentage of all consumers that will be reached with the advertisement; for
instance 50% of the target population.
„„ Frequency refers to the number of times, on average, that a person who is part
of the target market is supposed to have been and has actually been exposed to
the advertiser’s message. There are two kinds of frequencies, namely frequency of
insertion and frequency of exposure. Frequency of insertion refers to the number of
times that an advertisement appears in the media. Frequency of exposure refers to
the number of times that a consumer is exposed to the advertisement in the media.
Not all consumers will see or hear an advertisement every time that it is run in
the media. Consumers will therefore be reached with varying levels of frequency.
„„ Impact refers to the relative degree of awareness, or measured advertisement
noticing, that a particular creative execution achieves in any given media. Aspects
such as the advertisement’s headline, illustration, body copy and other message
components can affect the impact that an advertisement has on its target audience.
„„ Continuity/time refers to the proposed duration of the advertising campaign or
the period over which the stated objectives of the campaign will be realised or
maintained. Advertisements are scheduled to appear in the media so that they can
achieve the maximum effect.

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Figure 9.1 illustrates the media square.

Reach Frequency
(numerical and (insertion,
percentage) exposure)

Impact
(degree of Time
awareness)

Figure 9.1 The media square

Source: Adapted from Wells et al. (2003)

9.4.2 The media plan

After the client brief concerning the product or service has been completed and there
has been careful consideration of the media square, the media planner writes out a
media plan, which must be approved by the advertiser. Once approved, the media
plan then becomes a ‘blueprint’ for the selection and use of different media. The role
of media planners has changed in advertising agencies. Media planning today is as
important as marketing and creative planning, and is an executive function within the
advertising agency.
The media plan includes the planned details of each advertising medium
recommended. It lists the media, indicates the frequency of advertisements, records
dates of advertisement placements, adds costs and calculates the overall media plan
performance.
Media planning consists of six core elements, which can be represented by six specific
questions that the media planner needs to ask when developing a media plan:
1. How many prospects ( people) does the advertisement have to reach?
2. In which medium should the advertisement be placed (in the print, broadcast or
Internet media, for example, with specific reference to the actual vehicle)?
3. How many times should the prospects see each advertisement? (That is, what are
the media buying functions and opportunities?)
4. In which months or seasons should the advertisements appear? (This involves
media planning and selection.)

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5. In which markets or regions should the advertisements appear? (Knowledge of

media opportunities is required to answer this question.)
6. How much money should be spent in each medium? (Knowledge of media pricing
and negotiation is required to answer this question.)
The following steps should be used when designing a media plan:
1. Obtain background and do a situation analysis.
2. Set media objectives and aperture opportunities.
3. Select the media.
4. Schedule and allocate the budget.
The media plan and the creative plan are equally important and are therefore
developed simultaneously in the advertising campaign. Table 9.1 illustrates the
different components of the media plan.

Table 9.1 The different components of a media plan

Media plan section Component

1 Media objectives Reach and frequency

2 Media strategies Targeting, continuity, timing

3 Media selection Specific vehicles (channels)

4 Geographic strategies Strategies according to geographical area

5 Schedules Timing of the various media activities

6 Media budget Allocation of money to the various media activities

9.4.3  Media buying

According to Wells et al. (2006: 313–316), the media buyer should have expert
knowledge regarding different media in order to do proper media selection. The
media buyer must therefore keep abreast of changes in the media and be able to
anticipate how changes will affect the advertiser’s plans. Usually media buyers
specialise to obtain knowledge on one particular medium only. A media buyer should
have expert knowledge of media opportunities and media pricing. Media opportunities
refer to knowledge of the media content, audience habits and an ability to evaluate
research results objectively. Media pricing includes media cost responsibilities in terms
of average cost trends (that is, the monitored prices paid for advertising in the recent
past). It also includes media price formats (that is, rate cards or price schedules which
include the price for each message unit, the types of incentive discounts available, and
scheduling and production requirements); consumer magazines (discounts and short
rate); national television (defined in day parts) and cost-per-thousand (CPM). Cost
efficiency – the process of measuring the target audience size against the cost of that
audience – is usually expressed as CPM and is calculated as follows:
Cost efficiency = Cost of message unit divided by the target audience size × 1.

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Media selection procedures

Media selection, which involves the purchase of media space and time, is the most
expensive part of the advertising campaign. A media buyer’s knowledge and expertise
are tested when representing the client in the media marketplace. It is here that a
practical and feasible plan has to be executed. The media buyer should have the skills
to do a proper media selection and negotiate a satisfactory media schedule. Primary
criteria in media selection include cost, access to the target audience and the media’s
ability to convey the campaign message effectively. Considerations in this regard are
media that offer the greatest reach and frequency, will have the greatest impact on the
target audience, and will be cost effective and communicate at the right time. In other
words, the media selected must be suitable for realising the advertising objectives. The
media channels chosen must first of all be able to reach and change the behaviour of
the target audience – that is, they must make the target audience buy a product or use
a service.
The first aspect of media selection is the allocation of money which will assist the media
buyer to determine how much money to allocate to each medium, how frequently it
will be spent (that is, monthly, bi-weekly, and so on), and how much will be spent
in each geographical area, and so on. The allocation recommendations should be
followed as closely as possible.
The second aspect is the target audience, and the media plan must include a clear
profile of the target audiences and the relative importance of each profile characteristic.
Media should be selected according to the target audience’s media usage. A media
buyer should allocate a specific time frame during which the advertisement must be
viewed, and adjust the number of message placements to reflect the desired campaign
calendar and to ensure continuity. The last task as a media buyer is to use the gross rating
point levels or GRP guides in the development of schedules that match frequency and
reach objectives. Grips are calculated by dividing the total number of impressions by
the size of the target population and multiplying by 100. In television, the total rating
points (Tarps) that a certain media schedule achieves over a specified time period are
known as Tarps or Grips (Wells et al., 2003: 216). (In South Africa, selection is done
mostly by GRPs although often qualitative criteria are used. Most media planners
apply qualitative assessment fairly extensively).

Media negotiation
The key areas of media negotiation include vehicle performance, unit costs, preferred
positions and extra support offers. It is important to know the difference between the
concepts ‘media’ and ‘vehicles’. A medium refers to a ‘class’ of carriers with similar
characteristics such as television, newspapers, magazines, and so on. A vehicle refers to
an individual carrier within a medium, for example the seven o’ clock evening news on
SABC3 or Fair Lady magazine (Sissors & Bumba, 1994: 2).
A thorough knowledge of vehicle performance is important to alleviate uncertainties
concerning audience preference for a programme and this usually requires careful
research about the type of programme (for example whether it is action or comedy), the
rating history of the time slot, the audience flow patterns of competing programmes,

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and many other factors. Traditionally, in terms of unit costs, the goal for media buyers
used to be to get the lowest price but today the focus is more on open pricing to allow
buyers to negotiate a separate price for each vehicle. In order to negotiate prices, the
buyer has to understand the relationship between price and audience objectives. This
is also referred to as cost versus value.
Preferred positions refer to assumed readership advantages if the advertising
message is placed next to well-read pages or in special editorial sections. Because of
the visibility of these preferred positions, it often carries a premium surcharge that
is more than standard space rates. In the competitive market of advertising, buyers
are in a position to demand extra support offers from the media besides space and
time. These activities, also known as value-added services, include contests, special
events, merchandising space at stores, displays and trade-directed newsletters. This
type of advertising is especially important in terms of the integrated marketing
approach where budgets are integrated, or with packaged multimedia activities
(Wells et al., 2006: 222).

9.5 Creative roles within the advertising agency

Advertising is about creativity. Koekemoer (2004: 136) defines creativity as a ‘quality
possessed by persons that enables them to generate novel approaches to situations,
generally reflected in new and improved solutions to problems’. An advertising idea
is considered creative when it is new, fresh, unexpected and unusual. It must also
have impact.
Creative advertising can attract attention and create awareness and can also help
to create interest and excitement in an ordinary product. Advertising agencies make
use of various creative people who all perform different creative roles within the
advertising agency.
Copywriters and art directors both develop the creative concept and implement the
advertising idea. They usually work in teams. The person who shapes and sculpts the
words in an advertisement is known as a copywriter. Every word in the advertisement
is important and should convey a tailor-made message to the client’s target audience.
Advertising copywriters generally have a good visual imagination and excellent
writing skills. Apart from being able to visualise they are also very verbal – that is,
they are able to express themselves well. Copywriters are also open to new experiences
and these can manifest into writing or coming up with innovative ideas.
The art director is responsible for the graphic image of the advertisement and
creates the visuals in both print and video; he or she also lays out the advertisement
elements in print. Often artists might do specific illustrations but the art director is
the head designer and therefore has a huge responsibility in the development of an
effective advertisement.
Broadcast directors can also be part of the team when a television commercial is
created. The creative director manages the creative process and plays an important
role in maintaining the focus of the advertising strategy and to ensuring that the
creative concept is strategic.

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Creative people tend to be independent, self-assertive, self-sufficient, persistent and

very self-disciplined, and usually possess a high tolerance for ambiguity. In other
words, they do not always consider things to be straightforward, and they are good at
coming up with alternatives. In addition, creative people tend to be very perceptive
and often reach their conclusions as a result of intuition rather than logical thinking
– that is, creative people are frequently right-brain dominant whereas logical thinkers
tend to be left-brain dominant (Wells et al., 2003: 305).

9.6 The consumer audience and consumer behaviour

An advertiser or marketer needs to understand consumer behaviour because this
information is vital if the right message is to be conveyed in their advertisements.
Advertisers must also consider consumer behaviour when they select their advertising
media. Information about the organisation’s consumer audience is valuable in that it
enables the advertiser to target the consumer audience in a much more careful manner
(East, Wright & Vanhuele, 2008: 3). The people who buy or use an organisation’s
products or services to satisfy their needs and wants are known as consumers. There are
two types of consumers – those who buy the product and those who actually use it.
Belch and Belch (2009: 111) define consumer behaviour as ‘the process and activities
people engage in when searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating and
disposing of products and services so as to satisfy their needs and desires’. In order for
marketers to influence consumers to purchase a product or to make use of a service,
they need to understand which needs and wants to satisfy and then incorporate those
into the purchase criteria. Marketers aim to create brand loyalty and this only becomes
possible with repeat purchases. They therefore need to understand how customers
make purchase decisions and which marketing stimuli will influence them most (Belch
& Belch, 2009: 111). The process of market segmentation is usually used to reach an
understanding of consumer behaviour.

9.6.1 Market segmentation
Market segmentation enables an organisation to design a marketing strategy according
to the needs and wants of the target market – that is, they tailor-make the marketing
strategy for that specific target market.
Market segmentation is a process that divides the potential consumers of a particular
product into homogeneous groups by identifying consumers according to their similar
tastes or needs. Market segmentation is important because, as people differ in so many
ways, it is not possible that one product will satisfy the needs of all consumers (Kurtz,
2009: 25).
Because one product can have several market segments (and few organisations are
capable of successfully marketing their product to all of them), they select only those
one or two segments which will be most receptive to its marketing efforts. Such a
segment is referred to as the target market.
There are major segmentation variables for consumer markets. This means that
market segments and target markets are based on various consumer characteristics
and behaviours which can have an influence on consumer behaviour and purchasing

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decision making (Kurtz, 2009: 305). Table 9.2 indicates the different influences on
consumer behaviour.

Table 9.2 Influences on consumer behaviour

Social/cultural

Culture, social class, reference groups, family, demographics

Psychological influences

State of mind, needs and wants, selective perception, satisfaction, motivations, attitudes and
values, personality, psychographics

Behavioural influences

Quantity usage, brand relationship innovation

Source: Wells et al. (2006: 127)

Cultural and social influences on consumer behaviour are explained under the
headings that follow.

9.6.2 Cultural and social influences

Cultural and social influences can be grouped into culture, social class, reference
groups and family (Wells et al., 2006: 127–135).

Culture
Culture can be described as a pattern of beliefs and values which are shared by the
members of the same community and are usually long term, rooted in deeply held
values and often very hard to change. These concepts, values and behaviours that
characterise a culture are normally passed on from one generation to another. The
boundaries that each culture has for behaviour are known as norms – simple rules that
are learned through our interaction with other people.
Culture consists of tangible items (for example art, literature, buildings, furniture,
clothing and music) which are called material culture, and intangible items such as
knowledge, laws, morals and customs.
Norms are the source of our values, and core values characterise an entire culture.
Core values are hard to change and are the values that guide our behaviour. They
are internal and can include aspects such as a sense of self-belonging, self-respect,
respect for others, security, a sense of accomplishment, and what is considered to be
fun or enjoyable and so on. Advertisers usually appeal to these core values in their
sales messages in an attempt to appeal to the target audience. Cultures can also be
divided into subcultures on the basis of geographic regions or human characteristics
such as age, values or ethnic background. More specific criteria are also considered,
for instance belief systems, social institutions or language.
Culture influences buying behaviour in that a specific culture might consider
a specific product or service to be inappropriate. A marketer or advertiser should

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therefore be aware that certain promotional strategies will not influence certain
target markets. Corporate culture refers to the way in which organisations operate in
terms of, for example, work hours, dress code, procedures that need to be followed,
and so on.

Social class
Social class refers to a person or family’s position within society. Social class is determined
by income, wealth, education, occupation, family prestige, and the value of the home
and the neighbourhood. Economically speaking, South Africa has an upper class, a
middle class and a lower class.
Marketers normally assume that people from different social classes will
buy different goods from different outlets and, consequently, they design their
marketing strategies to take this into account. This is evidenced when the
merchandise for sale in one particular branch of a retail store differs from that in a
branch in a different area.

Reference groups
Purchasing behaviour is also influenced by a person’s reference group. A reference group
consists of those people that are normally used as a guide for behaviour in specific
situations. Reference groups can include the church, clubs to which a person belongs,
or a political party. People use reference groups to guide their behaviour because they
provide information that allows for comparison and offers guidance.
Consumers might believe that because their reference groups are using a specific
product, they should be using it too. They might also be attracted to a particular
reference group and therefore buy a specific product to gain its respect.

Family
A family consists of people who are related to others either by blood, marriage or
adoption, and live in the same household. A family influences a person in the way in
which he or she develops as an individual. A family not only provides a person with
economic resources (money and possessions) but also with emotional support (empathy,
love and companionship). Within a family, a lifestyle for family members is established
and children are raised and trained.
A household differs from a family in that it refers to all those people who occupy a
residence, irrespective of whether or not they are related.
Advertisers should always be aware of the structure and workings of families and
households in order for their advertising message to be effective. Advertisers have
to appeal to the needs and lifestyles of consumers. It is for this reason that various
television commercials portray the family using a specific product together.

Demographics
Demographics are the ‘statistical, personal, social and economic’ characteristics that
are used to describe a population. This includes age, gender, education, income,
occupation, sexual orientation, race and ethnicity, family size and geography (where

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people reside). This information about the target population will assist advertisers to
design their advertising message so that it has maximum appeal to the target audience.
This information will also assist them to select the best media through which to
advertise the product or service and to decide how much advertising will take place in
a specific area. Because advertisements are expensive, marketers need to know where
and how to best reach a specific audience.

9.6.3 Psychological influences on consumers

Various internal elements mean that every individual is unique. The variables that
shape a person’s inner self are referred to as his or her psychological make-up. The
aspects of a person’s inner self that are the most relevant to advertisers are perception
and state of mind, attitudes, values and personality (Wells et al., 2006: 135–141). These are
described in more detail below.

Perception and state of mind

A person’s state of mind – for example anger, fatigue, hunger or excitement – affects
the way in which information is perceived, which in turn can lead to a specific pattern
of consumer behaviour. If a consumer has previously had a bad experience with a
particular brand, negative feelings will obviously influence how receptive he or she will
be to a specific brand message.
Needs are the basic forces that motivate a person to do or to want something. Each
person has his or her own set of unique needs. Innate needs are psychological needs and
include the need for food, water, air or shelter. These are primary needs. Acquired needs are
those that are learned as a result of cultural or environmental experiences, such as the
desire for esteem, prestige, wealth, and so on. Because acquired needs are not essential
to survival, they are considered secondary needs or motives.
Perception refers to the process through which a person receives information through
the five senses and then ascribes meaning to it. Perceptions are shaped by three sets of
influences:
„„ the physical characteristics of the stimuli
„„ the relation of the stimuli to their surroundings
„„ conditions within the individual.

Each individual’s experience of the world is different, and he or she therefore interprets
stimuli in terms of his or her unique frame of reference. Learning experiences, attitudes,
personality and self-image all make up a person’s personal frame of reference. There are
various factors that must be considered when attempting to understand an individual’s
frame of reference. These are the following:
„„ Selective perception: It is impossible to pay attention to all stimuli to which
one is exposed. The brain would be unable to cope with the excess of (often
irrelevant) information, and for this reason information that is not important
to the individual is screened out. This screening process is known as selective
perception. It also applicable to the way in which a person reacts to advertisements
– he or she will only pay attention to those that appear interesting and relevant
to him or her.

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„„ Selective exposure also refers to information that a person deliberately seeks out;
such information usually corresponds to an individual’s personal frame of
reference. Selective distortion refers to the process in which people hear only
what they wish to hear, and refuse to pay attention to any message that might
contradict what they wish to hear. For example, a person really wants to travel
to a specific country and therefore only pays attention to favourable messages
about the country and ignores any negative information or negative news
events in that country.
„„ Lastly, people also engage in selective retention. This means that they will deliberately
try to ‘save’ information that they feel will be useful to them and will effortlessly
discard that which they feel is irrelevant. Repetition is a one of the many ways to
facilitate memory storage and retrieval, and advertising therefore frequently seeks
to assist a person to remember product information either through repetition,
memorable brand or product names, catchy jingles or emotive music, and
endorsements from high-profile spokespersons.
„„ Satisfaction: Selection leads to a feeling of satisfaction. According to the theory of
cognitive dissonance, people deliberately seek out information that supports their
decision and ignore information that does not. They might also attempt to justify
the difference between what they receive relative to what they expected to receive.
To reduce dissonance a person tends to engage in a variety of activities. Advertisers
use this theory to their advantage by anticipating where dissonance will occur and
then provide the supportive information that a person might need so that this
cognitive dissonance is reduced.
„„ Motivation: Each individual’s motivation is different because it is based upon social
and cultural influences and personal experience. A motive can be explained as an
internal force that stimulates a person to behave in a particular way. This driving
force is the result of tension that exists when a person has an unfulfilled need
which he or she strives to reduce. Advertisers are interested in ‘why’ questions; for
instance, why was a consumer motivated to want and buy a specific brand and not
another?
„„ Attitudes and values: Consumers’ attitudes and values can have an influence on their
motive to purchase a product. People generally have a specific feeling about
someone or something which makes them react in a specific way. Attitudes are
part of people’s value systems and are frequently deeply entrenched. An attitude
can be both positive and negative. Advertisers need to be aware of people’s
attitudes because they provide information concerning how consumers are likely
to evaluate certain products.
„„ Personality: People are usually described in terms of the distinct characteristics
that make them unique. Personal and psychological factors all interact to create
a person’s personality. People are unique because of specific traits that occur in
combinations that are unique to them; for example, a person might be warm,
dependable, old-fashioned, lively, efficient, glamorous, and so on. Personality also
refers to consistency in terms of these traits and the behaviour that emerges as a
result of them. How we react to life’s events and situations and behave in various
roles is determined by our personality.

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„„ Self-concept: This is related to what a person thinks of him- or herself. Self-image

is also important in that it is a reflection of how a person regards his or her own
personality and individual combination of strengths and weaknesses.

Psychographics
Psychographics can be explained as the information which can be used to determine
the ‘true’ motivation underlying a person’s behaviour. Psychographics provides the
advertiser with a much broader picture of a person than, for instance, demographic
information can. Consumers all have different values, attitudes and beliefs, opinions,
interests, motivations and lifestyles. Information about such things enables advertisers
to construct a ‘psychographic profile’ of consumers which reveals the different activities
in which consumers participate, the opinions that they hold and their different interests.
Demographics also include information on the following:
„„ Lifestyles: Advertisers need to consider people’s lifestyles because they need to be
aware of how they spend their time, energy and money. A person’s lifestyle is also
an indication of his or her activities, interests and opinions, and advertisers will
use that information to make their advertisements more appealing. Advertisers
normally do a lifestyle analysis to ascertain how consumers spend their time, energy
and money.

9.6.4 Behavioural influences on consumers

Behavioural influences indicate which relationship a consumer has with a product or a
brand and can be explained according to the following:
„„ Usage behaviour: Usage refers to how much a consumer uses a brand or product.
Advertisers usually consider usage rates and brand relationships. Usage rates
refer to the quantity of purchase, which can be light, medium or heavy. Brand
relationships refer to a consumer’s past, present or future use of the product by
non-users, ex-users, regular users, first-timers and users who often switch products
or brands. Those consumers who make repeat purchases of the same brand are
considered to be brand loyal.
„„ Innovation and adoption: Advertisers are also interested in how willing
consumers are to try out new products. The adoption process of new products is
identified in terms of the personal behaviour of consumers and how swiftly they
are willing to try out a new product. Advertisers consequently label consumers
as innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards
(Wells et al., 2006: 144).

9.7 The consumer decision process

When consumers decide to purchase a specific product or make use of a service, they
follow a similar decision process. This process consists of the following five steps:

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9.7.1 Need recognition
A consumer must first recognise a need for a product or service before a purchasing
decision can be made. Advertising messages therefore have to stimulate a need for
a product.

9.7.2 Information search
Once a consumer has identified a need for a product or service, he or she starts
searching for information. This search can be casual (for example reading articles or
looking at advertisements) or more formal (for example searching for information in
consumer reports). The more expensive a product or service, the higher the consumer’s
involvement will be when searching for relevant information. Impulse buyers will not
seek information as they want to satisfy a need immediately.

9.7.3 Evaluation of alternatives
During this step consumers compare different products in terms of their qualities and
prices. Advertising messages can play a role during this step by facilitating decision
making about all the various products that are available to the consumer.

9.7.4 The purchase decision

During this step, consumers purchase the product or make use of a service. They select
the brand they wish to purchase and then decide on where to purchase it, for example
at a grocery store, a department store or a speciality store. In-store promotions can also
affect the purchase decision.

9.7.5 Post-purchase evaluation
After a product has been purchased consumers make a post-purchase evaluation to
validate their purchase decision. They ask questions such as: Is the product what I
expected in terms of quality? Was my decision to purchase the product the right one?
According to the theory of cognitive dissonance, people deliberately seek out information
that supports their decision and ignore information that does not. They might also
attempt to justify the difference between what they receive relative to what they
expected to receive. To reduce dissonance people tend to engage in a variety of activities.
Advertisers use this theory to their advantage by anticipating where dissonance will
occur and then provide the supportive information that people might need to reduce
feelings of cognitive dissonance (Wells et al., 2006: 145–146).

9.8 The advertising campaign

An advertising campaign is the communication of an advertising message with a
central theme to an organisation’s target audience using different advertising media.
It is carefully planned and structured (usually by an advertising agency) and consists
of various phases (also see the framework of the interactive model of communication
campaigns in Chapter 13), namely assess, create, implement and evaluate.

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Each of these phases is now discussed within the context of advertising (Wells et al.,
2006; Belch & Belch, 2009):

9.8.1 Assess
During the assessment phase, the situation analysis and SWOT analysis are carefully
considered.

Situation analysis
Before an advertising campaign can be designed, it is important to first assess the
situation – that is, to examine the marketing problem or opportunity, the target market,
the brand, and what the competition is doing. In addition, advertisers should consider
critical information such as the campaign’s time schedules (date of commencement,
duration, and so on), and the budget.
„„ Identification of the marketing problem or opportunity: The advertiser has to establish what
the advertising campaign will achieve and why it should be implemented.
„„ The target market: The advertising campaign is aimed at a particular group of
people that will be interested in the organisation’s product or service. This
target market is established through the process of market segmentation (see
Section 9.6.1).
„„ Product analysis: The advertiser needs to describe the product that will be advertised
in detail; for instance, it can be described in terms of its role in the lives of the
target market and the methods and reasons for its use. The product’s parts, make-
up and variations, total costs, strengths and weaknesses also need to be described
in detail.
„„ Environmental analysis: The planning of the campaign will benefit from
information concerning the social, political and economic environment of the
product. This includes an evaluation of the competition and aspects such as
the conditions of distribution, environmental trends towards the product and
society’s view of the advertiser and brand.
„„ Critical information: This includes a description of the campaign’s time schedules,
the budget, and any constraints or obligations that might apply to any aspect of
the campaign, as well as any creative and media limitations.
This phase of the advertising campaign therefore entails formal research which serves
to guide the other phases in the advertising campaign which will also have an effect
on the campaign’s success. Formal research, which can use primary and secondary
research techniques, entails research about the product, the specific organisation,
the target audience (see Section 9.6), and the competition. Primary research refers
to, for example, face-to-face interviews whereas secondary research might involve
reading relevant documentation. The most important research areas are product and
organisational research, consumer and stakeholder research, market analysis, brand
value analysis, competitive analysis and marketplace analysis. These different types of
analysis are explained in Table 9.3.

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Table 9.3 Research areas in the situation analysis phase of the advertising campaign

„„ Product and organisational research: Research is conducted that reviews a product in

terms of its uses, packaging, quality, price, unit of sale, brand image, distinctive features,
distribution, positioning and product life cycle, as well as the organisation behind the
product and its corporate image and reputation, resources, mission and culture.
„„ Consumer and stakeholder research: Key stakeholder groups with which the campaign
must communicate are identified as well as how these stakeholders rank in terms of
importance.
„„ Market analysis: The best markets for the product are found by determining who and
where the best prospects are with respect to demographic characteristics, geographic
location, socio-psychological groupings (lifestyles, interests, attitudes, and so on) and
degree of product usage.
„„ Brand value analysis: Brand equity and brand value are analysed by considering brand
image, brand awareness, brand loyalty, perceived quality and brand choreography
(composition).
„„ Analysis of the competition: The activities of competitors are tracked in a direct
and indirect way. The competitor’s market share, product features, new products,
positioning and targeting strategies, current and past advertising agencies, media
expenditures and advertising schedules are considered.
„„ Industry analysis: The shape of the industry is analysed in terms of, for instance, its
growth or stagnation.
„„ Analysis of the marketplace: Changes in the marketplace that might positively or
negatively affect the campaign are considered.
Sources: Wells et al. (2000: 510); Koekemoer (2004: 123)

SWOT analysis
The SWOT analysis refers to the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that
the organisation faces. It evaluates the significance of the research which was done
during the situation analysis phase. This analysis, with regard to the organisation, is
done according to internal as well as external categories, for instance:
„„ internal – strengths and weaknesses
„„ external – opportunities and threats.

Information is gathered and sorted into the above two SWOT categories. The analysis
is started by identifying key areas on which to build the campaign strategy.

Problem identification
Depending on what the SWOT analysis reveals, the advertiser needs to be able to
focus on a set of serious communication problems that the campaign must address.
Each type of problem will need a different advertising and marketing communication
strategy. Each campaign will address a different audience, convey a different message
and use different marketing communication tools with different communication
media.

9.8.2 Create
The information that was obtained in the assessment phase is used to create and
implement the advertising campaign. This information concerns the target audience;

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the product, service or idea; the need for the product, service or idea; the competition;
the environment; and the campaign topic.
During the creation phase, the campaign strategy, campaign objectives,
communication strategy, creative strategy, media strategy and budget are carefully
considered as follows:

Campaign strategy
The campaign strategy follows the situation analysis and the SWOT analysis, and
focuses on all the key strategic decisions that will guide the campaign. At the end of the
SWOT analysis, various key problems that need to be addressed during the campaign
strategy are identified, the following should receive attention:
„„ solving the key problems
„„ specifying the target audience(s) of the campaign
„„ positioning of the product in the market
„„ the scheduling and timing of the different phases of the campaign activities.

Campaign objectives
An advertising campaign needs to achieve a specific goal, for instance to increase sales
of a specific product. Objectives provide this goal. Setting objectives will also assist
with the evaluation at the end of the campaign. The objectives of the campaign should
be developed according to the following:
„„ Targeting: It is important to identify the target audience of the campaign in order
to communicate the right message to the right people. This is done through the
process of market segmentation (see Section 9.6.1). The target audience will differ
from campaign to campaign, and from situation to situation.
„„ Product positioning: The product’s positioning in the market (how it is being perceived
by the market) should be considered. After the position of the product has been
identified, it needs to be analysed in terms of the campaign’s strategy; this will
include identification of the key problem, objectives and targeting decisions.
„„ Scheduling of the delivery of the advertising message: Scheduling is important in that a
specific message should be communicated at the right time and at the right place
to the target audience. Scheduling is an important part of the media plan and
should be considered throughout all the phases of the campaign.

Communication strategy
The communication strategy of the advertising campaign deals with the
development of the advertising message, the creative theme, and some creative
strategies and executions. We examine these aspects of the communication strategy
in more detail below:
„„ Message development research: The message of the advertising campaign should be
developed with care in order to be effective. Ideas are therefore generated by the
creative team of an advertising agency. The effectiveness and appeal of the message
is sometimes tested by means of copy testing. Copy testing refers to a means of
research to evaluate the viability and potential of various message approaches.

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„„ Creative theme: An advertising campaign consists of a series of advertisements which

are built around one central creative theme. These various advertisements are
designed to address different stakeholder audiences and times of the year. It is
therefore very important that the campaign theme has a strong central concept
that can hold all of these efforts together.

Creative strategy and implementation

The creative work on a campaign can be divided into the creative strategy (what
the message says) and the execution (how the message will be implemented). The
creative strategy and how it will be executed are detailed in a document known as the
creative brief (or copy platform). The account planner in the advertising agency usually
prepares the creative brief. The creative brief clearly details the elements that should
be included in the advertising campaign and, in the process, helps to create a focus for
the creative team.
The creative brief answers six questions: who, why, what, where, when and how?
This is the starting point in the whole creative process to develop a sales message or Big
Idea. The Big Idea or sales idea will create a specific perception about an organisation’s
product(s) or service (known as the creative concept). It is, however, important that
only one creative concept be presented at a time.
The selling idea can be obtained in a number of ways, for instance by means of
positioning (the way in which a product is ranked in the consumer’s mind because
of its benefits, its classification, its comparison with that of the competition, and so
on); by identifying the benefits that only that product can offer; and by means of the
unique selling proposition (a concept that assists in the creation of the major selling
idea). (See the case study at the end of the chapter which illustrates how a product was
re-positioned.)
The creative brief is a critical document, as it guides the creative team in their efforts
in executing what is effectively the most important part of the campaign – what the
consumer actually sees (Dale Hefer, founder of the Chillibush agency, 2010).

The creative execution determines how the advertising message will be communicated.
This involves developing the appeal and execution of the advertising.
The advertising appeal is a specific procedure that the advertiser uses to capture
the attention of the target audience. It is important that the audience reacts with
interest to the advertising message. These attempts to elicit a reaction – that is,
the nature of the appeal – can be functional, practical, emotional or rational. The
execution, on the other hand, refers to the presentation of the appeal to the audience
in the advertisement, for instance whether it comes in the form of an announcement,
a lifestyle demonstration, a ‘slice of life’ vignette, or an endorsement from a well-
known personality.
Adrian Holmes, chairperson of Lowe Worldwide, shared seven hints for successful
award-winning advertisements at the Worldwide Creative Review (Holmes, 2004):
„„ simplicity
„„ an unexpected twist

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„„ originality
„„ elegant and uncluttered layout
„„ beware the standard award-winning layout
„„ comprehension
„„ a compelling argument in the body copy.
Once the advertising message has been developed, it must be communicated to the
target audience using different advertising media.

The media strategy

The media strategy consists of a selection of media channels to convey the advertising
message to the target audience. This must be done with consideration of the
demographics of the target audience, for example, as well as of the communication
objectives of the advertising campaign (see sections 9.3 and 9.4 for a detailed discussion
of advertising media, media planning and media).

The appropriation and budget

The budget is the central and most important element of the advertising campaign.
If enough money is not available, specific tactics cannot be carried out. Consequently
all strategic decisions of the advertising campaign are determined by the amount of
money available for it.
The general scope and scale of the campaign effort are planned at the beginning of
the campaign, and these are based on the amount of money that has been allocated for
it. Most of the budget is usually spent on the media activities of the campaign.

9.8.3 Implement
During the implementation phase, the advertising message is delivered to the right
target audience through the various selected advertising media at the right time for the
duration of the advertising campaign within the constraints of the advertising budget.
The advertising material which will be used in the media is also produced by specialist
organisations.

9.8.4 Evaluate
After implementation, an advertising campaign should be evaluated in order to
determine its success. Consequently, the last stage in the development of a campaign
plan includes some proposals on how to evaluate the campaign.
Areas which should be evaluated include the appeal of the organisation’s brand
or the brand’s effectiveness against the objectives that were stated at the beginning
of the campaign. This can be done either by means of a formal research project
or informally (that is, not necessarily by means of scientific research methods). An
evaluative research method, such as ad- or brand-tracking studies, can be used to
help measure the campaign’s success. Brand tracking is a new kind of advertising
research method which assumes that because of fragmented media and the numerous
high-quality products available on the market, tracking the brand has become more

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informative than tracking the advertisement. Other areas of the campaign that can be
evaluated include:
„„ the effectiveness of the campaign
„„ the results of the campaign
„„ the fairness and accuracy of the campaign
„„ building of the brand or corporate reputation.

Once the advertising campaign is evaluated, a decision should be made with regard
to corrective action and follow-up if the campaign was partially or completely
unsuccessful, and termination and reinforcement of the campaign message if it was
successful.

9.9 Summary
In this chapter the following topics were addressed: different types of advertising
agencies; different advertising media; media planning and buying; different advertising
media; creative people in the advertising agency; the consumer audience; and
consumer behaviour (of which the advertiser should be aware); as well as the structure
of an advertising campaign within the context of the integrated campaign (as discussed
in Chapter 13).

Case study
City Press re-positioned by Chillibush agency
Overview
When the Sunday World publication was launched, City Press found that this new publication
was taking a large proportion of the City Press readership. This posed a problem for the long-
established Sunday paper.

Chillibush brief
Objective
The objective was defined as: To develop and launch a counter-marketing strategy against the
Sunday World. The purpose of this would be to maintain and grow the City Press readership.
The effectiveness of the campaign would be measured against the AMPs (readership) figures,
year on year.
City Press differentiator
The only highly credible newspaper aimed predominantly at black male businessmen
throughout Africa. The only Sunday newspaper aimed at this market which offers a cross-
section of political, sport, entertainment and business news without the heavy focus on
society gossip and celebrity news.


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Chillibush recommendation
Re-positioning
The agency advised City Press to use this loss in a certain category of readers as an opportunity
to re-position itself and become more entrenched as the credible Sunday read for Africans.
The loss of these readers would soon be replaced by readers from other, more credible,
publications such as the Sunday Times and the Sunday Independent. In order to launch the new
positioning Chillibush developed the payoff line: ‘Distinctly African’.

Creative recommendation
In order to launch the new payoff line and to position City Press as the credible read across the
different editorial categories, Chillibush recommended an endorsement campaign. This would
involve the endorsement of people who were generally perceived to be distinctly African across
the categories of politics, business, sport and entertainment. Two selected endorsers across each
of these categories were selected and approached. They were then photographed together
with the appropriate editor of each category, and advertisements were created.

Figure 9.2 Examples of printed advertisements during the campaign

The marketing communication (promotional mix)

Unusually, for the promoting of a newspaper, Chillibush recommended that there should
be a concerted focus on outdoor media (that is, billboards) for the launch of the new
City Press. The reason they gave was that, by choosing one media, the budget would be
focused and therefore could leverage more exposure. The choice of billboards was based
on the need to generate impact and interest in a way that was different to the media
norm for a newspaper.
In addition to billboards, Chillibush developed and implemented a comprehensive public
relations campaign. Furthermore, the agency developed strategic advertisements that would
be placed in the City Press on certain public holidays. The purpose of this would be to further
entrench City Press as a credible, ‘Distinctly African’ publication.


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Figure 9.3 Examples of advertisements placed on public holidays during the campaign


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Figure 9.4 Another example of an advertisement placed on a public holiday during

the campaign

The effectiveness of the campaign

The first run of AMPs figures were received two months after the relaunch and showed a dip
in readership (as expected). The next run of AMPs, which covered the subsequent 12-month
period, showed a steady month-on-month climb to a level which reached and then exceeded
the original readership numbers.
In terms of advertisers, the new image of the publication drew a broader range of blue-
chip advertisers who wished to reach the new, focused target market of the publication.
These blue-chip organisations had more spending power than those organisations that had
previously advertised in City Press.
(This case study was written and provided by the owner of Chillibush, Dale Hefer. Copy and
pictures are used with full permission and copyright from Chillibush.)

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Activities
1. Explain how the full-service advertising agency differs from specialised advertising
agencies.
2. Write out a media plan using the six core elements for media planning in response
to a client brief regarding a new more fuel-economical car that will be launched.
3. Give some examples of all social and cultural influences that might have an impact
on your own purchasing behaviour.
4. Give some examples of all psychological influences that might have an impact on
your own purchasing behaviour.
5. Give some examples of all behavioural influences that might have an impact on
your own purchasing behaviour.
6. Discuss how you will use each of the four phases of the advertising campaign to
plan and implement any new product or service of your choice.

Bibliography
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Belch, G E & Belch, M A. 2009. Advertising and Promotion. An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective.
8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill International.
Cosme, G. 2008. ‘Social media: an introductory guide for your business, organisation or agency’.
Available at http://www.ginocosme.com/downloads/Introduction-to-Social-Media.pdf (accessed
3 March 2008).
East, R E, Wright, M & Vanhuele, M. 2008. Consumer Behaviour: Applications in Marketing. London: SAGE.
Hackley, C. 2009. Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Approach. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Hefer, D. 2010. From Witblits to Vuvuzelas. Marketing in the New South Africa. Cape Town: Oshun Books.
Holmes, A. 2004. ‘Seven handy hints for successful ads’. Available at http://www.biz-community.com
(accessed 9 February 2009).
Katz, H E. 2010. The Media Handbook: A Complete Guide to Advertising Media Selection, Planning, Research and
Buying. 4th ed. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kelley, L D & Jugenheimer, D W. 2004. Advertising Media: Workbook and Sourcebook. 2nd ed. New York:
M E Sharpe, Inc.
Koekemoer, L (ed.). 2004. Marketing Communications. Lansdowne: Juta.
Kurtz, D L. 2009. Contemporary Marketing. Mason: South-Western.
MacRury, I. 2009. Advertising. New York: Routledge.
Marketingweb. 2004. ‘Taxi ranks turn into theatres’. Available at http://www.marketingweb.co.za/
news/fast_news/328269.htm (accessed 21 June 2004).
Mersham, G & Skinner, C. 2001. New Insights into Communication Media. Sandown: Heinemann.
Sutherland, M & Sylvester, A K. 2000. Advertising and the Mind of the Consumer: What Works, What Doesn’t
and Why. 2nd ed. Australia: Allen & Unwin.
Sissors, J Z & Bumba, L. 1994. Advertising Media Planning. 4th ed. Chicago: NTC Business Books.
Tyagi, C L & Kumar, A. 2004. Advertising Management. Delhi: Atlantic Publishers.
Waller, D S, Cusick, D J, Matheson, H D & Miller, M K. 2001. ‘Advertising agency activities used to
attract new clients in Australia’, Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 129–140.
Wells, W, Burnett, J J & Moriarty, S E. 2000. Advertising. Principles and Practice. 5th ed. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Wells, W, Burnett, J J & Moriarty, S E. 2003. Advertising. Principles and Practice. 6th ed. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Wells, W, Moriarty, S & Burnett, J. 2006. Advertising. Principles and Practice. 7th ed. New Jersey: Pearson
Education.

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 Integrated online

10
CHAPTER

communication
R a c h e l B a r k e r, C h a r m a i n e d u P l e s s i s
and Janet te Hanekom

From much of the industrial world’s perspective, the lexicon of 1990s’ television, radio,
print and film was infiltrated by strange streams of nonsensical characters – complete with
secret-code-like phrases such as www, dot, slash and dot-com.
Sherwin & Avila (1997: 11)

10.1 Introduction
Integrated online (or digital) communication, much like the Internet which as a
communication medium has the ability to instantaneously impart information to a vast
number of consumers (Conway, Ward, Lewis & Bernhardt, 2007), offers organisations
new opportunities for building relationships with their consumers and stakeholders.
It can also be used to obtain diverse information on a variety of organisations and
services. Digital communication refers to any communication message which is sent by
means of a communication channel that uses digital technology.
In Chapter 6, the Internet was discussed as one of the elements of the marketing
communication mix. In this chapter it is discussed in more detail and is contextualised
in terms of the integrated approach followed in this book. It is argued that integrated
online or digital communication should not only be viewed from an integrated
perspective through the alignment of online communication messages with the
corporate brand of the organisation but that it should also be aligned with the
traditional communication processes.
In South Africa, the influx of the Internet in 1996 revolutionised the face of
communication. This development demands an understanding of the consequences
linked to the Internet and World Wide Web. Most organisations that realise the potential
of the online world have embraced the so-called ‘superhighway’ at a prodigious rate.
The rapid growth and recognition of the Internet and the World Wide Web have
transformed the way in which organisations communicate with stakeholders in their
efforts to market products and services, transact with intermediaries, communicate
with employees, create corporate images, and so on. This chapter creates a landscape
for online communication processes in the organisation in a holistic, logical and
comprehensible way by focusing on:
„„ the contextualisation of integrated online communication
„„ the history of Internet development in South Africa
„„ online advertising
„„ online marketing
„„ online public relations
„„ online crisis communication.

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10.2 Key terminology for integrated online communication

The following key online communication terminology is relevant to this book:
„„ The Internet is a system of computers that are linked to each other through a vast
array of networks consisting of telephone cables, satellite communication, optical
fibre lines, office computer networks and various other means (Kitchen, 1999;
Sherwin & Avila, 1997; Barker, 2004). These computers are constantly active (that
is, online) to ensure a core of permanently linked units. The message structure of
information on the Internet consists of text, graphic images, audio clips and even
video images, or a combination of these.
„„ The World Wide Web (WWW) is a hypermedia information storage system that
links resources around the world. It allows users to obtain (or display) information
needed to access computer software and programs, and to communicate
interactively. A particular site can have a number of graphic images and text that
can contain ‘hot links’ or ‘hyperlinks’ which will take the user to another site
where they can acquire further information (Koekemoer, 2004; Hurme, 2001: 72;
Witmer, 2000; Kitchen, 1999; Sherwin & Avila, 1997).
„„ An intranet refers to the selective and controlled access via the Internet that certain
users use to access certain sites. The intranet is therefore a private computer
network based on the data communication standards and technologies of the
public Internet that is accessible only to employees (Yen & Chou, 2001; Hurme,
2001).
„„ The extranet is an intranet that is selectively open to third parties such as vendors,
customers, suppliers and stakeholders. The extranet provides a site where intimate,
internal information can be shared with these third parties to build collaboration
and partnerships. It requires connectivity, security, applications for all parties, and
compatible directory services and messaging systems for all parties (Yen & Chou,
2001; Hurme, 2001).
„„ E-mail, the oldest feature of the Internet, refers to a written message that is
delivered from the originator’s computer to the recipient’s computer, and involves
the transmission of text messages and attached files. (Kitchen, 1999; Sherwin
& Avila, 1997; Witmer, 2000; Horton, 2001.) E-mail is the most inexpensive
medium available for global communication because an e-mail can be sent to any
destination in the world at the cost of a local call (Koekemoer, 2004: 542).
„„ Internet phone and picture (video) phone are more advanced than e-mail and enable
users who are concurrently online to talk to one another via the Internet or, if
they have the requisite facilities, to see one another on their respective computer
monitors while they talk at a lower cost than normal telephone call rates (Sherwin
& Avila, 1997).
„„ Gophers and Telnet refer to sites (the directional plan or pointers to information
about various topics) that users can access to obtain general information. These
features allow the user to access information stored on other computer systems and
are used for finding information other than that which is available on the WWW
sites. Gophers allow the user to search across the entire Internet for information
rather than just one area at a time. Telnet is a program that allows users to log on

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to computer networks other than their own, and is a multilevel menu system for
organising files of information which are stored at thousands of servers throughout
the Internet (Kitchen, 1999; Sherwin & Avila, 1997; Witmer, 2000).
„„ Usenet (also referred to as Internet newsgroups or net news) refers to the network of
computer users constituting a collection of discussion groups, and is a contraction
of User’s Network (Kitchen, 1999; Sherwin & Avila, 1997). These discussion groups
are collective newsgroups (or online bulletin boards), and are subdivided into two
types – that is, moderated and unmoderated. Moderated newsgroups are controlled
and entirely open and anyone may post a message there; unmoderated newsgroups
are uncontrolled. Usenet can therefore be defined as a collection of forums such as
newsgroups, discussion groups and bulletin boards. Usenet is therefore used for discussions
and to debate topics of interest (Holtz, 1998: 6; Sherwin & Avila, 1997: 131;
Barker, 2004).
„„ Mailing lists (LISTSERVs) are similar to Usenet but differ in that, instead of being
posted to a bulletin board, items are sent directly to users in the form of an e-mail
(Kitchen, 1999; Sherwin & Avila, 1997; Witmer, 2000).
„„ Commercial online services providers include CompuServe and Prodigy, and offer some
services applicable to public relations (Kitchen, 1999; Sherwin & Avila, 1997;
Witmer, 2000).
„„ Electronic news and electronic newspapers can supply new information and add or
update existing news as frequently as required. News agencies and newspapers use
the Internet facility to update people on the latest news, often as it breaks (Sherwin
& Avila, 1997; Witmer, 2000; Marlow, 1996).
„„ Online marketing is an interactive form of marketing that uses online media to reach
a global target audience and allows for more one-to-one communication.
„„ Corporate website refers to the World Wide Web name for a particular kind of
document that has been designed to be displayed on a browser by an organisation
and not a private individual. In this document, listed choices are available that lead
to all other pages that the organisation offers (Ellsworth & Ellsworth, 1995: xviii).
„„ Internet resources refer to Internet applications for online marketing such as the
WWW, e-mail and the corporate website.
„„ Online marketing applications constitute online actions that the marketer can take on
the corporate website to foster an organisation’s marketing strategy, for example
e-commerce, customer service, e-mail marketing, and so on.

10.3 Contextualising integrated online communication

Online or Internet communication constitutes web-based communication using
a computer linked to the Internet. There are different areas of communication, for
example online marketing and online marketing communications (including online
advertising and online public relations). These areas of online communication
are usually integrated on the corporate website, and support the whole online
communication process. A holistic approach is followed in that online marketing, online
marketing communications, traditional marketing and marketing communications
are components of the communication solution. In addition, and in line with the

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integrated organisational communication approach followed in this book, all the

messages of these processes should be aligned with and support the corporate brand
of the organisation.
Integrated online communication includes, inter alia, the integration of online
marketing and online marketing communications techniques on the web. For
instance, the organisation’s marketing, advertising, public relations, promotions,
media relations, internal communications, investors’ communications and its Internet
presence are all co-ordinated and based on its mission and positioning statements to
provide consistency in terms of all the organisation says and does (Newsom, Turk &
Kruckeberg, 2004: 58).
One outstanding feature of the WWW is hypertext, which provides for a hypermedia
environment where information can be presented with pictures, animation, sound
and text to a global target audience ( Janal, 1995: 47). As the WWW combines the
Internet with the concept of hypermedia navigation, integrated online communication
is performed in a hypermedia environment which makes it immediate, dynamic (that
is, allows for last-minute changes and additions) and multimedia friendly (Ainscough
& Luckett, 1996: 37).
In terms of a holistic approach, online communication processes should be
integrated with traditional ones in the organisation. It should therefore not take place
in isolation but be viewed from an integrated and global perspective.
Gurãu (2008: 178) points out that for integrated online communication to occur
successfully, the messages that the organisation sends to its online target audiences
have to be adapted in a three-stage process:
„„ The message should both identify with and integrate the core corporate values of
the organisation.
„„ The message has to be adapted according to the strategic and tactical objectives of
the integrated online communication campaign.
„„ The message should be developed in accordance both with the specific
characteristics of the target audience and the online communication tool.
Various online marketing, advertising and public relations techniques should be
combined and used as ‘an online communication mix’, for example e-mail, discussion
forums and the corporate website. Online communication tools all differ in terms of
transparency, interactivity and selectivity, and how easy they are to remember. These
differences should therefore be considered when an organisation seeks to establish the
appropriate communication mix for each target audience.
In terms of the holistic approach mentioned above, the organisation should
integrate online communication processes with traditional ones. In other words, these
processes should not take place in isolation but should be viewed from an integrated
and global perspective. It is clear that a new marketing mindset is required, one that
focuses on mutual help, support and long-term relationships. This new mindset also
needs a unified process in which online communication is used in collaboration with
traditional non-online communication in organisations’ integrated communication
marketing strategies.

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Online communication, however, is also moving toward communications and

relations among individual recipients and consumers, and is not simply something
that an organisation initiates to communicate with its consumers. This has become
evident in the many social media that are available (Owen & Humphrey, 2009: 54) (see
Section 10.7).

10.4 The digital divide

The term ‘digital divide’ has become an adage in today’s globalised world. In a era
that is characterised by the global expansion of mass media and electronic information
superhighways that span the globe, the ‘digital divide’ refers not only to the gap that
exists between the wealthy and underprivileged but also to the digital and ICT gap
that exists between Third World countries and the developed world (Lesame, 2005: 1).
Today, terms such as ‘global information highway’, ‘information revolution’ and
‘information economy’ are commonly used to illustrate the profound role information
now has in modern societies. While most First World countries are experiencing rapid
growth and a technological explosion, South Africa is as much a Third World country
as it is a First World country, and will likely continue to be so for some time.
Although there are ongoing attempts to bridge the digital divide (for instance, with
the setting up of tele-centres, digital villages and mobile training centres), various
factors still contribute to the digital divide in South Africa, the most notable of these
being expensive telephone and Internet services, Internet inaccessibility (especially in
rural areas), poverty and illiteracy (Graham, 2004: 11).

10.5 Online processes
In terms of an integrated approach, online communication should be linked not only
with other communication processes in an organisation but also with other online
processes. According to Percy and Bodkin (2000), the components of the promotional
mix for websites are as follows:
1. Online marketing includes online marketing communication techniques such as online sales
promotion and online direct marketing. In terms of online sales promotion the major tools
relevant to websites include coupons, refunds and rebates, premium and specialty
offers, sampling offers, online demonstrations, contests, sweepstakes and games.
The budget allocation for sales promotion has increased and some organisations
spend up to a third of their promotion budgets on out-of-store promotions. Online
direct marketing takes two forms. First, the organisation can engage in e-commerce
by enabling site visitors to purchase products online. Second, customer service
includes any direct marketing activity that involves auxiliary services such as post-
sales communications on tracking purchases or account activities, product use,
delivery or problems.
2. Online advertising performs the same function online as advertising does in the
physical marketplace. The primary goals are to create awareness, communicate
benefits, promote trial of the product or service, and urge consumers to action.
This means that the website can communicate information about products, prices
and/or distribution.

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3. Online public relations includes news, media releases, speeches, educational

programmes, corporate identity materials, public service activities, investor
information, and lobbying or cause-related information. A close link exists between
consumers’ evaluations of corporate ability and of new products. Therefore, the
website should provide organisational as well as product-specific information
specially designed to influence customer attitudes and behaviour.
The above three elements function in synergy in the organisation and should all be
considered when the organisation develops an integrated communication strategy.

10.6 Push and pull mechanism

Furthermore, the web can be seen as a push and pull mechanism. Push and pull theories
of online communication are technology based and, according to Gordon-MacIntosh
(2000), it is easier to reach a specific target audience if they are in an ‘information
gathering mode’. Internet traffic ‘pull’ refers to the provision of information to
individuals at their request and is used when the ways in which a target audience
finds a particular site is considered and steps are taken to ensure this process is an
open and easy option for them. This is done through the use of links to sites and
directories. Internet traffic ‘push’ is information that is provided to individuals whether
they have asked for it or not and is aimed at persuading the target audience to revisit
the site. This is done by making sure that the site has ‘real value’ or relevance to
them. According to Horton (2001), the practicality of pushed or pulled data is based
on audience preference. A good strategy would be to start with pull theory by creating
and delivering content that users want and then to move from there to the push theory
by getting their full consent to provide information without request. Because ‘online’ is
user driven, it is important to build sound relationships with consumers and to consider
message-receiver rights (Barker, 2004).

10.7 Information overload
Neher (1997: 58) defines information load as the quantity and rate of incoming information
that is to be processed through a single channel whereas information overload, which is
more subjective, depends on factors beyond the sheer number of incoming messages.
Information overload is therefore when a user receives more information than is needed
or wanted for effective functioning or the realisation of individual or organisational
goals. As a result, information overload can lead to misunderstandings (Barker, 2004).
Online or web-based communication enables individuals and organisations to
distribute information rapidly and globally, and as such can result in information
overload and an over-reliance on technology at the expense of face-to-face
communication. The main risk that excessive use of web-based communication (for
example e-mail) poses is that it can lead to a loss of clarity of communication. Various
strategies can be used to prevent information overload, with the most notable being
training staff to handle information inputs and information processing, and the use of
computerised management-information systems.

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10.8 Online marketing
When Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft, said in the late 1990s: ‘The Internet is a tidal
wave. It will wash over nearly all industries, drowning those who don’t learn to swim
in its waves’, he was warning organisations that they should embrace the advantages of
the Internet (Gay, Charlesworth & Essen, 2007: 2). Today it is almost unthinkable for
organisations not to have an online presence. Nowadays many organisations include
online marketing as part of their overall marketing strategies. However, the Internet
has laid down some new rules for marketers. These include greater transparency, more
cost efficiency, more power and options for the consumer, as well as the necessity of
building new relationships. Gay et al. (2007: 8) define online or e-marketing as ‘the
use of Internet and related digital information and communications technologies to
achieve marketing objectives’.
This section explores the development and nature of online marketing; the online
marketing mix; the ten Cs of marketing; online marketing resources and applications;
online marketing as a push and pull mechanism; and the advantages and disadvantages
of online marketing.

10.8.1 Development and nature of online marketing

The explosive inception and immense growth of the Internet led to the development
and institution of online marketing as marketers increasingly realised how the online
environment could benefit and enhance their marketing strategies.
According to Richardson (2001), the first online marketing revolution was
characterised by rapid growth in the business-to-consumer market. For instance, the
online retailer Amazon.com pioneered retailing on the Internet while Yahoo defined
the emerging role of cybermediaries (for example search engines). The second online
marketing revolution evolved even faster than the first, with the focus now on the
business-to-business market. For instance, Ariba and CommerceOne created global
web-based electronic procurement portals for industrial operating supplies and
parts. The third revolution is currently taking place within organisations themselves.
Organisations are establishing corporate websites, extranets and intranets, which in
turn are transforming customer and employee relationships.
Todaro (2009: 32) identifies two main factors that accelerated the growth of online
marketing, namely technological and economical.
Technological factors that contributed to the development of online marketing are the
following:
„„ better Internet connectivity, namely changes from dial-up to high-speed access
„„ more RAM memory speed for computers
„„ better online security
„„ the development of new technologies such as Java, JavaScript and dynamic
websites technology (ASP, PHP).
Economical factors that contributed to the development of online marketing are:
„„ reliable online purchasing systems; and
„„ lower prices of computer hardware and Internet services.

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Recent trends in marketing have introduced new concepts – such as online marketing,
e-marketing, e-tailing, digital marketing and mass customisation – which propose that
the Internet can be used to develop a marketing strategy for a single customer (Cant,
Strydom & Jooste, 2004).
To develop a marketing strategy for a single customer it is necessary to take a
one-to-one marketing approach – that is, different customers are treated differently.
Such marketing can create strong customer loyalty and enhance the profitability
of an organisation. With each interaction, the organisation obtains more accurate
information about the needs and desires of its individual customers. The organisation
then adjusts and customises the market offering and website accordingly (Botha,
Bothma & Geldenhuys, 2004).
According to Mersham and Skinner (1999), the WWW allows potential customers
to search for an organisation’s offerings as opposed to the organisation being forced
to reach out to potential customers. Consumers sit at their computers; search for the
product or service they need, compare prices, characteristics and technical
specifications; and then might request additional information via e-mail.
Because the WWW is interactive and personal, the traditional mass media model
characterised by one-way communication is no longer relevant. The web-based
marketing model has reversed the traditional message flow of the mass media model
so that the message no longer moves from the marketer to the consumer and, instead,
moves from the consumer to the marketer.
Traditional marketing media push messages, whereas new media pull
information at the request of the consumer (on the condition that the marketer has
the individual’s consent).
The major strength of the Internet as a commercial medium is the fact that it
allows an organisation to personalise its offer to match the interests and lifestyles of
consumers as opposed to simply extensively reaching out to a general audience. Online
marketing is now more about reaching the right people at the right time in the right
context than about reaching as many people as possible over an unlimited period of
time. Being successful online includes anticipating customers’ needs, meeting those
needs and retaining online customers. Online marketers and advertisers are especially
interested in customer retention and long-term loyalty (Koekemoer, 2004).
Online marketing pays particular attention to personal interaction, interactivity
and feedback. As a result, marketers tend to use different technologies to
accomplish these, for example with the use of closed-loop technology. Closed-loop
technolog y is an intelligent learning system that delivers personalised web content
and targeted one-to-one communication to individual users. Content, visitors to
the site, personalisation and communication are integrated with site analysis and
measurement tools. The closed-loop system observes and learns more about a user
each time that user interacts with the site; thus the site becomes more ‘intelligent’
with regard to the user. As a result, a customer profile is built up and is updated
with each subsequent visit (Koekemoer, 2004). Online marketing generally has
three objectives:

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„„ Brand development: The organisation’s online efforts integrates with and complement
all traditional marketing efforts.
„„ Income generation: Revenue is increased by means of online sales, generation of leads
and online direct marketing.
„„ Customer service support: In an online environment the organisation can augment its
customer service and support at a lower cost (Charlesworth, 2009: 28; 29).

10.8.2 The online marketing mix

In Chapter 5, the traditional marketing mix is explained. Online marketing has
become so prevalent in organisations’ marketing strategies that theorists now also
refer to an online marketing mix as online product; online price; online distribution and online
promotion (Gay et al., 2007: 101):

Online product
A distinction can be made between selling physical goods (for example books,
DVDs), virtual goods (for example information goods), and service products (for
example travel and insurance) online. However, marketers need to know how to
appropriately sell and distribute these products using the Internet as a platform.
Because it is more difficult to sell products online, marketers still use traditional
channels to provide some trustworthiness to their products or services. For instance,
if a perfume is being sold online, the customer will not be able to smell the product.
Marketers therefore still include samples of perfumes in magazines or have samples
available in stores. When customers have experienced the product in the real world,
they are more likely to buy the product online. Selling a product online does,
however, provide some added value to them. For example, they will have access to
customer reviews and recommendations, 24-hour online customer service and more
available choices.

Online price
Because the Internet is a more cost-effective and direct medium to sell products (that
is, no intermediary is required), the customer should benefit from price reductions
online. Numerous websites are available where customers can first compare the prices
of different products. Marketers should therefore be careful not to present prices that
are excessively higher than those on offer elsewhere online. Cheaper prices online can,
however, be negated by high delivery costs.

Online distribution
Some organisations perceive the Internet as yet another distribution channel.
Online distribution is a crucial element of the online marketing mix. The way in
which a product or service that is sold online is distributed to online customers
can give the organisation a competitive edge if its distribution methods are
effective. For example, the local online book portal Kalahari.com is branded for its
quick dispatching of items that have been ordered online. Because the organisation
does not have to deal with an intermediary it can sell products directly to

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the customer. The customer therefore obtains firsthand experience of the

organisation’s customer service.

Online promotion
Online promotion refers to online marketing communication (see Section 10.5).
Different authors include different elements in the promotional mix for websites, but
the most prominent are still online direct marketing, online sales promotion, online
advertising and online public relations. Whichever online promotional mix element
marketers make use of for online marketing purposes, the message should be clear,
creative and tailor-made in order to compete with the countless marketing messages
on the Internet.

10.8.3 The ten Cs of online marketing

In addition to an online marketing mix, Gay et al., (2007) also identify ten Cs which
are considered fundamental to online marketing success. These can be explained as
follows:

Customer
The customer should always be the central focus of any marketing action, even in
an online environment. Customers’ needs should be addressed and they should be
satisfied with the market offering online. Online customers also have more power and
control online.

Corporate culture
The organisation’s corporate culture should be evident online. For instance, its vision
and commitment to online customers should be the same as for its other operations.
In an online environment an organisation’s vision should be extended to include
new alliances and partnerships to deliver better service to online customers. An
entrepreneurial culture and willingness to adopt new technologies are some of the
aspects that are considered important.

Convenience
Customers purchase online because it is convenient and flexible, and offers them
greater freedom. They do not need to go to busy shopping centres after work or waste
valuable time queuing. Marketers should therefore ensure that customers’ experience
online is sufficiently convenient that these customers will be retained.

Competition
Marketers face much competition on the Internet. However, in an online environment,
the competition often is widely dispersed and changeable. Competition can emerge
in the form of traditional competitors that are now also available online, newly
formed alliances and partnerships, or new organisations from abroad. Marketers

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should plan strategically so that they are able to contend with emerging and existent
competitors online.

Communication
Organisations should carefully consider the promotional mix elements that they
choose for their websites (see Section 10.5). Communication in an online environment
is one-on-one and tailor-made. Ample opportunities for feedback should be available
to the consumer.

Consistency
Online messages should be consistent and complement traditional marketing messages.
Communication used in the promotional mix elements for websites should reinforce
and not conflict with the organisation’s brand and traditional marketing messages.

Creative content
To attract more online traffic, content used for online marketing purposes should be
creative and encourage online customers to become engaged in the online marketing
messages.

Customisation
Online customers should be able to customise their online experience to satisfy their
individual requirements. For instance, customers could be given the opportunity to
set the organisation’s website to show only product information that pertains to their
particular region or city.

Co-ordination
All departments working with online purchases should carefully co-ordinate the
purchasing process, for instance from providing information about the product and
processing the online transaction to delivering the product to the online customer. The
process should be transparent enough to ensure good customer service even after the
purchase has been completed.

Control
Marketers can closely monitor online activities by having access to numerous web
analytic tools. These tools provide them with some control over online marketing
activities. Marketers should, however, know what to do with these online statistics so
that they can further benefit the organisation’s online marketing efforts.

10.8.4 Differences between online and traditional marketing

Online and traditional marketing have the same objectives, namely to increase
an organisation’s sales and profits. Online marketing aims to complement and
achieve synergy (harmonisation) with the traditional marketing plan. A traditional
marketing plan, for instance, uses traditional media to make the publics aware of the

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organisation’s corporate website and its various products and services. However, the
approach of online marketing differs, mainly owing to the global target audience
and long-term nature of the marketer–consumer relationship (Todaro, 2009: 19).
Conversely, Krishnamurthy (2006: 153) points out a different approach in terms of
traditional and online brand management. Where traditional brand management
focuses primarily on the product and profit, online brand management is more
concerned with the organisation’s relationship with the customer. This is built
through, for instance, personal profiles, more opportunities for interaction and
knowledge of the online customer.
In traditional marketing, the organisation, once it has selected the appropriate
audience through market research, attempts to reach its target audience through
marketing communication messages (Cant et al., 2004). In online marketing, however,
online customers find the organisation’s website by being attracted to the benefits it
offers, and then they select the messages they want. By choosing from the tailor-made
options, they segment themselves based on desired product benefits. Online marketing
measures the number of website visitors who click on an online advertisement. Usually,
these visitors are asked to complete an online form so that the marketer can obtain their
demographic information. Table 10.1 summarises some of the differences between
traditional and online marketing.

Table 10.1 Differences between online and traditional marketing

Online marketing Traditional marketing

Includes direct selling to an individual using an Includes marketing to the masses

Internet resource tool

Includes a ‘pull’ marketing environment; in Supports a ‘push’ marketing environment;

other words, customers find the organisation’s in other words, the organisation attempts
website by being attracted to the benefits to reach its target audience through
it offers. Online customers then select the marketing communication messages
messages they want after it has selected the appropriate
audience through market research

Supports two-way marketing. More feedback is Supports one-way marketing. There is

involved than in traditional marketing little feedback from the target audience

Includes environmental scanning on the web Market segmentation and demographic

while entailing a more specific approach, research on the web are not yet reliable
including competitive, technological and
cultural scanning

Environmental scanning entails a broader Market segmentation and demographic

approach, including competitive, technological research are more reliable
and cultural scanning

Online brand management is mainly Brand management is more product and

consumer-centric profit focused
Sources: Cant et al. (2004); Krishnamurthy (2006); Todaro (2009)

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10.8.5 Internet resources for online marketing

Within an online marketing context, Internet resources refer to an Internet platform
that will support the organisation’s online marketing strategy and messages. In other
words, it is the place(s) on the Internet where customers will be able to access online
marketing messages. Various Internet resources are available, for instance corporate
websites, electronic newsletters, e-mail, discussion forums and multimedia (Trinkle &
Merriman, 2006: 19–34).
Owing to global accessibility, the corporate website is still seen as the organisation’s
most powerful marketing tool and therefore one that should be developed with care.
The website is increasingly regarded as a direct selling medium; it provides another
distribution channel for the organisation’s products as well as the opportunity for the
organisation to reach a global target audience. In addition, even small organisations
have the opportunity to sell their products to much larger audiences. In order for a
website to be successful it should be appealing, user friendly and functional; it should
also offer sufficient value to retain customers. In addition, the information on the
website should be regarded as credible and trustworthy (Sweeney, 2006: 20).
The organisation can proactively offer the e-mail (or product) newsletter as part of
its online customer service and marketing strategy; this keeps customers informed of
new products and services. The newsletter usually comprises industry news, product
promotions and helpful hints. In some cases, it includes comments from customers
which reflect favourably on the organisation’s products and services. Marketers
therefore also attempt to include information that will lead to viral marketing – that
is, customers forward the newsletter to their friends and peers. Customers or users
should preferably sign up to receive product newsletters via email (Blumberg, Forman
& Miller, 2006: 18).
E-mail has existed since the inception of the Internet. It was developed in the early
1970s to allow computer users to send messages and share text files with others on
the same network. Not only does it facilitate the organisation’s interaction with its
customers, it can also play a role in the formation of long-term organisation–customer
relationships. E-mail can impact on the corporate image of the organisation, and
the organisation should therefore consider e-mail in the formation of its policies and
procedures (Burke, 2001). (See also Section 10.6.6. with regard to e-mail marketing,
which is regarded as an online marketing application.)
Multimedia are interactive databases that allow users to access online information in
various formats, for example text, graphics, video and audio. The use of multimedia
ensures impact, immediacy and selectivity of the online marketing message. Media
products can now also be streamed live. It is possible to do live audiovisual presentations,
interactive live chats, and live videoconferencing ( Jones, 2009: 181).
Marketers also use online marketing forums, bulletin boards, newsgroups and mailing lists
to keep abreast of trends in marketing strategies. These types of forums are useful
Internet resources that facilitate discussion and debate of topics of interest. The
messages posted to a newsgroup are organised by a host computer which determines
how long they should remain active before they are then removed. There are thousands
of newsgroups and mailing lists through which users discuss thousands of topics.

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Using the power of these forums, marketers can solicit the advice and opinions of
experts around the world (Scott, 2010: 48–51).

10.8.6 Online marketing applications

Online marketing applications comprise those online actions (or dealings) which the
marketer can apply on the corporate website to implement an organisation’s marketing
strategy. These include e-commerce, online market research, online customer service
and support, e-mail marketing, SMS marketing and online advertising.

E-commerce
According to Norris, West and Gaughan (2000: 2), e-commerce ‘embraces all aspects
of buying and selling products and services over a network’, such as the Internet.
E-commerce can take many forms, for example cybermalls. Cybermalls are
virtual marketplaces that consist of individual websites linked under a general site
(Learn2succeed.com, 2004). Two kinds of cybermalls exist. The vertical cybermall
consists of cyberstores which all sell the same type of product; the horizontal
cybermall is composed of, for example, a bookstore and a jewellery store – that is,
stores which sell different kinds of products. An example of a horizontal cybermall
would be the highly successful South African online shopping portal, Kalahari.com
(Mardenfield, in Palumbo & Herbig, 1998). Lin and Atkin (2007: 211) regard the
following as motivators for online shopping:
1. Consumers can save money and time as a result of not having to travel.
2. There is a wider choice of products.
3. Experiential users enjoy the online shopping experience.
However, there are still some concerns in terms of online security and the completion
of transactions which continue to make numerous users wary of using the Internet to
purchase products or services.
To attract customers to their websites, organisations use promotional tactics, such
as free product samples, contests, quizzes, coupons and special time-restricted offers
(Botha et al., 2004).
Although e-commerce is becoming a flourishing industry in South Africa,
organisations nonetheless need to learn more about how to maximise the
commercial advantage that their websites can offer them. Online retailers such as
Kalahari.com, MWEB Shopping Mall, Digital Mall, Exclusive Books, Netflorist,
Cybercellar, Woolworths and Pick n Pay are some of the more popular e-commerce
portals in South Africa (Shopping online in South Africa, 2009).
The practice of e-commerce, however, requires the proper infrastructure,
basic technology, standards, language and Internet protocols (each machine on
the Internet has a unique identifying number, known as an Internet protocol (IP)
address. Interlinked communication and suitable hardware are also necessities
(Botha et al., 2004).

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Online market research

Internet usage statistics are, as a rule, captured by means of web analytics. This means
log files are written which capture web trends, unique visitors, users’ page views, top
exit pages and website engagement, to name but a few. Various web analytic tools are
available to organisations although some of these do not necessarily provide functional
information that can be used by marketing management for the marketing strategy
(Kaushik, 2007: 3).
To target the right customers with tailor-made messages, marketers need to build up
a customer profile. They therefore need to know the identities of their visitors and the
reasons for their visits. Even though market research on the Internet is not considered
to be totally reliable, the Internet is nonetheless a valuable research tool, and various
resources can be used to gather information on website visitors to build up a profile of
these visitors. As website visitors have neither the time nor the inclination to complete
lengthy questionnaires, marketers might use the following tactics to capture the data
they need ( Janal, 1998; Grossnickle & Raskin, 2001: 141):
„„ Feedback about the actual website is requested.
„„ A postal code is asked for when the user fills in requested information. In this way,
marketers can establish in which city and province the user lives.
„„ A contest or free product is offered in order to obtain addresses.
„„ Registration is required to access deeper levels of the site.
„„ A survey or opinion poll is conducted on the website, and the ‘yes’ and ‘no’ buttons
are in fact ‘mail to’ (e-mail) buttons that send the participant’s e-mail address to
the organisation.
„„ Online visits are monitored through software programs that can track online
usage.
„„ E-mail surveys can be used if the organisation has developed a list of e-mail
customers.

Customer service and support online

Customer service and support online are as important as when the product or service
is bought through traditional channels. Good customer service results not only in
customer loyalty and retention but also in positive viral marketing (word of mouth).
The advanced customer relationship (CRM) technology that is available today
provides the organisation with an opportunity to build a special relationship with
online customers. Corporate websites that allow for both first-class customer service
and support online are the best marketing tools that organisations can have (Reynolds,
2004: 273). Reynolds (2004: 275) also argues in favour of a customer service strategy
that is created especially for online customers. This can include detailed information
on the corporate website about all products and services, a section for frequently asked
questions (FAQs), and product specifications, as well as articles and even case studies
(knowledge content). Customer service and support online are also fostered by using
tools for interactivity; in this way the organisation can build a ‘learning relationship’
with the customer. Organisations that truly understand their key customers are able

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to deliver better online customer service by adapting to their specific needs (Peppers
& Rogers, 2004: 192).

E-mail marketing
E-mail marketing has become an integral part of online marketing and can play a
valuable role in any online marketing campaign’s success if done in the correct manner.
E-mail marketing should preferably be part of the organisation’s online marketing
strategy and have specific objectives in mind. It can even be an effective replacement
for direct mail because it costs far less, and better-targeted messages can also be sent. In
addition, reminders about a sales promotion or event can be sent to the target audience
(Chaffey, 2007: ix; 8). According to Mullen, Daniels and Gilmour (2009: 6), five types
of e-mail are usually sent for marketing purposes:
„„ to create awareness of a product and/or service
„„ for consideration of a product and/or service
„„ to communicate specific information about the product and/or service
„„ to increase product and/or service usage
„„ to increase customer retention and loyalty.

Each type of the above e-mails can play a distinct role in establishing the organisation’s
brand message with a customer.
Spam e-mail is, however, still considered to be one of the most significant threats to
the future of online marketing and, as a result, in April 2004, the Marketing Federation
of South Africa (MFSA) released a set of landmark guidelines which are designed to
combat spam e-mail and boost legitimate e-mail marketing. One of the guidelines,
for example, stipulates that marketers should not acquire e-mail addresses through
automated mechanisms that do not specifically gain the consumer’s consent (‘MFSA
launches anti-spam campaign’, 2004).

SMS marketing
SMS is the abbreviation for short message service, which involves the delivery of text
messages to cellphones. Marketers use SMSs as a permission-based, cost-effective,
high response-rate marketing tool to help them acquire and retain consumers, and
to promote and sell products. Databases on the corporate website provide marketers
with access to clients’ cellphone numbers, although these can also be obtained in other
ways.
Although e-mail is beneficial in terms of personal, one-to-one marketing, SMSs
are even more personal because the marketing message can be customised. However,
SMS is less intrusive than other media only when it is permission based, relevant
and meaningful (Botha et al., 2004). (See Section 10.10 for a discussion on mobile
marketing.)

Online advertising
Online advertising is still a significant marketing application. (See Section 10.9 for a
detailed discussion on this.)

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10.8.7 Integration of online marketing with traditional marketing

Online marketing should be fully integrated with the organisation’s marketing mix and
not considered to be a separate campaign. If synergy with the traditional marketing
plan is achieved, online marketing becomes much more valuable to the organisation’s
overall marketing objectives (Carmody, 2004: 294). Bayne (2000) reiterates that the
most important aspect of an online marketing plan is to achieve synergy with the
traditional marketing plan, and to use traditional media to make the public aware
of the organisation’s corporate website and online activities. Numerous organisations
conduct business online yet still make use of traditional media to advertise their
online business objectives. Organisations that successfully integrate their marketing
strategies with different media currently also integrate their online and traditional
marketing efforts with Web 2.0 technologies (Mohr, Sengupta & Slater, 2009: 391). (See
Section 10.9 for a discussion on social media marketing.)

10.8.8 Online marketing as a push and/or pull mechanism

Online marketing as a push mechanism
Traditional media such as print, radio and television are ‘push’ media, which means
that communication is usually one way, with little opportunity for feedback unless a
direct marketing response mechanism is included. Marketers often push web pages
in traditional media so that customers can find them. Web pages can also be pushed
by means of new media, for instance through push technologies such as web casting,
which imitates television. With web casting, consumers subscribe to ‘channels’ that
are published online by advertisers. Advertisers send information and advertisements
to the consumer according to a schedule that has been determined by the consumer.
For instance, a user can subscribe to a news channel and specify that they wish to read
business news updates every hour, although specifically targeted advertisements are
included. Advertisers also use advertisements as screensavers. Each screen view can
contain news, a stock ticker and an unobtrusive advertisement. The consumer can
select the news categories, organisations and industries he or she would like to monitor.
Advertisements are hyperlinked to the advertisers’ websites, and the advertisers’ aim is
to encourage consumers to react to them (Baker & Hart, 2008; Janal, 1998).

Online marketing as a pull mechanism

Consumers are not pushed to find a website; instead they are ‘pulled’ to the site because
they are attracted to the benefits that it offers. Online customers are therefore proactive
in that they select the messages they want and can then enter into a dialogue with
the organisation. Marketers therefore need to implement strategies to attract online
customers to their websites and to ensure that the website is purposeful and useful to
them (Baker & Hart, 2008: 506).

10.8.9 Advantages and disadvantages of online marketing

Online marketing has numerous advantages and disadvantages, as demonstrated in
Table 10.2 on the following page.

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Table 10.2 Advantages and disadvantages of online marketing

Advantages Disadvantages

„„ Marketers can reach a global target „„ Marketers reach only those people
audience who are able to buy a computer and
„„ Advertising expenditure is spent on afford the costs of a telephone and an
a target audience that is extremely Internet connection
receptive to the marketing message „„ Barriers still exist, such as computer
„„ The target audience can read marketing illiteracy and the digital divide
messages 24 hours a day and seven „„ Many people prefer personal service to
days a week online purchasing
„„ Unmatchable return on investment „„ Many organisations still do not know
„„ People who are able to afford the how to take commercial advantage of
organisation’s product or service tend their websites
to react to online marketing messages „„ South Africa continues to encounter
„„ Marketing occurs through a customer- problems with regard to correct and
driven channel secure online payment systems
„„ Marketers deal with customers at the „„ Many organisations’ websites are not
point when they are ready to buy perceived as credible
„„ Multimedia makes the marketing „„ Many organisations still do not know
message more appealing and creates how to fulfil consumers’ online needs,
relationships with customers or how to retain online customers
„„ It allows organisations to link directly
to consumers, which enables new
relationships and interactions
„„ The organisation can make more profit
by cutting out salespeople, warehouse
costs and distributors
„„ In comparison with other media, it is
cost effective
„„ Small organisations can compete
on an equal footing against larger
organisations
Sources: Fritz, Dholakia & Mundorf (2002); Janal (1998); Todaro (2009)

10.9 Social media marketing

Social media marketing has its roots in viral marketing and electronic world of mouth
(eWOM), which is discussed in detail below.

10.9.1 Electronic word of mouth (eWOM)

After the establishment in 2004 of Web 2.0, numerous applications such as social
media networks became more accessible to the general public. Web 2.0 is a new
technology that allows users to generate their own web content and to actively
participate in the communication process (O’Reilly, 2005). Social media also create
the ideal platform for consumers to instantly spread the word about an organisation’s
products and services by means of eWOM. eWOM is the same as viral marketing but
uses the Internet as the platform on which to spread the communication message.

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eWOM communication is any positive or negative story, via the Internet, from
potential, actual, or former consumers that concerns an organisation’s product
and/or service. With eWOM, consumers obtain information about products and
services from people known to them as well as from consumers who have actually
used these products and services (Cheung, Lee & Rabjohn, 2008: 229). Marketers
therefore use the benefits of eWOM to create awareness of the organisation’s products
and services or, using different social media content platforms, for brand-building
purposes by means of social media marketing.

10.9.2 Social media content platforms

Marketers are increasingly using various social media content platforms for the purpose
of viral marketing, or eWOM, to complement their traditional and online marketing
strategies. Social media can be defined as ‘user-generated content created or produced
by the general public rather than by paid professionals and primarily distributed on
the Internet’ (Daugherty, Eastin & Bright, 2008: 1).
Different social media content platforms exist. Cosmo (2008) classifies and explains
these as follows:
„„ Networking sites (for example Facebook, MySpace): Used for locating and keeping in
touch with friends and family, or participating in online groups or fan clubs which
have different topics of interest.
„„ Social bookmarking sites (for example Digg, Delicious): Social bookmarking allows
users to locate and save websites that are of interest to them.
„„ Social news sites (for example Propeller, Reddit): Social news websites are online
communities that allow their users to submit news stories, articles and multimedia
to share with other users or the general public.
„„ Video-sharing communities (for example YouTube): Video sharing and hosting sites
allows any and every video to be posted online. More recently, there are video
sharing and hosting sites that specialise only in short-form, original content (for
example Metacafe).
„„ Photo-sharing sites (for example Flickr): These allow for worldwide photo sharing,
commenting, and photography-related networking sites.
„„ Professional networking sites (for example LinkedIn): These are social networking sites
created primarily for business and professional networking.
„„ Web-based encyclopaedias (for example Wikipedia): These are free web-based
encyclopedias that are written and edited by volunteers around the world.
„„ Community answer sites (for example answer.com): These sites provide an online
question-and-answer platform, where questions are both asked and answered by
members of the community.
„„ Blog networking communities (for example Open Diary): Blog networks host a huge
variety of different sites and usually remunerate users either with advertisement
revenue, a salary, or on a per-post basis in order to load their sites with excellent
content.

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„„ Social media aggregators (for example Friendfeed, Streamy): These websites accumulate
information on everything that users do on social networks or websites, and then
integrate it all in one location. These websites allows users to follow exactly what
other users are doing on social media.
„„ Micro blogging (for example Twitter): The content is usually much smaller, in both
actual size and total file size, than that of a regular blog. A micro blog entry might
consist of only a short sentence, an image or an attached video. Users can also
select to follow other users’ ‘tweets’.
„„ Blog publishing (for example wordpress.org): Publishing platforms allow users to
both create and publish their own blogs.
„„ Social web content discovery (for example RSS feeds): Users can find appealing Internet
content by subscribing to a feed.
„„ Social media searches (for example Socialmention): Social media search engines
search user-generated content such as blogs, comments, bookmarks, events, news,
videos, and so on.
„„ Social event calendars (for example Google calendar, 30 Boxes, social web): Community-
driven websites allow users to find and promote any social events for free.
„„ Mobile phone platforms (for example MXit, The Grid): Mobile phone platforms assist
users in locating friends and family and then staying in touch with them.

10.9.3 Social media marketing

Many definitions of social media marketing exist (some theorists refer to it as social
influence marketing). Singh (2009: 10) defines social influence marketing as ‘a technique that
employs social media and social influencers to achieve business’ marketing and business’
needs’. Evans (2008: 13) refers to social media marketing as a social media application that
strategically uses ordinary conversation primarily for brand-building purposes.
Social media marketing is an addition to online marketing but its focus is more on
social media content and communities (Cosme, 2008). Social media marketing can,
however, also pose a risk to an organisation’s online reputation if they receive negative
eWOM (Evans, 2008:158).

10.9.4 Creating a social media strategy for the organisation

When developing a social media strategy, organisations usually consider either a
competitive differentiation, market share growth or brand expansion as their most
important marketing objective (Borges, 2009: 73). When an organisation makes use
of a competitive differentiation strategy, it usually increases its visibility in various
social media by creating new social media content or through online content
commenting. When growth of market share is the main consideration for using social
media, an organisation aims to increase its revenue in a specific market segment. The
organisation then commits itself to creating new social media content. In the case of
brand expansion, the organisation develops a powerful social media content creation
strategy, and creates new and appealing content in different social media content
platforms (Borges, 2009: 73–76).

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Social media marketing uses social media content platforms to reach the target
audience by means of numerous social media marketing communications tools and
tactics. Charton (2007), Luckhoff (2009), Schrecker (2008) and Zarrella (2009) describe
some of the more popular social media marketing communication tools and tactics:
„„ Twitter and micro blogging: This involves promoting content about the organisation’s
products and services by sending short messages (tweets) to followers (for instance
using no more than 140 characters).
„„ Beacon: This is an advertisement system on the social media site, Facebook.
Data are sent from external websites to Facebook to communicate with targeted
advertisements while users can share their activities with their friends.
„„ Fan page: This is a page that is set up either by or for a celebrity within a social
media site such as Facebook or MySpace. Many organisations also create a fan
page for a brand.
„„ Blogs: An individual provides commentary in the form of a personal diary about
various topics of interest. Visitors to the blog may respond to messages.
„„ Product blogs: An individual or organisation provides commentary in the form of a
personal diary about its various products.
„„ Blog press room: This is a press-related blog that is maintained by an individual or an
organisation in which information is fed to the media by means of press releases,
videos, photos and screen shots.
„„ Review blog: This is an extension of a blog but its focus is on promoting new
products and services, and providing opportunities for professional reflections and
viewpoints.
„„ Sponsoring of content category: Organisations are given a category in a suitable section
of a social media site (for example on Facebook), where they can post original
content.
„„ Message board: This is an electronic platform in the form of a forum where various
messages about different topics can be posted.
„„ Podcast: This is a digital media file which users can download from the Internet
and play back with the use of various Internet and communication technologies.
„„ Vlog: This is similar to a blog but the medium is a video in which users can see and
hear the message.
„„ Wiki: An organisation makes available one or several web pages where users who
access them can modify the content.
„„ Really simple syndication (RSS) feed: By subscribing to a feed, users can be connected
to Internet content about the organisation’s products and services.
„„ Widget built into social media sites: This is an applet which can be built into an HTML
web page to add content and to make it more interactive.
„„ Games, competitions, incentives: These are set up to provide entertainment to online
community members while they surf the website.
„„ Video advertisement: This is an engaging audio-visual advertisement that is generated
by users and which is available on sites that are part of the Google content network.
„„ Online social media press release: This is a press release with multimedia features that
users can access online.

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„„ Mobile platforms: Organisations can use mobile social conversation sites to reach
online consumers or to build the organisation’s brand, for instance with MXit and
The Grid (see Section 10.10).

10.10 Mobile marketing
Because a cellphone is usually switched on, is within immediate reach of the consumer,
and is also a very individual device, marketers can communicate content about
their products and services to their target market through what is known as mobile
marketing. Pousttchi and Wiedemann (2006) define mobile marketing as a ‘form
of marketing communications using mobile communication techniques to promote
goods, services and ideas’.
Mobile marketing is reliant upon mobile marketing applications such as wireless
application protocol (WAP), short message service (SMS) and multimedia message
service (MMS) (Carroll, Barnes, Scornavacca & Fletcher, 2007: 81).
Although SMS is still the most popular mobile data application for marketing
purposes (Timpson & Troutman, 2009: 59), marketers now also consider other mobile
marketing strategies for reaching more consumers (and not only those who have granted
permission to be opted in to receive mobile advertising messages). Consumers can also
subscribe to a branded mobile channel (contracted with a mobile service provider)
where they can access different offers that can include exclusive content as well as
applications, games, special opportunities, incentives and emotional experiences. The
fact that these consumers subscribe to these branded channels strengthens the value
of the sponsoring brand and simultaneously generates business value. Branded mobile
channels, for instance, are available on popular mobile social platforms such as MXit
and Vodafone. Various brands in South Africa have branded mobile channels, for
example Billabong, You magazine and Vodacom, to name but a few. With consumers
subscribing to a branded mobile channel, organisations can engage with consumers
on a deeper level, increase brand loyalty and augment consumer retention (Friedrich,
Gröne, Hölbling & Peterson, 2009: 54).
A cellphone usually belongs to one consumer only, so mobile service providers are
able to do ‘contextual marketing’ to their subscribers based on tracked information
such as the geographical position of users, the technical addresses of the cellphones,
and customer profiles. Contextual marketing refers to the extent to which e-businesses
use the Internet to provide customers with relevant information in the right context and
in real time (Lee, Korea & Jun, 2007: 799). For instance, based upon information that
the shopping centre marketing manager has concerning whether certain consumers
are in the shopping centre at that specific moment, these consumers can receive SMS
alerts that inform them of special promotions that are occurring in various stores in
the shopping mall.
However, marketing via a mobile platform also poses various limitations and
challenges, such as small screen size, limited bandwidth, device diversity, a limited
set of visual and audio capabilities, as well as issues such as permission-based
regulations, consumers’ trust and their perception of personal intrusion. Marketers
therefore consider the mobile medium to be more of a complementary or substitute

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channel to current marketing communication strategies (Sinisalo, Salo, Karjaluoto

& Leppäniemi, 2007: 775) or use mobile marketing communications primarily to
strengthen the organisation’s brand (Okazaki, 2009: 168).

10.11 Online advertising
Over the years the advertising phenomenon has developed in terms of content
and media, and has subsequently evolved to adapt to the ever-varying needs of
advertisers and audiences alike. Advertisers have therefore increased their efforts to
locate media that are less costly, less cluttered and potentially more effective than
the established media which have served their needs for many years (Shimp, 2003).
Advertising on the Internet commenced with such intensity that some observers
believed that traditional advertising was dead. It has been claimed that online
advertising is superior to traditional advertising in that it provides consumers with
greater control over the communication process, is more versatile than traditional
advertising, and is superior at targeting consumers. Shimp (2003) agrees but also
points out that the Internet is nothing more than a potentially key element of the
integrated marketing communication (IMC) mix and not a total replacement for
traditional advertising.
To explain the nature of online advertising, a definition is developed below for the
purposes of this discussion:
Online advertising consists of inexpensive, borderless, persuasive, continuous and
information-intensive online communication messages – sent out to a globally diverse
audience that voluntarily accesses unmodified messages on the Internet – from an
identified sponsor who directly receives feedback in an interactive manner.

New technologies like the WWW have generated a variety of possibilities in the effective
transfer of advertising messages to diverse populations. So many different media
options have become available for reaching consumers that audience fragmentation
has resulted. Advertisers have sought to overcome this problem by using the Internet
to reach these different audiences with varied advertising messages. The Internet has
also enabled organisations to advertise to a global target audience at a much lower
cost than they would have incurred had they used traditional advertising methods
(Hanekom & Scriven, 2002). Advertising on the Internet offers unique opportunities
to advertisers and these will grow as more advanced application technologies and
infrastructure become available, and as more consumers become educated in the use
of this medium.
As a communication medium, many advertisers do and will use the Internet as an
advertising medium. It is important, however, to remember that traditional advertising
media will never become obsolete. Because of the value of the different advertising
media, advertisers and marketers should therefore follow an integrated approach.
Although the Internet can be a central part of their advertising strategy, advertisers
should be aware that they must use traditional media alongside this new and exciting
medium. In terms of the integrated organisational communication approach, the
messages should be consistent with other organisational communication messages, as
well as with the overall corporate brand of the organisation. Market segmentation

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and target marketing therefore play an increasingly important role when deciding on
the ideal media mix and communication messages to use. Prior to elaborating on the
nature of online advertising, however, the development of online advertising is briefly
highlighted.

10.11.1 Development of online advertising

Although on the one hand online advertising is currently regarded as imperative to any
marketing communication effort and is widely utilised, it is, on the other hand, also still
developing in terms of content and applications. Organisations have attempted online
advertising in many formats, which have revealed various developmental stages:
„„ Advertisers began by offering information and promotional material through
textual gopher documents, electronic mass mailings, and the posting of messages
in Usenet discussion groups. These types of online advertising were soon described
as ‘junk mailing’, and advertisers realised that they were perceived as invasive in
nature and were ineffective at delivering advertising messages to different target
audiences.
„„ In response to this inefficacy, marketers and advertisers tried alternatives like
commercial gopher sites, but they soon became aware that the impact of these
messages was not what they hoped. They again sought alternative methods.
„„ The concept of distributed hypermedia documents began to develop and the
National Centre for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) released Mosaic, which
was based on hypertext technology, namely the WWW (Rao, 1997). The WWW
opened up enormous opportunities for advertisers and marketers to promote their
products, services and ideas to a diverse spectrum of the population.
„„ As an advertising medium, the web is currently thriving and its popularity is
increasing, despite its initial slow start. This could be attributed to advertisers’
realisation that this medium has immense potential as an advertising medium or
‘billboard’ that can reach an international audience.
Organisations now have a wide variety of media available to them, which has led
to the development of e-commerce. By offering their own content and services on
the Internet many organisations attempt, with greater or less success, to use it as a
medium for conducting business (Loebbecke, Powell & Trilling, 1998). Although many
organisations are now using the virtual market, the advertising opportunities that
this new environment offers are still to be thoroughly explored, and marketers and
advertisers should remember that this medium is very different from traditional mass
communication media (Kiani, 1998).
In the online environment, advertising and commercial information is displayed
and accessed in a new and unique way. Organisations intent on disseminating their
advertising and marketing communication messages online need to adjust their internal
and external communication strategies accordingly (Ranchhod, Gurãu & Lace, 2002).
In this context, therefore, the re-evaluation and modification of each organisation’s
traditional communication strategies are imperative. Of course there are numerous
reasons why the Internet can be considered a valuable and effective communication
and advertising medium:

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„„ With its information-intensive nature, the Internet allows the organisation to

provide an extensive amount of information to target audiences and markets.
„„ People are now consuming less traditional media and spending more time online.
The Internet has become a popular information provider that enables consumers to
find general, product- and service-related information online. The demographics
of online users have also changed, and users represent a microcosm of society
which bridges social class, age and household make-up (New Media Age, 2001).
An increasing number of people have access to the Internet, and it can therefore
be regarded as a communication medium that has the potential to reach a massive
and diverse spectrum of consumers.
„„ Marketers and advertisers have realised that the web can be instrumental in
their marketing campaigns (‘Making Ads Work on the Internet’, 2003). In
the integrated marketing communication campaign, the tools for marketing
communication (advertising, sales promotion, direct marketing, personal selling,
and so on) are integrated, as are the media used to communicate with consumers.
The Internet is another such tool, and can be used effectively to communicate
with target audiences. In light of this, online advertising is gradually expanding
in South Africa.
Having examined how the online advertising phenomenon has evolved, it is important
to discuss its intricate nature.

10.11.2 Nature of online advertising

Moriarty, Mitchell and Wells (2009) suggest that online advertising has three
primary purposes:
„„ It provides brand reminders on websites to people who are visiting the website.
„„ It delivers an informational or persuasive message that is similar to advertisements
in the offline environment.
„„ It encourages people to visit the advertiser’s website by clicking on a banner or
button that will lead them to it. These advertisements therefore pull people to the
websites.
In order to ensure effective communication in the online environment and to fulfil
the primary purposes of online advertising, organisations should adhere to the
four fundamental pillars of effective communication – namely dialogue, borderless
communication, inclusive communication and continuous communication. These four
fundamentals are particularly applicable in the online communication environment,
and they should be adhered to concurrently (Ranchhod et al., 2002). Table 10.3
elucidates these pillars.

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Table 10.3 The four fundamental pillars of effective online communication

Dialogue The process of online communication begins with

dialogue, because, in essence, communication is a
process of exchange. The online environment allows for
the exchange of communication messages between
advertisers and consumers. Direct feedback from
consumers becomes possible, and this in turn enables
advertisers to adapt their advertising messages to the
needs of the target audience. The traditional models of
unidirectional communication are not suitable for online
communication and should be replaced by many-to-many
communication models

Borderless communication Through the strategic planning of messages,

communication can be borderless and delivered
consistently across cultures and time zones. The Internet
allows the advertiser to deliver similar advertising messages
to consumers from different cultures in different time
zones at the same time. Therefore, the advertiser should
develop advertising messages that are tailor-made for
consumers from diverse cultures. Borderless communication
also necessitates that communication messages must be
consistent across any organisation’s advertising, marketing
and public relations (marketing communication) activities in
both the real and online world

Inclusive communication Inclusive communication should reach both internal

and external audiences. Organisational communication
messages should be integrated and communicated to all
stakeholders in the same manner. Inclusive communication
includes employees, consumers and any other
stakeholders. The integrated manner in which messages
are communicated creates synergy in any organisational
communication strategy. Because online advertising is
integrated with online marketing and public relations
messages, each message aimed at internal and external
organisational stakeholders should be inclusive

Continuous communication Marketers and advertisers should ensure that

communication messages are communicated to different
stakeholders on a continuous basis. All stakeholders should
be updated and informed of any new developments
regarding products and services, as well as any
organisational decisions that might influence them

Unique characteristics of online advertising

As a communication medium, the Internet has many distinctive characteristics,
such as ubiquity, flexibility, networked interaction, speed, global reach and
time independence, and in these ways can be differentiated from traditional
communication media. It is clear that advertising in this medium will possess equally
unique characteristics, including the following:

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„„ Individualisation: ‘Individualization refers to the fact that the Internet user has
control over the flow of information’ (Shimp, 2003). With traditional advertising
messages individual consumers have little control over the amount or rate of
information they receive because such advertising is usually uni-directional and
there is little opportunity to provide feedback. In contrast to this, the online
environment provides consumers with the opportunity to choose the amount of
exposure they have to a web advertisement; they decide what to watch, when and
how much. The WWW and other interactive technologies therefore shift control
from advertisers to consumers, who are now free to seek information they desire
and ignore information for which they have no need.
„„ Interactivity: Interactivity is one of the most important key features of online
advertising that differentiates it from advertising in the traditional media
paradigm. When exposed to online advertising, the consumer is able to exercise
unprecedented control over the content with which he or she interacts and therefore
becomes a partner in the communication process and the production of messages.
Shimp (2003) explains that interactivity ‘allows for users to select the information
they perceive as relevant and for brand managers to build relationships with
customers via two-way communication’. Traditional media encounters provide
consumers with little possibility of interaction, although consumers might engage
in a passive manner with action, but no interaction. Interactivity entails reciprocal
activity by means of two-way communication (dialogue) and consumer control
over the communication process. In the online context, consumers now need to
be referred to as ‘users’ instead of ‘receivers’. Jin and Villegas (2007) add that
interactivity provides multiple options, such as various controls and choices, a
richer sense of feedback and two-way communication.
In terms of ensuring true interactivity, advertisers should engage in relevant strategies
to guarantee that consumers are motivated to respond and interact with the online
advertising content. The concept of interactivity requires proper consideration, owing
to the shift in channel power from organisation to consumer that takes place during
online advertising activities.
Much of the attraction of the Internet as an advertising medium is due to its
interactive capabilities, which allow consumers to use it for providing and receiving
information and services. Marketers and advertisers therefore should not use the
Internet solely for the static provision of information without allowing for interactivity.
This would lead to online advertising messages that are less effective. When online
advertising is used as part of an organisation’s marketing communication strategies,
the following need to be considered:
„„ Equality: The WWW provides a level playing field for all participants.
Organisations, consumers and customers have equal opportunities to access and
provide information.
„„ Competency: The consumer or customer who wishes to access the online environment
needs computer skills to browse through commercial websites. This is in contrast
to the physical world, in which access to advertising messages is not based on
capabilities or skills.

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„„ Information intensity: The Internet is not a simulation of a real-world environment; it

is an alternative to real-world environments which offers online shopping facilities.
In the real-world environment, the focus of the advertising messages is on visual
persuasion, which is distinct from the information-intensive nature of online
advertising messages. Any updated product- and non-product-related information
can be delivered on the Internet because of its focus on content delivery (Kiani,
1998).
„„ Affordability: Presence in the online environment is relatively inexpensive to
establish, and has the advantage in that a vast, international audience can be
reached.

Types or forms of online advertising

Similar to print and broadcast media, the Internet is an advertising medium that
marketers and advertisers need to consider (Belch & Belch, 2009) because it provides them
with immense opportunities to present interactive advertising messages. Advertising
on the Internet can be presented in different formats. Armstrong (2001), Hanekom
and Scriven (2002), Shimp (2003), Belch and Belch (2009) and Moriarty et al. (2009)
elaborate on the following forms which are used in the online environment:
„„ Banners: Banner advertisements are the most common form of advertising on
the Internet; they are also referred to as ‘hot links’ (Armstrong, 2001). Banner
advertisements are generally used to create awareness or recognition, to
encourage consumers to enter contests and sweepstakes, or for direct-marketing
objectives. Banner advertisements are also referred to as side panels, skyscrapers or
verticals when they are presented as strip advertisements placed on the edges of
photos or advertisements. Banner advertisements are usually found on popular,
advertising-supported websites. They are the oldest and most popular type of
online advertising.
„„ Pop-ups, pop-unders, pop-behinds, interstitials and superstitials: Pop-ups are those
advertisements that appear on the screen when a webpage is accessed and which try
to get the user’s attention. Pop-behinds burst open on the computer screen behind
the opening page of the website. Pop-ups are larger than banner advertisements
but are smaller than a full screen. Pop-unders are advertisements that appear at
the bottom of the screen and become visible only when the user leaves the website.
These are often used for subscription sales; they automatically spring up on top of
the main web page when a website is accessed. Interstitials refer to the space that
intervenes between things. These are advertisements that appear between two
content web pages (Shimp, 2003). Superstitials are short, animated advertisements
that play over or on top of a web page (Shimp, 2003).
„„ Sponsorships: There are two types of sponsorships. Regular sponsorships are used when
an organisation pays to sponsor a section of a site. Content sponsorship is when the
sponsor not only provides money in return for name association but participates
in providing the content itself. Additional sponsorship opportunities available to
online advertisers include naming rights to sites, imput into the overall ‘look and
feel’ of the site, and editorial sponsorships.

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„„ Skyscrapers: Skyscrapers are extra-long, skinny advertisements that run down the
right or left side of a website.
„„ Minisites: Minisites allow advertisers to market their products without directing the
visitor away from the website (Moriarty et al., 2009). Minisites appear automatically
on the website and can be enlarged by the visitor at a later stage. Also referred to
as ‘microsites’, these sites follows the basic structure and presentational feel of the
sponsored site (Armstrong, 2001).
„„ Widgets: Widgets are tiny computer programs that allow people to create and
insert professional-looking content into their personal websites. This type of online
advertisement includes news notes, calculators, weather feeds, stock tickers, clocks,
book or music covers, or other web gadgets that can be framed by a brand-name
promotional offer. Widgets are used to get non-intrusive advertisements on the
desktop, website or blog (Moriarty et al., 2009).
„„ Online shopping malls: Kalahari.com, Edgars.co.za and Picknpay.co.za are all
examples of this form of online advertising.
„„ E-mail marketing: With the aid of e-mail marketing, the advertiser can reach specific
users, and this has led to this type of advertising becoming a rapid growth area in
online advertising.
„„ Liquid image advertisements: This embedded imaging technology transforms ordinary
web images into interactive images that reveal hidden layers of editorial content,
streaming audio and video, advertising information and e-commerce capabilities.
„„ Point roll advertisements: These are similar to standard online banner advertisements
but allow for greater interactivity. By rolling the mouse through the advertisement,
the user accesses up to eight mini-web panels containing additional messages.
„„ Enliven advertisements: These are richly interactive media advertisements that can
now offer animation from a macromedia flash movie.
„„ Messaging plus: These are large advertisements displayed on half of the computer
screen.
„„ Larger pages: Larger pages facilitate interaction without linking users to new sites.
„„ Interstitials: These are advertisements that appear on the screen while the user is
waiting for content to download. They are Java-based advertisements that appear
while the publisher’s content is loading. Although they showed great promise when
they were introduced, their number has not significantly increased over the last
few years.
„„ The selling of certain words to advertisers: With this type of online advertising message,
consumers visiting a web page to refer to a specific topic are shown an online
advertisement that relates to the words that were used in the consumer’s search.
„„ Push technologies: Push technologies – or webcasting technologies – allow
organisations to ‘push’ a message to consumers instead of waiting for them to
find it. These technologies dispatch web pages and news updates, and might
have sound and video geared to specific audiences or individuals. Internet users
can personalise these ‘pushed’ messages, by, for example, requesting the specific
information they are most interested in viewing.

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„„ Links: Not everyone regards links as a type of online advertising but, in actual fact,
they serve many of the same purposes as the types of online advertising discussed
above.
„„ Paid search: Paid search is one of the most widely used forms of advertising on the
Internet. With this type of advertising the advertiser pays only when a consumer
clicks on their advertisement or link from a search engine page. Search engines
now constitute 40% of all online advertising spenditure, with Google dominating
the market (Belch & Belch, 2009).
„„ Behavioural targeting: Behavioural targeting involves advertisers’ targeting consumers
by taking into account their website surfing behaviour. By compiling clickstream
data and Internet protocol (IP) information, segments of potential buyers can be
identified, and advertisements can be directed specifically to them.
„„ Contextual advertisements: Advertisers target their advertisements based on the
content of the web page.
„„ Rich media: Rich media include all content that is created in flash. The successful
adoption of music videos, sports clips and news has led advertisers to create a
variety of forms of streaming video advertising content. Belch and Belch (2009) list
the following as types of ‘rich’ media:
„„ Online commercials: Online commercials are the equivalent of television
commercials. They can either be created especially for the Internet, or the
existing television commercial can be placed on the Internet.
„„ Video on demand: Video clips of various entertainment activities (which include
advertisements or are sponsored) are also available through the Internet.
„„ Webisodes: Webisodes are short, featured films. Organisations create their own
content to advertise their products.
„„ Other forms of rich media advertising: Other forms of rich media advertisements
are interactive banner advertisements, expandable advertisements and rich
media advertisements placed in video games, instant messaging, podcasts and
video advertisements within blogs.
„„ Additional Internet advertising forms: As the Internet evolves as an advertising medium,
more ways to deliver advertising messages appear. Belch and Belch (2009) give the
following examples:
„„ Podcasting: Podcasting is a medium that uses the Internet to distribute radio-
like files for downloading into iPods and other MP3 players.
„„ RSS: Really Simple Syndication (RSS) is a specification that uses XML to
organise and format web-based content in a standard way. The difference
between web content and an RSS feed is that the RSS feed can send out
notifications whenever new material is available.
„„ Blogs: Blogs reflect the writings of an individual, a community, a political
party or any organisation. They offer advertisers a new way of reaching their
target audience.
„„ Websites: Most organisations nowadays have a website (Shimp, 2003) that is
linked to the organisation’s homepage. The organisational website has only
recently been regarded as a form of online advertising and one which has
proven to be invaluable because it can convey important information about

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the brand, its character and its promotional offerings. Organisational websites
can prove to be an especially valuable online advertising method when they
are attractive and user friendly, and invite usage and revisits. Consumers
visit websites with the aim of obtaining information about the organisation,
the product or the service, and that is precisely what the website should then
provide them with.
Despite the different types and forms of online advertising, online advertising can also
fulfil other functions.

Online advertising functions

In addition to the e-commerce and e-business function of the Internet, online advertisers
are interested in many of the other functions that can aid advertising messages in their
attempt to sell a product or service, or create a positive image for an organisation.
Moriarty et al. (2009) provide the following Internet functions that are important to
online advertisers:
„„ The information role: ‘The most important advertising-related role that the Internet
plays is to provide information’ (Moriarty et al., 2009). The Internet is a huge
online library which consumers use to find general information, as well as product
and service information.
„„ Online publishing: Advertisers can adapt information from their traditional media to
suit the online environment.
„„ Online encyclopaedias: Online encyclopaedias such as Wikipedia can prove to be a
huge source of information for online visitors.
„„ The entertainment role: Many users visit websites on the Internet for entertainment,
escapism and relaxation. The most popular web entertainment is Youtube.com,
which is a site that carries consumer-generated film and video clips.
„„ The social role: Social networking refers to a new category of websites that
allows users to express themselves, interact with friends, and publish their
own content on the Internet (Moriarty et al., 2009). MySpace targets young
people and musicians, while Facebook is a real-time online journal that allows
users to share personal information with friends. Because these types of social
networking focus on the power of relationships, users are more likely to respond
to messages on the site, such as advertising messages, if they effectively become
part of the social context (Moriarty et al., 2009). The relationships that users
form on these websites also play a significant role in their decision-making
processes.
„„ The dialogue role: The Internet not only provides information, entertainment and
social networking but also opens up the possibility of two-way communication.
Advertisers therefore regard the Internet as indispensable for two reasons:
1. the possibility of creating a dialogue with the consumer
2. creating a dialogue among and between consumers and potential
consumers.
Because of the interactive nature of the Internet, traditional advertiser-controlled
advertising is impossible. Nowadays the consumer can contact the organisation

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online and obtain a personal answer to his or her questions. When consumers
contact and influence each other via the Internet, word-of-mouth advertising,
which is a very powerful type of advertising, commences.
It is clear that the variety of functions of online advertising is beneficial to advertisers
and marketers alike. Although online advertising is essential and advantageous in any
marketing communication effort, it does, however, have some disadvantages.

10.11.3 Advantages and disadvantages of online advertising

The Internet provides several advantages to marketers and advertisers. Many of its
unique characteristics enable exceptional opportunities for the effective dissemination
of advertising messages to target audiences and markets. However, there are certain
disadvantages as well (Belch & Belch, 2001; Goldsmith & Lafferty, 2002; James, 2001;
Moriarty et al., 2009). In Table 10.4, the advantages and disadvantages of online
advertising are briefly described.

Table 10.4 Advantages and disadvantages of online advertising

Advantages Disadvantages

„„ Target marketing „„ Measurement problems

The online environment allows advertisers Research conducted on forecasts, audience

to target specific groups of individuals, as profiles and other statistics from the
only those consumers who are interested in Internet demonstrate a great deal of
a specific product, service or idea visit the variance. These research statistics lack
website validity and reliability

„„ Message tailoring „„ Audience characteristics

As a result of the Internet’s ability to target The numbers and characteristics of Internet
specific individuals, messages can also be audiences can go out of date quickly, and
designed to appeal to the specific needs details of Internet audiences often vary
and wants of the target audience. Owing from one Internet service provider to the
to the interactive nature of this medium, next. Because of the accelerating growth of
one-to-one marketing messages become the Internet as a communication medium,
possible more and more people have access to this
medium

„„ Interactive capabilities „„ Websnarl

Aided by the interactive capabilities of The process of downloading information

the Internet, advertisers can increase from the Internet can take some time (for
consumer involvement and satisfaction. example when a number of users access a
The consumer’s involvement with the site simultaneously, and when dialup users
advertising message provides almost access sites that contain detailed graphics).
immediate feedback to the marketer or Certain consumers use the Internet precisely
advertiser because of the speed of the medium, and
any obstruction to this speed leads to
frustration


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Advantages Disadvantages

„„ Information access „„ Clutter

Information is often freely available on the Some organisations’ advertisements on

Internet. Consumers can find information on websites are not noticed, perhaps because
a vast array of topics, as well as on product there are too many advertisements on a
specifications, costs, purchase information, single page. Consumers are easily irritated
and so on. Consumers also have the power by a clutter of advertisements and tend to
to request more information if necessary disregard them

„„ Sales potential „„ Potential for deception

Increasingly, the Internet is being used to Some advertisers try to target children with
conclude deals and to sell products and colourful and exciting advertising messages.
services to consumers If a child has access to a credit card and
knows how to process a purchase on the
Internet, he or she can spend a great deal of
money buying items from the advertiser. The
Internet has also been referred to as ‘a web
of deceit’ as advertisers and marketers gain
access to personal information through such
children’s Internet purchases. Moreover, issues
such as organisations collecting data without
consumers’ knowledge and permission,
hackers, and credit card theft detract from
the value of the Internet as a communication
and commercial medium

„„ Creativity „„ Costs

The online environment permits a uniquely The costs of conducting business on the
creative approach to advertising messages Internet continue to increase. It is still
possible to establish a website inexpensively
but to establish an effective website and
to maintain it is becoming increasingly
expensive

Exposure Limited production quality

The Internet is a relatively inexpensive Currently, the Internet is less developed

medium, and smaller organisations with than certain traditional media in terms of
limited budgets can use it to gain exposure production quality. Internet advertising does
to potential consumers not offer the capabilities of many competitive
media, although advanced technologies and
rich media are narrowing the gap

„„ Speed „„ Poor reach

The Internet is the quickest way of acquiring The Internet cannot reach as many potential
information on an organisation, its products consumers as television can. Internet
or services numbers are escalating but organisations
must still use some traditional media to
achieve reach and awareness goals 

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Advantages Disadvantages

„„ Flexibility „„ Accessibility

The Internet is much more flexible for The Internet provides an opportunity for
marketing and advertising than traditional organisations to increase their hours of
media because it can gather fresh and business on a global spectrum. Owing to
updated information based on the direct accessibility and infrastructural issues in
feedback received from consumers South Africa, accessibility can also be a
problem on a global spectrum

10.12 Online public relations

New online innovations and information communication technologies are
revolutionising the practice of public relations. These new technologies can be used
in public relations to raise the profile of an organisation (thus increasing awareness
amongst the different target audiences) and, ultimately, to create a favourable
corporate brand.
To realise the advantages these new online technologies offer to the practice of
public relations, they can be examined through comparison with the main problems
associated with traditional public relations. Traditional public relations is usually
expensive (that is, there are the production costs of printed material such as brochures,
newsletters, and so on); it can also be very time consuming (that is, corrections,
revisions, printing and reprinting, and so on); and it frequently has a ‘hit-and-miss’
quality (that is, the target audience was not reached). Although online public relations
will not eliminate all these problems, it will add to and subtract from today’s public
relations methods and techniques. It will add interactivity but subtract costs; it will add
choices but remove dependence; it will add information value to products and services but remove
barriers to starting a business or expanding into international markets (Barker, 2004).
Although online public relations will not replace traditional public relations, it will
extend and broaden traditional public relations into new directions to benefit both the
client and the organisation.

10.12.1 Online public relations defined

Online public relations is defined in the same way as traditional public relations (see
Chapter 7), but is conducted via the Internet and online services in a strategic manner,
and can reduce barriers between an organisation and its internal and external
publics (Marlow, 1997: 116). Online or digital refers to media such as the Internet, the
World Wide Web, and commercial online services like CompuServe, amongst others
(Hurme, 2001) and it includes tools like websites, SMSs, blogging, social networks and
the WWW.

10.12.2 Differences between traditional paradigms and new online public

relations trends
Based on Marshall McLuhan’s media theories, which suggest that when a new technolog y
comes along, it obsolesces older technologies, it could be assumed that people will cease doing

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anything else and will only surf the Internet and World Wide Web. This, however, is
not necessarily the case (Barker, 2004). The creation of these new technologies has,
or course, had a profound influence on public relations, and it is therefore essential
to investigate the constantly changing paradigm shifts and models of online public
relations for the Internet and commercial online services. Table 10.5 highlights some
of the paradigm shifts and key trends for public relations (which can also be relevant
to other online applications).

Table 10.5 Paradigm shifts and key trends for public relations

Traditional paradigms New online trends

Individual documents with text Compound documents which integrate

text, pictures and video

Isolated items which are linear Universal linking to create dynamic

documents

General-interest services to broad audiences Special-interest services aimed at specific

target audiences

Subscription-only pricing Advertiser and sponsor subsidies

Hard copy information Internet libraries with data, information-

rich newsgroups and mailing lists where
users can read files and explore the WWW

Publishing as rocket science – that is, only Publishing for everyone – that is, with the
specialists can publish right Internet tools anybody can publish

CD-ROM versus online services CD-ROM integrated with online services

Source: Barker (2004)

The main advantages and disadvantages of online public relations are presented in
Table 10.6.

Table 10.6 Advantages and disadvantages of online public relations

Ten advantages of online public Ten disadvantages of online public

relations relations

Allows for timely mass-media publishing Is not a complete PR strategy but a facet of
an overall PR strategy

Enhances communication with journalists Will not replace paper, a phone call,
traditional mail or fax, or a visit

Allows the sending of messages to targeted Cannot reach everyone because not
audiences everyone is connected

Helps to keep track of what has been said in Can be complicated, difficult to use and hard
the media through online clipping services to understand, and users must be literate 

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Ten advantages of online public Ten disadvantages of online public

relations relations

Creates a 24-hour presence Can initially be expensive in terms of the

start-up costs

Conveys information through multimedia Requires continual effort to maintain a

publishing positive Internet presence and constant
monitoring

Provides searchable information Has security weaknesses – for example

hackers

Eliminates geographical barriers Lacks a common user registry for e-mail

users

Permits internal communication through Is a limited resource because the explosive

intranets growth which turned it into an information
superhighway also slowed the speed of data
processing

Allows management of crisis Can damage an organisation’s image due to

communications through posting corporate negative public voices (like activist groups)
statements or positions online and criticism
Source: Adapted from Barker (2004)

10.12.3 Online public relations: a theoretical perspective

It has been emphasised that online public relations should not be executed in isolation
but rather should be integrated with traditional public relations and other web-based
and non-web-based communication processes in the organisation. In terms of an
integrated approach, it is also essential that online public relations be aligned with the
corporate brand of the organisation.
It is clear that new communication technologies have changed the way in which
organisations can and do communicate. Organisations have to stay abreast of these
changes and learn to function in an environment that is characterised by new
technological developments and the challenges of the new information superhighway.
These new communication technologies have added the ‘dialogue’ dimensions of
one-to-one, asynchronous communication (for example e-mail between two people)
to communication processes both within an organisation and between organisations;
many-to-many asynchronous communication (for example a large number of
dialogues in discussion groups, chat rooms, Usenet, electronic bulletin boards, and so
on); synchronous communication which can be one-to-one or many-to-many (that is,
sender and receiver are present at the same time); and asynchronous communication
which can be many-to-one, one-to-one or one-to-many (that is, consumers seek out a
site to access information) (Hurme, 2001: 72).
These forms of communication emphasise the new interactivity involved in the
process of communication. Hurme (2001: 73) elaborates on the two types of interactivity
that exist:

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„„ Quasi-interactivity, which refers to one-way communication (for example subscribing

to the organisation’s news releases and sending feedback to the organisations) that
in theory (and occasionally in practice) can receive a response. Quasi-interactivity
has the potential to be two-way communication; for example, an e-mail message
can be responded to, a subscription for news releases can lead to further
communication, and so on.
„„ Two-way, truly interactive communication includes, for example, exchanging e-mail
messages with a public relations person, discussions with other stakeholders in the
chat rooms of the web site, and so on.
From existing literature, it is clear that a general lack of theoretical foundations exist for
online public relations and that available information presents fragmented perspectives
that make little effort to propose an integrated viewpoint. In an effort to systemise
online public relations, cognisance should be given to the existence of traditional public
relations approaches as these can be used as theoretical basis.
Four major social scientific perspectives exist from which public relations theory
can be built upon or benefit, namely symbolic interactionism, exchange theories, conflict theories
and structural-functional theories (also referred to by some researchers as the ‘systems
approach’) (Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Toth & Heath, 1992: 3–15). These viewpoints
support the general trend of the views on online public relations and also build on
other theories of communication regarding publics.
Freitag (2009: 36–38), Barker (2009), Grunig and Hunt (2002), and Fearn-Banks (2007)
briefly summarise these main theories as follows:
„„ Haberman’s theory of communicative action, which can be applied to a critical
analysis of the rhetoric of civil society.
„„ The inoculation theory, which can assist in assessing the appropriateness of
communication campaigns.
„„ The classic co-orientation model of communication that assesses attitudes and opinions
about professional standards.
„„ The relational communication approach which explores the efficacy of public relations’
persuasive efforts.
„„ Rhetorical, crisis-response and coherence models that aim to restore organisation’s
reputations.
„„ Agenda-setting and propaganda theories, which use complex combinations of theories to
collectively provide an agenda-setting paradigm.
„„ Excellence theories which, based on the four models, classify types of public
relations, including the press agentry/publicity model (one-way transfer of
information from organisation to publics which argue that all publicity is good
publicty); the public information model (one-way transfer with the desire to
report information through media releases); the two-way asymmetric model
(use of social science theory and research to help persuade publics to accept
the organisation’s viewpoint – although there is some feedback the organisation
rules and knows best); and the two-way symmetric model (which attempts to
achieve dialogue and two-way communication to ensure mutual understanding
between the organisation and the public).

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„„ The knowledge management paradigm, which presents a way to manage messages

which are acquired, transferred and assimilated during online communication.
Although the focus used to be on the Grunig-Hunt four-phase excellence model, this
model spawned several global theories that constitute the way public relations should
reflect the maturation of public relations theory into an international context, with a
focus on three main areas: empowerment of the public relations function, communicator
roles, and organisation of the communication function and its relationship to other
management functions (Freitag, 2009: 35).
Linked to these arguments, Barker (2004) suggests that online public relations
should be studied theoretically, with a combination of elements from the systems theory
(which deals with the interrelatedness of the parts of an organisation), cybernetics
(which deals with control and regulation in systems), and information theory (which
focuses on the measurement and transmission of signals). Barker (2004) argues, that in
terms of online public relations, a complex set of variables that relate to each other is
evident, which means that elements of all three of the above theories can be applied in
the practice of online public relations.

10.12.4 Online public relations tools

Various online public relations tools are available and are summarised in Table 10.7
(Freitag 2009; Barker, 2004; Horton, 2001).

Table 10.7 Online public relations tools

Tool Description Strategies

Online promotions Part of website „„ Free product samples

maintenance „„ Contests where participants can win
something
„„ Information necessary to persuade
people to buy the products or services
online

Online Contact opportunities „„ High visibility – be noticeable

relationships on the Internet – „„ Perceived personality – be well liked
(networking) different proximity in „„ Prestigious professional image – be
cyberspace respected for your abilities and
integrity

Online customer Online support centres „„ Increase loyalty through fast technical
support to assist customers and support
to build loyalty „„ Reduce returns from customers who
experience problems
„„ Reduce bad word of mouth
„„ Respond quickly to customer enquiries
„„ Conduct market research
„„ Use e-mail optimally 

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Tool Description Strategies

Online public To track and influence „„ Environmental scanning/event

affairs and governmental and tracking/issues monitoring of public
community community activities affairs and community relations in
relations critical issues
„„ Image building/online community
goodwill by sponsoring online
activities to the benefit of the
organisation’s image
„„ Issues discussion and client positions
online to serve as a co-ordinating
knowledge base for campaign workers
and to maintain contact with them
„„ Newsletters, newsgroups and
LISTSERVs can be used to promote
client positions or issues online
„„ Lobbying via e-mail to newsgroups
can encourage response to governing
bodies online

Online media Electronic distribution „„ Write effective online media releases –

relations of news releases and three types, namely e-mail releases,
e-mail responses to web page media releases and online
reporters’ inquiries radio shows (for example Yahoo!)
„„ Determine a message that is aligned
with the public relations goals and
includes the purpose of release,
and the features and benefits of the
product, service or organisation
„„ Gather information through research
(on the product or service, the size
of the market, opinion leaders’
comments, and other public relations
activities)
„„ Write and edit the release and use
the inverted pyramid style to write
the story – that is, write the most
important news first to capture the
audience’s attention and follow
this with quotes, comments and
background information
„„ Distribute media releases online,
publish on virtual or online media
rooms, or send them via newswires
(these can be accessed internationally)
„„ Develop online media kits (electronic
transmittal of information) which
include visuals, sound bites from a
spokesperson, product information,
online brochures, and so on. 

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Tool Description Strategies

Online investor Tracking of trading „„ Electronic information on initial public

relations in the organisation’s offerings, investment opportunities
shares; monitoring of and annual reports
speculative activities; „„ Website investor relations, including
and distribution counselling and maintenance
of information to „„ Analyst briefings using the Internet as
potential online a primary of supporting medium
investors „„ Rumour control by hunting down
speculators who manipulate stock
prices
„„ Investor contact through regular
online communication
„„ Online questions and answers with
immediate feedback
„„ Cyber chats (live messaging) with
company officials
„„ Sending of e-mail and online
newsletters to current and prospective
shareholders

Intranet and Intranet is used to „„ Information on the intranet includes

extranet inform the internal memos, newsletters, guideline
target audience about documents, policies, internal phone
corporate information; books, training manuals and product
extranet is similar to information
the intranet but is „„ Use the extranet to provide customers
open to third parties and suppliers with the information
they need, and gain information about
customers’ interests

Online banner ads Can be used as a „„ Advertise on news sites (such as c/net,
targeted online banner Lycos, and Yahoo!)
campaign „„ Announce a launch of an organisation
to highly trafficked sites
„„ Launch a contest with banner ads and
use a teaser campaign to announce
the countdown (for example huge
online attention seekers promote on
one, two or multiple sites; promote
partners; drive online traffic; and use
online registration)
„„ Use e-mail, banners (on top of a web
page, at the side or floating), animated
ads (images appear, move and
disappear), superstitial ads (pop-up in
boxes on the screen), interstitial ads
(sprinkled through content), info-
rich ads (layers of information) and
dedicated websites 

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Tool Description Strategies

Online events Communicate the „„ Spokesperson tours where celebrities

organisation’s message or authors (including physicians,
through a range of government officials and executives)
activities take questions from the online
community
„„ Online promotions to promote
products and services
„„ ‘Live’ online meetings which allow
participants outside a geographic
location to participate in meetings
through online technologies such as
video, sound and whiteboarding (that
is, writing on a surface in one location
which is reproduced in another
location)
„„ Online media conferences with
geographic reach beyond the room
where the media conference is held
„„ Product launches to reach targeted
groups

Website launch Opening or re-opening „„ Use online media, as well as search

planning a website to gain the engine listings, according to a
widest possible online timetable, with persuasive information
and traditional media such as media releases and kits, screen
exposure shots of the webpage, give-aways,
promotions and spokesperson tours

Online Can include profit „„ Online newsletters as part of the

publications ventures, either with website are excellent and affordable
paid subscriptions public relations tools
or free newsletters „„ Use simple sentences and paragraph
circulated by e-mail structures and consider variables such
and published as as frequency, style, layout, and so on
public relations
promotions

Online mailing lists Something between „„ Compilations of e-mail messages from

newsletters and members of the list
newsgroups with „„ One subscriber poses a question or
elements of both – makes and observation on a relevant
that is, using multiple topic and others respond
e-mail addresses as „„ Easier to participate and use than a
a means to create newsgroup
and conduct group
discussions 

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Tool Description Strategies

Online bulleting A computer „„ Manages requests and interactions of

board systems equipped with users calling in to access the systems
special software and „„ Differs from major online services in
telecommunications terms of magnitude
links allows the „„ Can be used for messaging, research
computer to act as and publicity
an information host „„ Advertises the availability of the board
or server for remote with mailers or ads which describe
computer systems exactly how to use the systems as well
as the benefits for the clients

Online forums Create a base to „„ Use it to provide information and to

provide customer reach the general public, employees
support, answer and customers
questions and post „„ Use it to create, build and maintain
news and new positive relationships with clients
information – that is, „„ Publish information such as media
online messages and releases, earning reports, new product
library centres on the information and data sheets
commercial online „„ Include give-aways of free samples,
services sneak previews of new products
and services, and provide customer
support for technical questions

Online Discussion forums „„ Build relationships with prospective

newsgroups conducted entirely and established clients
by e-mail but with
contributions from
a specific target
audience that are
called postings rather
than messages or
letters and which
involve talking to them
on a regular basis

Online Use forums or the chat „„ Inform participates on what will

conferences areas (for example be discussed and how they should
WebChat) which use the online tools (usually this
enable conference information is placed in a FAQ file)
participants to add „„ Use the website on the Internet for
pictures and sound interactive media conferences to
to their text-based announce new products and services
discussions in an effective way

Internal online Communication with „„ Inform them of happenings in the

communication the internal target organisation
audience through „„ A daily, weekly or monthly bulleting
e-mail on a regular digest or info-corner can be
basis established for this purpose


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Tool Description Strategies

Virtual social Social connectivity „„ Use these social networks to the

networks through virtual and benefit of the organisation by using
digital media them as platforms on which to interact
with consumers
„„ Proactively ‘manage’ message content
by acting as an ‘expert or intelligence
agent’

Example of an online media release

Integrated Online Communication Specialists
P O Box 1234
Pretoria
0001
South Africa
For immediate release
Contact person
Sharon Shaw
Integrated Online Communication Specialists
+27 012 997-5155
[email protected]
[Type the Headline Here in Title Case]
[CITY-DATE: Start typing the first paragraph here. Write the media release in a selected model.
Follow the guidelines for writing style. At the end of the release, type ### or ‘30’ without the
quotation marks.]
###

10.12.5 Integration of online public relations with traditional public

relations
It has been argued that online public relations should be integrated with traditional
public relations and other communication processes, as well as the corporate brand
of the organisation. According to Holtz (1999), the future ‘online web public relations
area’ will no longer be characterised by two kinds of public relations practitioners
working side by side (those who use traditional tools and those who practise online
public relations); rather, both practitioners will be expected to follow an integrated
approach. In terms of an integrated approach, online public relations will use integrated
marketing programmes, online or printed advertisements, sales promotions, and so
on. This new approach will require a much wider application than the simple design
and development of a corporate website. It will be essential to have proactive and
integrated use of non-web tools alongside web-based tools such as e-mail, Usenet and
LISTSERV groups to build electronic relationships and effective communications
strategies. A key factor is that the total public relations message and corporate image

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should be consistent with the corporate brand of the organisation in the real world as
well as online.
It can therefore be concluded that integrated online public relations has three key
components: message consistency (the same message regardless of media used), interactivity
(meaningful dialogue), and mission orientated (everything stems from the mission of the
organisation).

10.13 Online crisis communication

A crisis can be defined as any noteworthy business disruption which stimulates extensive
media coverage and which could affect the normal functioning of the organisation
(Barker, 2004). Crisis communication involves the identification of internal and
external stakeholders who should receive up-to-date information during a crisis. Fast-
moving online communication can create repeated problems, errors or inaccurate
statements that might be seen as facts. An unmanaged online presence during a crisis
can destroy the image of the organisation; a well-executed crisis plan will prevent
long-term damage and avert possible disasters. Because online communication, due
to its immediacy and reach, can prove to be a valuable tool during crises it should be
utilised to ensure the effective functioning of the organisation during any crisis. Any
crisis has five stages, which Fearn-Banks (2007: 10), MacLiam and Barker (2009) and
Swart (2010) briefly present as follows:
„„ Detection: This stage begins with the warning signs of a crisis and is also referred
to as the prodromal stage. The organisation can still attempt to mitigate the situation
before it grows into a full-blown crisis. It is therefore important to detect early
warning signs, notify and inform the employees immediately about the situation,
report any warning signs that have been noticed by crisis watchdogs, implement
plans to avoid the impending crisis, or prepare to address the relevant stakeholders
such as the media and public.
„„ Prevention: Organisations can use various tactics and take certain actions to prevent
a crisis. These can include ensuring that they are given regular updates on the
crisis, reducing the use of hazardous processes, allowing free flow of information,
following up on past crises or problems, and developing and distributing
information.
„„ Preparation: A crisis communication plan is the primary means of preparedness,
and such a plan will inform each member of the crisis team about what is expected,
whom to notify, how to reach people, what to say, and so on.
„„ Containment: This refers to the organisation’s efforts to limit the duration of the
crisis or to prevent it from escalating.
„„ Recovery: This entails the organisation’s efforts to return to business as usual by
resolving the crisis and restoring the normal functioning of the organisation. It
also important to restore the confidence of the stakeholders and the reputation of
the organisation.
„„ Learning: This refers to an evaluative process in which the organisation examines
the crisis and determines what was lost and gained, and how the organisation dealt

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with the crisis, with the aim of making the crisis a prodrome (that is, an early-
warning symptom) for any other such crisis that may occur in the future.
Conway, Ward, Lewis and Bernhardt (2007: 213) contend that the Internet has the
ability to instantaneously distribute information and that this is a powerful basis for the Internet’s
potential to protect the reputation of a organisation. Barker (2009) argues that a crisis
can become a time of chaos, risk and uncertainty for companies and that these
companies require timely and appropriate communication to minimise damage to
their reputation and to maintain consumer trust. The constant change brought about
by a crisis-ridden era requires effective crisis management plans in order to ensure
organisational survival, and for this reason Richardson (1994: 65) emphasises the
necessity for solid crisis management. Crisis management is defined as ‘any measure
that plans in advance for a crisis, any measure that removes the risk and uncertainty
from a given situation and thereby allows you to be more in control’. (Fink, 1986: 18;
Darling, 1994: 4). Swart (2010) contends that online crisis management entails
the following:
„„ the early detection or warning system
„„ implementation of strategies in order to avoid or lessen the impact of major
occurrences on the organisation; these strategies should subsequently provide a
proactive function
„„ planning, which is the core essence of crisis management. The crisis communication
planning model discussed in Chapter 7 (Section 7.7.1) can also be used for online
crisis planning
„„ the function that puts out the fire, which includes controlling the event
„„ providing a systematic, orderly response to crisis situations
„„ allowing the organisation to continue with its routine activities, as this also fulfils
a reactive function
„„ influencing public opinion to the point that post-crisis opinions of any constituent
audience are at least positive, or more positive (or less negative) than beforehand
„„ recognising the importance of post-crisis efforts in order to ensure proper reaction
after a crisis and to perceive and manage the situation as a learning system, which
can serve a post-evaluative function.
Online crisis management therefore involves a threefold process: to proactively plan
and prepare the organisation for possible crisis situations; to sufficiently and promptly
respond to crises; and to employ post-evaluative actions in order facilitate learning and
prepare the organisation for future crisis events.
A crisis allows an organisation to communicate directly and rapidly with consumers
through direct interaction, and the Internet in particular can contribute to effective
crisis communication (Fjeld & Molesworth, 2006: 391). Despite the advantages of the
Internet, organisations need to realise that this ‘online security sphere’ is going to
continue to explode and that this will entail more and more challenges that will have
to be effectively managed and controlled in future.
These considerable innovations can increase the possibility of a negative impact on an
organisation’s brand if an organisation fails to effectively manage a crisis, communicate
with its consumers or enhance the reputation of the organisation (Barker, 2009;

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Polasik & Wisniewski, 2009). Furthermore, a basic concern should be to reassure

consumers. New media trends and the increasingly digitised organisational sphere
therefore create new challenges for online communication crisis. Furthermore, consumers
are more and more concerned about the corporate reputations of organisations, the
perceived risk of online transactions, and product recalls. In addition, the abundance
of communication channels makes it easy for consumers to switch to other products or
services if they are dissatisfied. As much as a crisis can spread globally as a result of the
new technology, organisations can also utilise this technology to their benefit, especially
if they use many-to-many communication through proactive and well-prepared online
communication messages, and act quickly and persuasively on the web to indicate that
they are responsible and strategic in their communication. Research has indicated that
the use of other online communication tools such as interactive chats, real-time video
or audio files can be used effectively during online crisis communication. PR Newswire
(2007) and Freitag and Stokes (2009) suggest that organisations can capitalise on new
media trends by realising the following:
„„ Different audiences use different new media.
„„ The use of new media and multi-channels should be integrated with traditional
media.
„„ The importance of and opportunities offered through social networks (like blogs,
social networking sites, podcasts, videocasts, Web 1.0; 2.0; 3.0, and mobile media)
should be recognised.
„„ Word-of-mouth communication where one person shares information with
another is becoming increasingly important as, with this particular form of
communication, consumers gather information which they especially value.
„„ Knowledge should be ‘managed’ in the knowledge creation, sharing and transfer
process by those who are experts in the field.
„„ There is a need to communicate interactively with the media during a crisis; this
is also referred to as ‘eye-witness’ news.
„„ The opportunities presented by social media.

It is therefore important that the Internet plays an integral part in the crisis
communication plan as a whole. The following guidelines for online communication
should be followed to handle unexpected events:
„„ Develop a good online crisis plan: Appoint a crisis team of key personnel (including
the CEO, a public relations representative, a logistics person, a financial expert, a
human resources expert and a liaison expert outside the organisation), designate
a particular computer site that is set up to handle online queries and assign
duties to members, brainstorm how to address the crisis, and record the plan and
periodically update it.
„„ Have a basic crisis communication first-aid kit: Include a list of online media contacts
with e-mail addresses, provide brief online fact sheets about the organisation,
and so on – and choose the most appropriate methods to communicate messages
effectively.

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„„ Respond quickly, completely, clearly and accurately: Provide truthful information, and
express concern and caring for affected stakeholders, the environment, and so on,
depending on the nature of the crisis.
„„ Accept responsibility: Be truthful and transparent in order to enhance credibility; do
not attempt to deceive stakeholders because they will be offended.
„„ Show consideration for all the target audiences: Remember the employees (they are the
most important audience) and the investors and stakeholders.
„„ Address the crisis directly on the website: Create special links to an official statement and
post up-to-the-minute media releases.
„„ Address and monitor false rumours: Monitor online newsgroups and mailing lists, and
let them know where they can find more accurate information on the website.
„„ Ensure accessibility and availability and that the crisis team answers all incoming e-mails:
Respond immediately, and avoid silence and ‘no comments’.
The importance of managing online crisis communication is therefore very important
and it is evident that the Internet is an important communication channel that can
be utilised to achieve this task. In the words of Mannan and Van Oorschot (2007: 1):
This work is intended to spur a discussion on real-world system security and user
responsibilities, in a scenario where everyday users are heavily encouraged to perform
critical tasks over the Internet …

10.14 Web-based commercial communication

To align with the integrated context of this book, this section focuses on the integrated
nature of marketing communication messages (that is, online marketing, online
advertising and online public relations) in the online environment. Even though it
is important to know and understand that these applications are separate marketing
communication functions, it is also important to understand that the borders between
them are beginning to blur.
For the purpose of this discussion online advertising, marketing communication
and public relations messages are collectively referred to as web-based commercial
communication messages. Accordingly, the following definition of web-based
commercial communication (WBCC) has been developed:
Web-based commercial communication is the integration of information-intensive,
persuasive and influential online advertising, marketing communication, public
relations, promotional, and organisational communication messages that consumers
voluntarily access, and which aim to lead globally diverse consumers through certain
response phases to the point of purchasing or proceeding to a certain action (Hanekom,
2007).

10.14.1 The integrated nature of web-based commercial communication

As mentioned above, the term ‘web-based commercial communication’ has been
developed to indicate the integration of online advertising, public relations and
marketing communication messages and to indicate the difficulty of distinguishing
between advertising, marketing communication and public relations messages on

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the web (Hanekom, 2007). No clear borders exist between them. An organisational
website consisting of organisational communication messages, for example, can be
defined as a public relations function or message, because it contributes to building a
positive organisational image. However, the same website can also be categorised as
a marketing or advertising message for the organisation and its products or services.
WBCC messages have a commercial intent, just like advertising and marketing
communication messages in the offline environment, and their prime purpose is
to influence consumers to buy a product, use a service or proceed to a certain type
of action. Thus, the focus here is on WBCC messages which are intended to move
consumers through certain response processes prior to purchasing a product, using a
service or proceeding to a certain type of action.
In the offline environment, marketing communication messages can be more
easily distinguished from one another because they often use different communication
channels. In addition, various aspects of communication fall under the responsibility
of different people in different departments. These people frequently find it difficult to
co-ordinate their messages – hence fragmented marketing communication messages
are often distributed to the outside world. This is in contrast to the integrated nature
of WBCC messages. These messages are often purposively integrated because they
use the same channel; as a result, the function of these messages can sometimes be
entwined and not easily discernible.
Hanekom (2007) reaches the conclusion that the integration of all WBCC messages,
which could include online advertising, online marketing and online public relations,
is imperative for building consistency in communication, which in turn contributes
to an integrated marketing communication approach within the organisation. Apart
from its integrative function, Hanekom (2007) explains that web-based commercial
communication has the following functions online:
„„ Creating a presence: WBCC provides organisations with the opportunity to create
a presence in the online environment. The Internet and the web have developed
rapidly as exciting and indispensable marketing communication and advertising
media, and for many organisations it has become crucial that they utilise these
media effectively (Hanekom, 2007).
„„ Creating relationships: Because of the interactive nature of the Internet and the
web, two-way information exchange takes place in web-based commercial
communication settings, which in turn leads to an opportunity to create and
sustain relationships. The organisation and consumer enter into a dialogue and
thus begin the process of building a relationship online.
„„ Creating value: WBCC messages have the potential to create sufficient value for the
organisation’s clients that they are likely to return to a website.

10.14.2 Unique features of web-based commercial communication

The Internet is a new and different communication medium and it is therefore expected
that its communication processes have features that differ from those of traditional
communication processes (Hanekom, 2007).

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The unique features of WBCC or online marketing communication messages can be

summarised in the form of a comparison between WBCC messages and marketing
communication messages (advertising) in traditional mass media.

Table 10.8 Comparing the features of WBCC messages with marketing communication
messages (advertising) in traditional mass media

Features Web-based commercial Traditional media

communication (WBCC)

Interactivity Dialogue (two-way Monologue (one-way

communication) communication)

Flexibility Immediate modification of Traditional media are

the advertising message is more rigid. Modification
possible of advertising messages
takes place over a longer
period of time

Addressability Personalisation of Mass media do not

services, products and provide for individualised
communication for advertising/marketing
specific individuals is communication messages
possible

Accessibility Organisational information Organisational information

is accessible on a 24-hour is only accessible when
basis for all stakeholders contact is made with or
across the world by the organisation (for
example advertising/
promotional messages)

Speed of the communication Rapid communication Time delays in

process between organisation and communication and
consumers feedback

Active attraction of Exposure is not accidental. Exposure can be

consumers to WBCC Consumers have to be accidental
actively attracted to the
website

Active engagement of Uses creative tactics No interaction required,

consumers’ interest and to engage consumers’ therefore only attention
participation in WBCC interest and no participation is
messages required

Ensuring that consumers Because exposure is not Exposure is usually

return to a website accidental, organisations accidental; consumers
need consumers to return would not usually
to a website or marketing voluntarily repeat the
communication message experience

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Features Web-based commercial Traditional media

communication (WBCC)

Customised interactions Customisation of Mass media

communication to one communicates
consumer at a time indiscriminately to mass
audiences

Accentuation of content Emphasis on information Emphasis on visual

delivery delivery persuasion

Effective target marketing Based on consumer Consumer information

profiles, WBCC can target is not easily obtainable;
individuals who are targeting is therefore
significantly interested in a more complicated
product or service

Information empowerment Organisations can reduce Gatekeepers may alter

uncertainty and control messages and change
communication messages meaning

Purchase facilitation WBCC offers abundant Purchase facilitation can

product information, as be compared to direct
well as the opportunity marketing in the offline
to buy world

Ease of use If consumers are computer Consumers need to be

literate, the Internet is easy literate in order to read
to use and understand messages
in traditional mass media

Relationship building Possible because of the More challenging because

interactive nature of the of limited personal
Internet information about
consumer
Source: Hanekom (2007)

WBCC thus possesses unique characteristics which distinguish it from traditional

marketing communication messages in the offline environment. One of these characteristics
is the integrated manner in which WBCC messages can be presented online. Online
marketing, online public relations and online advertising messages are presented in such
an integrated manner online that it is usually difficult to tell the difference between these
online marketing communication functions. However, the intention is still to create online
marketing communication messages that will persuade online consumers to move through
certain response processes and ultimately buy a product or use a service. WBCC messages
thus also have a commercial intent.

10.15 Summary
In this chapter, a range of issues related to online or digital communication is highlighted.
The main features outlined are that a core element of understanding and applying online
or digital communication in practice is to focus on an integrated approach based on the

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theoretical underpinnings of the various communication disciplines, but also that it is

essential to align it with the overall messages in support of the corporate brand of the
organisation. As the use of technology becomes more and more essential, the need to
effectively integrate all communication activities and align all organisational messages
has become crucial. Cutting-edge organisations will need to function cross-disciplinarily
to remain competitive, create awareness and maintain a bottom-line focus. Online
communication presents the opportunity to establish, build and manage stakeholder
relationships online, which is conducive to the corporate brand of the organisation.

Case study
Online marketing
Use of social media marketing tactics for and during the launch of the Gautrain
project

Figure 10.1 The Gautrain started operating on 8 June 2010

A new public transport system for Gauteng, the Gautrain will, upon completion, comprise
10 stations over an 80-kilometre route across three metropolitan areas, namely Pretoria,
Johannesburg and Ekhurhuleni. The Gautrain travels at 160 kilometres per hour using modern,
international technology. It comprises 24 four-car trains supported by a bus feeder system of
125 buses to transport passengers over 36 routes around Gautrain stations. Gautrain operates
from 05:30 am to 20:30 pm daily, with trains every ten minutes during peak hours.
Construction for the Gautrain began in September 2006. The first phase of the service,
between OR Tambo International Airport and Sandton was completed and launched on
5 June 2010, in time for the FIFA 2010 Soccer World Cup. This section includes Rhodesfield
Station and Marlboro Station. The remainder of the route was completed in mid-2011. This
includes Hatfield Station, Pretoria Station, Centurion Station, Midrand Station, Rosebank
Station and Johannesburg Park Station.

Gautrain’s communication strategy and social media marketing tactics

Gautrain’s communication strategy was devised to communicate the goals of the Gautrain
project. Gautrain’s social media tactics were created and implemented by the project’s
Provincial Support Team, the public partner in the Public Private Partnership (PPP) project.
The social media tactics and messages were incorporated into the aims of the integrated
communication and marketing strategy of Gautrain to also address the following: 

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Issue management
The Gautrain Project has been one of the most controversial projects that the Gauteng
Provincial Government (GPG) ever endeavoured. Issues related to the Gautrain Project needed
to be closely monitored and managed to safeguard the reputation of the Gautrain Project and
that of the GPG. The strategic approach is to proactively manage issues instead of managing
crises.
Issues such as the environmental impact assessments; a ratepayers’ association court case;
cost of the project; timelines; management of disruptions during construction; and whether
the Gautrain would be ready for the FIFA 2010 Soccer World Cup needed to be addressed
by proactive issue-management techniques. This included frequent research, monthly mass-
media analyses and also social media monitoring.

Key strategic communication issues

Following an environmental scanning and research process, several key strategic
communication issues were continuously identified to be addressed through communication,
marketing and social media activities. These issues were clustered around specific themes that
were prevalent in the 2008 communication environment.

Communication aims
The communication aims identified below were applicable for the Financial Close phase and
the initial construction phase of 2008:
„„ To create awareness and acceptance about Gautrain’s contribution to the economic,
social and political stability of the South African macro environment.
„„ To create awareness and acceptance about the environmental and legislative environment
of Gautrain.
„„ To create awareness about Gautrain’s commitment to on-time delivery.
„„ To facilitate integration and co-ordination amongst internal target publics.
„„ To facilitate more effective, two-way communication about Gautrain in general, amongst
all relevant target publics.
„„ To enhance public knowledge, awareness and an acceptance of the Gautrain Project in
general.
„„ To create awareness about Gautrain as the second largest PPP project in Africa.

Towards the pre-launch phase, January to July 2010, additional communication aims included
the following:
„„ To promote Gautrain’s ridership;
„„ To increase awareness about Gautrain’s commitment to world-class delivery amongst
relevant stakeholder groups; and
„„ To create an understanding about the service attributes of Gautrain.

Communication messages
Strategic messages were formulated for communication tactics aimed at the various
stakeholder groupings. Three broad key message themes, according to the key strategic issues,
were identified, namely: promotion campaigns; operationalising Gautrain; and government
positioning.


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Social media marketing tactics

Several social media marketing tactics were used to convey messages to achieve the
communication aims of Gautrain’s integrated communication and marketing.

Gautrain Facebook fan page

A lively Gautrain Facebook fan page was maintained where regular updates were posted,
including photographs and videos. Fans contributed to the page through discussions,
questions, comments on photos, and by publishing their photos.
By early March 2010, the Gautrain Facebook Fan page had just over 2 400 fans. On 4 March 2010,
25 Facebook fans were invited to have a sneak preview of the train. Fans were given the
opportunity to see the train at the depot in Midrand and to have a look behind the scenes where
the central control centre manages the signalling, CCTV cameras and overall operations of the
bus and train system. After their visit, these fans posted their photos and shared their experiences.
Commenting on the trains with airport links around the globe that have mastered social
networking, the site Air Rail News (2010) commended the Gautrain Facebook page as the
favourite. Air Rail News compared the Gautrain Facebook page to others like the Heathrow
Express, Canada Line, Flytoget, Delhi Metro and Arlanda Express.

Gautrain Twitter page

Regular tweets and twitpics were published through Gautrain’s Twitter (2010) page:
@TheGautrain. By early March 2010, @TheGautrain had just over 1 200 followers. Lively
interactions were maintained with followers who asked questions and retweeted Gautrain
tweets.
Following a request from one of @TheGautrain’s followers, a tweetup was held at Gautrain’s
depot in Midrand on 13 March 2010. Tagged #tweetuponrails, 200 fans were invited to tweet
live from inside the Gautrain at the Depot in Midrand which was reportedly the largest
tweetup in South Africa to date. A tweetup involves a real-life meeting of Twitter followers
to network and to gain more information about organisations or matters of interest while
tweeting at the same time.
#tweetuponrails became a trendy topic on Twitter photo site Twicsy and, on the morning
of the tweetup, Twitter users not attending the event were complaining that the hundreds of
#tweetuponrails tweets were slowing down their feeds. Within hours after the event, countless
blogs, Flickr and Picasa photo albums, YouTube and Zoopy videos, as well as several Facebook
status updates, comments and photos were published. One user even submitted an article
and photograph to CNN iReport. Users praised Gautrain’s #tweetuponrails as a worthy case
study in social media in South Africa.
Following #tweetuponrails, by 1 April 2010, Gautrain’s Facebook Fan page had increased to
2 812 fans with 1 521 Twitter followers.
Furthermore, Gautrain supported the annual Twitter Blanket Drive (2010) in which Twitter
followers collected blankets for the needy. Blanket collection points were established around
the country on 29 May 2010. Gautrain attended the Sandton collection event and tweeted
about the evening’s progress along with fellow Twitter users. Tweets also scrolled on the
Twitter Blanket Drive website.
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For Gautrain’s official commencement of operations event, which was celebrated on

5 June 2010 with an inaugural train ride and the cutting of ribbons at stations, 15 Twitter
followers were invited to report about the event as citizen journalists. They enjoyed
the same privileges as mainstream media, which included access to a media room, the
receiving of media kits, and accompanying dignitaries and mainstream media on the
inaugural train ride. The citizen journalists tweeted live from the event, updated their
Facebook statuses as the evening progressed, posted videos on YouTube and reported
about their experiences in their blogs. In fact, one tweet by a citizen journalist was
the motivation for the headline of a Mail and Guardian Online article which read: ‘What
witchcraft is this? It’s the Gautrain’ (Harbour, 2010). The Mail and Guardian journalist
who wrote the article, Tarryn Harbour, also tweeted during the event, as did a few other
mainstream journalists present that evening.

Gautrain Flickr account

Gautrain photos were uploaded and shared with several rail enthusiast groups on the
Gautrain Flickr (2010a) account. Rail enthusiasts also shared their photos of Gautrain in
common groups.

Gautrain Wikipedia article

Although the Gautrain Wikipedia (2010) article was initiated by users who also regularly
updated the content, Gautrain also made regular contributions to the page.

Gautrain History Blog

Users were encouraged to share their comments and uploaded their photos of
Gautrain on a blog created by Gautrain, called the GauHistory Blog (2010). The aim of
the history blog was to facilitate the writing of Gautrain’s history through the eyes of
users. In addition, the history blog also served as an aggregator for Gautrain related blogs,
videos and photos in the blogosphere. This is done by sharing and publishing users’
Gautrain-related YouTube videos, Flickr photos and blogs that appeared elsewhere on
the Internet.

(Case study provided by Maritha Pritchard, senior writer at the Gautrain Project and used
with permission of Gautrain Communication and Dr Barbara Jensen of the Gautrain Project.)

Activities
1. Explain how the various Internet resources and applications can be used by
marketers in their online marketing strategies.
2. Indicate which social media content platforms you can use to launch a new product
and/or service of your choice which will complement your traditional and online
marketing efforts.

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 Chapter 10: Integrated online communication

Case study
Online advertising
Matthew Buckland looks at what the net does in the advertising arena that traditional media
can’t, and argues it goes beyond branding, allowing people to transact with the advertiser
and buy the product right there and then at the online shop.

The Ad Edge
Author: Matthew Buckland
Published: 06 April 2005
A great philosopher once said: I think, therefore I click. I think his name was Desmond or
something, but click he did. After the click followed the advertiser’s website, which listed the
product and allowed Des to buy himself a fine-looking chariot and that gladiator suit he had
always wanted.
You see, this is what online advertising is all about. It goes beyond the branding, allowing
people to transact with the advertiser and buy the product right there and then at an online
shop. The effectiveness, or lack thereof, of the advertisement can be measured immediately.
We can tell how many people saw the advert (the branding bit), how many people clicked on
the advert (the interacting bit), and how many people then went on to buy the advertiser’s
product (the most important, transacting bit).
It’s all pretty neat and cuddly – until you see the dismal click – through rates. In fact the
all-conquering great advantage of the net – its measurability – has paradoxically turned out
to be a great thorn in its side at times. Because with this painfully accurate measurability,
online advertisers began to see that average click through rates were low in the single digit
percentile category and conversion rates (the purchase) were even lower.
Now online is not alone in this. It’s just that the other mediums generally escape the rigorous
checks and balances because they are not as immediately and comprehensively measurable.
But even in the print world, some savvy advertisers have begun adding interactivity to their
adverts by advertising a unique web address or cellphone number with a particular ad - which
allows some measurability of the campaign.
Still, even though click through rates are relatively low, online advertising seems to be doing
the job. A few innovative, clever companies such as the insurers, banks, car companies and
online casinos have found online a happy hunting ground and continue to plow money into
the sector, for no reason other than that they are getting the returns.
We are also starting to see more and more new advertisers starting to test online. It’s part
of the reason why local online publishers posted strong growth figures after a tough few
years. It’s also why most of the big online publishers in the US are battling with sold-out
inventory. Clickz.com notes that there is such demand they just don’t have the space left on
their websites any more.
It’s not rocket science really. Advertisers need to go where the consumers are in order to
reach them. So as more consumers go online, the advertisers are following. In world terms,
there are now more than half-a-billion people online (Nielsen//Netratings). The Interactive
Advertising Bureau (IAB) reports that many target markets are spending time online that they
once devoted to traditional media such as TV, radio and magazines.
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Advertisers like online because they are given access to a top tier audience in the high LSMs -
the big spenders. The net is also extremely efficient at gathering data about users for research
and marketing purposes. There is no problem with this as long as it is done ethically, with the
full knowledge of the user, who is not spammed.
Viral e-mail marketing, for those who know how to do it properly, has also found huge
success with advertisers. The reason is that it’s cheap, and the user does all the work for the
advertiser by distributing the advertisements.
Depending on how advanced the online publisher is, advertisers should also be able
to serve adverts to highly targeted audiences. Because the New York Times insists on free
registration before you read – it only asks a few seemingly innocuous demographic questions
– it’s able to sell highly targeted ads based on users’ age, gender and interests.
It’s these unique features that makes online attractive to advertisers and gives the medium
somewhat of an edge. The industry is still much smaller than its TV and print counterparts, but
as its market share grows, so the medium is starting to grow.

Matthew Buckland is publisher of the Mail & Guardian Online @ www.mg.co.za

Source: Buckland, M. 2005. The Ad Edge. Mail & Guardian Online.
Available at http://www.mg.co.za/
Direct link: http://mg.co.za/article/2005-04-06-the-ad-edgeaccessed on 14 May 2010)

Case study
Online public relations
Virgin Atlantic SA launches brand online through an integrated approach
Virgin Atlantic Airways, one of the world’s leading long-haul airlines, recently announced the
launch of their new brand online (and aligned with traditional advertising and public relations
methods and technology), with the slogan ‘Your Airline’s Either Got it or it Hasn’t’. The new online
campaign aims to embark on defining the intangible focusing on the Upper Class experience,
stems from the roots Virgin Atlantic was built on – a passion for flying and challenging the
norm to give travellers a unique and unforgettable business class experience. Reaffirming Virgin
Atlantic’s belief that flying should be a pleasure, not a chore, the online campaign line, ‘Your
Airline’s Either Got it or it Hasn’t’ encourages passengers to compare their flying experiences
and asks ‘Does your airline have “it”?’ ‘It’ represents what makes flying Virgin Atlantic great, from
complimentary chauffeur drive on all four legs of a journey to moving from curb to Clubhouse in
under 10 minutes at Heathrow’s Upper Class Wing, to a fully flat bed with your own aisle access.
These are just some of the ways that separate Virgin Atlantic Upper Class from the rest.

Aiming to take flying to new heights

Simon Newton-Smith, country manager, Virgin Atlantic South Africa said: ‘Since our inception,
we have approached flying in a unique way, and pioneered products and services that keep
us ahead of the competition, all delivered at an incomparable value. We’ve always listened
to what our passengers want – whether it is direct aisle access, complimentary car service,
private security or an onboard bar, we strive to deliver a phenomenal experience that leaves
our guests questioning why they would ever fly anyone else. This new online campaign drives
home the difference between choosing to fly and choosing to fly on Virgin Atlantic. Time and
time again, our passengers keep coming back because we get “it”.’
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‘Your Airline’s Either Got it or it Hasn’t’ aims to represent a new direction for the airline’s online
programme, by moving to a single global campaign and creating a seamless look across all its
global gateways. The rich style of photography features the product benefits of Virgin Atlantic’s
Upper Class Suite, Heathrow Clubhouse, complimentary car service and other elements that
separate Virgin Atlantic from its competitors.

(Permission to use this case study was obtained from Bonita Boni, Marketing and
Communication Executive at Virgin Atlantic Airways Ltd.)
Available at: http://www.virgin-atlantic.com

Activities
1. Go to your favourite Internet search engine or directory site. Browse through the
search page and look for links such as ‘About this company’, ‘Business overview’,
‘Company overview’, ‘Company background’, ‘Company profile’, and so on. Read
the corporate overviews of a few company sites and make a short evaluation of
each in terms of presentation, use of design, information on products and services,
and so on.
2. Go to your own company website. Do an honest evaluation to see whether the
image of the company created on the website is in line with the overall brand of
the organisation, its mission, vision, goals and objectives.
3. You are the public relations officer in your organisation (or an organisation with
which you are familiar). Indicate and discuss the online public relations tools that
you would apply to reach your internal and external target audiences. Motivate
your answer.
4. Develop an online crisis communication plan for your organisation (or an
organisation with which you are familiar).
5. Matthew Buckland’s case study on page 385:
5.1 Discuss and explain the unique characteristics of online advertising that are
evident in the case study.
5.2 Contrast traditional advertising with online advertising based on the
information provided in the case study.
5.3 Discuss and explain the advantages and disadvantages of online advertising
as mentioned in the case study.
5.4 Discuss and explain the three roles of online advertising. Relate your discussion
to the information provided in the case study.
5.5 Discuss and explain the types or forms of online advertising.
6. Study the Virgin Atlantic case study carefully. Indicate which factors will contribute
to the successful use of online communication to reach the global market.

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 Section C

Introduction to organisational communication

and communication integration
„„ Chapter 11: Assessing organisational communication
„„ Chapter 12: Integrated communication measurement

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 BUSINESS
INTERPERSONAL

CULTURE
QUALITY
COMMUNICATION I N F O R M A T I O N
S T R AT E G Y SOLUTIONS-ORIENTED

C
H Advertising
A V
Dynamics
BRAND

N I
S
G I
E ASSESSING O
N

Campaign
I D E N T I T Y
RESEARCH

IMC
Management

CUSTOMER EFFICIENT

FOCUS Trust
IMAGE

Systems Thinking
STRUCTURE

Collaboration
Integrated Organisational Communication

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 Assessing organisational

11
CHAPTER
QUALITY

communication
Lize ll e van d e r Wal t

Any communication or marketing professional needs cross-cultural research and

communication skills to be able to succeed in the future.
Marye Tharpe

11.1 Introduction
A fundamental aspect of this book’s approach to communication integration is the
alignment of all planned and unplanned intra- and inter-organisational, service and
product messages. This alignment process relies heavily on new information gained
from continuous research in both the organisational context and the market out there.
Information results in knowledge which in turn results in proactive ideas and strategies.
N If an organisation, for example, knows what its customers require based on information
gained from its research, this valuable knowledge can be used to the organisation’s
advantage by providing services and/or products that meet these requirements. It can
H never be denied that information about one’s customers is one of an organisation’s most

C
important assets.
As stated in the preface of this book, the best way to ensure that customer
perception of the organisation’s brand (product or service) is what the organisation
intends it to be is to co-ordinate and align all internal and external messages. To
accomplish this requires an overview of both employee and customer perceptions and
NT
satisfaction, which are measured by means of applicable methodology. Today, all types

E of organisations under pressure to adapt to continuous changes and developments in

the business environment. It has become apparent that changes in organisational

t
operations are occurring throughout the current modern environmental era, and it is
becoming crucial to recognise that mere adjustments of existing practices are no longer
sufficient. New conceptualisations of organisational purpose, impact and significance
have become the topics of discourse, demanding a great shift in thinking and doing. In
the face of these trends, an organisation’s employees and management are faced with
the enormous practical and conceptual challenge of transforming today’s organisation
into an economically and environmentally sustainable enterprise through knowledge
gained by means of reliable research.
In light of the above points of reference, this chapter will explore avenues of
discovery via popular research methodologies used by organisations to diagnose and
assess important issues such as stakeholder satisfaction, employee and/or customer
perceptions, and the viability of old marketing strategies. However, before discussing
applicable methodologies, some background information is provided first as a means
of introduction to research in the organisation.

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This chapter seeks to provide the reader with required skills to conduct a research
study in the organisation. Since it is often difficult to measure abstract concepts
such as image, perception and values, this chapter provides basic ideas of when to
use quantitative research designs and when qualitative designs. As such this chapter
provides informative discussions and guidelines with regards to types of research
methodologies used in current practices in organisations today, and will furthermore
investigate how to achieve reliable and valid results from research done, since it impacts
on decisions made in the organisation.
This chapter thus focuses on organisational assessment and research, and discusses:
„„ the reasons for assessment and research in the organisation
„„ various types of methodologies to be used
„„ steps in the research process
„„ practical guidelines for conduction research in the organisation.

11.2 Classification of organisational communication research

Although various classifications of organisational communication research exist, the
following are prevalent within the corporate environment:

11.2.1 Environmental monitoring
Environmental monitoring or scanning is research to detect trends in opinions,
whether these are the opinions of the public, customers, sponsors or the organisation’s
employees (thus an organisation’s stakeholders). Micro environments such as the
social–political, economical, technological or ecological environments also play a very
important role in this regard (Steyn & Puth, 2000). Since organisations are expected
to become more socially responsible, the success rate of their efforts can be detected or
environmentally scanned by measuring the opinions stemming from stakeholders in these
environments. Through environmental monitoring the organisation is thus able to
assess its corporate climate (which is referred to as the feelings/opinions stakeholders have
with regard to the organisation).
An example of this would be the international crisis that British Petroleum (BP)
experienced in 2010 during the explosion of an oil-drilling unit in the Gulf of Mexico,
resulting in a massive oil spillage into the ocean. During this disaster, described as one
of the worst environmental disasters yet, an estimated 6 814 aquatic animals perished.
By November 2010 environmental monitoring indicated that BP had suffered extensive
financial losses mainly due to a decrease in investment in the company and adverse
media coverage as a result of extensive criticism from environmental activists.

11.2.2 Social auditing
Social auditing is research similar to environmental monitoring. Social audits determine
the effects the organisation has had on its stakeholders and the extent to which those
effects must be corrected (Steyn & Puth, 2000). The primary purpose is to examine,
catalogue, systemise and measure the organisation’s performance as a corporate citizen.
Questions asked in this audit would typically be: ‘Are the organisation’s operational or
manufacturing procedures conducive to a healthy environment?’

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Mining industries across the world, for example, have especially come under attack from
national and international communities for their irresponsible mining practices that
impact significantly on the supply of fresh water and on aquatic life. As a result of this
global outcry, mining companies are now obliged to adhere to regulations and legislation
formulated to protect the environment. Another example is large retail or banking
industries, which are required to involve themselves in community upliftment projects
such as sponsoring educational or health projects aimed at improving disadvantaged
communities’ lives. There is thus a great deal of pressure on organisations to become
more than just systems of inputs and outputs designed for the purpose of making a profit.

11.2.3 Corporate communication/public relations auditing

This type of auditing aims to define stakeholders and to determine how they perceive
and evaluate the organisation. There are two basic types of audits in this regard,
namely audience identification and corporate image studies (Steyn & Puth, 2000):
„„ Audience identification
„„ identifies relevant stakeholders (does the organisation have an effect on a
stakeholder or does the stakeholder affect the organisation?)
„„ evaluates the organisation’s standing with each relevant stakeholder (the focus
is on perceptions, attitudes, and involvement with the organisation)
„„ identifies issues of concern to those stakeholders
„„ measures the power of each stakeholder, for example the financial power of
customers who buy from the organisation, or sponsors who invest money in
it, or perhaps the power of behaviour, for example whether employees are
demanding better wages and strike as a result of their grievances, etc.
„„ Corporate image studies are about
„„ the familiarity of each stakeholder with the organisation
„„ the attitudes of each stakeholder toward the organisation
„„ the personality characteristics each stakeholder associates with the
organisation.
The BP example shows how the company lost many investors, which is a clear indication
that its standing and positive corporate image amongst its stakeholder audiences in
2010 was destroyed.

11.2.4 Communication content auditing

This research evaluates organisational communication programmes or plans to
determine whether messages have actually reached the target audience. This includes
readership surveys, content analysis of messages, and measurement of message
readability. Communication content auditing can thus be seen as research that assesses
communication activities. It is often used to study the readability and readership of
corporate newsletters and other routine communications such as annual reports,
newspaper articles about a company, and press releases.
An example would be to assess a sample of newspaper reports that have appeared
since the BP disaster to determine whether news coverage on the company was positive,
negative or neutral.

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These classifications provide a general idea of the types of research that an organisation
can typically engage in to collect the required information for strategic decision making
or changes they want to make. However, a research project does not merely happen. A
great deal of planning has to go into each project and the following section will explore
this planning process.

11.3 The planning of organisational research

The process of conducting research should be logical and systematic to ensure its
validity (Du Plooy, 2001). Research is therefore perceived as a form of disciplined
inquiry that involves studying or observing a subject in a planned manner. Once the
results of a study or observation are obtained, they are captured in a report in such
a way that other inquirers can potentially replicate the process in similar or different
circumstances (Frey, Botan, Friedman & Kreps, 2000). However, long before results
can be captured, every researcher needs to start with a research proposal or plan.

11.3.1 The research proposal

Similar to a business idea for which a business plan needs to be developed to explain
and guide action for putting the idea in motion towards success, a research project also
requires a structured plan of action. This is often referred to as a research proposal.
Research projects can be very costly and their success is unfortunately also dependent on
the amount of funding allocated to them. It therefore makes sense that potential investors
in an expensive research project will necessarily require a properly outlined proposal
with a complete breakdown of what each step will entail. There are different versions
of research proposal outlines, but the following one sufficiently explains the essence and
purpose of a proposal in general. Although the steps in this proposal outline may not all
be equally applicable to the research that is undertaken, the steps that do apply need to
be implemented in sequence. For example, it is not possible to do an in-depth literature
review (Step 2) on a specific problem before identifying and formulating the problem
(Step 1). It is also not advisable to formulate a hypothesis or research question (Step 3)
before becoming familiarised with what the literature has to say about the problem.
Maybe it has been addressed previously in different circumstances, and it may be possible
to apply an existing model to a unique problem instead of ‘re-inventing the wheel’. The
following eight steps thus provide a basic outline for a research proposal.

Step 1: Identifying and formulating the problem

„„ Identifying a research problem and formulating a problem statement is the first
and most important step in the research process. According to Stewart (2002),
research problems generally evolve from a combination of three common sources,
namely:
„„ an existing theory or research (the researcher may want to repeat a study
that was done before or may believe that a study is outdated and needs to be
repeated to generate new results)
„„ practical problems (the researcher may be experiencing such problems and
wish to seek answers or reasons)

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„„ observations (the researcher may wish to test and measure the accuracy of any
assumptions made of these observations).
„„ After demarcating the research problem, the researcher can formulate the problem
statement. As this serves as the foundation for the research report, it needs to be
clear and coherent. Generally, the statement asks a question or questions about the
relationship between variables (Goddard & Melville, 2001). The research problem
determines the goals and objectives of the study, and should be clearly stated
during this step (Du Plooy, 2001).
„„ Once the broad problem has been identified, related sub-problems may come to
light. In response to these, the researcher needs to formulate assumptions, which
are used as tentative explanations or statements provisionally taken to be true.
An example of this step is as follows:
On the website Fruitsinfo.com a range of hybrid fruits and vegetables is introduced
and discussed. One of these hybrid fruits, namely the grapple (a grape-infused apple),
was introduced to the South African fruit market in 2008/2009. The fruit looks
like and has the texture of an apple, but tastes like grapes. Since this hybrid fruit
was not properly introduced to consumers, and was more expensive than regular
apples or grapes, it did not have the necessary support from consumers and by 2010
it was withdrawn from the South African fruit market. Although this fruit has many
benefits, the supermarket chain that introduced it did not communicate its unique
characteristics and health benefits.

An identified question arising from this scenario would then be whether the grapple would
have been more popular among fruit lovers if its benefits were communicated properly
to the supermarket’s consumers. Should the supermarket chain decide to sell grapples
again, the problem statement formulated based on the identified problem could then be
to determine if the sales of grapples will increase if consumers are provided with more
information about the fruit.
The variables in above problem statement are: (1) increased sales of the grapple;
and (2) an information brochure about the health benefits. If one variable changes,
for example no information on grapples is given, the other variable will change in
accordance, namely the decrease in grapple sales. On the other hand, if sufficient
information (Variable 1) is provided, then sales will increase (Variable 2). Sub-problems
related to the above would be questions to ask that would guide the research. Some
examples are as follows:
„„ Will information on the health benefits of grapples persuade consumers to buy
them?
„„ What other information might consumers require to spark their interest in
grapples?
„„ Is there an interest among consumers in hybrid fruit such as grapples?

Step 2: Reviewing the literature

„„ To perform research, the researcher must gather information about work that
has already been done on the subject of investigation, for example the problem
formulated in Step 1. The literature review allows the researcher to learn about

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a problem from existing research on the same or similar topic, thus saving time,
money and effort. Looking at existing research helps the researcher to build
and define arguments, find premises and evidence for arguments, and balance
scholarly opinions against data (Reinard, 2001).
„„ If the formulated problem is a new phenomenon on which research has not yet
been done, literature review on related concepts to this subject of investigation
could provide potential variables that the researcher may want to include in the
study which had not been thought of before.
An example of this step would be to do a literature study on hybrid fruits, such as what
consumers’ perceptions are of such fruits, if religion plays a role in their consumption,
and how they have been introduced to the market in other countries.

Step 3: Formulating hypotheses or research questions

„„ With the aid of relevant literature which has provided the researcher with sufficient
knowledge of exactly what to investigate, the researcher can articulate the
research questions and/or statements that will guide the investigation. According
to Frey et al. (2000), hypotheses and research questions are designed to accomplish
one of two goals, namely either to describe communication behaviour or to relate
such behaviour to other variables.
„„ Research questions are typically posed when the researcher does not have enough
evidence to predict the nature of a relationship.
„„ However, if the researcher has a tentative answer or prediction about the nature of
the relationship between independent and dependent variables, a hypothesis can be
formulated (Frey et al., 2000).
An example of this step is as follows:
In this step the previously identified problem in Step 1 needs to be formulated very
specifically. Detail is of the essence since the study on this phenomenon will be guided
by the research question or hypothesis posed. For example, if the researcher merely
wants to determine whether the sales of grapples will increase because consumers are
informed of its health benefits, a research question could be the following:
To determine if the sales of grapples at the [Chuck Fruit & Veg Patch] will increase in
May and June after providing consumers with information brochures during the month
of April about the health benefits of the fruit.

In this case there is no certainty that the sales of grapples will increase but the researcher
would like to explore the relation between the two variables.
If the problem needs to be more statistically based on reliable information that the
researcher has obtained from the literature study where previous research indicated
that there is always an increase in the sales of grapples after providing consumers with
required information, a hypothesis could be as follows:
The sales of grapples at the [Chuck Fruit & Veg Patch] will increase by 30% during
May and June 2012 if its consumers are provided with an information brochure in April
explaining the health benefits of grapples.

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Step 4: Selecting or developing the research design

„„ The development of a research design (research method) follows logically from
the identification of the research problem and related hypotheses or research
questions. A research design can therefore be defined as a set of guidelines and
instructions to be followed in addressing the research problem (Mouton, 1996).
„„ All research methodologies can be defined as either qualitative or quantitative;
when these are used in combination, the process is referred to as triangulation.
„„ Mouton (1996) points out that a researcher uses a quantitative research design when
the intention is to count and/or measure variables by collecting numerical data.
„„ A qualitative research design suits the researcher’s intention of examining the
properties, values, needs or characteristics that distinguish individuals, groups,
communities, organisations, events, settings or messages (Du Plooy, 2001).
An example of this step is as follows:
If a research question is posed, the nature of it is usually qualitative, and focus-group
interviews or participant observation will generate the required results.
If a hypothesis is posed which often requires statistics, then an analysis of grapple
sales records during the months of May and June can be analysed and compared to
the sales records during the months of February and March to determine if there was
a 30% increase in sales. Questionnaires can also be used to determine if there is a
relation between the information provided to consumers and the increase in sales of
grapples.

Step 5: Writing the research proposal

„„ Once Steps 1 to 4 have been completed a proposal can be written. Steps 6 to 8
should also be mentioned in the proposal but these reflect only on what still needs
to be done and how this will happen. Steps 1 to 4 usually serve as the selling
point of a research project for which funding is required since these four steps
justify the importance of the study. Step 8 will serve to support the importance of
Steps 1 to 4, and the researcher can reflect on the purpose and usefulness of the
results once they are captured.
„„ The writing of a research proposal is a significant step in the research process
since it enables the research demands to be considered and the suitability of the
methodology to be ascertained prior to a significant investment of resources. The
proposal provides a useful mechanism to clearly establish both the purpose and
the anticipated outcomes of the research (Wiggins & Stevens, 1999). Various
frameworks can be used in the writing of a proposal, although the main components
should include the following (Frey et al., 2000):
„„ a label or title for the experiment
„„ a summary of previous research (literature review)
„„ a statement of the problem
„„ a statement of the hypothesis or research questions
„„ a definition of variables
„„ an indication of the type of design to be used

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„„ an indication of the process of sampling or selection

„„ details of ethical considerations
„„ an indication of the types of data analysis to be used
„„ an indication of the possible outcomes of the research
„„ a timetable
„„ budgetary requirements
„„ an indication of the extent to which the results may be generalised.

Step 6: Collecting data

„„ The selection and use of a particular methodology must be guided by the
nature of the topic and the research question or hypothesis. Answering
complex questions about organisational communication may also require the
use of multiple methodologies in a complementary manner within a single study
(Frey et al., 2000).
„„ Original data collected for the first time are known as primary data. Data that
have already been collected (by someone else) are called secondary data (Du Plooy,
2001). These data can be found in sources such as journals, magazines, books,
newspapers, reports, dissertations, public records and historical documents. As
indicated in Step 4, the correct methodology needs to be selected to provide the
results required to address the research question or hypothesis.
An example of this step would be to formulate carefully designed questions for the
interview or questionnaire to ensure that all the information required to answer the
research question or hypothesis will be captured.

Step 7: Analysing and interpreting the data

„„ The analysis and interpretation of data are valuable steps in the research process,
since they serve as the foundation of conclusions and recommendations. According
to Du Plooy (1995), the relevance and usefulness of the research findings lie in
proper interpretation.
„„ The processing of quantitative (numerical) data is done through the use of
appropriate statistical procedures. Quantitative analytic procedures can be used
to describe data – which is called descriptive statistics – as well as to infer meaning
from them – which is called inferential statistics.
„„ Qualitative data analysis is undeniably a creative process, and researchers can
employ explicit systematic methods in the interpretation of their textual data.
Although each approach to qualitative analysis is characterised by unique
features, the process of coding is common to most qualitative endeavours. Coding,
constituting the initial phase of the analytic method, is the process of categorising
and sorting data. Codes serve as shorthand devices for labelling, separating,
compiling and organising original data (Baxter & Babbie, 2004).
An example of this step is as follows:

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When a research method has been used or applied correctly, the results generated
could be perceived as reliable and valid. In research, only valid and reliable results can
be used to make decisions about the phenomenon under investigation.

Step 8: Communicating research findings

The research report should be concise and informative with regard to content, and
logical and systematic with regard to presentation. According to Du Plooy (2001),
the objectives of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed and
the analytic techniques used must be clearly stated at the beginning of the report
in the form of an introduction. The layout of the report depends on the reason for
undertaking the research as well as the nature of the study (Du Plooy, 2001). The basic
scheme of a research report includes the following elements: the title, the abstract, the
introduction, a literature review, methodology, findings or results, and a discussion or
conclusion (Berg, 2004).
Since emphasis is placed on reliability and validity, the following section provides
guidelines with regard to establishing and maintaining both.

11.4 Research reliability and validity

In the research report, the researcher is expected to produce evidence showing that
the selection and implementation of the chosen methodology are reliable and valid
(Reinard, 2001).

11.4.1 Reliability
Reliability refers to the degree to which a measurement procedure produces similar
outcomes when it is repeated (Baker, 1994). It is the extent to which people answer
the questions the same way across time. Methods for establishing the reliability of a
measurement procedure include the following:
„„ In the test-retest approach, the researcher administers the same instrument (for
example survey, interview, participant observation or focus groups, etc.) at
a later time to establish whether the same results are obtained (Goddard &
Melville, 2001).
„„ An example would be to use an instrument such as a questionnaire to determine
whether dry-cleaning services would buy environmentally friendly rather than
chemically enhanced products, and to repeat this test with the same questionnaire
two months later to determine whether the results are similar. If the reliability
score between the two tests is < 0.5 to 1.0, it implies that the results (whether
positive or negative) for the questions in the questionnaire are similar in both
tests and that the questionnaire used in this experiment is perceived as a reliable
instrument that will produce reliable results.
„„ In the equivalent form approach, each question in the original test, interview or
questionnaire is rephrased in another similar test, so that the researcher has two
tests that ‘look different’ but effectively ask the same questions. If there is a high
correlation between people’s responses to the two rephrased but similar sets of
questions then the test is reliable.

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Table 11.1 An example of an equivalent form approach

Test 1 Test 2 Reliable test Unreliable test

Original test Similar to test question question
question 1 question but Yes = yes Yes = no
rephrased No = no No = yes

Do you experience Do you feel satisfied If the respondent If the respondent

job satisfaction at with the work answers yes or no answers differently
Company A? that you do at to both the original to the original
Company A? and the rephrased and the rephrased
questions, this questions, this
implies that the may imply that
questions are one or both of
understood in the the questions are
same way by the misunderstood
respondent and and should be
can be used. It reviewed since they
emphasises do not provide
the reliability of reliable results
the questions in
both tests

„„ The split-half approach is a modification of the equivalent form method; it

combines the two tests (the original and the equivalent form) in one questionnaire.
This allows for the test to be given in a single sitting rather than being spread
over two sessions (Goddard & Melville, 2001).

Table 11.2 An example of a split-half approach

One test with original and Reliable test question Unreliable test question
rephrased questions in Yes = yes Yes = no
the same test No = no No = yes

1. Do you experience If the respondent answers If the respondent answers

job satisfaction at yes or no to both Questions differently to Questions 1
Company A? 1 and 5, this implies that the and 5, this may imply that
2. Question questions are understood one or both of the questions
3. Question in the same way by the are misunderstood and
4. Question respondent and can be used should be reviewed
5. Do you feel satisfied with
the work that you do at
Company A?

Although the methods of assessing reliability differ in procedure, they are all used to
calculate the reliability coefficient. A reliability coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, and a
value close to 1 (for example 0.9) indicates that the measure is extremely good, while
a value close to 0 indicates that the consistency of the measure is low and as such the
reliability of the instrument needs to be questioned (Du Plooy, 2001).

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11.4.2 Validity
Although an instrument can be considered reliable if it consistently gives the same
results, such reliability does not make the research valid. Berg (2004) suggests that two
general types of validity are important, namely internal and external validity.

Internal validity
Internal validity asks whether a research study is designed and conducted in such a
manner that it leads to accurate findings about the phenomena being investigated,
or the particular group of people or texts studied. To design internally valid
research, Du Plooy (1995) cautions that it is important to avoid the following threats
to internal validity:
„„ The threat of history is particularly important for longitudinal research that follows
people over a relatively lengthy period of time. History refers to events that may
occur between the first and last measurements of the participating respondents,
and that may affect the results independently of the stimulus.
„„ Maturation refers to changes that may occur within people over the course of a
study (Frey et al., 2000). Participants may age, become more knowledgeable, grow
tired or change in other relevant ways. This can result in people answering the
same question differently at the beginning and end of a long experiment or survey
interview simply because they are tired or impatient.
„„ Instrumentation refers to the nature and quality of the measuring instrument. If the
instrument is not identical in each observation, the results are likely to be affected.
In order to ensure valid results, it is important that the procedure is exactly the
same for every repeated observation.
„„ Choosing people on the basis of extreme scores can threaten the validity of
research findings through statistical regression. Regression towards the mean may
occur if participants are selected because they have registered high scores in a
previous measurement, in which case their scores for subsequent measurements
will tend to be less extreme. This is because extreme scores are partially due to
random chance, and it is unlikely that they would be repeated.
„„ Attrition or mortality is the loss of research participants as the study progresses
(Frey et al., 2000). In other words, there can be fewer people at the end of the study
than there were at the beginning. People can relocate, lose interest or even die.
Those who ‘drop out’ of the study may share a particular characteristic, and their
exclusion could skew the subsequent results.
„„ To ensure valid research results, it is important that participants undergo a process
of random selection (that is, every participant has an equal chance of being selected).

External validity
External validity has to do with the generalisable nature of the findings. If a study is
externally valid, the conclusions drawn from it are not limited to the population sample
of particular people or texts, places and/or time periods studied (Frey et al., 2000),
but can be applied to all people or texts with the same characteristics as those from

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the sample used in the research project. Wimmer and Dominick (1994) highlight four
factors that increase the external validity or generalisability of a research investigation:
„„ The population samples must be heterogeneous and randomly selected; for
example, each unit of analysis should have an equal opportunity to be included
in the research. A unit of analysis is the object or subject that the researcher will
investigate. If this is organisational behaviour, employees will be included as units
of analysis. If this is the content of the marketing brochures of a company, then
these will be the units of analysis.
„„ The samples that are selected must be representative of the group to which the
results will be generalised.
„„ Repetition of the experiment can also increase external validity.
„„ The research should be implemented over an extended period of time.
„„ The trustworthiness of quantitative research is assessed by applying the criteria
of internal validity, measurement reliability, measurement validity, external
validity, credibility, dependability, conformability and transferability (Baxter &
Babbie, 2004).
After the researcher has become familiarised with the importance of a research
proposal and its validity and reliability, the question remains as to which type of
methodology to use when investigating a problem in the organisation. Are quantitative
or qualitative methodologies best in providing results on which important decisions
will be based?

11.5 Quantitative and qualitative assessment

Quantitative methodologies attempt to make generalisations about a topic of interest based
on precisely measured quantities. The question that underlies this type of research is:
‘How much/many?’
Qualitative methodologies refer to research procedures that produce descriptive data,
for example words and observations by people which could describe or provide reasons
for the quantitative data. This viewpoint holistically directs itself at settings and the
people within them.
Although there is a view that qualitative and quantitative are not opposing research
methodologies, it must be mentioned that they represent different ways of approaching
a research problem. Quantitative data will provide the statistics for an occurrence –
for example how many American banks had to close down during the 2008/9 world
economic recession – and qualitative data could provide the reasons why these banks
had to close down (since not all banks had to close doors due to the recession).

11.5.1 Quantitative methodologies
Quantitative research generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey research
using methods such as questionnaires or structured interviews. If a market researcher
has stopped and interviewed you on the street, or you have filled in a questionnaire
which arrived by post, these fall under the umbrella of quantitative research. This
type of research reaches many more people, and the contact with those people is
much quicker than it is in qualitative research. Quantitative research attempts to

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make generalisations based on precisely measured quantities. It seeks explanations

and predictions that can be generalised from one particular situation to all other
similar situations. The intention is to establish, confirm or validate relationships
between variables.
Quantitative research studies represent the mainstream approach to research.
Concepts, variables and hypotheses are generally defined before the study begins and
remain fixed throughout the process. Researchers remain detached from the ‘subjects’
in the sample in order to make unbiased, universal, context-free generalisations (Steyn
& Puth, 2000). However, quantitative research is not suitable for all types of problems
in social research, and is often associated with ‘knowing about’ rather than ‘knowing
why’ (Guy et al., 1987). The following discussion focuses on methods in quantitative
organisational research.

Experimental research
Reinard (2001) defines an experiment as the study of the effects of variables
manipulated by the researcher in a situation where all other influences are controlled
and completed for the purposes of establishing a causal relationship. The variable
manipulated by the researcher is known as the independent variable. It is important to
control extraneous variables, for example by randomly selecting the participants, and
ensuring that the conditions and timing of selection and exposure to the independent
variables are the same. There are various experimental research designs that can be
considered, depending on the type and number of variables the researcher wants to
measure. Designs that can be used effectively in an organisation include the following:
The classical experimental design is the clearest and simplest form of the experiment.
Participants are randomly assigned to two groups. The experimental group is exposed
to a stimulus while the control group is not. After the former is exposed to the stimulus,
both groups are observed and the results measured and controlled.
An example of this would be where two groups of 50 participants are randomly
selected from the total group of Unisa third-year communication students. Both groups
are taken into individual lecture halls. Group 1 will be shown a DVD about marketing
methodologies while being given a high protein, brain-boosting energy drink. Group
2 will be shown the same DVD but without the energy drink. Afterwards both groups
are provided with the same test on marketing methodologies and the average results for
the test for each group calculated to determine if the energy drink made a significant
difference in results.
Quasi-experimental designs are those that fall short of true experimental requirements
owing to the experimental and control groups not being randomly selected (Leedy,
1993). For example the same experiment can be used here as above but without random
selection of participants. This, however, implies that the results generated on the test
may be attributed to other reasons besides the energy drink.
True experimental designs offer a greater degree of control and refinement as well as a
greater internal and external validity (Leedy, 1993). The effect of one variable upon
another is carefully isolated from extraneous variables to ensure accurate deduction.
For example, this is similar to the classical experimental design, but greater control is

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applied to all possible variables that could impact on the results generated. This is to
ensure that in the above experiment, results can be assigned only to the energy drink
and not to anything else.

11.5.2 Qualitative methodologies
Qualitative research explores attitudes, behaviour and experiences through such methods
as, for example, interviews or focus groups. It attempts to obtain an in-depth opinion
from participants. As it is attitudes, behaviour and experiences which are important,
fewer people take part in the research, but the contact with them tends to last a
lot longer.
The task of qualitative researchers is to understand and interpret how people in
a social setting experience the world around them. Compared with the structured
approach of quantitative research, qualitative research is more of an emerging process.
The focus of this research and its design, interview instruments and interpretations
develop and change as the research progresses. Data interpretations and reporting
are often in narrative form, where a more literary style is used. The language is often
descriptive and personal, often including the participant’s unique meanings (Steyn &
Puth, 2000). The following discussion views a few qualitative methods:

Field observation
According to Neuman (2000), field observation involves studying phenomena in
context, thus the researcher undertakes observation in the natural environment or
location where people gather and events take place. This implies direct, face-to-
face interaction with people in a natural setting, such as their homes or offices, on
street corners, in restaurants and in other places of social interaction. Researchers
usually keep track of their observations in field notes. The greatest strength of direct
observation is that there is virtually no time delay between the occurrence and the
recording of an event. Field observation is appropriate when the research question
involves learning about, understanding or describing the actions of an individual, or
the behaviour of or interaction between groups of people (Neuman, 2000).

Participant observation and ethnography

Participant observation is the most commonly known form of fieldwork. This is where
researchers study groups by gaining membership of or becoming involved as participants
in the groups’ activities (Du Plooy, 2001). The term ‘participant observation’ is used in
a variety of research approaches that often involve not only observation but also other
qualitative methodologies, such as interviewing and even survey methods on a limited
scale. Nevertheless, this type of observation is characterised by the gathering of data
by the investigator while taking part in the activities of the group (Reinard, 2001).
As with fieldwork, ethnography concerns understanding people by studying them
in a natural situation (Du Plooy, 2001). Ethnographic researchers participate, overtly
or covertly, in people’s lives for an extended period of time, collecting data to describe
their behaviour. Such researchers go to the data rather than vice versa, and must spend
an extensive amount of time in the field. The focus is on studying a topic, phenomenon

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or issue from the perspective of a member of the group. Ethnographic research usually
entails the use of a variety of research techniques such as field observation, participant
observation, diary keeping, interviewing, photography, and the study of cultural
artefacts and documents (Wimmer & Dominick, 1994).

Interviewing
In organisational research, interviewing should be applied selectively because it is
a time-consuming technique that requires high levels of personal involvement and
skill from the researcher. An interview is a one-to-one verbal interaction between
the researcher and the respondent (Goddard & Melville, 2001). This methodology is
usually applied when:
„„ in-depth knowledge about a phenomenon, issue or topic is required (for example
what the reasons are for an organisation’s employees participating in industrial
strikes)
„„ highly sensitive issues are explored (for example increasing numbers of corruption
in the organisation)
„„ it is difficult to gather the individuals constituting a group for a focus-group
interview.
Usually, the focus of interviewing is on the experiences, attitudes, feelings and opinions
of each person involved. It is the appropriate method of obtaining information from
individuals in high-level positions (for example managers of large corporations.)
Careful design, planning and scheduling is necessary to make an interview scheme
work well (Wealleans, 2003).

Focus groups
Focus-group discussions have become a popular method of obtaining information
regarding numerous topics. Templeton (1994) believes that a focus group, in essence, is
a small, temporary community formed for the collaborative purpose of discovery, and
consisting of six to 12 participants (Du Plooy, 2001). A focus group is a targeted and
well-designed meeting organised specifically to facilitate the discussion of a particular
topic or issue (Millward, 1995). The role of the moderator in focus groups is pivotal to
the success of these discussions. Consequently, moderators must have specialised skills
and the proper training.
Focus groups can be used to study the preferences, opinions and behaviour of
consumers. One of the most important advantages of using focus groups rather than
holding individual interviews is the fact that the data generated are determined not
only by the contributions of each participant, but also by the group dynamics that
evolve during the discussion. Focus groups are an effective way of encouraging people’s
involvement in the decision-making process and having them provide input regarding
the topic (Berg, 2004).

Case studies
Case studies are the detailed analyses of singularities, such as a person, an event in a
limited time frame, a specific department within a larger organisation, a particular form

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of occupational practice, an administrative system, or a single institution with clearly

defined boundaries. Goddard and Melville (2001) propose that this methodology can
be used when the object of the research is highly complex.
The purpose of case studies is to identify, reveal and explain the unique features
of a case. In a bounded institution, this might include staff policies, work schedules,
timetables, office practices, organisational sub-units, throughputs and organisational
channels. The case study does not employ a single data-gathering technique; it employs
selected techniques – that is, those best suited to the facts of the case and the purposes
of the inquiry (Murray & Lawrence, 2000).

Self-recorded diaries
A diary can yield a wealth of information about people’s daily lives. Participants are
given instructions regarding the kinds of experiences to be recorded in the research
diary. The diary is normally kept for a specific period of time, and is then collected
by the researcher (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002). Respondents are required to record all the
events in which the researcher is interested, often specifying the time of the occurrence.
Self-recorded diaries can be implemented in a variety of situations, for example when
the researcher is studying an organisation’s internal communications systems.

11.5.3 Combining quantitative and qualitative research

Qualitative and quantitative approaches can often complement each other well. For
example, when a researcher carries out a quantitative survey, the data generated might
be interpreted qualitatively by the people within the system that is being analysed.
A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods is called triangulation.
Triangulation promotes the validity of findings by allowing the researcher to
explore a phenomenon more fully while facilitating a variety of methods to encourage
comprehensive understanding and explanation (Rubin, Palmgreen & Sypher, 1994).
A multi-method approach can be used to present a picture of the phenomenon
that is more comprehensive than it would be if only one method of inquiry were
used. The researcher is able to approach the data from a variety of vantage points.
Here, qualitative and quantitative strategies are combined in keeping with the idea
that at the methodological level, quantitative and qualitative approaches can be
complementary, enhancing understanding of the data gathered and increasing the
credibility of conclusions.
Triangulation may take place at a number of points in the research process – that
is, during the stage of study design, data collection, data analysis or even throughout
the study. Maggs-Rapport (2000) describes the following as the four basic types of
triangulation:
1. Data triangulation: Various data sources are used.
2. Investigator triangulation: Various investigators work together, counteracting the
potential bias of single-researcher investigation.
3. Theory triangulation: A variety of perspectives is employed to explore single data
sets.

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4. Methodological triangulation: More than one methodology is used to study a single

research problem.
Various quantitative and qualitative research methodologies that can be used effectively
in combination are as follows:

Survey research
Survey research has proven fairly popular among communication investigators. It
is a widely used data-gathering technique in organisational assessment, marketing
research, opinion polls, academic research and a variety of other fields. The strength
of surveys lies in the fact that much of the data can be obtained from large numbers of
people at a relatively low cost (Stewart, 2002).
Survey research is most appropriate in the investigation of opinions, attitudes,
knowledge or awareness, preferences, behavioural patterns, behavioural intentions
and expectations, or in self-evaluation. As survey research is used for a wide variety
of purposes in a multitude of contexts, several methods of interviewing can be used.
The most commonly known are personal interviews, telephone interviews, self-
administered surveys, postal surveys, group-administered surveys and computer
surveys (Du Plooy, 2001).

Action research
As its name implies, action research is intended to achieve both action and research,
and is suited to situations where one wishes to bring about action in the form of change.
It is most valuable when an organisation has to be responsive to the changing demands
of its surrounding environments. As such, action research requires co-operation of and
between all stakeholders, feedback to the stakeholders and continuous adjustment to
new information and new events.
Action research is a critical social activity, relying on participation and
collaborative work to generate change and new knowledge (Lindlof, 1995). Thus, most
action research consciously seeks to change or improve the object of the study. In
organisational research, for example, the client or organisation engages the researcher
to study certain organisational procedures. The researcher is invited to diagnose
problems, engage in collaborative analysis of data, and engender problem-solving
skills that the organisation itself can adopt or modify (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002).

Strategy evaluation
A communication strategy cannot exist in isolation; it is more than a set of proposed
actions. An effective communication strategy needs to develop out of an overall business
strategy. This is not a straightforward task. Because each organisation’s business
strategy is unique, there can be no off-the-shelf solutions to communication strategy
challenges. A close link between the organisation’s business and communication
strategies will assist the employees in understanding and supporting the direction of
the organisation (Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 1999). Specific business objectives must
drive the communication strategy, which in turn must serve to unite an organisation’s
approach to its internal and external audiences.

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Today, it is important to evaluate strategy according to a set of criteria and to prioritise

strategic alternatives in the process of strategy development. Vrontis and Vignali (1999)
indicate that the process of strategy assessment should aim at assessing the validity of
strategy and its appropriateness in analysing the context in which the organisation
operates. Analysing the internal and external environment will enable an effective
evaluation of the current strategy. The external environment consists of variables
that are outside the organisation, and form the context within which the organisation
exists. These variables can include competitive forces, economic forces, political and
regulatory forces, technological forces and socio-cultural forces.
The next step in the evaluation of strategy is to conduct environmental monitoring
through a SWOT analysis. As discussed earlier, environmental monitoring covers
all areas of situation analysis and provides a more systematic way of organising
information and drawing conclusions (Duncan & Moriarty, 1997). After analysing the
environments within which the organisation operates, it is appropriate to evaluate
the viability of the strategy. Here it is also important to review the extent to which
the strategy addresses the portrayal of a positive corporate image. Such an image is a
condition for continuity and strategic success (Van Riel, 1995).

The assessment of image and identity

In recent years, the study of an organisation’s identity and image has increased in
terms of quality and quantity. For the purpose of this chapter, corporate identity
can be briefly defined as indicating the way in which an organisation presents itself
through the use of symbols, communication and behaviour. These three elements are
called the corporate identity mix. Lubbe and Puth (1996) define corporate image as the
beliefs or feelings which the public of an organisation hold towards that organisation.
Earlier in this chapter this has also been referred to as social auditing and corporate
communication auditing.
The measurement of an organisation’s corporate image provides perspective on
the organisation from the receiver’s point of view. While corporate identity allows
organisations to manage the messages and images they want to portray, corporate
image depends on the perceptions of each stakeholder – it can thus be seen as the end
state or result of efforts to portray a specific image via the corporate identity.

Content analysis
Content analysis is another research method that can be used in qualitative and
quantitative research. While survey and experimental methods systematically generate
data from analysis, content analysis is unique in its use of existing communication
content. The data investigated by content analysis are collections of encoded symbols,
or messages, used in communication (Stewart, 2002). As a research tool, content
analysis is used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within texts
or sets of texts. The presence, meanings and relationships of these words and concepts
are quantified and analysed by the researcher, who then makes inferences about the
messages (Du Plooy, 2001). In the field of organisational communication research,
content analysis can be used as follows:

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„„ To identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual,

group or organisation, or to describe attitudinal and behavioural responses to
communication within an organisation (Daymon & Holloway, 2002).
„„ To describe communication content, for example of memos, e-mails, transcripts of
meetings and policy documents, and to test hypotheses of message characteristics.
„„ To identify specified characteristics in textual messages so that individuals’
intentions, attitudes and values can be inferred.
„„ To draw valid inferences from the textual communications of managers, thus to
unobtrusively study their values, sentiments, intentions and ideologies.
„„ To research consumer communications. The breadth of communications existing
in the consumer arena is extensive, and involves media advertising, printed
materials, and verbal and non-verbal messages created by a host of sources.

11.6 Applied organisational communication research

The following section looks at a few research methods that can be practically applied
to measure issues or occurrences in an organisation.

11.6.1 A communication audit

A communication audit is a research method that assists the organisation in
determining how its internal and/or external publics perceive its communication
efforts. An audit with external publics provides information to the organisation to improve
its communication programmes or campaigns, and its operations (Fogelman-Beyer,
1999). An internal audit provides valuable information with regard to employees’
perceptions of the communication processes in their organisation, and the organisation’s
culture and communication climate. Audits are designed to consider an organisation’s
communication needs, policies, practices and capabilities. Furthermore, the audit
process serves as a catalyst for organisational change by bringing management face to
face with issues only randomly perceived before (Downs, 1988; Van Riel, 1995). The
result provides a framework for specific action steps such as the following:
„„ The investment of increased attention and energy in the planning function at all
levels of the organisation.
„„ An increased focus on the skills of giving performance feedback and recognising
excellence in staff training.
According to Downs (1988), a communication audit should possess several characteristics
described as follows:
„„ Diagnosis: The audit is a diagnostic technique. It answers such questions as: What
characterises the organisation? What does the organisation do well? What needs
improving in the organisation?
„„ Evaluation: The reason for conducting the audit is to make some judgment
about communication within the organisation. There must be standards, purposes
or objectives.
„„ Unique design: The audit must be tailored to the specific organisation. Each
organisation has some unique features, therefore auditors cannot merely take
the procedures used in organisation X and apply them to organisation Y.

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Data-gathering techniques available often include triangulation by combining

quantitative and qualitative methods such as questionnaires, interviews,
observations, communication diaries, content analysis and network studies, to
mention but a few.
„„ Control: The ultimate value of an audit is that it identifies the strengths that need to
be reinforced and the weaknesses that need to be corrected.
It is also important to determine the focal areas to which the audit will apply before the
research design is developed since these will be the determining factors in choosing the
best research methods. Downs (1988) provides the following guidelines in determining
focal areas:
„„ Relate communication to other important organisational processes.
„„ Determine the adequacy of information exchange.
„„ Determine the directionality of information flow.
„„ Assess how well the communication media are used.
„„ Assess the quality of communication relationships and networks.
„„ Determine the relation of communication to organisational outcomes.

When the focal areas have been established, the auditor can decide on the selection of
audit instruments, keeping in mind that a combination of quantitative and qualitative
instruments works well in a communication audit. According to Downs (1988), the
aim of a communication audit is often to provide information on added, revised or
eliminated schedules and formats of existing communication facilities, feedback spans,
periodic and incident reports, newsletters, bulletin boards, internal office memos, group
planning sessions, top management visits, meetings and presentations with employees,
and employee recognition ceremonies and banquets. Methods or instruments that can
be used in this regard are shown in Table 11.3.

Table 11.3 Instruments that can work well in a communication audit to gather required
information

Instruments Data gathered

Observation Data from people processes, internal organisational

environment, task processes

Interviews Employee perceptions; probing with the intention to cover

many topics

Questionnaire Quantitative data about many topics; general overview of

many aspects in the organisation

Content analysis Kind of information processed through the organisation;

evaluation of channels

Communication diaries Interaction networks; content of messages; channel

evaluation

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Instruments used in communication audits can furthermore be grouped into three

sections, as follows:
„„ Comprehensive instruments, which examine communication in the entire organisation.
„„ Communication process instruments, which are focused on facets of organisational
communication. Five of the most popular areas are conflict, mentoring,
competence, load and management communication.
„„ Organisational outcomes instruments, which aim to relate communication phenomena
to organisational outcomes such as satisfaction, productivity and commitment.
Of these three, relevant existing research has been aimed primarily at the relationship
between dimensions of communication and satisfaction.
The following list provides various audits related to each of the above sections which
can serve as a point of reference for measuring specific aspects of communication in
the organisation:

Comprehensive instruments
„„ Communication satisfaction questionnaire
„„ Organisational communication development audit questionnaire

Communication process instruments

„„ Conflict
„„ Conflict management message style
„„ Conflict management survey
„„ Organisational communication conflict instrument
„„ Team building
„„ Team excellence questionnaire
„„ Team interaction profile
„„ Organisational groups
„„ Group atmosphere scale
„„ Interpersonal trust scale
„„ Group behaviour questionnaire
„„ Group procedural order questionnaire
„„ Decision involvement analysis
„„ Group dimension description questionnaire
„„ Job reaction questionnaire
„„ Management communication
„„ Communicative adaptability scale
„„ Focal person’s communication survey
„„ Management communication style
„„ Leadership
„„ Coaching practices survey
„„ Leader effectiveness and adaptability description instrument
„„ Management practices questionnaire
„„ Management profiling, as others see you
„„ Manager feedback programme


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Organisational outcomes instruments

„„ Communication satisfaction questionnaire job description index
„„ Organisational commitment instrument
„„ Organisational commitment questionnaire
„„ Organisational identification questionnaire productivity audit

11.6.2 P-MOPS model (procedural model of problem solving)

According to Adams and Galanes (2009: 228), the procedural model of problem solving
is a flexible framework that guides problem-solving processes within groups in the
organisation by means of a careful analysis of the problem, and a critical consideration
of the negative and positive outcomes likely to occur with each alternative solution.
This model is also an illustration of how action research can be applied as a measuring
instrument. The P-MOPS model consists of five steps, which are discussed below:

Describing and analysing the problem

During the first stage of problem solving the group concentrates on thoroughly
understanding the problem. Members should consider three primary elements,
namely what is unsatisfactory, what is desired and what obstacles exist. Obtaining
this information will require qualitative research methodologies such as focus group
interviews or participant observation. In applying these two methods, members are
often apt to share more freely their perceptions or feelings on a matter of concern.
According to Adams and Galanes (2009), shared information is more credible and
creates common ground among members, who tend to withhold unique information.
For group problem solving to be most effective, all information needs to be shared.
The questions and issues addressed during focus group interviews therefore need to be
carefully considered and constructed beforehand.
If the problem, for example, is that organisational members at middle management
level feel insecure about communicating their insights and experience about the task at
hand with colleagues for fear that someone else may take full credit for their idea, the
researcher needs to first determine why such insecurities exist. Most of the time, action
research uses natural language rather than numbers as it suits a paradigm which is
participative and responsive to the situation, such as a focus group. Communication is
thus an important part of action research, especially in its more participative varieties.
Questions to be asked by the researcher during focus group interviews could be
divided into the following categories (Adams & Galanes, 2009):
„„ What are all the relevant facts?
„„ Who is involved? When? Where? How?
„„ What complaints have been made?
„„ What is the difference between what is expected and what is actually happening?
„„ What harm has occurred?
„„ What exceptions have there been?
„„ What changes have occurred?
„„ What may have produced or caused the unsatisfactory condition?

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„„ What events have precipitated the problem?

„„ What other factors may have contributed to the problem?
„„ What do we hope to achieve?
„„ What form will our solution take?
„„ What would be a minimum acceptable solution for each person concerned?
„„ What are the characteristics of our problem?
„„ How difficult is the problem?
„„ How many possible solutions are there?
„„ How interested are all parties personally in the problem?
„„ How familiar are the parties with the identified problem?
„„ How important is it that those most affected accept the solution?

Generating and explaining possible solutions

Once problems have been identified via a focus group interview, possible solutions can
be generated. The pool of ideas that result in solutions will come from the participants
in the focus group, but Adams and Galanes (2009) indicate that this will not lead to
final or ultimate solutions. Sometimes, while generating ideas, participants in the focus
group might recognise details of the problem that ought to be explored more fully. The
group may then return to Step 1 for further exploration of such issues. This illustrates
the cyclic nature of action research where the later cycles are used to challenge and
refine the results of earlier ones. In most of its forms, action research also tends to be
qualitative and participative, as well as critically reflective. Researchers (and probably
clients acting as co-researchers) regularly and systematically critique what they are
doing. They refine the questions they are asking and the methods they are using, and
the understanding and subsequent action plans they are developing. When participants
have finished the additional analysis of Step 1, they can return to listing alternative
solutions, and then move on to evaluating each one.

Evaluating all possible solutions

During the third stage of problem solving, all proposed solutions should be evaluated.
The options must be tested against the criteria the group has established. For example,
the group must make sure the solution is consistent with the data (problem) gathered
during focus group discussions. It is especially important to consider all possible
negative consequences of each solution, and new problems it might create for the group.

Criteria for evaluating solutions

Criteria are statements that set standards and limits for comparing and evaluating ideas
(Adams & Galanes, 2009: 233). Priority lists and criteria sheets are examples of criteria
that set standards and limits. However, although the P-MOPS model is primarily a
qualitative research project, objective standards still need to be determined to ensure
validity of results (chosen solutions). One way of doing this would be to allow group
members to discuss, agree upon or rank (from most to least important) the criteria for
judging proposed ideas and solutions. Such criteria encourage the group to consider
whether the ideas proposed are legal, moral, workable, and within the competence of

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the group or organisation. Some criteria to use as a means of measurement would be

questions such as the following:
„„ Will the proposed solution actually solve the problem?
„„ Can the proposed solution be done?
„„ Will the benefits outweigh the costs?
„„ How acceptable is this idea to the people most likely to be affected by it?

Narrowing a list of proposed solutions

When a list of ideas has been generated in a focus group, the group will need to reduce
it to a manageable size before discussing the merits of each idea. This can be done after
the group has established its criteria through techniques such as the following:
Combine any ideas (proposed solutions) that are similar or overlapping – for example
information shared during a meeting or via e-mail – and then make it available to the
group on the intranet where access to it could be obtained via a login and password.
Allow each member to vote for his or her top three choices, and tally the votes.
Those solutions that do not have at least two votes may be removed from the list.
Give each member a set of ten or 15 stickers and ask them to vote on the preferred
solutions. Members can distribute their stickers any way they want. They can put all
their stickers on one item if they strongly prefer that item, or put each sticker on a
different item. The items receiving stickers are easy to spot and list in priority order.

Choosing the best solution

A group can make decisions in many different ways, but some methods are likely to
produce worse results than others. In some groups the leader has the authority to make
decisions and may do so frequently for the group. However, this may pose a danger
to the validity and generalisation of the chosen solutions to the problem. A consensus
decision is one that all members agree is the best one they can make that is acceptable
to all; it does not necessarily mean that the final choice is everyone’s first choice.
Once a solution has been chosen and tentatively adopted, testing it among those
who will be most affected by it should be considered. The purpose here is to initially
introduce the decision to a section of the population, for example to all those at middle
management level in the organisation, to identify any negative consequences that
may have been overlooked by the focus group. Often, generalisations cannot be made
from action research. The focus group might make claims only about those people
and/or systems actually studied, and it may not be safe to assume that other people or other
systems are the same. For that reason, it may be to the disadvantage of the larger population
to assume that what is an acceptable solution to the focus group will be acceptable to all
members of middle management in the organisation (Adams & Galanes, 2009).
The RISK technique is designed to help an organisation assess how a proposed
change will negatively affect the individuals and groups most involved. Suppose an
organisation wants to implement a new middle-management benefits programme.
Even when the details of such a programme have been compiled within a focus group,
it cannot be put into effect before the ‘population’, for example all middle managers
in the organisation, has provided inputs as well. Through the RISK technique, the

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organisation is able make sure that all possible problems have been identified and can
be dealt with before the implementation of a programme. Steps for conducting the
RISK technique could be the following:
„„ The proposed solution/programme decided upon by the focus group is presented
in detail to all employees, who will in turn ask questions or identify problems not
considered before.
„„ All the new and previous risks are charted again.
„„ A list is compiled of all the risks involved and distributed to the focus group for
renewed discussions.
„„ If necessary, the focus group might be required to start again at Step 1 of the
P-MOPS model.

Implementing the chosen solution

The final step in group problem solving is implementing the solution. It is important
not to merely adjourn the focus group after a solution has been accepted by the
population. The details of implementation should be worked out and questions asked
in this regard, such as the following:
„„ Who will do what, when and how so that the solution is enacted?
„„ How will the report be written and presented?
„„ What follow-up should be conducted to monitor how well this solution is working?

11.7 Summary
Organisational communication research is only as good as the methodology or
instruments used. Therefore, it is necessary for organisational communication
practitioners, academics and students alike to employ a continued search for
improvement in these instruments.
This chapter attempts to provide an overview of the most important concepts
related to the assessment of communication and related issues in the organisation.
However, it is clear that the scope of this topic is far too broad for the chapter
to provide in-depth discussions of all the relevant subsections. Although these
discussions merely scratch the surface of a highly complex subject, the importance
thereof is clear.

Case study
Attitude and opinion survey: Organisational culture in the South African National
Defence Force
Six years after the inception of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF), a survey
was conducted to determine group cohesion, group identity and desired behaviour within
the SANDF through the members’ identification with a proposed value system. The survey
was conducted by means of a self-administered structured omnibus of questionnaires
addressed during the period July to August 2000. The focus of the findings report was on
the respondents’ orientation or identification with the proposed SANDF value system.
The responses of 2 596 respondents were analysed and interpreted. 

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The results of this survey were reported under the following headings: sample description;
biographical variables; methodology; responses to measured values; arms of service orientation
towards factors; rank group orientation towards factors; gender orientation towards factors;
population group orientation towards factors; former force orientation towards factors; and
recommendations.
As of 15 July 2000, permanent units and civilians higher than post level 3 in the Department
of Defence (DOD) were used to determine the population and sample strength; other
civilians and the auxiliary services were not included. The survey used a probability sample
that incorporates random sampling. The population was defined as all uniformed members
(excluding the auxiliary and part-time forces) and civilian members (excluding those lower
than level 3) of the DOD. The population was divided into nine areas or regions – that is, a
national division, since the population was spread over the entire country that was already
divided into the nine provinces. In these regions, the Defence Force was represented by a
number of military units from the SA Army, SA Air Force, SA Navy, SAMS and Corporate Division
(although the Corporate Division was not represented in every region).
Once the units were identified at random, another stage of random sampling was applied to
select respondents at each unit. Levels of stratification were built into the sample, namely arm
of service, rank group and population group. When the data were eventually collected, 2 596
responses were analysed.
The members of the SANDF identified in the following manner with the proposed values.
Values such as commitment to colleagues, no poor excuses, non-gender discrimination and
fair practices clearly showed problem areas, while values such as no misuse of rank, pride,
loyalty and non-racial discrimination could easily be classified as poor identification – they
barely fell into the category of ‘average’. The poor identification with these values shows that
the SANDF is lacking in creating group cohesion, group identity and the desired behaviour.
To eliminate the problem regarding measuring values with one question, the data were
subjected to a factor analysis to determine whether there was a common factor or factors
underlying the value items or questions of the questionnaire.
Cronbach’s alpha, a reliable analysis method, was used to determine the homogeneity of
the questions for each factor. Cronbach’s alpha gives an indication of whether all the items
or questions in each factor measure the same underlying construct and whether they do
so consistently. The reliability analysis was done on the total sample in terms of each of the
above-mentioned factors, and a high level of reliability for each was obtained.
The main findings of this study were that the SANDF was lacking in group identity, group
cohesion and the desired behaviour. The transformation process of the DOD is a typical
example of external adaptation. The main focus of the DOD was on the transformation
process, resulting in a neglect of the internal integration process visible in the lack of unity,
marginalisation of groups and subcultures, and unacceptable behaviour.
As a result of the study, it was recommended that the socialisation process of Hellriegel, Slocum
and Woodman (1998) be used in order for the DOD to obtain group identity, group cohesion
and the desired behaviour. In this process, employees who fit the culture are carefully selected
(which until then was not possible due to the transformation process of the DOD). Candidates
who do not fit the organisational culture are removed, while those who do are given extensive
training in order to develop necessary skills. Reward systems tied to company culture are used to
motivate members to conform to that culture, and those who deviate from it are removed. Lastly,
folklore can be used to validate cultural values and to obtain consistent role modelling, especially
for organisational leadership. Values need to be quantified in terms of norms and made known
to all members of the SANDF. It has to become a way of life, now lived by every single member.
(Permission to use this case study was obtained from Chris Thornhill at Sabinet.)
Source: Wikus van Rensburg

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Activities
Copyright © 2013. Juta and Company. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S.

1. Read the case study and try to identify measures that were applied to improve
research reliability and validity.
2. Identify a communication-related issue in the organisation for which you work or
one with which you are familiar.
3. Formulate a research problem based on the issue you have just identified.
4. Formulate a research proposal indicating which problem you will address in the
above scenario, and apply Steps 1 to 4 to it.

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needs/214874.html Accessed in July 2004.
Vrontis, D & Vignali, C. 1999. ‘Bass PLC an assessment, evaluation and recommendations for
their strategic approach in entering foreign beer markets’, International Marketing Review,
vol. 16, no. 4/5, pp. 391–405.
Watson Wyatt Worldwide. 1999. 1999 Communication Study. Linking Communications with Strateg y to
Achieve Business Goals. Bethesda: Watson Wyatt Worldwide/IABC.
Wealleans, D. 2003. The People Measurement Manual: Measuring Attitudes, Behaviours and Beliefs in your
Organisation. Aldershot: Gover.
Wiggins, M W & Stevens, C. 1999. Aviation Social Science: Research Methods in Practice. Aldershot:
Ashgate.
Wimmer, R D & Dominick, J R. 1994. Mass Media Research: An Introduction. 5th ed. Belmont:
Wadsworth.

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 Integrated communication

12
CHAPTER

measurement
Danie du Plessis and Norlé Thomson

The greatest degree of integration emerges from the cooperative efforts of the traditionally
separate fields of advertising, public relations, promotions marketing, personal selling and
direct marketing.
Duncan & Caywood (1998)

12.1 Introduction
The principle of integration of organisational communication is well established; it is
also the moving force behind this book. In the preface of this book it is stated that the
starting point of our approach to communication integration is the corporate brand.
This is the consolidated outcome of every message about the organisation received
by a stakeholder, including planned, unplanned, service and product messages.
Organisations should align these messages at strategic, management and functional
levels, bearing in mind that communication integration, and ultimately perception of
the corporate brand, occurs in the minds of all the organisation’s stakeholders, not only
those who manage the organisation or plan its communication.
Although many models are being developed to facilitate communication integration,
the measurement of it is in its infancy. No single, ready-made evaluation instrument
for measuring integration exists as yet. In most cases, certain elements of integration
are measured, and in some cases existing models of integration are operationalised to
serve as evaluation criteria.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a guideline for measuring the integration of
organisational communication, which is discussed in terms of the following:
„„ a selection of models of communication relating to integration (with the aim of
identifying concepts that can be used as criteria for integration)
„„ some communication integration systems (specifically the integrated marketing audit)
„„ a proposed instrument of measurement.

A case study by Barker and Angelopulo (2004) is included as an example of the

operationalisation of some of the concepts that have emerged in the debate about
communication integration.

12.2 Some integrated communication models

Authors and researchers approach the issue of communication integration from different
angles and, depending on the point of departure, various models have developed over
time. In this section, three of these – Duncan and Moriarty’s (1998) brand equity
model, Van Riel’s (1995) model of organising and coordinating the communication
process, and Ehlers’s (2002) model for structuring integrated communication – are

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briefly discussed to highlight some of the concepts that will form the basic building
blocks for the attempt to develop a measuring instrument in the final part of the chapter.

12.2.1 Duncan and Moriarty’s brand equity model

Described in detail in Chapter 2, the focus of this model is on integrated marketing
communication (IMC). Nevertheless, it provides a workable framework for integrating
communication in a broader context than simply the marketing of an organisation.
Duncan and Moriarty (1998) claim that the social and associated aspects of
marketing and business in general depend on relationships, and therefore their
model is based on understanding the role of communication in establishing and
maintaining profitable stakeholder relationships. They see communication as the
primary mechanism in the marketing process. Communication has always played a
role in attracting and keeping customers and other stakeholders, but as the media and
electronic technologies are advancing at such a speed, the benefits of understanding
and applying communication theory and strategies to marketing are, according to
these authors (Duncan & Moriarty, 1998), much greater.
Duncan and Moriarty (1997a) propose that each department and function in the
organisation has a communication dimension, and that everything contributes to the
brand message. They suggest that six areas in organisations can be better integrated,
namely employees, customers and other stakeholders, corporate learning, brand
positioning, creative ideas and corporate mission. Furthermore, these authors identify
ten brand relationship drivers used by organisations that benefit from IMC (Duncan
& Moriarty, 1997). These are divided into three categories:
1. Two drivers with a corporate focus (relationship management, stakeholder focus).
2. Four process drivers that represent operational processes (strategic consistency,
purposeful interactivity, mission marketing and zero-based planning).
3. Four infrastructural/organisational drivers (cross-functional management, core
competencies, data-driven marketing and working with an integrated agency).
In Table 12.1, the drivers are discussed in more detail to illustrate their relevance in the
development of a measuring instrument.

Table 12.1 Brand relationship drivers

Corporate Relationship „„ It is more cost effective to sell to current customers

focus management than to new ones
„„ Invest in and grow current customers
„„ Know the customers and use that information in
communication with them

Stakeholder „„ Quality relationships with all stakeholders help to

focus avoid sending conflicting messages to overlapping
stakeholders or customers
„„ Stakeholder priorities change constantly; for
example, during a merger the financial community
and employees might be the most important,
whereas during a crisis the media become a critical
stakeholder 

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Process Strategic „„ Recognise the communication dimensions of all

consistency brand contacts and the sources of these messages
maintenance „„ The more a brand’s position is strategically
integrated into all brand messages, the more
consistent and distinct the identity and reputation
will be
„„ There should be processes in place to ensure that
all brand messages are consistent

Purposeful „„ Dialogue should be purposeful for both the

dialogue organisation and the target audiences
„„ Interactivity is a form of integration
„„ A balance between mass, personalised and
interactive media is necessary to enrich feedback
„„ Facilitation of customer feedback and dialogue
ensure integration of the customer into the
planning and operations of the organisation

Corporate „„ Incorporate the mission into all operations to

mission continually remind everyone what the organisation
marketing stands for
„„ A mission programme should be focused
to develop a distinct presence rather than a
fragmented one

Zero-based „„ Planning should start with a SWOT analysis

planning „„ Findings are prioritised and addressed by
marketing communication
„„ All communication objectives and strategies must
be justified in terms of what needs to be done to
manage relationships better

Infrastructure Cross-functional „„ Relationship marketing is communication intensive

planning at each level
„„ Cross-functional management is needed to plan
and monitor messages for strategic consistency
and inconsistency
„„ Internal groups should interact to ensure
integration through the sharing of expertise and
customer information
„„ There should be links to specialist departments to
eliminate isolation but maintain specialisation
„„ Walls are broken down between departments and
stakeholder groups, and institutionalise feedback
and learning are facilitated

Core „„ Managers should understand the strengths and

competencies weaknesses of marketing communication functions,
evaluate them, and apply them in a mix that will
maximise the cost effectiveness of each function
„„ Experts should produce materials but
communication generalists need to plan and
manage an integrated communication programme


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Infrastructure Database „„ Information is an integral part of integration

(cont.) management „„ The use of cross-functional processes requires
tracking of customers and the support of a
database management system that provides
universal customer information and a corporate
memory
„„ Personalisation of customers and stakeholders
(and the relationship with them) relies on this
information

Integrated „„ An organisation making use of external agencies

agency for communication functions should select an
agency whose operations are explicitly based on
the notion of integrated communication

While these drivers were not operationalised by the original authors as measurement
tools, Barker and Angelopulo (2004) used them as the basis for a model of communication
integration evaluation for web-based marketing communication. In their article, the
ten drivers are operationalised and serve as criteria for measuring the integration of
web-based communication processes. A summary of the methodology developed by
them is included as a case study at the end of this chapter.

12.2.2 Van Riel’s model of organising and coordinating the

communication process
Van Riel (1995) believes that, from a systems perspective, the communication process
can be divided into these three sequential phases (see also Chapter 2):
1. Input phase: Preparation of communication activities (analysis and strategy).
2. Throughput phase: Execution of plans (decision making and implementation).
3. Output phase: Final expressions of forms of communication and their effects.
In each of these phases, there are controllable and uncontrollable factors. In the input
phase, where preparation of communication activities is concerned, the processes are
largely within the control of the organisation. Control thereafter increasingly declines
in the other phases, with the least control over how the communication is accepted and
reacted to by the target audiences.
Van Riel (1995) proposes a framework for organisations to stimulate co-operation
among all relevant communication functions by defining the baseline of corporate
communication – that is, by choosing one of three factors central to corporate identity
as the primary corporate identity policy. This policy is generated by formalising three
key issues in corporate communication policy:
1. Definition of common starting points: For the purpose of consistency, common conditions
should be established for communication. The implication is that there should be
a concrete statement from which ‘… central values can be translated clearly and
consistently into all the forms of communication deployed by the organisation’
(Van Riel, 1995: 162–163).

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2. Use of common operational systems: If all communication functions in an organisation

use the same operational system, it will be easier for the organisation to co-
ordinate all forms of internal and external communication, for example in the
same way that financial systems in an organisation are commonly applied and
financial reporting is standardised. A way of doing this is to implement a system of
computerised decision-making support systems.
3. Co-ordination of decision making in communication: Different methods of co-ordinating
and orchestrating communication in organisations exist; however, there must be an
intentional effort to co-ordinate communication. The effort can be carried out by:
a. one person in the organisation being put in charge of all communication
functions
b. a steering committee, which ensures that all relevant departments are
represented and participate
c. ad hoc meetings, in which several communication managers are grouped
together in one location and are ‘forced’ to interact frequently, both privately
and professionally.
As is the case with the Duncan and Moriarty model, Van Riel’s model is not
operationalised as a measuring instrument, although the basic principles and
concepts contained in it could provide criteria for measuring integration of
organisational communication.

12.2.3 Ehlers’s model for structuring integrated communication

Ehlers (2002) proposes a framework for structuring integrated communication in
South African organisations. In her model, the stakeholders of an organisation should
be the starting point, and those employees able to influence interactions with other
stakeholders should be considered as part of the stakeholder orientation (Ehlers, 2002).
Employees constitute various areas of expertise in an organisation, and genuine
integration is possible only when cross-functional relations exist between the different
parts of the organisation. Ehlers (2002: 339) proposes that an ‘integrator’ or ‘team of
integrators’ that have a total stakeholder focus should be responsible for co-ordinating
communication in the organisation. Integrated communication should be part of the
organisation’s strategic planning process, and those driving the integration should be
multiskilled to be able to contribute effectively to that process.
Ehlers (2002) furthermore identifies databases (in line with Duncan and Moriarty’s
approach) as a central force in the integration process. When centrally kept, information
collected from research and other sources can be stored and used by all concerned for
effective planning. She proposes that ‘traditional’ marketing communication tools and
‘traditional’ public relations tools be combined to provide the integrator(s) with a vast
menu of tools that they can apply in the processes of stakeholder management (Ehlers,
2002: 340–343).
Figure 12.1 illustrates this framework, which is also not operationalised as an
evaluation model, but can contribute criteria for this purpose.

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Communication objectives

Customers/ Suppliers and Interest

Financial Media Government Community
consumers distributors groups

Employees

Finance Human Purchasing Logistics Marketing IT Agencies

resources

Multiskilled
integrated
communication
or team of integrated Strategic
Research
communications Communication
Qualitative
(report to CEO) planning
Quantitative

Databases

Integrated tools

The Internet/web
Advertising
Sales promotion
Personal selling
Direct marketing
Sponsorships
Publicity
Media tools
Public relations applications

Figure 12.1 Ehlers’s model

Source: Ehlers (2002)

12.3 Integrated communication research methods

Chapter 11 evaluates various aspects of communication in an organisation. In this
section, the emphasis is on evaluating the way in which the organisation integrates its

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total communication efforts, as well as the extent or degree of integration. A number of

methods and techniques have been developed to measure and evaluate IMC, but few
for integrated communication. Kitchen and Schultz (2003) distinguish between IMC
and integrated communication in the following way:
„„ Integrated communication is concerned with the corporate brand – that is, what the
organisation is and what it stands for.
„„ IMC is concerned with individual product or service brands.

The methods and techniques developed for IMC measurement can nevertheless be
used in integrated communication evaluation by being added to, adapted or expanded.

12.3.1 Dimensions of integrated communication evaluation and

measurement
Duncan and Moriarty (1997a) point out that there are two ways of evaluating IMC,
namely by evaluating the process and the output of integration. The process and output
of overall integrated communication can also be measured and evaluated. There is also a
third method – that is, evaluation of the effects or outcomes of integrated communication.

Process of integration
Integrated communication requires close co-operation and co-ordination between
various functions, for example marketing, advertising and public relations. This is
usually achieved by means of cross-functional teamwork. An aspect of evaluation
therefore includes monitoring cross-functional planning (Duncan, 2002), the amount
and nature of internal communication between functions, and the core competencies
and views of the people managing the integration process (Duncan & Moriarty, 1997a).
Another aspect is the development of brand messages. A major theme in integrated
communication is message consistency, therefore the process behind the development of
brand messages, and the selection and integration of different communication media,
need to be assessed (Duncan, 2002).
A third aspect is feedback from customers and other stakeholders. Complaints,
suggestions and compliments need to be recorded, analysed and used to improve the
organisation’s integration efforts (Duncan, 2002). This element of the integration
process is dependent on effective database management. It is also necessary to establish
whether existing feedback mechanisms are effective and efficient.

Output of integration
There is a distinction to be made between the output and the outcomes of integration.
This is in contrast to the view of Duncan and Moriarty (1997a), who believe that output
refers to the results or effects of integrated marketing. Here, output is understood as the
product of integrated communication (brand messages), while outcomes are understood
as the effects of those messages on stakeholder relationships. In other words, the output
of integrated communication refers to all messages (planned, product, service and
unplanned – see Chapter 2) about an organisation received by various stakeholders.
The emphasis of output evaluation is on the consistency of the actual brand
messages rather than on the process behind developing them.

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Outcomes or effects of integration

Integrated communication is concerned with the management of stakeholder
relationships (Kitchen & Schultz, 2003; Murphy, Murphy, Woodall & O’Hare,
1999). To assess the success of such communication, the nature and quality of the
organisation’s relationships with various stakeholders have to be evaluated. In other
words, the impact of the various brand messages must be measured. This impact can
be understood in terms of changes in stakeholder attitudes and/or behaviour.
The three dimensions of the evaluation and measurement of integrated
communication are depicted in Figure 12.2.

Integrated communication evaluation and measurement

Process Output Outcome

Figure 12.2 The three dimensions of integrated communication evaluation and

measurement

In the following sections, two types of audits are discussed – the integrated marketing
audit and the stakeholder relationship audit. These audits were specifically developed
for the measurement and evaluation of the various dimensions of IMC. However, they
can also be used to evaluate the organisation’s total communication integration efforts.
Where applicable, additional methods and techniques (traditional and online) can be
used to augment the measurement of IMC to the measurement of overall integrated
communication.

12.3.2 The integrated marketing (IM) audit

The IM audit was developed in the University of Colorado’s IMC graduate programme
in the 1990s. It is an in-depth research method used to evaluate an organisation’s
relationship-building efforts (Duncan, 2002). Using both qualitative and quantitative
research, the audit focuses on the elements and structure of the integration process
(Duncan & Moriarty, 1997a), as well as the output thereof.

What is evaluated in the IM audit?

Typically, the following aspects are evaluated and analysed in an IM audit (Duncan
& Moriarty, 1997a):
„„ Internal and external communication networks used to develop marketing
communication programmes (for example networks between in-house experts and
external agencies and producers).
„„ The relevant people’s knowledge and awareness of, and concurrence with,
marketing communication objectives (see the section below entitled Who participates
in the IM audit? for a description of people involved).
„„ Identification and prioritisation of stakeholder groups.

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„„ The organisation’s customer database (the relevance and completeness of

information gathered: is it updated regularly and systematically? etc.).
„„ All marketing communication messages produced in the last 12 months (for
example advertisements, signage, news releases, sales promotion pieces and direct
response mailings).
„„ Marketing managers’, top management’s and agency managers’ knowledge of and
attitude towards IMC.

Who conducts the audit?

An audit team is required to take responsibility for conducting an IM audit owing
to its extensive nature. Team members must have a sound knowledge of marketing,
marketing communication, marketing research, information systems, organisational
management and change management. They must also understand the philosophy of
integration. To ensure objectivity, they should be experts from outside the organisation
(Duncan & Moriarty, 1997a; 1997b).

Who participates in the IM audit?

Every person involved in the planning and/or execution of an organisation’s marketing
programmes is involved in the audit. Internally, this may include top management,
marketing and communication managers, brand managers, product managers,
customer service managers and divisional managers. Externally, the managers of
marketing communication agencies whose services are used on an ongoing basis,
customers, representative vendors and resellers typically participate in an IM audit. In
short, a census (not a sample) is taken of each person contributing to the organisation’s
marketing communication efforts (Duncan & Moriarty, 1997a).

Research tools used in the IM audit

Three primary research tools are used in the IM audit, as follows (Duncan & Moriarty,
1997a; 1997b):
1. Questionnaires to determine the role players’ knowledge of and attitudes towards
marketing (communication) objectives, corporate and brand positioning, strengths
and weaknesses of various marketing tools used, stakeholder priorities, key
messages, use of a marketing communication database, and the integration and
evaluation of communication efforts.
2. Communication network interviews to evaluate the nature of internal communication
and information sharing between individuals and sections involved in the IMC
process. Specific, closed-ended questions are used to interview all individuals
involved in the organisation’s marketing programmes with the intention of
determining who communicates with whom, about what and how often.
3. Content analysis of all brand messages communicated during the previous year to
evaluate the consistency between the various messages, and between these and
marketing communication objectives.
In addition, interviews may be conducted with vendors, suppliers and other stakeholders.
In the case of organisations operating in the retail sector, mystery shoppers are used

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to evaluate the total shopping experience (appearance of the store, parking, signage,
store navigation, facilities, staff uniforms, encounters with sales clerks, etc.). Mystery
callers may phone the store to evaluate the efficacy and efficiency of customer service
(Duncan & Moriarty, 1997a). These shoppers and callers are unknown to the staff
members of the shops that they visit or the organisations that they call.
Another frequently used research tool is contact point analysis. A contact point is
any experience or encounter that a stakeholder has with the organisation (for example
the store’s appearance, an advertisement on television or in a magazine, consumption
of a product or service, etc.). The audit team makes a list of all the contact points, and
evaluates the communication efficacy of each (Duncan & Moriarty 1997a; 1997b).

Benefits of the IM audit

As mentioned above, the IM audit is an extensive (and often expensive) research
method. However, it has many benefits. For example, the results of an IM audit may
highlight differences in opinion regarding objectives, a lack of coordination between
various units, or message inconsistency. Furthermore, it encourages the people involved
in IMC to carefully consider the process, and increase their competency in the use of
various marketing communication tools. Findings of the audit also give an indication
of how resources should be re-allocated (Duncan & Moriarty, 1997a; 1997b).

Additional research methods for the IM audit

As described above, the focus of the IM audit is primarily on marketing communication.
It is also acutely concerned with customer–client relationships, and less so with other
stakeholder relationships. The addition of research methods and techniques that
measure or evaluate other areas of organisational communication can easily expand
this relatively narrow focus.

Online methods
Various online research methods can be integrated with traditional methods used
in the IM audit. Alternatively, they can either augment or substitute the latter. The
following online methods can be used (Barker, 2002):
„„ Online surveys (questionnaires) can be particularly useful when the audit team wants
to survey large numbers of customers or other stakeholders.
„„ Small groups of people – online focus groups – can be interviewed online simultaneously.
This method is effective both internally (groups of employees involved in IMC)
and externally (groups of suppliers, vendors or even agency managers).
„„ Online discussion groups can be used to monitor various stakeholders’ perceptions of
the corporate and product/service brands.
„„ A content analysis of an organisation’s website should form part of the content
analysis of all the organisation’s messages (that is, to measure consistency).
The advantage of using various research methods and techniques concurrently is that
a rich array of qualitative and quantitative data can be collected. Nevertheless, there
is also a challenge to this, namely aggregating the research findings in a clear and
meaningful manner.

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12.3.3 The stakeholder relationship audit

Brian Murphy and Andrew Murphy of Research Consultants Ltd in New Zealand
developed the stakeholder relationship audit to measure the efficacy of IMC; in other
words, the effects or outcomes of IMC on stakeholder relationships. Stakeholders
include customers, employees, the community, shareholders and suppliers
(Murphy et al., 1999).

Research methodology
The stakeholder relationship audit uses attitudinal survey research to measure
stakeholders’ perceptions of their relationship with the organisation, and is conducted
in these three phases (Murphy et al., 1999):
„„ Phase 1: Key stakeholders are identified and a list is compiled of key issues relevant
to each group. This can be done by means of environmental scanning – gathering
information about events, trends and relationships in the organisation’s external
environment. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods can be used to
obtain this information.
„„ Phase 2: A representative sample of each stakeholder group is asked to answer four
standard questions regarding the respective sets of issues:
„„ Question 1: How important are these issues in an excellent organisation?
„„ Question 2: How well does the particular organisation perform on these issues?
„„ Question 3: How well does the best competing organisation perform on these
issues? (The competing organisation can be used as a benchmark – it operates
under similar conditions as the one under investigation, and it is recognised
for using ‘best practice’ in a particular industry.)
„„ Question 4: How can the organisation improve its performance on these issues?
The first three questions are answered on a 10-point rating scale (where
0 = extremely unimportant/poor performance, and 10 = extremely important/
good performance). The last question is an open-ended question.
„„ Phase 3: Stakeholder responses to the first three questions are analysed by
calculating the mean values (averages) for each question. Two gaps are identified
by comparing the mean values of the three questions:
„„ The Performance Gap = Organisation Performance (Question 2) – Importance
of Performance (Question 1).
„„ The Best Practice Gap = Organisation Performance (Question 2) – Best Other
Organisation Performance (Question 3).
A positive value means that the organisation is perceived to over-perform, while a
negative value means that the organisation is perceived to under-perform in a
particular stakeholder relationship.
The stakeholder relationship audit can be used both for planning and evaluation
purposes. The findings of the audit illuminate strengths and weaknesses in an
organisation’s relationships with stakeholders. IMC programmes can therefore either
be developed or adapted to build on strengths and correct weaknesses in stakeholder
relationships (Murphy et al., 1999).

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Although this audit was initially developed to measure the efficacy of IMC, it can also be
used to measure the effect of overall integrated communication. All relevant stakeholder
groups (not only those affected by an organisation’s marketing communication) can
be identified, as well as a wide range of issues pertaining to each group. Consider the
following example:

XYZ Ltd is performing a stakeholder relationship audit

In Phase 1 a number of stakeholders are identified, including customers. Research has shown
that one of the key issues pertaining to customers is the company’s response to complaints.
In Phase 2, this issue is further investigated by asking four questions to a representative sample
of customers.
„„ In Question 1, participants had to rate the importance of an excellent company’s response
(hypothetically speaking) to customer complaints on a scale from 1 to 10. The average
response was 8.5.
„„ In Question 2, participants had to rate XYZ Ltd’s response to customer complaints on a
scale from 1 to 10. The average response was 6.
„„ In Question 3, participants had to rate the response to customer complaints of XYZ Ltd’s
closest direct competitor. The average response was 5.5.
„„ In Question 4, participants had to suggest how XYZ Ltd could improve its response to
customer complaints. One was that XYZ Ltd should implement a system that records
customer complaints more accurately.
In Phase 3, the responses to Questions 1, 2 and 3 are analysed by calculating the Performance
and Best Practice Gaps.
„„ Performance Gap = Organisation Performance (Question 2) – Importance of Performance
(Question 1)
= 6 – 8.5
= – 2.5
The negative mean value indicates that XYZ Ltd under-performs on the issue of response to
customer complaints.
„„ Best Practice Gap = Organisation Performance (Question 2) – Best Other Organisation
Performance (Question 3)
= 6 – 5.5
= 0.5
The positive mean value indicates that XYZ Ltd performs slightly better than its closest direct
competitor. However, it should take specific actions to match its performance to customers’
expectations.

12.4 Integrating traditional and online research

In the current era, information and communication technologies affect every aspect
of people’s lives in general, and the functioning of organisations in particular.
Increasingly, the organisation’s communication with various stakeholders (internal and
external) takes place in the online environment (the Internet, intranets, e-mail, etc.).

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Therefore, online research methods and techniques can be used to evaluate online
communication.
This is not to say that traditional research methods and techniques have become
obsolete, or that only online methods can be used to evaluate online communication and
traditional methods to evaluate other forms of communication. On the contrary, the
integration of traditional and online research methods presents unique opportunities
for the evaluation of integrated communication. For example:
„„ The strengths of online research methods can be used to overcome the weaknesses
of traditional research methods, and vice versa. For instance, online surveys are
usually cheaper than traditional, paper-based ones. However, certain groups
of respondents might not have access to electronic media, in which case the
traditional method is still relevant.
„„ Online research methods offer access to sources of information that traditional
methods cannot. For instance, online discussion groups can yield qualitative data
about the organisation’s communication with stakeholders that is difficult, time
consuming and expensive to obtain through traditional methods.
The integration of traditional and online research methods and techniques also poses
certain challenges. For example:
„„ Selecting the optimal combination of traditional and online research methods
depends on the scope of evaluation and measurement required, as well as on the
profiles of the various stakeholder groups targeted.
„„ The various traditional and online research efforts need to be co-ordinated properly
to fulfil objectives, and to meet budgets and human resources requirements.
„„ A comprehensive picture of the organisation’s integrated communication efforts
must be formed through analysis and integration of the research findings.

12.5 Measuring organisational communication integration

In Chapter 11, the methodology to evaluate the individual aspects of
communication, such as corporate image, marketing and consistency of messages,
was discussed. The purpose of the measurement of integration is to determine
to what extent integration of communication is realised in the organisation
as a whole. The example of such an instrument, as explained below, does not
replace existing measurements, such as communication audits or the IMC
audit, but aims to provide a bird’s-eye view of mechanisms and procedures for
communication integration.
This section integrates Duncan and Moriarty’s (1998) brand equity drivers
(as applied by Barker and Angelopulo in the case study at the end of this chapter),
Ehlers’s model (2002) and certain of Van Riel’s (1995) concepts. It also examines the
proposed development of a measuring instrument for determining the integration of
organisational communication. Much of the effort toward communication integration
is aimed at:
„„ consistency of messages and media in and from the organisation
„„ co-ordination of communication efforts and actions
„„ communication alignment with the strategic focus of the organisation

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„„ stakeholder (including employees) orientation and differentiation

„„ sharing and free flow of information.
The first step in measuring communication integration is the appointment of a person
(an integrator) or team responsible for communication integration (see Ehlers, 2002)
and the regular measurement thereof. The strategic objectives of the organisation
should form the basis of such evaluation.
A practical approach should be followed to determine to what extent the
organisation’s communication is integrated. The assumption is that the individual
elements constituting organisation-wide communication are already assessed and
judged to be functioning optimally. The following is an example of an instrument
for determining (from a managerial point of view) whether integration is realised
and effective.

Example of a measuring instrument for evaluating communication integration

A   Infrastructure for integration
1. Well established and functional
2. Established but not functioning optimally
3. Established but not functional
4. Exists informally
5. Does not exist

Activity Measurement

1 2 3 4 5

A person or group is responsible for communication

integration (integrators)

A formal policy regarding communication integration exists at

the corporate level

A formal policy regarding communication integration exists in

every division of the organisation

The organisation regularly makes a content analysis of visual

corporate identity elements, measuring consistency

The organisation regularly makes a content analysis of a

sample of all messages originating within it, measuring
consistency

On a quarterly basis, the organisation updates criteria (derived

from the strategic organisational objectives) to be applied in
the measurement of message content consistency

Mechanisms exist for interaction between internal groups

(divisions)

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Activity Measurement

1 2 3 4 5

Mechanisms are in place to facilitate interaction with

stakeholder groups

Mechanisms are in place to maximise stakeholder feedback

B   Consistency
Two elements must exist:
„„ A published and standardised visual corporate identity guideline (for colours, logos, etc.)
„„ A content analysis of planned messages:
1. Perfectly consistent
2. Mostly consistent
3. Some variations
4. Varied
5. Extremely varied

Dimension Activity Measurement

1 2 3 4 5

Visual corporate identity Stationery

elements conform to
standardised norms and Use of logos and names
standards (in print and other public
exposures)

Web pages

Print material (pamphlets,

posters, advertisements, etc.)

Content of messages (based Internal communication,

on a regular content analysis) marketing communication,
public relations messages
(sponsorships, publicity, etc.),
etc.

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C Coordination
1. It always happens
2. It happens most of the time
3. It happens sometimes
4. It almost never happens
5. It never happens

Dimension Measurement

1 2 3 4 5

Cross-functional Coordinating of planning across divisions

planning and
monitoring Cross-functional budget allocation

Sharing of information across divisions

Formal interaction between internal

groups

Informal contact between members of

divisions

Zero-based A SWOT analysis is done annually in all

planning planning

Zero-based planning is done in every

division annually

Organisation-wide, zero-based planning

is done annually

Create core In every division, employees are being

competencies trained in communication skills and
competencies

Key members of staff (for example those

who have contact with stakeholders)
are trained to understand stakeholder
behaviour

Staff members are informed about

how the organisation functions across
divisions

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D  Strategic alignment
1. It always happens
2. It happens most of the time
3. It happens sometimes
4. It almost never happens
5. It never happens

Dimension Activity Measurement

1 2 3 4 5

Corporate The corporate mission is incorporated into

mission all operations

All staff members know what the corporate

mission is

The corporate mission is regularly

operationalised into clear, strategic
organisational objectives

Clear strategic organisational objectives

are communicated regularly to all staff
members

Strategic organisational objectives are

clearly related to communication objectives

Strategic organisational objectives are

formulated in such a way that all employees
can relate to them

Strategic organisational objectives are

operationalised so that all employees are
able to apply them to what they are doing

Employees are reminded about what the

organisation stands for (that is, its values)

Strategic Is the organisation’s brand position

consistency strategically integrated into all brand
messages (the ‘big idea’)?

Are the communication dimensions of all

brand contacts consistent (not only the
planned brand contacts)?


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E  Stakeholder orientation
1. It always happens
2. It happens most of the time
3. It happens sometimes
4. It almost never happens
5. It never happens

Dimension Activity Measurement

1 2 3 4 5

Stakeholder Are stakeholder changes monitored

focus regularly?

Are stakeholder groups differentiated?

Are employees treated as important

stakeholders?

Is message consistency to overlapping

stakeholder groups monitored?

Do quality relationships exist with all

stakeholder groups?

Purposeful Does the organisation interact regularly with

dialogue stakeholders?

Is feedback from stakeholders maximised?

Are contact points with stakeholders prioritised?

Are contact points with stakeholders

optimised?

Does the organisation strive toward a

balance between mass, personalised and
interactive media in its communication with
stakeholders?

Relationship Are current stakeholders being nurtured?

management
Is information about current stakeholders
made freely available to all divisions of the
organisation?

Do the various divisions make use of existing

information about current stakeholders?

Are links with stakeholders being developed

and built?

Are relationships with stakeholders

personalised, based on organisation-wide
available information?


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F  Information sharing
1. Well established and functional
2. Established but not functioning optimally
3. Established but not functional
4. Exists informally
5. Does not exist

Activity Measurement

1 2 3 4 5

Mechanisms to centralise information about stakeholders

Mechanisms to maintain research information

Mechanisms to make the same information available to all

parts of the organisation

Mechanisms to ensure that cross-functional processes are

geared toward a database management system that provides
universal customer information and a corporate memory

G  Interpretation of data
The lower the average score, the higher the levels of integration. The ideal situation is to have
each element as close to a score of 1 as possible. This example of a measuring instrument can
also be used as a checklist to determine, firstly, whether all elements that need to be addressed
are in place and, secondly, to what extent the various integration procedures and mechanisms
are functional.

12.6 Summary
For an organisation’s communication to be integrated effectively, specific mechanisms
and procedures should be in place. This chapter discusses the concepts developed by
Duncan and Moriarty (1998), Van Riel (1995) and Ehlers (2002), which could provide
criteria for integration. Existing measuring instruments for integration in different
contexts are explored, and an example of the development of a measuring instrument
is provided in the last part of the chapter.
For communication integration to occur in organisations, one of the main
prerequisites is to appoint a person or a team to be specifically responsible for the
process. The aims of the process are:
„„ to ensure consistency of messages and media in and from the organisation to
coordinate communication efforts and actions
„„ to align communication with the strategic focus of the organisation
„„ to ensure stakeholder orientation and differentiation to ensure that information is
free flowing and shared.

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 Integrated Organisational Communication

Case study
Barker and Angelopulo’s integrated web-based marketing communication
model
Barker and Angelopulo (2004) propose an integrated web-based marketing communication
evaluation model (IWMC) and apply it to the web-based marketing of the University of South
Africa (Unisa) as a large institution. Their article demonstrates the possibility of measuring
communication integration in a practical manner. The following is a brief summary of this
article. (For details of the methodology used and the assessment of results, see the original
article – Barker & Angelopulo, 2004.)
Using Duncan and Moriarty’s (1998) conceptual framework (see Section 12.2.1) and
other relevant research in the field of communication integration, Barker and Angelopulo
operationalised the ten drivers suggested by Duncan and Moriarty. The authors assigned
specific values to each of the criteria, and the constructs of each (and the items constituting
them) were valued according to theoretical relevance. Assessing Unisa’s integrated web-
based communication against these ten IMC criteria resulted in the following scores for the
different criteria:
1. Stakeholder focus Score 5.2 out of 10
2. Relationship building Score 7.5 out of 15
3. Maintain strategic consistency Score 8.1 out of 15
4. Establishment of interactivity Score 4.1 out of 10
5. Market the mission Score 2 out of 5
6. Use zero-based planning Score 4.3 out of 10
7. Cross-functional planning and monitoring Score 2 out of 5
8. Create core competencies Score 3 out of 10
9. Become data driven Score 6 out of 10
10. Partner an integrated agency Score 2 out of 5
The authors concluded that their proposed IWMC evaluation model does allow itself to be
used as a measure to assess IWMC. The model’s main benefits are that it offers the potential
of evaluating multiple aspects of marketing communication integration on the Internet with
minimal effort, and allows measurement of the elements of integrated communication.
However, certain weaknesses identified by the authors are the issue of subjectivity, the relative
absence of comparable evidence and the lack of standardised benchmarking criteria.
(Permission to use this case study was obtained from R. Barker and G. Angelopulo.)

Activities
1. Study Figure 12.1 (Ehlers’s model, page 430). Explain in two paragraphs why the
block in the middle of the model (Multiskilled integrated communicator or team
of integrated communicators) is so prominently placed in the model.
2. Distinguish between the following dimensions of integrated communication
evaluation and measurement:
2.1 Output of integration.
2.2 Outcomes of integration.
3. You have been appointed as the convener of an IM audit team. This team has
to conduct an IM audit for Simply Fabulous, a South African company that
manufactures and distributes cosmetics and skin care products. A year ago, the

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company decided to follow an integrated approach to its marketing communication

activities. However, adopting an integrated approach has not yielded the results
that top management anticipated. Explain the process that you would follow in
doing an IM audit for Simply Fabulous, and how this audit might help you to
identify weaknesses or problems in the organisation’s marketing communication
efforts.
4. Explain how the stakeholder relationship audit developed by Brian Murphy and
Andrew Murphy can be used to evaluate the outcomes or effects of IMC.
5. Do you think that the example of a measuring instrument depicted in Section 12.5
is a realistic method of determining to what extent communication integration is
realised in an organisation? Provide a substantiated argument in one page.

Bibliography
Barker, R. 2002. Reading Material for OLPR01-C – Online Public Relations. Pretoria: University of South
Africa.
Barker, R & Angelopulo, G. 2004. ‘The integrated web-based marketing communication model: a
South African case study’, International Journal of Technolog y, Policy and Management, vol. 4, no. 1,
pp. 53–62.
Duncan, T. 2002. IMC: Using Advertising and Promotion to Build Brands. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Duncan, T & Caywood, C. 1998. ‘The concept, process, and evolution of integrated marketing
communication’, in Gronstedt, A & Siracuse, L (eds), The ABCs of IMC. New York: Advertising
Research Foundation.
Duncan, T & Moriarty S. 1997a. Driving Brand Value: Using Integrated Marketing to Manage Profitable
Stakeholder Relationships. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Duncan, T & Moriarty, S. 1997b. ‘Front-end alignment’, Marketing Tools, vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 64–66.
Duncan, T & Moriarty, S. 1998. ‘A communication-based marketing model for managing
relationships’, Journal of Marketing, April, vol. 62, pp. 1–13.
Ehlers, L. 2002. The Development of a Framework for Structuring Integrated Communication in South African
Organisations. Unpublished dissertation for the degree of DComm (Marketing Management) at
the University of Pretoria, p. 337.
Kitchen, P J & Schultz, D E. 2003. ‘Integrated corporate and product brand communication (1)’,
ACR, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 66–86.
Murphy, B, Murphy, A, Woodall, S & O’Hare, R. 1999. ‘The stakeholder relationship audit:
measuring the effectiveness of integrated marketing communications’, Integrated Marketing
Communication Research Journal, Spring, pp. 9–12.
Van Riel, C B M. 1995. Principles of Corporate Communication. London: Prentice Hall.

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 Section D

Practical application
„„ Chapter 13: Integrated communication campaigns

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 BUSINESS
NTERPERSONAL

CULTURE
QUALITY
OMMUNICATION I N F O R M A T I O N
T R AT E G Y SOLUTIONS-ORIENTED

C
H Advertising
A V
Dynamics
BRAND

N I
S
G I
E ASSESSING O
N

Campaign
I D E N T I T Y
RESEARCH

IMC
Management

CUSTOMER EFFICIENT

FOCUS Trust
IMAGE

Systems Thinking
STRUCTURE

Collaboration
ntegrated Organisational Communication

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 Integrated communication

13
CHAPTER
QUALITY

campaigns
G eorge Angelopulo

The game is over: integration wins!

Don Schultz (1996)

13.1 Introduction
Daily communication is aimed at achieving certain objectives – asking for directions to
a friend’s house, solving problems in a meeting with business colleagues, or negotiating
the price of a carpet that you want to buy. Most of this communication is spontaneous,
but spontaneity is reduced when communication becomes more formal or when its
consequences become more important. Communication is more carefully considered
and planned when it contributes to the attainment of some objective, particularly if
N that objective is important. Planned communication is obviously less frequent in one’s
daily casual encounters with other people, but it becomes much more frequent within
H group, business, work and organisational environments.
A very large proportion of planned communication is implemented within a

C
particular framework – that of the communication campaign. This chapter deals with
communication campaigns in general, be they commercial, political, social, informative
or educational. In earlier chapters, campaigns have been described for specific fields of
communication such as public relations and advertising. It is evident that these share
NT
similar frameworks to the communication campaign described here, and that they
E differ in application rather than structure. The framework that is described in this
chapter may be applied to an overarching communication campaign and for specific

t
campaigns (such as direct response or advertising) that may form individual elements
of this greater campaign.
In this chapter, specific attention is paid to the definition of communication
campaigns, their context within broader integrated communication strategy, and their
objectives. The chapter includes a framework for the implementation of communication
campaigns, and concludes with a case study that illustrates integrated campaign
development and implementation.

13.2 Communication campaign – a definition

A communication campaign is a purposive undertaking that is intended to achieve
specific outcomes amongst a defined audience, during a specified time period, using
an organised set of communication processes (adapted from Rensburg & Angelopulo,
1996). The definition contains five primary elements:

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„„ A communication campaign is purposive. It is considered, planned and structured.

„„ A communication campaign is undertaken in to achieve specific outcomes. Specific
results are intended.
„„ A communication campaign is aimed at a defined audience, the characteristics
of which are clearly specified. Campaigns were originally defined as being
directed at large audiences, but technology and evolving perspectives of planned
communication have changed this, expanding the reach of campaigns to small
audiences and individuals.
„„ A communication campaign occurs during a given time period, which may range from
weeks to years. It differs from a communication programme, which is continuous, and
from a communication event, which is a single element of a campaign or programme.
„„ A communication campaign involves an organised set of communication processes. These
are in most cases the elements of the marketing mix and the activities required in
managing them. They could include, for example, direct marketing, advertising,
impact research, message production or the distribution of communication
material.

13.3 The integrated context of communication campaigns

The factors affecting an individual’s acceptance of a campaign message are extensive.
They include the accumulated experiences of every contact made with the product,
service or idea of the campaign, and the relative position of the campaign’s message
within the complex matrix of beliefs and experiences held by the individual.
A campaign’s message will be reinforced if the individual has had positive
experiences when dealing with the organisation and its staff, the product and its
distributors, if previous product advertisements have been found to be true, and if
friends’ word of mouth has been good. The message will also be accepted or rejected
on the strength of such things as the reputation of the communicating organisation,
the individual’s beliefs, or the relevance of the message to one’s life.
Irrespective of the communicator’s aim or the effort that goes into communication
campaigns, audiences interpret campaign messages in any way they want. The
communicator cannot force perceptions onto an audience – it is the audience that
interprets the campaign message, so communication campaigns must be planned from
the audience’s and not the communicator’s perspective. To do so, careful consideration
of campaign integration is required.
Communication campaign integration should be dealt with at two levels. The
first is integration with broader policy, strategy and practice – the external context.
The second is the integration of all communications within the campaign – the
internal context.

13.3.1 The external context of campaign integration

A communication campaign takes place within a broader context. It is an extension
of broader strategy, and its effect is reinforced, supported, undermined or discredited
by the other activities of the business, organisation or project of which it is a part.
Conversely, a campaign also reinforces, supports, undermines or discredits the other

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activities of the business, organisation or project. A communication campaign never

exists in isolation, and should never be planned as such.
The process of integrating the campaign within the broader context is not generally
dealt with in the campaign itself. It should be finalised at the corporate level at which
the campaign is initiated and approved, and implemented in the campaign as a set of
explicit criteria, conditions or directives. External integration should be resolved prior
to the campaign, and the specific role of the campaign within the broader strategy
should already be clarified at the outset.

13.3.2 The internal context of campaign integration

Besides external integration, the campaign must also be internally integrated. Internal
integration exists firstly where all of the campaign’s communication elements lead
directly to the attainment of its overall objectives and, secondly, where they act in concert
with each other. Internal integration is resolved by the campaign’s communication
planner, and forms part of the planner’s tasks during the campaign.

13.4 Communication campaign objectives

Before looking at the complete structure of communication campaigns it is worth
pausing to consider one aspect of communication campaigns that is particularly
important – their objectives.

13.4.1 The nature of communication campaign objectives

All communication campaigns exist to attain certain ends. These may be clear in
the mind of the person who initiates the campaign. Others in the organisation or the
people who need to implement the campaign may not, however, share the same vision.
Clear objectives and their specification are essential for two reasons. Firstly because
everyone involved in the campaign must understand the ends to which it is directed
and, secondly, because its success or failure can only be assessed in terms of the degree
to which the campaign attains its specified objectives.
One way of creating clear campaign objectives is by operationalising them.
Operationalisation is the explicit specification of the performance that is to be
achieved and, by extension, the criteria by which this performance will be measured.
Two principles of operationalising objectives are attainability and measurability.

Attainability
Attainability is the degree to which expected outcomes can be achieved by the
campaign alone. It has two dimensions: scale and kind.
„„ The scale of expected outcomes must be realistically related to the resources
available for their attainment. A regional campaign cannot, for example, be
expected to have a national impact.
„„ The kind of communication used must also be related to the results expected of it.
A communication campaign cannot be expected to attain outcomes over which it
has no bearing, influence or effect.

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Communication campaign objectives should not be confused with those of a greater

project of which the communication campaign is only one part. In a project to sell
a new motorcar model, for example, the communication campaign can only affect
certain elements of the potential buyer’s decision matrix. Elements like perception
of quality, image of the model, product information or desirability of ownership
may be affected by the campaign. The campaign will, however, have little impact
on purchasing factors like affordability, negative personal experience with earlier
models of the car, or the lack of a service network in the buyer’s vicinity. The
objectives of the campaign can be directly related to the former elements. If they
address the latter, the problems will have to be resolved in operational areas of the
organisation other than communication before they can be addressed in the form of
a communication campaign.

Measurability
Measurability is the degree to which actual outcomes can be compared to intended
ones. Measurability is best implemented in the form of a scale or score – the greater
the score, the closer one has come to the attainment of the campaign’s objectives.
It is essential to stipulate expected outcomes and the measures used to evaluate the
degree to which these are attained at the outset of a campaign. This ensures that
measurement is standardised in value through time, and that everyone involved in the
campaign understands it. In addition, a time scale for the attainment of objectives is
an essential component of objective setting.
Although objective setting is extremely valuable, it may in reality not always be
possible. Each objective should be separately stipulated and individually measurable,
but specification and measurement should not take precedence over the attainment
of important yet imperfect goals. It is also conceivable that the campaign creates
or brings to light unplanned elements or events. Flexibility and the possibility of
adapting the campaign in certain circumstances may be required and should be
foreseen.

13.4.2 Types of objectives
Communication campaigns have objectives that generally fall into one of five
categories: information, awareness, persuasion, behaviour and education (Rensburg
& Angelopulo, 1996). Communication campaigns may be planned to inform the
target audience about an issue or to create awareness of it (for example to inform voters
about voter registration and to create awareness of the venues to be used for it). A
communication campaign may seek to persuade audiences to change their attitudes
(for example to convince indifferent voters that it is very important that they vote).
Communication campaigns may also seek to urge audiences to act (for example to
participate in an election). A communication campaign may also have education as
its objective (for example to educate voters on the procedures of voting). A single
communication campaign could include all of these objectives and may present them
in various phases over a specific period.

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13.5 The interactive model of communication campaigns

The interactive model of communication campaigns, initially formulated by Rensburg
and Angelopulo (1996), offers a general framework that is applicable to communication
campaigns of all kinds. The model follows two related principles: market orientation
and integration. As indicated in earlier chapters, ‘market orientation’ may also
be understood to mean ‘audience orientation’. The needs and predisposition of the
audience are considered to be fundamental in developing the campaign structure and
its message. The communication generated through the campaign must be integrated
externally with the overarching strategy, and internally between the individual
communication vehicles (that is, the elements of the communication mix and media)
that are used within the campaign.
The interactive model emphasises the importance of interaction between
communicator and target audiences in the development and implementation
of a communication campaign. It recognises that there will be difficulties if the
communicator’s aims conflict with the aims, needs and predisposition of the target
audience. Communication campaigns that are intended to ‘force’ a concept, product
or service onto an unwilling audience are extremely difficult to complete successfully,
as are communication campaigns that have a wonderful core message in which no
one is interested. Success relies heavily on the audience’s support for the premise and
objectives of the campaign. The interactive model ensures that the communication
campaign:
„„ is integrated with the communicator’s objectives
„„ integrates with the communicator’s total communication
„„ ascertains the target audience’s needs or wants
„„ integrates the communicator’s objectives with the target audience’s needs
„„ supplies a message that leads to the satisfaction of the audience’s needs and wants
„„ does so better than the competition
„„ maintains or achieves the positive predisposition of the target audience and
important stakeholders
„„ achieves the communication objectives set for it.

The interactive communication campaign differs from campaigns in which the

communicator’s own needs and abilities are the focus, or where the emphasis is on
selling or forcing the communicator’s own ideas onto the target audience.
The interactive model differs from a number of communication campaign processes
in that the communicator’s message is not seen as its starting point. Instead, the
communicator first identifies his or her basic communication problem or opportunity.
The communicator then looks to the target audience and its needs, identifying the
alignment between these and the communicator’s own communication needs. Only
then does the communicator consider the delivery of the communication message, the
creation of the message, and the procurement of the material necessary to deliver it.
The interactive model of communication campaigns is comprehensive, and it
includes steps that may be superfluous in specific campaigns. On the other hand, it
outlines steps and procedures that may require greater attention to detail in specific
campaigns than those offered here. The model should therefore be regarded as a

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framework and a set of guidelines that requires judicious application in every case in
which it is used.
The following is an abridged framework or template of the interactive model of
communication campaigns, and can be used as a checklist when implementing a
campaign. The framework is explained in greater detail in the section following it.

Framework: the interactive model of communication campaigns

Phase 1: Assess
Identify the communication problem or opportunity
„„ Specify the provisional topic of the communication campaign as conceived at the outset
– not the campaign objective! A finalised objective should not yet be stated unless it has
already been conclusively specified and is absolutely clear.
„„ State what is to be achieved by the communication campaign and the reasons for its
implementation.

Identify the communicator

„„ This is the person, group or organisation on whose behalf the communication campaign
is implemented.

Identify the communication planner

„„ This is the individual/group responsible for planning, controlling and implementing the
communication campaign.

Identify the target audience

„„ Primary audience: demographics, psychographics, sociographics, behaviour and usage or
needs (of the campaign’s idea, product or service).
„„ Secondary audiences: same as the primary audience.
„„ Always consider internal audiences for inclusion in one of the above.

Analyse the situation

„„ Look at the historical review and forecast. Identify the role of the central idea, service or
product of the campaign in the lives of the target audience – why and how it is used.
„„ Consider the costs, dispersion and availability, and the social, political and economic
environment of the product, service or idea.
„„ Identify competitors.
„„ Describe the communicating organisation and specialists involved in the campaign.
„„ Identify the infrastructure and critical information (timing, budget, constraints,
obligations). Included are conditions and directives for integration.
„„ All of the above must be written up in the form of an assessment document.

Phase 2: Create
Stipulate the communication problem or opportunity
„„ State the communication problem or opportunity as given in the assessment document
(or the communication objective if it has already been specified). 

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Define problems, strengths, weaknesses and opportunities

„„ Identify the problems, strengths, weaknesses and opportunities of the product, service
or idea in respect of its relationship with the communicator, the target audience, and
important stakeholders. A SWOT analysis is most commonly used for this.
„„ Describe the audience in terms of the most important characteristics identified in the
assessment.
„„ Describe the product, service or idea. Revise this from the assessment to highlight only
factors relevant to the campaign.
„„ Describe the position of the product, service or idea amongst primary and secondary
audiences: acceptability, awareness, perceptions, usage, overall relationship.
„„ Define the need: audiences’ general needs, problems and motivations, and specifically
those in relation to the communicator and the campaign’s product, service or idea.
„„ Describe the competition: competing ideas, services or products.
„„ Describe the environment and environmental conditions.

Establish the campaign topic

„„ Describe the focus of the communication campaign unambiguously as the campaign
topic – the specific concept of the product, service or idea that is to be communicated.

Specify strategic communication objectives

„„ These must be operationally specified, relate directly to the campaign topic, and be
directly attainable by the communication campaign alone.
The next three steps – message creation, task and resource allocation, and media selection – may be
undertaken at the same time or in any sequence, depending upon the campaign’s priorities.

Create the communication message

„„ Create the big idea (what the message will communicate) that is to establish the
communication topic in the mind of the target audience.
„„ Develop the creative concept (how the message will be communicated) by individually
developing the message approach and execution.

Allocate resources and tasks

„„ Specify the budget and its allocation.
„„ Allocate tasks to specific people and groups.
„„ Specify the infrastructure through which the relationship with the audience is to be
maintained.
„„ Specify the communication mix – publicity, direct marketing, etc. – not media.
„„ Identify the review mechanisms that ensure and measure integration and objective
attainment.

Select the media

„„ Keep the target audience and communication objectives in mind.
„„ Select the most cost-effective media with the greatest reach, frequency and impact.
„„ Integrate individual media strategies. 

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Produce the communication material

„„ This refers to the formal and informal media/material to be used during implementation.

Phase 3: Implement
Timing
„„ Implement on time for the period necessary to ensure the attainment of objectives.

Media
„„ Monitor media to ensure compliance and effectiveness.

Budget control
„„ Review costs throughout.

Supporting communication
„„ Concurrent communication can be undertaken to support the campaign or to deal with
stakeholder responses.

Behaviour
„„ Track audience behaviour, interaction and relationship indicators.

Measurement
„„ Implement measures of effectiveness and objective attainment.

Phase 4: Evaluate
Objective attainment
„„ First evaluate the campaign objectives, and then evaluate audience reach, budget,
media, creative objectives and integration criteria.

Corrective action and follow-up

„„ Decide on the next steps: termination or reinforcement of the campaign message if the
campaign was successful; corrective action if problems were encountered.

The interactive model of communication campaigns involves four phases: assessment,

creation, implementation and evaluation.
Before the campaign is undertaken, the individual who will be responsible for it must
be selected. This person may need to refer decisions to others in the organisation or to
outside agencies, but should have ultimate responsibility for the entire campaign. It is
preferable that this individual is a member of the organisation or group undertaking
the campaign, and has authority over it throughout.
The responsible individual could actively engage in the planning and execution of
the campaign, and therefore fulfil the role of the communication planner, or could
delegate these functions to others.

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There are numerous reasons for having the ultimate responsibility allocated to a single
individual. One person acts as the reference point of the campaign, monitors its status
and remains informed and in control of the process. All queries can be answered at one
source, and everyone involved in the campaign knows who is responsible for it.

13.5.1 Phase 1 – the assessment phase

This is the phase in which all relevant information is gathered, and the conditions
of the communication campaign are identified. The assessment phase begins with
extensive research into every aspect of the campaign’s background.
The information gathered in this phase is the source from which the campaign’s
concrete plan of action will be created in the second phase. The assessment must
therefore include all aspects that relate to the communication problem or opportunity
that the communicator has identified. All relevant aspects must be considered: the
audience; the communicator’s broader operations and objectives; environmental
conditions; important historical and future considerations; and the details, perceptions,
status and communication of the product, service or idea that are the focus of the
campaign.
Information is selected for inclusion in the assessment on the strength of its relevance
to the communication campaign. To limit the extent of the assessment, a conscious
effort must be made to include everything that is important to the campaign, and to
exclude superfluous information.
The assessment must be presented as a workable document from which the
communication planner can create the best possible campaign. This is a written
document used for reference and review, forming the ‘source book’ or ‘brand book’ for
the campaign and its topic. Over time it can be developed into the reference work on
the communication topic, and it can be altered and adapted as the campaign evolves,
is renewed or repeated.
In preparing the assessment it is advisable to assume that no previous knowledge
exists on the subject. A good assessment document is comprehensive. It may be used as
the communication brief – to brief the communication planner in the second phase –
or the brief may be produced separately at the end of the first phase.
The communicator will normally undertake the assessment, although assistance
in its compilation may be obtained elsewhere. An important component of the
assessment is the identification of the communication planner who is responsible for
the implementation of the campaign. This person may be an individual or group
within the organisation or outside it, and may or may not be the communicator.
The assessment phase should describe the communication problem or opportunity,
the communicator, the communication planner and the target audience, and it should
include a thorough situation analysis.

Identify the communication problem or opportunity

At the outset the communication problem or opportunity is stated. The provisional
topic of the communication campaign as it is conceived at this stage is specified. The

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communicator states what is to be achieved by the communication campaign and the

reasons for its implementation.
The objective of the communication campaign should be specified at this point only
if the communicator is completely certain of it. If there is a measure of uncertainty about
it, it should be stated as the communication problem or opportunity, and will be refined
and adapted into measurable communication objectives during the second phase. It is
stated at the outset to indicate the foundation and reason for the campaign, and to
guide the quest for the best possible solution to the identified problem. The campaign
topic and objectives will be developed as the campaign progresses, because greater
clarity and focus will result from the research. Most importantly, the accumulation
of information on the audience and its needs will influence the formulation and
specification of the campaign topic. This, along with the campaign objectives, will
normally be finalised only in Phase 2.
The communication objective, problem or opportunity will be written at the
beginning of the assessment document, but their formulation may only be finalised at
the end of the assessment process.

Identify the communicator

The entity on whose behalf the campaign is implemented is the communicator,
who initiates the communication campaign, and may or may not implement it. The
communicator may be an individual, institution, organisation, business, club or non-
governmental organisation, or any other formal or informal group. Identification is
important because this may not be clear to everyone who deals with the assessment
document. For example, a communicator may be one product group in a division
of a large organisation. Unless the identity is specified, it could be assumed that the
communicator is the division, the organisation as a whole or the product group.
Confusion of identity is particularly easy if the communicator is in a formal or informal
alliance with other individuals, groups or organisations.

Identify the communication planner

The communication planner is the individual, group or organisation that is
responsible for planning the communication campaign and controlling its
implementation and evaluation.
The communication planner could be responsible only for planning the campaign
or for other functions such as actual implementation or assessment as well. The
communication planner could be a company’s communication officer, a public
relations practitioner, the communication department of a large company, a health
official for the Department of Health in a rural area, an advertising agency, etc.
Where a company uses an independent public relations practitioner to plan and
execute a communication campaign on its behalf, the company is the communicator
and the public relations practitioner is the communication planner.

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Identify the target audience

The target audience is the group with whom the communicator wishes to interact
and communicate through the campaign. This is the group with which the
communication planner must align the objectives and contents of the campaign, and
which will determine whether the campaign is successful or not. Because the campaign
communication is prepared for the target audience, that group’s needs, problems,
predisposition and preferences are crucial criteria in the development of the campaign,
guiding the plan and the content of the campaign.
The target audience must be defined. It may be homogeneous (where everyone
within the audience is similar in terms of specific characteristics) or heterogeneous
(where the audience members differ in terms of specific characteristics).
Information about the target audience must be as comprehensive as possible, and
could include its location; physical, social or psychological attributes; predominant
beliefs; or product and service usage. Although any audience description may be
valuable, some have proved to be more useful than others.
Demographic definitions are literally ‘description of the people’, and include factors
such as age, sex, marital status, family size, level of education, employment status,
occupation, income, residential size and location. Audiences can also be described
psychographically in terms of personality (degree of aggression, extroversion, ambition,
passivity, etc.) or lifestyle (values, beliefs, time usage, etc.). Psychographic descriptions
tend to be of attitudes, interests and opinions. Audiences may be sociographically described
in terms of group, political and social affiliations. They may also be defined by their
behaviour, product usage or needs. Any of these audience definitions may be used alone, but
where greater accuracy is required in identifying the audience, a combination is useful.
Important secondary audiences are also identified. These may be the communicator’s
important stakeholders (or those of the product, service or idea), and could also include,
among others, the broader public, legislators, competitors, detractors and supporters.
Secondary audiences that require consideration in almost every campaign include
personnel within the communicator’s organisation. These may be all personnel, only
members of relevant units, the people required for the implementation of the campaign,
or those who interact with audiences as part, or as a result, of the campaign.

The situation analysis

The situation (or situational) analysis is the evaluation of the situation in which the
communication campaign is to take place, and the situation of the campaign’s product,
service or idea.

Historical review and forecast

A historical review of the product, service or idea, communicator and communication
must be given. Any forecasts that may exist should also be noted.
The historical review describes the evolution of the product, service or idea, and
explains the reasons for its present status and why there are problems and opportunities
that should be dealt with. It is the ‘story’ of the product, service or idea, and as time
goes by the events of succeeding communication campaigns and events that affect the

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product, service or idea are added to it. Communication strategy and tactics up to the
present should be reviewed.

The central idea of the communication campaign

A full description of the product, service or idea of the campaign must be given.
The role that the central product, service or idea plays in the lives of the target
audience must be described, as well as how and why it is used. Its constituent parts,
its makeup and what it does must be noted and described. Its costs must be specified
in terms of finance, time, effort and manpower. The means by which the product,
service or idea is dispersed, accessed and made available are noted. Its prevalence,
variations, combinations, presentation and limitations should be detailed. If it is an
idea, a detailed explanation must be given of its formulation and its relation to other
ideas and the lives of those who accept or reject it.
The predominant perceptions and the value of the product, service or idea by the
audience must be identified. This value can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic
values are those which are revealed and directly evident – a brand of toothpaste has
a specific size, volume, chemical composition, and strengths and weaknesses, and a
particular visual presentation. Extrinsic value is the less-evident, intangible quality
that is ascribed to products, services or ideas. Certain products gain more value than
their physical attributes offer on their own. Two makes of toothpaste that are physically
(intrinsically) identical may be perceived completely differently. It is this property that
brands acquire – the physical value plus the intangible emotional component that make
them more or less appealing to an audience. Both values exist not only in physical
products but also in companies, organisations, ideas, ideologies, policies, sports and
professions. These values are not normally commonly held by all audiences, and may
be more prevalent among certain audience segments than others.

Social, political and economic environment

Full information is given on the social, political and economic environment of the
product, service or idea. Information on the dissemination of information, conditions
of distribution, environmental trends in the relationships of general society and the
target audiences towards it as well as relationships with important stakeholders are
specified.

Competitors
Details of competitors or competitive products, services or ideas must be identified.
If the competition consists of individuals or organisations, these should be described in
as much detail as possible. Demographic and psychographic descriptions can be used,
the development of the competition described, and its nature and extent defined.
If the competition is in the form of concepts or ideas, these must be fully described
and explained. Their strengths and weaknesses and levels of adherence (dispersion and
intensity) must be identified.

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Organisation
A situation analysis of the organisation that initiates the campaign, and the relationship
of the communication aims within it must be given. It is possible that there are varying
levels of support for or knowledge of the campaign. The organisation’s ability to
implement the communication campaign must be analysed. The use of outside agencies
(market research institutions, public relations practitioners, advertising agencies, etc.)
to assist in the planning and implementation of the campaign must also be noted.

Relationship infrastructure
A review of the infrastructure that supports the relationship between audience and
communicator must be made. This infrastructure will include customer or audience
databases, ongoing processes for the interpretation and use of database information,
digital and social media platforms, client acquisition, retention and growth programmes,
customer service, and the points of contact between audience and communicator.
These should include product, service and communication points of contact.

Critical information
To conclude the assessment phase, all critical information regarding the communication
campaign should be given. This information will include the campaign’s timing,
budget, constraints, obligations, conditions and directives for integration. Generally
the integration directives will relate to conditions that must be adhered to in relation to
external integration – aspects such as standardised identity, the inclusion of common
themes, symbols, tone and manner, expected contributions to brand development, etc.
If the assessment is not itself used as the communication brief, the brief is now formulated, drawing
relevant elements from the assessment document.

Checklist for Phase 1: assess

„„ Has the provisional topic of the campaign been determined?
„„ Who is the communicator?
„„ Who is the communication planner?
„„ Who will the target audience be?
„„ Has a situation analysis been completed?
„„ Has all related communication, existing and planned, been considered?
„„ Has the target audience been considered in the above matters?

13.5.2 Phase 2 – the creation phase

This is the phase in which the communication campaign is created. In many ways
it is the most important phase, because this is when everything that is later to be
implemented is conceived and formulated.
The communication planner was identified during the assessment and takes
control of the campaign at the beginning of this phase. If the campaign is new, the
communication planner will be brought into the campaign at the start of Phase 2. If
the communication planner and the communicator are the same, if the campaign is

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the extension of an existing campaign or part of a greater communication project, then

it is possible that the communication planner has been involved from its earliest stages.
The conditions and general objectives of the communication campaign are
identified in the assessment document, which is used as the communication brief by
the communication planner. The information gathered during the assessment is used
to form the concrete campaign plan. This information is reviewed and everything
with direct bearing on the creation of a successful campaign is used. If the information
of the assessment document is inadequate and new information is required, the
communication planner could engage in further research to acquire it.

Stipulate the communication problem or opportunity

At the outset it is important to state the communication problem or opportunity as given
in the assessment document. If the communicator is certain of the communication
objective, it will be stipulated at this point and remain unchanged throughout the
campaign. The statement is given from the communicator’s point of view. In other
words, the communication planner addresses the questions: ‘Why is the action
necessary?’ and ‘What will it eventually achieve?’.
This first step exists to set the direction for the campaign. If the communication
objective has not yet been specified, the statement will be revised when the
communication topic and the strategic communication objectives are formulated. This
will be done after the status of the product, service or idea as well as the activities
and perceptions of the target audience and other important stakeholders have been
analysed.
The communication problem or opportunity will normally be stated in a way that
expresses the intention of creating awareness, providing information, persuading or
changing behaviour or perception towards a specific product, service or idea. It is
always formulated as an extension of the overarching strategy.

Define problems, strengths, weaknesses and opportunities

The problems, strengths, weaknesses and opportunities of the product, service or
idea; of its relationship with the communicator; and of its relationship with the target
audience and important stakeholders are given. The information supplied in the
assessment is used as the raw material in this process, although the campaign planner
may acquire more information if necessary.
To identify the needs that will be addressed in the campaign, the communication
planner isolates the relevant components of the relationship between the audiences and
the product, service or idea around which the communication campaign is centred.
The communication planner will specifically describe the audience, the position
and the needs of the target audience in relation to the product, service or idea, and
describe the competition and environmental conditions. Very often, but not in all
cases, the assessment of problems, strengths, weaknesses and opportunities is done in
the form of a SWOT analysis – a structured analysis of internal conditions (strengths
and weaknesses) and external conditions (opportunities and threats) that relate to the
product, service or idea.

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Describe the audience

The campaign planner draws from all the audience characteristics that are identified
in the assessment phase those that are the most important. The final definition and
description of the target audience and other important stakeholders are given. The exact
characteristics of the audience and its important subsections are noted. The audience
segments are prioritised for the purposes of target segmentation for the specific campaign.
Attention is given to audience databases that exist and the process of utilising them.

Describe the product, service or idea

The product, service or idea that forms the focus of the campaign is described. This
description is drawn from the assessment, but revised to highlight those factors relevant
to the communication campaign.

Describe the position of the product, service or idea among audiences

The acceptability, awareness, perceptions, existing position of the product, service
or idea among the target and secondary audiences (including internal groups and
individuals) are specified, as are the specific dimensions of the relationship and methods
of interaction that exist between them. Current points of contact and the efforts that
are made to generate interaction through these are discussed.

Define the need

The needs, problems and motivations of the target audience are detailed. Particular
attention is paid to the needs that exist among the audience in relation to the product,
service or idea of the campaign. Reasons are given for the exclusion of identified needs
that will not be addressed in the campaign. The needs of the campaign’s secondary
audiences are also identified and explained.

Describe the competition

Competing ideas, services or products are described. This description includes their
nature and characteristics, their relationship to the target audiences, and the means
and extent to which they are communicated to the target audiences. Direct and indirect
competition are specified.

Describe the environment

Reigning environmental conditions are described. These are again drawn from the
assessment but rephrased in a way that is pertinent to the campaign.
Problems, strengths, weaknesses and opportunities are all specified as they exist in the
present. A current assessment is made – it is not based on historical data.
At the conclusion of the process, a summary is made of the threats, problems,
strengths, weaknesses and opportunities. The specific aspects that will be addressed
in the campaign are identified. Although the information is largely drawn from the
assessment document, it is rewritten in a form that leads directly to the next steps.

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Up to this point the work largely involves the processing of existing information, but after this the work is
original.

Establish the campaign topic

The focus of the communication campaign (the core communication reason for it) is now
described and expressed unambiguously as the campaign topic. This is the particular
concept that is to be communicated about a product, service or idea, and not the
product, service or idea itself.
The campaign topic may be the same as that formulated by the communicator in the
assessment document or it may be revised and adapted. If the communicator is certain
of the objectives of the campaign from the outset and specifies these unambiguously,
they then form the campaign topic. Generally, however, the campaign topic should
be reviewed in the light of the audience’s needs, criteria of integration, problems,
opportunities, strengths and weaknesses.
The target audiences’ perceptions of the product, service or idea are an
accumulation of all experiences (imagined, real or vicarious) which they have had with
it. Such perceptions contain a rational and an emotional component. The rational
element is associated with the quantifiable, manifest properties of the product, service
or idea, and it relates to what it is and what it does. The emotional element is associated
with the implicit properties and connotations that the individual associates with the
product, service or idea. The campaign topic is the statement of the perception that
the campaign is to establish, and both rational and emotional elements should be
considered in its formulation.
The campaign topic should be stated in one sentence, and it should indicate the
perception that is to be embraced by the audience at the conclusion of the campaign. The
campaign topic will generally involve persuasion, awareness, information dissemination,
education, image management or a change in behavioural predisposition.

Strategic communication objectives

The specific objectives for the communication campaign are quantified at this stage.
It is important that they are attainable by the elements of the communication mix
and the communication campaign as a whole. Objectives that lie in the realm of other
organisational or business processes should not be considered for communication
campaigns except where they are integrated with communication and planned in
conjunction with the relevant organisational units. The strategic objectives should
include measurable specifications of:
„„ what the communication campaign is to achieve
„„ the audiences among whom the objectives are to be attained
„„ the degree to which it is to be achieved among the target audiences
„„ the physical actions or behaviour which are to result
„„ the time by which these objectives are to be achieved.

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Create the communication message

The message is created by establishing the big idea (what the message will communicate)
and the creative concept (how it will be communicated).

The big idea

The first step in the creation of the communication message is to determine what the
message will communicate. The communication planner has to create the central idea or
theme through which the communication topic will best be established in the minds of
the target audience. The big idea is the strongest single aspect of the communication topic.
The big idea can be generated in a number of ways. It can be derived by positioning
the product, service or idea in the minds of the audience in a way that differentiates it
strongly from competing concepts. ‘Positioning’ is the ranking of a product or idea in the
consumer’s mind in relation to that of the competition. It can be generated by identifying
a benefit that only the product, service or idea offers the audience. The big idea can also
be created by associating the product, service or idea with some form of excitement or
image that appeals to the audience. There may be requirements, conditions or restraints
that govern the scope of the big idea that are specified to ensure integration.

The creative concept

After the communication planner has decided what the message will communicate,
it is necessary to determine how this will be done by devising the message approach and
execution. As with the big idea, there may be requirements, conditions or restraints that
govern the scope of the creative concept as a whole or, more specifically, the message
approach or the execution.

The message approach

The communication planner must select the message approach that will most
effectively attract the attention of the audience. Most commonly, the approach would
be emotional or rational, or a combination of the two.
If the audience’s needs are functional, practical or informational, a rational
approach is generally more effective. It should address the audience’s need logically
and make use of facts in doing so.
If the audience’s needs are social or psychological, an emotional approach and the
inducement of feelings such as satisfaction, pleasure, esteem or recognition may be
more effective.
Message approaches are not all emotional or rational, however. They could simply
be informational, act as reminders, build up some expectation, etc.

The execution
The execution is the way that the approach is presented to the audience, and is
the final formulation of the message to the audience. It can be humorous, factual,
a demonstration, a dramatisation, based on identity or image (as in sponsorship), a
testimonial, a fantasy, based on a personality or authority, a personal recommendation,
presented as evidence, or an offer.

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In preparing the most appropriate execution, the communication planner must

consider the audience and the media that could be used. The execution must be appropriate
to both, and the media selected must reach the audience both effectively and efficiently.

Allocation of resources and tasks

The individuals, groups, organisations or companies involved in the creation and
execution of the communication campaign are identified, their tasks specified and the
resources for the campaign’s implementation allocated.

Budget
During the assessment, the budget parameters of the campaign were specified. The
budget will again be noted at this stage. If for any reason this differs from the amount
indicated in the assessment, approval for the revised budget must be obtained.
It is not only necessary to specify the total budget, but also its allocation to specific
aspects of the campaign (manpower, production, media time and space, etc.).

Task allocation
The people involved in the campaign are identified. These individuals may
be communication specialists or ‘part-time communicators’ who are in non-
communication functions but who ensure the success of the campaign. Organisations,
groups or companies that will provide services are also identified.

Relationship infrastructure
The infrastructure that is to maintain and grow the desired relationship with target
audiences is specified. This could include databases, digital platforms and the procedures
and resources to use them, contact points with the audience, the creation of new contact
points, etc. If the infrastructure does not exist, resources to create it are allocated.

Communication mix
The communication mix is specified (not the media, which are selected in the next step).
The mix may comprise advertising, interpersonal communication, public relations,
direct mail, internal communication, online social media, group presentations, sales
promotion, sponsorship, etc.
When planning a communication campaign, the aim is not to choose between
the components of the communication mix, but rather to select the best combination
that should be used. Coordination and integration of the total communication mix
is necessary, as the elements may work less effectively or even against each other if
approached in isolation.

Review mechanisms
Review mechanisms for integration and effectiveness will be specified. A plan of
alternative action should be devised in the event that the campaign does not attain its
objectives during and after implementation.

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Select the media

Most communication campaigns require media for their successful implementation.
Media are channels of communication through which the campaign’s message will
be transmitted.
Media are very often the greatest expense in communication campaigns. All
media, and particularly mass media, must be selected with the target audience and
communication objectives in mind. Media vary in their suitability for particular
communication campaigns. The primary criteria for the selection of media are access
to the target audience, their ability to convey the campaign’s message effectively, their
capacity to enable interaction with the company, and cost. The communication planner
must identify the media that offer the greatest reach, frequency and impact, and their cost in
reaching the audience. Additional considerations are the ability of the media to deliver the
message within the time frame of the campaign, their contribution to the relationship with
the audience, and media selection criteria that are specified for purposes of integration.
Reach refers to the total, unduplicated number of people exposed to the message.
The greater the reach of a particular medium, the greater the number of people who
will receive the messages sent through it.
Frequency refers to the number of times that the average member of the audience is
exposed to the message. The greater the frequency, the more times that person will be
exposed to the message.
Impact is the ‘strength’ of a medium’s ability to convey a message, or its strength of
effect. The greater the impact of a medium, the greater the effect a message delivered
through it will have. Impact is a property of media, but it is also a property of the
message itself. An excellent message will have a far greater impact than a mediocre
one in exactly the same medium. Impact is also a product of the degree to which
interaction with the audience, and amongst members of the audience, is made possible
through the medium.
The media selection criteria of reach, frequency and impact can be illustrated in
the form of a triangle. The size of the area within the triangle is a factor of the amount
spent on the media, although careful media planning can stretch the reach, frequency
and impact obtainable for a fixed media budget. The communication planner must
attempt to obtain the greatest reach, frequency and impact for the given budget.

reach frequency

impact

Figure 13.1 A media triangle demonstrating equal expenditure on reach, frequency and
impact

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Particular campaigns may call for varying proportions of reach, frequency or

impact. For a given budget, the amount spent on achieving one component may
therefore be increased, with a corresponding decrease in the other components.

reach frequency

impact
Figure 13.2 A media triangle demonstrating greater expenditure on reach

Certain media are more effective in delivering reach, frequency or impact than
others. Mass media, although expensive in terms of total amounts spent, tend to
cost very little per person reached, but as audiences fragment, their effectiveness in
reaching mass audiences is diminished. Digital media offer opportunities for ‘mass
customisation’ and affordability through personalised mass communication, but
can rarely be relied upon to attain the aims of most large-scale campaigns. Media
and their properties vary widely. For example broadcast media deliver messages to
large audiences, but the messages are transient, while print media deliver messages
that are more enduring. With the advent of digital communication and media
convergence, however, the boundaries between media and their distinct properties
are becoming blurred – telephones offer image-based communication, television
sets have Internet capabilities, and computers are telephones.
The media spectrum includes not only interpersonal media such as telephones
or the Internet, and mass communication media such as radio or magazines, but
also unconventional media such as traditional, folk or oramedia. Any signifying form can
act as a vehicle for messages. Buildings, sports, coins, rituals, songs, emblems and
banners all express meaning and under certain circumstances may be defined as
communication media.
Media planning must ensure the integration of the media selected for the campaign.
Each medium must be selected because of its value in contributing to the achievement
of the campaign’s objectives and not for other reasons such as its individual strengths
or previous utilisation.
A campaign’s media may be divided into primary media (the media that are
allocated the main task of delivering the message to the audience), secondary media
(the media that support the primary media), and interactive media. Media must not
be limited to those that enable a one-way monologue, but should include those that
enable interaction and feedback.
Apart from the communication planner’s task of selecting the media to be used, it
is necessary to administer the media function efficiently. The communication planner

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will take into account all requirements related to booking and booking deadlines, and
the timeous production and submission of material.

Produce the communication material

The communication planner will finally produce the material that is to be used during
the implementation of the campaign. This could include visual material like outdoor
posters, video advertisements, radio commercials or web pages. Specialised companies
generally produce this material, particularly where mass media are used.
It is important that the communicator agrees with the communication planner
on all aspects of the campaign, and approval for every aspect of the campaign must
be obtained. The best means of achieving this is by regular review as the campaign
progresses, signing off each stage as it is approved.

Checklist for Phase 2: create

„„ Have the strategic communication objectives been determined?
„„ Has the focus of the communication campaign been established?
„„ Has the budget been allocated?
„„ Have the resources and tasks been allocated?
„„ Has the relationship infrastructure been established?
„„ Has the message been created and produced?
„„ Has the communication planner seen to the media selection?
„„ Has the campaign been created in conjunction with all related communications?
„„ Has the target audience been considered in the creation phase?

13.5.3 Phase 3 – the implementation phase

Implementation follows the creation phase. This is when the campaign is delivered to
the target audiences at the planned time through the media selected. Implementation
may take on many forms. A celebrity might be asked to support the campaign with
a testimonial, it might be launched by staging a special event, it may comprise the
flighting of television advertisements, the campaign may be supported on the company’s
website, these could all be offered simultaneously, etc.
The campaign should ideally run according to the plan decided upon in the
creation phase, but the communication planner should be prepared to adapt it during
implementation if necessary. During implementation the communication planner must
pay particular attention to timing, media, budget control, supporting communication,
behaviour and measurement.

Timing
Timing is of the utmost importance, and good planning will come to nought if it is not
implemented at the correct time and for the necessary duration. The communication
planner must deliver the communication campaign on time and maintain it for the period
required to ensure that the campaign’s message effectively reaches the target audience.
The timing of the campaign may need to be adapted if the communication planner
identifies problems in reaching the target audience. Subject to the available resources,

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the communication planner could repeat or extend parts of the campaign to the
audience or sections within it. Sometimes a campaign takes on a life of its own in a
way that is unexpected by the communication planner. This is especially possible with
digital media, where the audience may duplicate, comment on, modify or retransmit
the campaign or aspects of it. The communication planner should be prepared for
such eventualities.
If the campaign is sufficiently flexible and cost is a primary factor, levels of exposure
can be kept to the minimum required to attain the campaign’s goals, and then stopped.
For example, if the campaign plan requires five exposures of the communication
message to the target audience, but the communication goals are achieved after three,
the remaining exposures may be cancelled.

Media
The media that have been selected in the creation phase must be monitored. Although
major deviations from the communication plan should be avoided, it is possible that
the media selection could be adapted during implementation. If a particular medium
is not delivering the required results, resources could be shifted to one that is more
effective, contractual obligations allowing. Digital media opportunities and threats
could also arise during the implementation phase, contractual obligations allowing.
Although changes in the use of media could be made during implementation, they
should be kept to a minimum. Media alternatives should be thoroughly considered
during the creation phase of the campaign so that major changes to the campaign are
unnecessary. These may affect the campaign budget, the synergy and integration of
the campaign, and could have contractual implications with the media that carry the
message. The one exception is digital media, which may have swift and unexpected
effects that should be monitored as they occur, with enough resources to respond
appropriately.

Budget control
The communication planner must review costs throughout the implementation of the
campaign, as one of the primary functions of the communication planner is to ensure
that the cost of the campaign remains within its set parameters. Budget control is easier
where formal media are used because the costs are contractually stipulated. Where
flexible and informal media are used, the control of costs is more difficult because
the pricing of services can be extremely variable, and contingent on the situation at a
particular moment.

Supporting communication
Depending on the extent and nature of the campaign, interest may be generated
about the campaign itself and about the organisation or group that has launched and
implemented it. The interest of the communicator’s stakeholders may be generated,
particularly among the members of the communicator’s organisation, its supporters,
competitors and detractors. The communication planner should be prepared to

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respond to this interest. A promotional or publicity project could be run prior to or

concurrently with it to deal specifically with this aspect.
The communication planner should attempt to anticipate all positive and negative
responses to the campaign and prepare responses to them. Despite good planning,
however, the unexpected may occur, and the communication planner should allocate
contingency resources for this.

Behaviour
In cases where the campaign is intended to result in specific responses, behaviours
or interactions with the communicator, the infrastructure for this interaction must
be implemented and monitored. In many cases the campaign results in ongoing
interaction with the communicator through the generation of business leads,
requests for information, added audience data, sales or the supply of services. It is
generally the task of organisational units other than communication to supply most of
these added services.

Measurement
Effectiveness criteria (such as believability and comprehensibility) and objective attainment
(achievement of the communication objectives that have been set for the campaign,
including integration specifications) are monitored in the implementation phase. The
campaign may be adjusted to deal with problems and opportunities that become
evident during such monitoring.
The various stages of the campaign are monitored and reviewed, and where
necessary the stages that follow can be adjusted accordingly.

Checklist for Phase 3: implement

„„ Is the campaign’s timing being maintained?
„„ Has the communication planner checked the completed campaign against criteria
of effectiveness?
„„ Does the campaign attain the objectives and criteria of integration set during the
creation phase?
„„ If the answers to the previous questions are negative, is it still possible to make
adjustments?
„„ How is the campaign being received? Are further actions required?
„„ Is the behavioural response to the campaign being properly managed?
„„ Has the target audience been considered in the implementation phase?

13.5.4  Phase 4 – the evaluation phase

The evaluation phase occurs at the end of the campaign. It differs from the evaluation
that occurs during the original assessment phase and the ongoing evaluation that
takes place during implementation in that it evaluates the specific and measurable
criteria that were set for the campaign during Phase 2. During the evaluation phase,
the communication planner establishes whether the objectives have been attained

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and whether any corrective action is necessary, and the actions that need to be taken
following the completion of the campaign.

Objective attainment
Attainment of the campaign’s objectives must be assessed during this phase.
Assessment criteria could include target audience reach, information transfer,
behavioural change or altered interaction with the audience. Objective attainment
for each of the elements of the communication mix (public relations, business-to-
business, advertising, Internet activity, publicity, etc.) must also be assessed. The
communication planner must further decide whether the campaign has reached the
set budget, media and creative objectives, and criteria of integration.
The most suitable research methods for the evaluation of overall effectiveness of
the campaign must be implemented during this phase. If the campaign is of long and
ongoing duration, the above results can only be measured over time.

Corrective action and follow-up

If the communication campaign achieves its objectives, the next step should be decided.
For example, the salience of the campaign message may be retained by reminding
the target audience of the message through a low-frequency follow-up campaign, or
new product, service or idea developments may lead to separate campaign topics as
these arise.
If the campaign has failed either partially or completely, the actions that resulted in
the failure should be identified and rectified if possible, and corrective action planned.

Checklist for Phase 4: evaluate

„„ Were the campaign objectives (total campaign, supporting campaign, budget,
media, creative, integration, behavioural) attained?
„„ How was the campaign evaluated? Were the research methods appropriate?
„„ Has the communication planner taken corrective and follow-up action?
„„ Has the communication planner involved the target audience in the evaluation?

13.6 Summary
This chapter looks at a practical step-by-step approach to the implementation of
communication campaigns that can be used as a framework or template for their
planning and implementation. The framework is applicable to communication
campaigns of all kinds: public relations, advertising, web based, internal, political,
informative, educational, and others. The framework is fairly extensive, and may
be used to its full extent or in an abridged form, depending upon each contingency.

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Case study
The De Beers Pension Fund
De Beers is a world leader in the exploration, mining and marketing of diamonds. The De Beers
Pension Fund was established in 1952 for its employees as a separate legal entity to De Beers
itself. Originally there was very little member communication, but in 1997 this changed.
A communication team consisting of fund representatives and contracted communication
consultants was set up. Their first task was to undertake thorough research amongst members
to determine perceptions, knowledge levels, communication needs and preferences. The
research identified problems in reaching the geographically dispersed membership and
persuading members to take ownership for their own retirement, because of the widespread
misconception that ‘the company will look after me when I retire’.
A fund logo was designed to entrench the fund as a separate legal entity to that of the company,
and a range of basic communication vehicles (elements of the communication mix and media)
was developed and produced. Communication was defined as actual communication material
plus members’ and pensioners’ total experience of interaction with the fund.

Figure 13.3 De Beers Pension Fund logo

The fund’s audiences were ‘external’ (members) and ‘internal’ (administrators), and measurable,
outcome-based objectives were set for each. The main objective was to entrench a fund
culture of service excellence and customer care, and to dovetail this drive with the existing
performance management system.
Prior to the 2003/2004 communication campaign that is considered here, there were two
other campaign periods. The objectives of these were:
„„ 1997 to 2001 – to make the fund more visible and understandable to members, and to
educate members regarding their own pension responsibilities
„„ 2001 to 2003 – to obtain greater accessibility to members, and to entrench an internal
culture of service excellence and customer care.
The development and production of all communications had been governed by a number
of principles. The fund had a distinct visual identity, tone and manner; used clear and simple
language, layout and design style; communication was multilingual, technically correct and
reciprocal; there was high-level involvement with De Beers management; printed, electronic
and personal communication methods were integrated; cost effectiveness was practised; and
economic empowerment was utilised in subcontracted services.

The 2003/2004 Communication Campaign

Objectives
The campaign objectives were:
„„ the objectives of the 2001/2003 campaign
„„ to diversify communications for different literacy levels and languages
„„ to increase pensioner focus
„„ to ensure ‘holistic’ communication for greater membership empowerment.
 

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Audiences
‘External’ audiences were:
„„ working members
„„ members approaching retirement
„„ pensioners.

‘Internal’ audiences were:

„„ human resource (HR) officers
„„ pension fund staff
„„ De Beers management
„„ regional liaison groups.

Communication vehicles for ‘external’ audiences

Many audiences were targeted with the same communication vehicles, but specific ones
were also employed for each audience.

Working members
„„ Member Information Statement (required by law)
The annual member information statement used illustrations to make financial
information as ‘user friendly’ as possible to all members, including those who were semi-
literate.
„„ Member Guide (the explanatory pamphlet required by law)
Information was ‘layered’ in the Member Guide so that members would not be overwhelmed
with technical calculations. The basic information was situated at the top of each page with
more detailed information below. Colour-coded bars, illustrations and the general layout
made information easy to find, and gave the guide a warm, human feel.

Figure 13.4 The Member Guide



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„„ Mine and company communication

To complement its own communications the fund published information in the De Beers
group publication and in various mine bulletins. These publications were widely read and
offered powerful, cost-free communication vehicles.
„„ Fund Focus newsletter
This quarterly full-colour newsletter was distributed to pensioners and active members.
It had illustrations and photos, and all copy was pre-tested to ensure that semi-literate
readers would understand it. It provided the platform for Pension Post, one of the fund’s
official feedback mechanisms.

Figure 13.5 The Fund Focus newsletter

„„ Pension calculator wheel

A pension calculator wheel was distributed to allow members to calculate their pensions
based on years of service and age at retirement.
„„ Annual report
The fund’s annual report was intended to give members a sense of financial security and
pride, so the look and feel of the annual report was still warm and friendly, but slightly
more sophisticated and ‘corporate’ than the other communications.
„„ Intranet site
The fund’s intranet site offered updates, contact information, comments from the
fund’s investment managers, an archive of previous fund newsletters and articles, and
other relevant information. An immediate feedback loop had been built in to enable
member queries and comments on the site itself. There was an interactive capability that
allowed members to do scenario planning, with different calculators for normal and early
retirement, and retrenchment and death benefits.


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Figure 13.6 Pension Fund website – Xhosa homepage

Figure 13.7 Web page with early retirement information 

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„„ Group presentations
A highly graphic educational presentation was offered at the head offices and mines
in Kimberley and a number of the mining operations. The presentation equated a
member’s normal pensionable monthly salary (at retirement) to a full loaf of bread, and
then showed how this loaf could diminish with fewer years’ service, when taking cash
lump sums, and/or incurring early retirement penalties. This creative concept was carried
over to many other communication vehicles.

Figure 13.8 One of the slides used in the group presentation illustrating pensioners’ income
compared to salary at retirement, using the visual theme of a loaf of bread

„„ Benefits Illustrated pamphlet

Following feedback on the group presentation, a need was identified to recreate the
presentation’s core message in a pamphlet. This was distributed to active members, and
all new members received a copy in the language of their choice.

Figure 13.9 Benefits Illustrated pamphlet

 

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„„ Contact with fund staff

The delivery and turnaround times on services had become part of individuals’
and departments’ performance contracts at De Beers. This policy extended to the
fund’s administration. Contact incidents were tracked, and ‘problem cases’ or client
dissatisfaction issues were immediately referred to senior management.
„„ Letters and e-mails
Both members and pensioners received administration-related letters from the fund on
a regular basis. In addition, any written queries were answered personally and returned in
the manner received, i.e. by post, fax or e-mail.
„„ Telephone helpline
Members could query fund-related issues by phoning the fund helpline.
„„ Personal consultations
Members and pensioners could arrange for personal consultations with fund staff at the
fund offices in Kimberley.
„„ Life-event documents
These were prepared documents that gave pension and benefits-related information
to members and dependants for a range of situations, including fund withdrawal,
retirement, death and ill health.
„„ Focus groups
Focus groups had been used to test a range of topics related to the fund and its
communications. They were used extensively to generate feedback, which in turn was
used to guide future communications.

Members approaching retirement

„„ Pre-retirement workshops
The Fund had developed pre-retirement workshops for members aged 50 to 60, but
these were open to all members and their spouses. They dealt with fund-related and
financial issues such as wills and estate planning, in addition to the psychological, health
and practical aspects of retirement.
„„ Retiree kit
A ‘retiree kit’ was given to members before their 60th birthday to help them make the
choices required at retirement. This included the workshop information, a checklist of
processes and choices, calculation of tax-free portions and tax, reference to website
calculators, annuity options, contact numbers, and forms to be completed.
„„ Intranet
A copy of the retiree kit was available on the intranet.


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Figure 13.10 The first slide of the pre-retirement workshop presentation illustrating the
Fund’s visual identity, characteristic tone and manner, clear and simple
language, layout and design style

Pensioners
Pensioners constituted about half of the De Beers Pension Fund’s ‘external’ audience. They
included retirees and the spouses or children of deceased members. Except for the annual
member information statement, they received the same information as members. There
were, in addition, quite a number of communication vehicles that were aimed exclusively at
pensioners:
„„ Certificates of existence, bonus and increase letters
All pensioner documents had been redesigned to make them more user friendly. The
certificate of existence, for instance, now featured step-by-step instructions in five
languages.
„„ Pensioner Focus
This low-cost A4-format publication was printed in five languages. It conveyed one very
simple, empowering message with each issue and usually also called the pensioner to
specific action with regard to the information conveyed.

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Figure 13.11 Pensioner Focus pamphlet

„„ Pensioners’ Corner
One page in the Fund Focus newsletter was dedicated to pensioner issues.

Figure 13.12 Pensioners’ Corner



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 Chapter 13: Integrated communication campaigns

„„ Pensioner cards
All pensioners were issued with laminated pensioner cards, which allowed them to
request pensioner discounts and gave them a specific helpline number on the back.
„„ Student pensioner document
This document was issued to ‘student pensioners’ and guardians to explain who qualified
for a pension. It was sent three to six months before dependants’ 18th birthday, advising
that child pensions would cease on that date, and explained how student pensions
worked.
„„ Pensioner roadshows
Roadshows attempted to overcome the problem of reaching pensioners who lived far
from fund offices. They visited areas with a high concentration of pensioners, often in
remote areas. The roadshows addressed pensioners’ concerns and clarified issues that
seemed to cause confusion.
„„ Facilitation of get-togethers
The fund did not arrange social pensioner get-togethers, but supplied independent
pensioner organisations with pensioners’ address details. From time to time fund
managers and a communications person attended these meetings.

Communication vehicles for ‘internal’ audiences

The objectives of communication with these groups differed somewhat from ‘external’
audience communication. Communication with ‘internal’ communication was intended to:
„„ ensure that the fund’s needs and objectives were communicated to all members
„„ provide a feedback structure
„„ provide a structure for the discussion of issues of concern
„„ review and address inadequate administrative processes
„„ identify and recommend improvements to the service level of the fund.

Human resource (HR) officers

HR officers were the fund’s ‘face’ for members. The communication team worked on
formalising its co-operation with HR officers to ensure their support. Special meetings, training
workshops, support material, recognition awards and service level agreements were all used
to enhance HR officers’ levels of pension-related customer care and service excellence.

Pension fund staff

The desired culture of service excellence started with pension fund staff. For this reason
they were actively involved in its strategic communication planning, assessment forums,
and training by external consultants to entrench a caring, service-oriented approach to
communication and member interaction.


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 Integrated Organisational Communication

Management – employers
De Beers’ management was essential in reaching members more effectively. In addition to visiting
managers one-on-one, the fund was discussed at company executive committee meetings.
Managers were also encouraged to attend a customised fund workshop for their own retirement
planning and for them to encourage their employees’ attendance of fund presentations.

Regional liaison groups

In 2003, regional liaison groups were established in the various mining areas. The groups
consisted of all role players on the mines who had dealings with the fund, for example staff
from admin, HR, payrolls and communication, together with trustees.

Special communications
Besides the regular communications described above, special communication projects were
necessary from time to time. One example was the communication around the Pension Fund
2nd Amendment Act that informed members of the distribution of pension funds’ surplus
funds. Another was the communication of information relevant to voluntary retrenchment
packages that De Beers offered employees in 2003.

(Permission to use this case study was obtained from Anette van der Spuy of Nyani
Communication.)

Application
Develop a communication campaign of your choice, using the interactive model that
is discussed in this chapter. The campaign can be of any kind – promotional, internal,
public relations, political, educational or health.

Activities
1. Describe the communication campaign that is discussed in the case study in terms of
the five primary elements that make up the definition of communication campaigns.
2. Describe the internal and external contexts of integration that are evident in the
De Beers Pension Fund communication campaign.
3. Give a critical assessment of the communication campaign objectives as they are
described in the assessment, and identify the strengths and weaknesses of the
objectives’ formulation.
4. Using the example in the case study, use the available information to structure the
campaign anew, using the interactive model of communication campaigns as a
framework to guide you.
5. Identify the big idea and the creative concept (the message approach and execution)
in the De Beers Pension Fund’s campaign.

Bibliography
Rensburg, R & Angelopulo, G C. 1996. Effective Communication Campaigns. Johannesburg:
International Thomson Publishing.
Schultz, D E. 1996. The inevitability of integrated communications, Journal of Business Research,
vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 139–146.

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 Index

A radio in 262, 308

academic fields 14 role in society 276, 278-284
academic organisational communication roles of 274-276
sex in 282
goals 25, 28
shape-vs-mirror debate 279-280
means 24, 27
societal role 276, 278-284
scope 23, 26
stereotypes in 282-283
action advertising 270
television 261, 262, 270, 308
action research 413
untruthful or deceptive 281
Ad Edge 385-386
see also consumer response theory;
advertising 149, 258-259
online advertising
body image and self-image in 282-283
advertising agencies 303-305
to children 281 definition 303
classification of 268-274, 274 types of 304-305
communication role 275 advertising campaign 320
communication strategy 276-278 assessing 321-322
comparative 283-284 creating 322-325
content, evolution of 263-264 evaluating 325-326
creative role of 263-264, 313-314 implementing 325
creativity in, definition 205 AIDA model in advertising 285-286
culture 267, 283, 315-316 American Marketing Association 148
definitions 205, 266-267, 268 analytical model of decision-making
demand-creation 279 100-102
demonstrations 284 arbitration 86
development in SA 264-266 artefacts and organisational culture 91-
economic role 275-276 92
endorsements 284 assumptions, basic 94
ethics 285, 296, 297 attitudes 93
history of 259-266 avoiding behaviour 84, 85
informational role of 263
IMC 205-206, 277-278 B
Kulula and FIFA 297-299 Bankseta SA 108-109
management 302 Barker and Angelopulo’s model 444
marketing mix 276-278 Barloworld 57-70
marketing role 274-275 behaviour, accommodating 84, 85
media 261-263, 305-308 behavioural style of decision-making 102
misleading or false 283-284 behaviour
newspapers in 261-262 organisational culture 92-93
offensiveness and poor taste 282 in a communication campaign 471
outdoor 261 beliefs 93
over-commercialisation debate 280 black economic empowerment (BEE)
process 204, 205-206 69-70

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boundary spanners in networks 78 SANDF 421-422

bounded rationality model of decision- Virgin Atlantic 386-387
making 101 X-PLOR Telecoms 142-143
brand case studies in research 411-412
consistency 217 cause-related marketing (CRM) 153, 209
contacts 188 principles 153-154
development 339 Cell C 218-219
equity 209 centralisation in networks 82
positioning 191
chain networks 79, 79
relationship drivers 426-428
change see organisational change
similarities 198
circle networks 81, 81, 81-82
value analysis 322
City Press 326-329
brand equity model, Duncan &
Moriarty’s 426-428 classical management approach 126-130
brand image strategy 205 advantages and disadvantages 127-
bridges in networks 78 128
budget and financial control, marketing communication in 128-130
164, 164 closed-loop technology 338
budget control, communication collaborative behaviour 84, 85
campaign 470 collectivity 21-25
business communication 15 commercial and non-commercial
definition 15 advertising 270
goals 25, 28 commitment and marketing 215
means 24, 27 communication 3-7
scope 23, 26 classical management approach 128,
business environment 94 128-130, 130
business strategy 33-34 components of 8, 8-9
business-to-business (B2B) advertising decision-making 124
271-272
definition 4-6, 121-122, 123
fragmentation of 40
C
functionalist and interpretive
campaign topic, communication 464, perspectives 16-17
465
interactional view of 9-12
case studies
internal and external 21-25
Ad Edge 385-386
meaning 10-12
Bankseta SA 108-109
measurability and efficiency 9
Barker and Angelopulo’s model 444
Barloworld 57-70 mechanistic model of 7-9, 8, 12
Cell C 218-219 one-way 18
City Press 326-329 as organisers of action 123
De Beers Pension Fund 473-482 participative 18
Gautrain 381-384 roles of 123-125
Kulula and FIFA 297-299 skills and leadership 124
PEP (SA) 165-180 strategy 34-36
Pick n Pay 254-255 as transfer of signals 7-8

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 Index

see also communication integration; communication message, creating 465-

online communication, integrated; 466
organisational communication; communication networks 76-78
strategic role of communication characteristics of 82
communication audit 415-418 computer 212
instruments of 416, 417, 417-418 cultural 94
communication content auditing 399- definition 78
400 direction of communication 76-78
communication fields, assessing 21-22, electronic media 242, 332
23-25 roles in 78
communication integration 40 types of 77-82
Barloworld 61-70 see also Internet
corporate identity 56-57 communication outcomes and
definition 40-41 communication technology 106
evolution of 41-43, 41-44 communication patterns and
trends within organisations 43-44 communication technology 106
communication integration, management communication planner, identifying 458
of 53 communication problem or opportunity
group problem solving 55-56 457-458, 462
communication strategy and advertising
routines 55
276-278
rules or directives 53-54
communication technology 103
sequencing 54-55
effects of 105-106
communication integration, principles
theories of use 103-105, 104-105
of 44
see also media
aligning messages 45-46
communicator, identifying 458
implementation 46
competitive behaviour 84, 85
delivery of service 47-48
competitors 460, 463
external communication 47 compromising behaviour 84, 85
external stakeholder expectations conceptual style of decision-making 102
48 conflict in organisations 82
mission and strategy 46 definitions 82-83
strategy implementation 46-47 levels of 83
market orientation 44-45 strategies for managing 84, 84-86
organisational integrity 44 types of 83-84
recognising limitations and pitfalls 50 constructive conflict 83-84
absence of communication 52 consumer advertising 271
illusions of control 51 consumer audience and behaviour 314
integration and the receiver 51-52 market segmentation 314-315
time 52 psychological influences 317-319
unplanned communication 52-53 consumer decision process 319-320
strategic imperative 49-50 consumer promotions 198
corporate focus 49 consumer response theory 284-289, 290-
operational processes 49-50 294, 295
communication management 236-237 affective strategy 287
communication material, producing 469 AIDA model 285-286

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association model 288 corporate identity 56-57

dissonance-attribution hierarchy 287 definition 56
facets model of effects 287, 288 corporate image advertising 269
factorial variability paradigm 287-288 corporate philanthropy 241
Foote, Cone, Belding (FCB) planning corporate public relations 203, 240-241
model 287 corporate social responsibility 32, 152
habit formation strategy 287 public relations 240-241
hierarchy of effects model 286 cosmopolites in networks 78
inclusive facets paradigm 288 creative role of advertising 263-264,
information processing model 286 313-314
informative planning strategy 287 creative selling 192
innovation adoption model 286 creativity in advertising, definition 205
integrated information response model crisis communication
287 online 374-377
integrated marketing communication public relations 251-254
internal response model 288-289, critical social theory and communication
290-294, 295 technology 103
learning hierarchy 287 cultural model of communication 96
low-involvement hierarchy 287 cultural networks 94
self-satisfaction strategy 287 culture
three-order hierarchy model of advertising 267, 283, 315-316
information processing 287 cellular 142-143
three-order paradigmatic consumer consumer behaviour 315-316
response model categorisation 285, networks 94
285-288
newsworthiness 245
traditional sequential paradigm 285-
of service excellence 473, 481
286
see also corporate culture and
content analysis in research 415
organisational culture
content and communication technology
customers
106
retaining 50
contingency perspective of decision-
service and support, online 345-346
making 102
see also under consumer
continuity in advertising 309
cybermalls 344
control function of networks 77-78
cybernetics theory 132, 133
convergence and globalisation 107
core competencies 50
D
corporate communication 18
auditing 399 databases 50, 429
definition 18 marketing 208
goals 25, 28 data mining 208
means 24, 27 De Beers Pension Fund 473-482
public relations 19 decision-making
scope 23, 26 communication 124
corporate culturalism 91 definition 99
corporate culture 316 see also culture and in groups and teams 99-103
organisational culture models of 100-102

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 Index

styles of 102 environmental effects on personal selling

types of decision 100 193-194
demand-creation and advertising 279 environmental responsibility 31-32
demand, primary and selective 269 environmental scanning 190
demographics and advertising 316-317 equivalent form approach, research
destructive conflict 84 testing 405-406, 406
deviance in news 245 ethical environment 193
dictation 86 ethics
digital communication 331 advertising 285, 296, 297
digital divide 335 definition 217-218
directive style of decision-making 102 IMC 217-218
direct marketing organisational 94
definitions 206 ethnography in research 410
in IMC 206-208 eWOM (electronic word of mouth) 348-
media 207 349
direct-response advertising 270 experimental research 409
disciplines of communication 14 external communication 22-25
distribution channels and marketing 157 external environment variables 193
divergence and globalisation 107 external market trends and
diversity in organisations 125 communication integration 43
dominance in networks 82 external networks 77
downward networks 77 extranet 332
dual-capacity model of media 104-105
Duncan & Moriarty’s model 426-428 F
dyad in communication 21-25 factorial variability paradigm 287-288
dysfunctional conflict 84 field observation in research 410
financial control in marketing 164, 164
E focus groups in research 411
e-commerce 212, 344 formality in networks 82
buy-side and sell-side 212 formal networks 77
economic environment 193 four Cs of marketing 159-160, 213
economic responsibility 31-32 four Ps in marketing 148, 155-160, 213
Ehler’s model, communication 429, 430 frequency of message 309, 467-468
electronic news 333 functional conflict 83-84
electronic word of mouth (eWOM) 348- functionalist approach to organisational
349 culture 90
e-mail 332, 343 functional strategy 34
marketing 346
emergent strategy 31 G
endorsement model of corporate identity garbage-can model of decision-making
57 101-102
environmental analysis and IMC 189- gatekeepers in networks 78
191 Gautrain 381-384
stages of 190 Generations soapie and PEP (SA) 165-180
environmental auditing 398 geographic area in advertising 273

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globalisation 187 and marketing 150

organisational communication 106- and public communications 224
107 informal networks 77
global marketing 215-217 informational role of advertising 263
business and societal perspectives 216, information function of networks 77
216 information load/overload 336
gophers 332 information processing model in
government public relations 238-239 advertising 286
Grand Strategy Matrix 190 information richness theory (IRT) 104
group problem solving 55-56 information role in personal selling 192
groups information theory 132
advantages and disadvantages of 98- innovation adoption model 286
99, 103 inside-out approach to strategic
communication 98-99 management 31
definition 98 integrated communication campaigns
groups and teams 449
communicating with 97-98 contexts 450-451
decision-making in 99-103 definitions 449-450
see also groups; teams interactive model of 453-457
Grunig and Hunt models of PR 229-230 assesment phase 457-461
creation phase 461-469
H evaluation phase 471-472
implementation phase 469-471
heroes and organisational culture 93
objectives 451-452
heuristics 101
integrated communication measurement
hierarchy of effects model 286
425
house style 53
measuring integration 437-438, 438-
humanistic management approach 130-
443
131
integrated communication models 425-
advantages and disadvantages 134
426
communication in 134-137
Duncan & Moriarty’s brand equity
knowledge management approach model 426-428
137-138 Ehler’s model 429, 430
systems theory 132-133 Van Riel’s model 428-429
integrated communication research
I
methods 430-431
image and identity in research 414 dimensions of evaluation and
images and words in public relations 242 measurement 431-432
IMC see integrated marketing integrated marketing (IM) audit 432-
communication 434
impact of message 309, 467-468 stakeholder relationship audit 435-
individualisation 357 436
industrial advertising 272 traditional and online 436-437
Industrial Revolution 185 integrated marketing communication
and advertising 260 (IMC) 20, 158, 183
and communication integration 41 advertising 205-206, 277-278

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 Index

benefits and barriers 189 interpretivist approach to organisational

components of 188-189 culture 90-91
definitions 184-185, 277 intervention 22
driving forces for growth of 186-187 interviewing in research 411
environmental analysis 189-191 intragroup conflict 83
ethical issues 217-218 intranet 242, 332
evolution of 185-188 intrapersonal conflict 83
features of contemporary IMC 188 intuition 101
four stages of 187 IRT (information richness theory) 104
global perspective 215-217 isolates in networks 78
promotional mix 191, 191
advertising 204, 205-206 K
direct marketing 206-208 knowledge management approach 31,
the Internet 211-212 87, 88
personal selling 192-195 advantages and disadvantages 139-
publicity and media 200-201 140
public relations 201-204 communication in 140-142
sales management 195-196 humanistic management approach
sales promotion 196-200 137-138
sponsorship 208-211 Kulula and FIFA 297-299
relationship marketing perspective
212-215 L
integrated marketing (IM) audit 432-434 language and organisational culture 91,
integrative function of networks 78 92
intended strategy 31 language studies 15, 21
intentionality 5 lateral networks 77
interactive marketing 208 leadership
interactive media 308 communication skills 124
interactivity 49, 357 definition 121
intergroup conflict 83 learning approach to strategic
internal communication 21-25 management 31
internal networks 77 legal-political environment 193
international advertising 273 liasons in networks 78
International Communication LISTSERVs 333
Association (ICA) 13 local advertising 273
Internet 242, 332 local area networks (LANs) 212
advertising 262-263 Luther, Martin 223
in IMC 211-212
marketing mix 160 M
newsgroups 333 macro- and micro-marketing 218
phone 332 magazines
inter-organisational conflict 83 advertising 262, 306
interpersonal conflict 83, 84 public relations 244
interpretive function of public relations mailing lists 333
235-236 management

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classical management approach 126- goals 25, 28

130 means 24, 27
advantages and disadvantages 127- scope 23, 26
128 marketing concept 151-153, 153
communication in 128-130 definition 152
definition 121 principles 153
humanistic management approach marketing management 160
130-131 definitions 160-161
advantages and disadvantages 134 steps in marketing plan 161-164
communication in 134-137 marketing mix 159-160
knowledge management approach advertising 276-278
137-138 online marketing 339-340
systems theory 132-133 the internet 160
knowledge management approach marketing objectives 163, 163-163
advantages and disadvantages 139- marketing opportunities 162
140 marketing-orientated perspective stage in
communication in 140-142 marketing 151
humanistic management approach marketing plan, steps in 161-164
137-138 financial control and budget 164, 164
see also strategic management 30-32 marketing objectives 163, 163-163
management communication 15-16 marketing opportunities 162
definition 15-16 situation analysis 161, 162
goals 25, 28 strategies and action plans 163-164,
means 24, 27 164
scope 23, 26 marketing public relations (MPR) 19,
managerialism 234 201-204
mapping 10-11 and advertising and communications
marketing 202
databases 208 marketing role of advertising 274-275
four Cs of 159-160, 213 marketing strategies and action plans
four Ps of 148, 155-160, 213 163-164, 164
history and definitions 147-150 market orientation and communication
interactive 208 integration 44-45
perspectives in 150-155 market research 133
seven Ps framework 158-159 online 345
SIVA 160 market segmentation 314-315
stages of development 149 meaning 10-12
traditional marketing mix 155-156 measurement in communications
place 157 campaign 471
price 156-157 media 343
product 156 advertising 305-308
promotion 157-158 buying 311-313
see also online marketing evolution of 261-263
marketing communication 19-21, 157- planning 309-311
158 selection 308
definition 20 square 309, 310

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 Index

audits 210 Ad Edge 385-386

direct marketing 207 advantages and disadvantages of 362-
electronic 242, 332 364
IMC 200-201 development of 354-355
interactive 308 functions of 361-362
plan 200 nature of 355-358
public relations 241-247 types and forms of 358-361
secondary 468 online communication, integrated 331
selection, communication 467-469, context of 333-335
470 terminology 332-333
theoretical models for use of 104-105 online crisis communication 374-377
triangle 467-468, 467-468 online customer service and support
see also communication technology; 345-346
public relations, media and online marketing 160, 212, 262-263, 335
media richness model of media 104-105 advantages and disadvantages 347,
mediation 86 348
medium and advertising 273-274 applications 333, 344-346
members of networks 78 development and nature of 337-339
mobile marketing 352-353 Gautrain 381-384
MPR see marketing public relations internet resources for 343-344
multimedia 343 marketing mix 339-340
multiplexity in networks 82 market research 345
mobile marketing 352-353
N as push or pull mechanism 341-342,
342, 347
narration 92
social media marketing 348-352
national advertising 273
ten Cs of 340-341
natural environment 193
traditional marketing 341-342, 342,
negotiation 85
347
net news 333
online market research 345
networks see communication networks
online promotion 340
news agencies and public relations 243- online public relations 336, 364
244 advantages and disadvantages 365-
newspapers 366
advertising 261-262, 305-306 definitions 364
public relations 243 theoretical perspective 366-368
non-profit organisations, public relations tools of 368-373
239-240 traditional paradigms 364-365, 365
normative judgements 5 traditional public relations 373-374
Virgin Atlantic 386-387
O operational guidelines 54
objective attainment 471, 472 operational strategy 34
objects of communication 10-11 opinion leaders in networks 78
OD model of change 119-120 order taking in personal selling 192
one-way communication 18 organisational activism 234
online advertising 335, 346, 353-354 organisational change 113-114

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communication during 96-97 planning of 400-405

communication styles and 120-121, qualitative assessment of 410-412
125-126 quantitative and qualitative assessment
definitions of communication 121- of 412-415
122 quantitative assessment of 408-410
driving and resisting forces of 115- reliability of 405-406, 406
116 validity of 407-408
incremental and radical 114 organisational communication research,
managerial approaches and 120-121, applied 415-421
125-126 communication audit 415-418
classical management approach P-MOPS 418-421
126-130 organisational conflict see conflict in
humanistic management approach organisations
130-137 organisational culture
knowledge management approach change in 97
137-142 climate 88-89, 89
models of 116 definitions 86-87
organisational culture 96-97 dominant and subcultures 87
organisational development model elements of 91-94
119-120 knowledge management 87, 88
requirement for 114-115 managing 94-95
organisational climate 88-89, 89 organisational change 96-97
organisational communication 13-14, in the SANDF 421-422
16-17 theoretical paradigms 89-91
academic 23-28
see also corporate culture and culture
academic and professional views on
organisational development (OD) model
17
of change 119-120
assessing 397-398
organisational environment 193-194
Barloworld 57-70
organisational integrity and
business communication 15, 23-28
communication integration 44
corporate communication 18, 23-28
organisational readiness assessment 95
definitions 13, 17, 76, 122-123
organisations 12-13
functionalist and interpretive
definition 12, 123
perspectives 16-17
diversity 125
globalisation 106-107
management communication 15-16, trends within and communication
23-28 integration 43-44
marketing communication 19-21, organisation structure 106
23-28 out-of home advertising 306-307
professional 23-28 outside-in approach to strategic
professional and academic views on management 30
17
public relations 18-19, 23-28 P
see also communication participant observation in research 410
organisational communication research participative communication 18
classification of 398-400 PEP (SA) 165-180

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 Index

perception and advertising 317-319 scope 23, 26

personal advertising 271 profit and responsibility 32
personal selling 192 programmed vs non-programmed
advantages and disadvantages 193 decisions 100
environmental effects on 193-194 promotional mix 191, 191
future of 194-195 advertising 204, 205-206
persuasive function of networks 78 direct marketing 206-208
persuasive role the Internet 211-212
in personal selling 192 personal selling 192-195
in public relations 226 publicity and media 200-201
Pick n Pay 254-255 public relations 201-204
place and marketing 157 sales management 195-196
planned approach to strategic sales promotion 196-200
management 30 sponsorship 208-211
planned messages 45 promotion in marketing 157-158, 159 see
P-MOPS 418-421 also sales promotion
political advertising 271 promotion, online 340
political model of decision-making 101 promotions, organisational 198
posters 307 psychographics and advertising 317-319
postmodernism 91 psychological phenomena and
press agentry 229 organisational culture 93
price and marketing 156-157 publicity
primary and selective demand advertising definition 200
269 IMC 200-201
primary media 468 product 203
print media public relations 18-19, 222
advertising 305-307 auditing 399
public relations 241, 305-308 in business organisations 238
see also magazines, newspapers as communication and interpretation
PRISA 226-227 235-236
procedural model of problem solving as communication management 236-
418-421 237
process approach to public relations 230 corporate 203
processes, organisational 94 corporate communication 19
product corporate social responsibility 240-
advertising 269, 284 241
marketing 156 crisis communication 251-254
messages 20, 45 criteria for newsworthiness 245-247
publicity 203 definitions 19, 222, 225-227
production-orientated marketing 150- electronic media 242
151 functions of 234-237
professional advertising 272 goals 25, 28
professional organisational in government 238-239
communication history of 19, 223, 224-225
goals 25, 28 images and words 242
means 24, 27 magazines 244

493

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 Integrated Organisational Communication

as a management function 234 rational model of decision-making 100-

marketing 201-204 101
means 24, 27 reach of message 309, 467-468
media and 241-247 realised strategy 31
for external publics 242-244 recruitment advertising 271
for internal publics 241-242 reference groups and advertising 316
news agencies 243-244 refreezing and change 118-119
newspapers 243 regional advertising 273
in non-profit organisations 239-240 relationship-building role in personal
organisational activism 234 selling 192
Pick n Pay 254-255 relationship conflict 84
planning a campaign 247-251 relationship management theory of PR
as a power function 234 231-232
print media 241 relationship marketing 154-155
publics and their opinions 227-228 definitions 213
radio 244 perspective on IMC 212-215
scope of 23, 26 relationships and transactions 49
stakeholders 227-228 reputation management 225
strategic role of 237 research see organisational
television 244 communication research
theory 228-229 research proposals 400-404
Grunig and Hunt models 229-230 response advertising 270
postmodern critique 233-234 responsibility and strategic management
process approach 230 31-32
relationship management theory responsiveness and strategic management
231-232 31
systems approach 231 retail advertising 270-271
values-driven approach 232-233 reviewing communication integration 55
see also marketing public relations rhetoric 16
(MPR) rich media 104, 360
Public Relations Institute of South Africa risk assessment, public relations 251, 252
(PRISA) 226-227 RISK technique 420-421
puffery 283
purpose in advertising 269-271 S
push and pull mechanism 336 sales environment 194
online marketing 341-342, 342, 347 sales management 195-196
push and pull strategies 197 sales-orientated marketing 151
sales promotion 196
R categories of 196
radio definition 196
advertising 262, 308 importance and growth of 198-199
public relations 244 strategy 199-200
rational-economic model of decision- types and objectives 198
making 101 secondary media 468

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 Index

selective and primary demand advertising strategic management 30

269 responsibility 31-32
service messages 20, 45 responsiveness 31
seven Ps framework in marketing 158- value creation 30-31
159 strategic planning 32
situation analysis strategic role
advertising 321-322, 322 of communication 28
communication campaign 459-461 of public relations 237
marketing 161, 162 strategic thinking 32
SIVA in marketing 160 strategic vs operational decisions 100
SMS marketing 346 strategies and action plans, marketing
social auditing 398-399 163-164, 164
social class and advertising 316 strategy
social influence and communication business strategy 33-34
technology 103 communication 34-36
social information processing model defining 29-30
104-105 evaluation in research 413-414
social intervention 85 functional strategy 34
social marketing 154 levels of 33-34
social media content platforms 349-350 Mintzberg’s five Ps of 29
social media marketing 150, 348-350 operational strategy 34
creating strategy 350-352 strategy communication 34-35
social presence 103 supporting communication in a
social responsibility 31-32 campaign 470-471
social sciences 6
supportive communication in personal
social significance in news 246
selling 192
social support and marketing 215
survey research 413
socio-cultural environment 193, 460
SWOT analysis 49, 190, 248-249, 322
South African National Defence Force
symbolism, organisational 91
421-422
symbols and objects 11
SPACE analysis 190
symbols and organisational culture 93
split-half approach, research testing 406,
systems approach to public relations 231
406
systems theory 132-133
sponsorship
benefits 209-210
T
definitions 208-209
in IMC 208-211 target audience
online advertising 358 classification by 271-272
stakeholder approach to strategic identifying 458
management 31, 32 task processes 99
stakeholder relationship audit 435-436 teams
state of mind and advertising 317-319 communication 99
steering committees 55 definition 98
strategic communication objectives 464 see also under group
strategic consistency 49 technological environment 193
strategic decision-making 32-33 television

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 Integrated Organisational Communication

advertising 261, 262, 270, 308 Usenet 333

closed-circuit 242
markets 199 V
public relations 242, 244 value creation 30-31
Telnet 332-333 values 93
three-order hierarchy model of values-driven approach to PR 232-233
information processing in advertising Van Riel’s model, communication 428-
287 429
three-order paradigmatic consumer variety model of corporate identity 57
response model categorisation 285, Virgin Atlantic 386-387
285-288
three-step model of change 117-119, W
119
web-based commercial communication
timing of communication campaign
377
469-470
definition 377
top-down vs worker empowered decisions
integrated nature of 377-378
100
unique features of 378-379, 379-380
total quality management (TQM) 94-95,
websites 333
95
wheel networks 80, 80
trade advertising 272
wide area networks (WANs) 212
trade promotions 198
widgets 359
traditional sequential paradigm 285-286
World Wide Web (WWW) 332
transactional processes 99
transit advertising 307
X
triangulation in research 412-413
triple bottom line 32 X-PLOR Telecoms 142-143
trust and marketing 214-215
Y
U Y-networks 79, 79-80
unfreezing and change 117
uniformity model of corporate identity Z
57 zero-based planning 49-50
unplanned messages 20, 45-46
upward networks 77

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