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How to Learn English Grammar with Simple Steps
Table of Contents
1. How to Learn English Grammar
1.1 Learn Parts of Speech
1.1.1 Noun – a word that describes a place, thing or
person, for instance, “bank”.
1.1.2 Article – they precede nouns in a sentence. They
are “a”, “the”, “an”.
1.1.3 Verb – a word that describes an action, for instance,
“write”.
1.1.4 Pronoun – a word that can take the place of a
noun, for instance, “she”.
1.1.5 Adjective – modifies/describes a noun/pronoun, for
instance, “black”.
1.1.6 Adverb – modifies a verb or an adjective, for
instance, “clearly”.
1.1.7 Conjunction – joins to parts of a sentence, for
example “and”.
1.1.8 Preposition – used with noun/pronoun to create a
phrase that modifies other parts of speech, for
example, “down”.
1.1.9 Interjection – words that illustrate an emotional
state, for instance, “ouch”.

1.2 Learn Verb Tenses

1.2.1 Present Simple Tense.
1.2.2 Present Continuous Tense.
1.2.3 Present Perfect Tense.
1.2.4 Present Perfect Continuous Tense.
1.2.5 Past Simple Tense.
1.2.6 Past Continuous Tense.
1.2.7 Past Perfect Tense.
1.2.8 Past Perfect Continuous Tense.
1.2.9 Simple Future Tense.
1.2.10 Future Continuous Tense.
1.2.11 Future Perfect Tense.
1.2.12 Future Perfect Continuous.

1.3 Sentences, Phrases, and Clauses

1.4 Conditionals, Reported speech, Passive voice, Quantifiers
and Determiners
1.5 Basic Grammar Rules: English Sentence Structure
1.6 Learn to Write Numbers and Punctuation Marks
2. Grammar Lessons
3. Grammar Video Lessons

Page 1 of 191
Parts of Speech

In the English language, there are eight different parts of speech and each
one serves its own purpose. Without them, we would not be able to form
coherent sentence and so it is important that we are familiar with what each
of them are. In these images, we are going to look at each of the different
parts of speech, what they are used for and some examples of how they
work within a sentence.

Page 2 of 191
Page 3 of 191
Page 4 of 191
The Noun (n.)
A noun is a word which gives a name to something, in some cases you
might hear them referred to as a ‘naming word.’ There are various different
subcategories of nouns such as the proper noun, the collective noun, the
possessive noun and the common noun. Each one of these serves a different
purpose, let’s look at this a little more closely.

Noun Examples:

Jeffrey, Korea, pen, New Year, dog, cat, elephant, garden, school, work,
music, town, Manila, teacher, farmer, Bob, Sean, Michael, police officer,
France, coffee, football, danger, happiness…

Noun example sentences:

 The teacher told the children to stop chattering in class.

 John is good at French but weak at History.

The Proper Noun

The proper noun is used to name a specific item, for example the names of
places or people or perhaps a movie or song title.
 The capital of England is London.
 Sarah is beautiful.

The Collective Noun

A collective noun is used to refer to a group of nouns, for example people or
animal groups.
 The swarm of bees were headed straight towards our picnic.
 At church on Sunday, the choir sings loudly.

The Possessive Noun

A possessive noun is used to show ownership of something, this is done by
adding an apostrophe and an s, like in the following examples.
 This is my dog’s ball.
 That is Sarah’s friend.

The Common Noun

A common noun is the most simple form of a noun and gives a name to an
item.
 Here is a cup.
 Do you want a cake?

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The Quick Answer
What are nouns?
A noun is a word for a person, place, or thing. Everything we can see or talk about
is represented by a word that names it. That "naming" word is called a noun.

Nouns
A noun is a word for a person, place, or thing. Everything we can see or talk about
is represented by a word that names it. That "naming" word is called a noun.

Often a noun will be the name for something we can touch

(e.g., lion, cake, computer), but sometimes a noun will be the name for something
we cannot touch (e.g., bravery, mile, joy).

Everything is represented by a word that lets us talk about it. This includes people
(e.g., man, scientist), animals (e.g., dog, lizard), places (e.g., town, street),
objects (e.g., vase, pencil), substances (e.g., copper, glass), qualities
(e.g., heroism, sorrow), actions (e.g., swimming, dancing), and measures
(e.g., inch, ounce).

Easy Examples of Nouns

 People: soldier, Alan, cousin, lawyer
 Animals: aardvark, rat, shark, Mickey
 Places: house, London, factory, shelter
 Things: table, London Bridge, chisel, nitrogen, month, inch, cooking
 Ideas: confusion, kindness, faith, Theory of Relativity, joy

Page 6 of 191
Common Nouns and Proper Nouns
A noun can be categorized as either a common noun or a proper noun.

 Common Noun. A common noun is the word used for a class of

person, place, or thing (e.g., person, city, dog).
 Proper Noun. A proper noun is the given name of a person, place,
or thing, i.e., its own name (e.g., Michael, New York, Rover).
(Note: A proper noun always starts with a capital letter.)

The difference between common nouns and proper nouns becomes clearer
when they're listed side by side.

Common Noun Proper Noun

boy David

sailor Adam

lawyer Sarah

mother-in-law Janice

town Milton Keynes

bridge The Golden Gate Bridge

tower Eifel Tower

street Honeysuckle Crescent

cat Fido

monkey Bonzo

How To Spot a Common Noun and a Proper Noun

A common noun answers the question "What is it?"

A proper noun answers the question "What's its name?"

Q: What is it? A: It is a bridge.

(The word bridge is a common noun.)

Q: What's its name? A: It is London Bridge.

(The name London Bridge is a proper noun.)

Page 7 of 191
The Different Types of Nouns
A noun can usually be further categorized depending on its meaning (e.g., Is
it something tangible?) or its structure (e.g., Is it made up of more than one
word?). It is not unusual for a noun to fit into several noun categories. For
example, the common noun mother-in-law is a gender-specific noun (it's
always a female), a concrete noun (it's something you can perceive), a
countable noun (it's something you can count), and a compound noun (it's
made up of more than one word).

Below is a list of the different types of nouns with examples:

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are things you cannot see or touch. For example:

 bravery
 joy
 determination

Q: Who cares about abstract nouns?

A: Creative writers.

Many creative writers (particularly poets), consider abstract nouns "the

enemy." Even though abstract nouns cover many of the topics that poets
like to address (e.g., love, loss, sadness, loneliness), poets know that using
abstract nouns (e.g., I was in love; she felt loneliness) tells their readers
little. For creative writers, the challenge is often to capture these abstract
feelings using concrete nouns.

Read more about abstract nouns.

Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are things you can see or touch. For example:

 tree
 hammer
 cloud
Q: Who cares about concrete nouns?
A: Creative writers.

Creative writers like to capture abstract ideas using concrete nouns. Here is
an example of loss (an abstract noun) being conveyed with concrete nouns:

 It's not needed anymore, the lead that hangs inside the door, and
your bowl still scrapes the slated floor, when tapped by foot
instead paw.

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Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are words that denote groups. For example:

 team
 choir
 pack
Q: Who cares about collective nouns?
A: We all should.

Collective nouns can be treated as singular or plural. It depends on the

sense of your sentence. For example:

 The team is scheduled to arrive at 4 o'clock.

 The team are wearing different novelty hats.
Read more about treating collective nouns as singular and plural.

Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are nouns made up of more than one word. For example:

 court-martial
 pickpocket
 water bottle
Q: Who cares about compound nouns?
A: We all should.

We should all care for two reasons:

(1) Some compound nouns are two words (e.g., peace pipe), some are
hyphenated (e.g., play-off), and some have become single words
(e.g., eyeopener). And, many of them are currently transitioning through
those stages. Therefore, spelling compound nouns can be a nightmare.
(2) Some compound nouns form their plural by adding an s to the principal
word, not necessarily to the end (e.g., brothers-in-law).

Read more about compound nouns.

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Countable and Non-countable Nouns
A countable noun is a noun with both a singular and a plural form
(e.g., dog/dogs, pie/pies). A non-countable noun is a noun without a plural
form (e.g., oxygen, patience). For example:
These are countable:

 mountain (singular) / mountains (plural)

 fight / fights
 kiss / kisses
With no plural forms, these are non-countable:
 food (always singular)
 music (always singular)
 water (always singular)

Q: Who cares about countable and non-countable nouns?

A: We all should.

We should all care for two reasons:

1. Use fewer with plural nouns. Use less with singular nouns, but

use less with numbers when they quantify dates or measurements.
2. Use number of with plural nouns. Use amount of with singular nouns.
Use quantity of with either, especially if your concept is measurable
and you want to allude to accuracy in counting.

It can get quite technical, especially with point 2.

Gender-specific Nouns
Gender-specific nouns are nouns that are definitely male or female. For
example:
 king
 vixen
 actress
Q: Who cares about gender-specific nouns?
A: We all should.

Here are three points related to gender:

1. If you're unsure whether to use chairman or chairwomen, use chair.

(Many consider that chairperson and even chairwoman sound a bit
contrived.)
2. A blonde is a woman. A blond is a man.
3. Some people do not identify as male or female. Therefore, word choice
can be important.

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Gerunds
Gerunds are nouns that end -ing and that represent actions. Gerunds have
verb-like properties. For example (gerunds had shown in bold):

 happily building a tower
 quickly drawing the scene
 suddenly attacking the enemy
In the examples above, the gerunds are modified with adverbs and
have direct objects. These are verb-like traits. This is what differentiates
gerunds from verbal nouns. Let's dissect one more example:

 Gradually boiling the haggis is best.

(Here, the gerund boiling is modified by the adverb gradually and its
direct object is the haggis. Just like normal nouns, verbal nouns are
modified with adjectives, and they can't take direct objects.

Q: Who cares about gerunds?

A: We all should.

Gerunds are great for creating shorter, smoother sentences. For example:

 The quick development of the device is necessary for an

improvement in safety.
(There are no gerunds in this 13-word sentence, which is stuffy and
stilted.)

 Developing the device quickly is necessary for improving safety.

(There are two gerunds in this 9-word version, which flows better
and sounds more natural.)

Verbal Nouns
Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs. (Verbal nouns have no verb-like
properties.) For example (verbal nouns shown in bold):

 a good building
 a fine drawing
 an effective attack
In the examples above, the verbal nouns are shown with adjectives to
differentiate them from gerunds (which are often confused with verbal
nouns). Gerunds are modified with adverbs not adjectives. Let's dissect one
more example:

The ceremonial cutting of the cake has started.

(Like gerunds, verbal nouns are derived from verbs, but, unlike gerunds,
they have no verb-like properties. In this example, the verbal

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noun cutting is not showing any verb-like qualities. It is not modified by
a determiner and an adjective (the and ceremonial) and it requires
a preposition (of) to link it to the cake. In contrast, in the sentence
"Cutting the cake carefully is key," the word cutting (which, despite
being spelled the same, is now a gerund) is showing verb-like qualities.
More specifically, it is modified with an adverb (carefully) and has a
direct object (the chord).)

Q: Who cares about verbal nouns?

A: We all should.

Verbal nouns are usually preceded by a or an or the and followed by a

preposition (e.g., of, in, for). This makes them pretty inefficient from a
wordcount perspective. Also, a sentence with verbal nouns can often sound
stuffy. However, verbal nouns can give an air of formality or provide
emphasis. So, we should all care about verbal nouns for two reasons:

(1) Replacing verbal nouns with verbs and gerunds will reduce your
wordcount and improve sentence flow.

(2) Sentences featuring pure verbal nouns could portray you as stuffy (bad)
or authoritative (good). Employ them skilfully to tune to your needs.

More about Nouns (Noun Phrases)

It's quite rare to find a noun functioning by itself (i.e., without
any modifiers) in a sentence.

 Man proposes, but God disposes. (German canon Thomas à Kempis)

(This example features two nouns without any modifiers. That's
rare.)

In real life, it is far more common for a noun to be accompanied by

modifiers. Here's the first list of nouns again. This time, each noun
(highlighted) has at least one modifier.

 People: the soldier, my cousin, dopey Alan, the greedy lawyer

 Animals: that aardvark, one rat, a shark, funny Mickey
 Places: the house in the corner, inner London, dirty factory,
no shelter
 Things: this table, our London Bridge, the sharp chisel,
that nitrogen, last month, an inch, her cooking
 Ideas: utter confusion, some kindness, your faith, the Theory of
Relativity, a joy

Page 12 of 191
A noun with any sort of modifier (even it's just a or the) is called a noun
phrase. Like any noun, a noun phrase can function as a subject, an object,
or a complement within a sentence. In each example below, the noun
phrase is underlined and the head noun is shaded.

 Singing in the bath relaxes me.

(Here, the noun phrase is the subject of the verb relaxes.)

 I know the back streets.
(Here, the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb know.)

 She was the devil in disguise.

(Here, the noun phrase is a subject complement following the linking
verb was.)

As most nouns feature in noun phrases, let's look quickly at the definition
for "phrase."

Definition of "Phrase"
A phrase has at least two words and functions as one part of speech.

It follows therefore that a noun phrase functions as a noun in a sentence.

We can test this because we know that a noun can be replaced by a pronoun
(e.g., he, she, it, them). Looking at the examples above, we can replace
each noun phrase with a pronoun.

 It relaxes me.
 I know them.
 She was him.
Here are some real-life examples of noun phrases as subjects, objects, and
complements:

 This man has a nice smile, but he's got iron teeth. (Soviet Foreign

Minister Andrei Gromyko on Mikhail Gorbachev)
(This man is the subject of the verb has. The phrase a nice smile is
the direct object of has. The noun phrase iron teeth is the direct
object of the verb got. Here's the "pronoun test": He has one, but
he's got them.)

 I never learned from a man who agreed with me. (Science-fiction

writer Robert Heinlein)
(The noun phrase a man who agreed with me is the object of the
preposition from. Here's the "pronoun test": I never learned
from him.)

 Every man of courage is a man of his word. (French dramatist Pierre

Corneille)

Page 13 of 191
 (Every man of courage is the subject of the verb is. The noun
phrase a man of his word is a subject complement following
the linking verb is. Here's the "pronoun test": He is one.)

It can get quite complicated. It's not unusual for nouns and noun phrases to
be embedded within noun phrases. Looking at the last
example, courage and word are both nouns, but they are not the head
nouns of the phrases. They are both objects of the preposition "of," sitting
in prepositional phrases that modify the head nouns.

The last thing to say about noun phrases is that they can be headed by
pronouns as well as nouns, and they can be quite long.

 Anybody who wants the presidency so much that he'll spend two

years organizing and campaigning for it is not to be trusted with the
office. (Journalist David Broder)
(Here, anybody is a pronoun. The rest of the noun phrase is an
adjective clause modifying the head "noun". Here's the "pronoun
test": He is not to be trusted with the office.)

More about Nouns (Noun Clauses)

Let's look quickly at the definition for "clause".

Definition of "Clause"

A clause has a subject and a verb and functions as one part of speech.

It follows therefore that a noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence,

and that means we can apply the "pronoun test."

Lots of noun clauses start with that, how, or a "wh"-word

(e.g., what, who, which, when, where, why). Here are some easy examples.
In each example, the noun clause is underlined, the subject is shaded, and
the verb of the noun clause is bold.

 I know that the story is true.
 I saw how the accident happened.
 I understand why it was necessary.
 I know who said that.
(Often, the opening word (i.e., how, that or the "wh"-word) is the
subject of the noun clause.)

Like all nouns, a noun clause can function as a subject, an object, or

a complement within a sentence. In the four examples above, the noun

Page 14 of 191
clauses are all objects (direct objects). Here are some more easy examples
of noun clauses as subjects, objects, and complements.

 Whoever smelt it dealt it.
(Here, the noun clause is a subject.)

 My command is whatever you wish
(Here, the noun clause is a subject complement.)

 I will give what you said some thought.

(Here, the noun clause is an indirect object. That's pretty rare.)

Here are some real-life examples:

 That he believes his own story is remarkable. (Jerome Blattner)

(Here, the noun clause is the subject of the sentence. Starting a
sentence with a noun clause starting That is acceptable, but it grates
on lots of people's ears. Many writers prefer "The fact that…".)

 Light knows when you are looking at it. ("Light and space" artist

James Turrell)
(Here, the noun clause is the direct object of the verb knows.)

 It is a light thing for whoever keeps his foot outside trouble to

advise and counsel him that suffers. (Greek tragedian Aeschylus)
(Here, the noun clause is the object of a preposition (for).)

 My relationships are between me and whomever I am with, not

between me and the world. (Actress Lili Reinhart)
(Here, the noun clause is the object of a preposition (between).)

 Liberty means responsibility. That is why most men dread it.

(Playwright George Bernard Shaw)
(Here, the noun clause is a subject complement.)

A More Sophisticated Definition for "Noun"

Right, we started with defining a noun as a "naming word," and now we're
talking about nouns being clauses functioning as subjects, objects, or
complements. As grammarians like to talk about the functions of phrases
and clauses, let's summarize this page with a good test for spotting nouns:

A Great Test for Nouns

(regardless of whether they're single words, phrases, or clauses)

A noun is any word or group of words that could be replaced with a pronoun.

Page 15 of 191
Let's dissect one more example.

 A cynic is a man who looks around for a coffin when he smells
flowers. (Journalist H L Mencken)
The bold text in the example above is functioning as a noun (a subject
complement). As it includes subjects (who and he) and verbs
(looks and smells), you might think it meets the criteria to qualify as a noun
clause. It's not though. It's a noun phrase. Those subjects and the verbs
feature in the adjective clause who looks around for a coffin when he smells
flowers. (When he smells flowers is an adverbial clause embedded in the
adjective clause.) There are separate entries for adjective phrases and
clauses and adverbial phrases and clauses. Hey, if you can follow what's
going on in this example, you're well down the path between sentence
butcher and sentence surgeon.

Ad by Valueimpression

Why Should I Care about Nouns?

Most native English speakers can form noun phrases and noun clauses
without giving the grammar a second thought. So, if the truth be told,
understanding how they function isn't particularly useful unless you're
required to teach them or to compare them with similar structures in a
foreign language you're learning.

That said, here are four common issues associated with nouns.

(Issue 1) Only use capital letter with a proper noun.

Don't give a common noun (e.g., dog, brochure, mountain) a capital letter
just because it's an important word in your sentence. Only proper nouns
(e.g., Dexter, The Summer Brochure, Ben Nevis) get capital letters.

 Read the Instructions carefully. 

(Instructions is a common noun. It doesn't get a capital letter.)

(Issue 2) Treat a collective noun as singular, but go plural if the

context dictates.
It is normal to treat a collective noun as singular. However, if the context
highlights the individuals in the group, you can treat a collective noun as
plural.

 The group arrives before the audience. 

Page 16 of 191
 (Here, the verb is arrives not arrive because group is treated as
singular.)

 The group were out of time. 

(Here, the verb is were not was because group is treated as plural.
This might be preferable if the context puts the focus on the group's
individuals.)

To avoid making a decision on whether to go singular or plural, add a term

like members of and force the plural.

 The members of the group were out of time. 

(The word members becomes the head noun of the new noun
phrase.)

(Issue 3) When a noun phrase is the subject of a verb, ensure

subject-verb agreement with the head noun.
 The Spitfire's 9-yard belt of bullets give us the term "the full nine
yards." 
(The head noun in this noun phrase is belt. All the other words in
the noun phrase are modifiers. As belt is singular, the verb give is
wrong. It should be gives.)

Do not be tricked into agreeing the verb with the nearest noun
(here, bullets). When a noun phrase is the subject of a verb, the head noun
governs the verb.

Read more about subject-verb agreement

(Issue 4) Choose the right version of who and whom at the start of a

noun clause.
Who is the subject of a verb. Whom isn't. It's the same deal
with whoever and whomever. Let's play around with one of the examples
from above.

 My relationships are between me and whomever I'm with. 

(Here, whomever is the object of the preposition with.)

 My relationships are between me and whoever is interested. 

(Here, whoever is the subject of the verb is. Note that the
clause whoever is interested is the object of the
preposition between, but that doesn't mean
that whoever becomes whomever. If your whoever is the subject of
a verb, then whoever, not whomever, is correct.)

Page 17 of 191
 If this made no sense to you whatsoever, just go with who or whoever every
time. Firstly, they're more common, but, secondly, most grammarians agree
that whom and whomever are on their last legs in English. They're going the
same way as hither and thither.

Key Points
 "I need Water!" 
(It's an important word, but water is a common noun, so it doesn't
get a capital letter.)

 Treat words like group (i.e., collective nouns) as singular, but if the

focus is on the individuals in the group, go plural.
 When a noun phrase is the subject of a verb, don't let the modifiers
divert your eye from the head noun as it must govern the verb.

The Article (art.)

An article is a word used before a noun to modify the noun. “The” is called
the definite article and “a“, “an” are called the indefinite article.
Examples: 
An umbrella, the boy, the school, a mouse, an apple, an hour.
Article example sentences:

 I would like an apple.
 He was sitting in a chair.
 The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.


What Are Articles? (with Examples)

Articles (English Grammar)

The articles are the words "a," "an," and "the." They define whether
something is specific or unspecific. There are two types of article:

(1) The Definite Article (The). "The" is called the definite article. It

Page 18 of 191
defines its noun as something specific (e.g., something previously
mentioned or known, something unique, something being identified by the
speaker).

 This is the lake.
(This is a previously specified lake, i.e., one already known to the
readers.)

(2) The Indefinite Article (A, An). "A" and "an" are called the indefinite
articles. They define their noun as something unspecific (e.g., something
generic, something mentioned for the first time).

 This is a lake.
(This is a previously unspecified lake.)

Infographic Explaining the Two Types of Article

The Two Types of Article

Key Takeaway

"The" is called the definite article because it is used to indicate something

specific. "A and an" are called the indefinite articles because they are used
to indicate something unspecific.

Also of note, articles are classified as determiners. A determiner sits before

a noun to indicate quantity, possession, specificity, or definiteness.

Examples of the Definite and Indefinite Articles

Here are some more examples of the articles in use:

Page 19 of 191
  I fell over the chair again.
(The chair is specific. It is known to the audience.)

 Can you pass me a chair?

(This means an unspecific chair, i.e., any chair.)

 I loved the apple pie after the meal.

(In this example, the audience knows which apple pie is being
praised, e.g., the one at last night's dinner.)

 I love an apple pie after dinner.

(The audience understands that the speaker likes to eat an apple pie
after dinner (any apple pie will do).)

Articles Go before Adjectives

An article often modifies a noun that is already being modified by an
adjective. When this happens, the article goes before the adjective (or
adjectives). For example:

 Please open the small box first.

(Here, the noun box is being modified by the adjective small. The

definite article the sits before the adjective. Remember that the use
of the tells us that we are talking about a box already known to the
audience.)

 You will get an excellent pizza at Papa Antonio's.

(Here, the indefinite article an sits before the adjective excellent.)

Indefinite Articles Are Used with Singular Nouns

The indefinite article (a, an) is only for singular nouns. It is not used
for plural nouns.

As the indefinite article specifies one thing (e.g., a cup means one cup), it is

not used with non-countable nouns (e.g., water, air, integrity). For example:
 I need an air. 
 Play me a music. 
 Give me a heat. 
Most commonly, the indefinite determiner some is used instead.

Page 20 of 191
Articles Are Not Used with Possessive Determiners or Possessive
Pronouns
Articles are not used with possessive
determiners (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) or possessive
pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) as these already show that
something is specific. For example:

 Take me to the your leader. 

 Take me to your leader. 
 Can I borrow a yours? 
 Can I borrow yours? 

Why Should I Care about Articles?

Here are two common questions related to articles.

(Question 1) When Do You Use "An" and "A"?

The most common mistake involving articles is using "an" instead of "a" (or
vice versa). This mistake occurs because writers believe "an" is used before
a vowel and "a" before a consonant. That is not entirely accurate. "An" is
used before a vowel sound, and "a" is used before a consonant sound. The
word sound is important because consonants can create vowel sounds, and
vowels can create consonant sounds. Therefore, the use of "an" or "a" is
determined by the sound not the letter. Look at these examples:

 A house 
 An hour 
(House and hour start with the same three letters;
however, house attracts "a," and hour attracts "an." This is
because house starts with a consonant sound, but hour starts with a
vowel sound.)

 A uniform row 
 An unidentified man 
(Uniform and unidentified start with the same three letters;
however, uniform attracts "a," and unidentified attracts "an." This is
because uniform starts with a consonant sound (yoo),
but unidentified starts with a vowel sound.)

Be especially careful with abbreviations:

 An MOT 
(The letter "em" starts with a vowel sound.)

 An LRS 
(The letter "el" starts with a vowel sound.)

Page 21 of 191
  A US diplomat 
(The letter "yoo" starts with a consonant sound.)

(Question 2) Do you say "an historic moment" or "a historic

moment"?

The words historic, historical, historian, horrific, and even hotel are worthy

of special mention because they are often spoken and written with the
wrong version of the indefinite article. All of these words start with a
consonant sound, as soft as it might be. Therefore, their article is "a" not
"an."

 The attraction of power can be a disease, a horrific disease.   (Irish

actor Liam Cunningham)
 We owe an historic debt to American Indians. They have a unique
set of concerns that haven't been addressed.   (American politician
Alan Franken)
(An historic is wrong, but a unique is correct.)

Here are two other issues related to the articles.

(Issue 1) Writing a job title or an office name with a capital letter.

A job title (e.g., president, judge, director) or the name of an office
(parliament, court, accounts section) is given a capital letter when it refers
to a specific person or office, i.e., when it's a proper noun. So, when the
definite article (i.e., "the") appears before such a title or name, there's a
pretty good chance you'll need a capital letter.

Here's the guidance: If the job title or office name is being used for its
dictionary definition, i.e., as a common noun, then don't use a capital letter.
However, if the job title or office name nails it down to one specific person
or office, then use a capital letter. Look at these examples:

 The King was a king among kings. 

(The King specifies an individual, but a king and kings do not. The
first one is a proper noun. The other two are common nouns.)

 The Prime Minister said: "Being a prime minister is a lonely job...you

cannot lead from the crowd."   (Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher).
 (The Prime Minister specifies an individual, but a prime
minister does not.)

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(Issue 2) Capitalizing "The" when it starts a name (e.g., The
Beatles).
Some names (particularly band names) start with "The" (e.g., The
Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Sex Pistols). When such names appear in
running text, you have a choice whether to write "The" (with a capital letter)
or "the." There's no consensus among the leading style guides on this point,
so go with your preference.

 Did you download the The Clash album?

(Logically, this is correct, but it's far too unwieldy. No one would
write it. Most people would write "Did you download the Clash
album?".)

Bear in mind that you might stumble across this issue with foreign names.

 Gina Vitale: The restaurant is called "The La Trattoria."

 Michael Felgate: "The La Trattoria" means The The Trattoria.
 Gina Vitale: I know.
(This is an extract from the 1999 Hugh Grant film "Mickey Blue
Eyes." With more clarity of thought, the owner might have called the
restaurant "La Trattoria.")

 Does it disturb anyone else that "The Los Angeles Angels" baseball
team translates directly as "The The Angels Angels"? (Anon)
(There's no fix for this one. Just go with it.)

Key Points
 Use "an" before a vowel sound and "a" before a consonant sound.
(Note the word sound.)
 If you're drawn to "an historic" or "an horrific", give your aitches
more "huh" until you're comfortable with using "a."
 When a job title (e.g., ambassador) or an office name (e.g., finance
office) is preceded by "an" or "a" (as opposed to "the"), write it with
a lowercase letter.

Page 23 of 191
 The Verb (vb.)
A verb is one of the most important parts of speech and is a word which is
used to describe an action. There are three main types of verbs which are
detailed below.
Examples:

Walk, is, seem, realize, run, see, swim, stand, go, have, get, promise,

invite, listen, sing, sit, laughed, walk…
Verb example sentences:
 Don’t try to run before you can walk.
 Did you kiss anybody?
 Leave me alone!

The Action Verb

An action verb does exactly what you might expect, it describes an action.

 The man walked down the street.

 I laughed at his joke.

The Linking Verb

A linking verb is used to show a state of being rather than a physical action.
 Sarah feels cold.
 I am very tired.

The Modal Verb

A modal verb is used to ‘help’ the main verb and can show the speakers
thoughts or attitude about what they are saying. For example, words such
as might, must, could and can are all modal verbs.
 I might walk to the park this afternoon.
 He can eat the last slice of cake.

Page 24 of 191
 The Pronoun (pron.)
A pronoun is one which replaces a noun, and once again there are various
different types of pronouns within the English language. Each one is used in
a different way, let’s take a look at some examples of this.
Examples:

I, me, we, you, he, she, yours, himself, its, my, that, this, those, us, who,

whom
Pronoun example sentences:

 Richard isn’t at work this week; he‘s gone on holiday.

 Don’t tell her the truth.
 She tried it herself.
 You can’t blame him for everything.
 The woman who called yesterday wants to buy the house.
The Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is used to refer to self, for example myself or

yourself.
 I am going to keep this last cupcake for myself.
 Peter always puts himself first.

The Indefinite Pronoun
This type of pronoun is used to refer to a non specific person or item, you
might see words such as anything, few, everyone or all.

 Can you take all of these?

 I need to speak to someone about this rash on my arm.
The Possessive Pronoun

A possessive pronoun is used to show possession or ownership of

something, for example my, his, their or yours.
 Is this your bag?
 I have been looking after his daughter.
The Relative Pronoun

A relative pronoun is used to introduce an adjective clause. You might

recognise these as words such as who, which, that or whose.
 This is the woman who will be working with you.
 Is this the book that everyone is raving about?

Page 25 of 191
 What Are Pronouns? (with Examples)

The Quick Answer

Pronouns replace nouns. If we didn't have pronouns, we'd have to keep

repeating our nouns and that would make our sentences cumbersome and
repetitive. Pronouns are usually short words.

When most people think of pronouns, words like he, she, and they spring to

mind, but there are several different types of pronouns as shown in this
infographic:

Page 26 of 191
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun (or a noun phrase). For
example:

 Give a girl the right shoes, and she can conquer the world. (Actress

Marilyn Monroe)
(The pronoun she is used in place of a girl, which is a noun phrase.
Pronouns are primarily used to avoid repetition.)

Pronouns make sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive. For

example:

 Maria loves Saturday. It is the day she gets her pocket money.

(The pronoun it replaces Saturday. The pronoun she replaces Maria.
Pronouns are used for brevity. Imagine how wearisome a long prose
would be if writers used the full nouns every time.)

 The 8-mile walk passes through meadows and woodland. It takes

in many points of interest including the local airfield, which played
an important role during World War 2.
(The pronoun it replaces the 8-mile walk. The
pronoun which replaces the local airfield. Unlike the others we've
encountered so far, which isn't a personal pronoun. As you will see,

Page 27 of 191
 the term "pronoun" covers many words, some of which do not fall
easily under the description "words that replace nouns.")

For most of us, the pronouns that leap to mind upon hearing "pronoun" are
the personal pronouns (e.g., I, you, he, she, they), but these are just one
type of pronoun. There are nine types:

 Personal pronouns (e.g., he, they)

 Possessive pronouns (e.g., his, theirs)
 Relative pronouns (e.g., which, where)
 Demonstrative pronouns (e.g., this, these)
 Emphatic pronouns (e.g., itself, himself)
 Reflexive pronouns (e.g., itself, himself)
 Indefinite pronouns (e.g., none, several)
 Interrogative pronouns (e.g., which, who)
 Reciprocal pronouns (e.g., each other, one another)
Let's look at each type one at a time.

Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun takes the place of people or things. The personal pronouns
are I, you, he, she, it, we, and they.

 Man is what he believes. (Russian playwright Anton Chekhov)

(He takes the place of the noun man.)

We can't talk about pronouns without mentioning antecedents. The antecedent

of a pronoun is the thing represented by the pronoun. So, in the example
above, man is the antecedent of he. (In these examples, the pronouns are
shaded and the antecedents are bold.)

 My wife bought some batteries, but they weren't included. (Comedian

Steven Wright)
(Some batteries is the antecedent of the pronoun they.)
(NB: This quotation plays on the idea that batteries are never included
when power-powered items are bought.)

The personal pronouns above are all subjective personal pronouns because

they're the subjects of verbs. There's also the objective form of personal
pronouns (me, him, her, us, them). The objective form is used when the
pronoun is not the subject of a verb (e.g., when it's acted upon or when it
follows a preposition like in or near).

 Get the facts first, then distort them. (American author Mark Twain)

 Conscience is the only incorruptible thing about us. (Henry Fielding)
(Often, the antecedent is not mentioned but understood from context.
Here, the antecedent of us is the unstatedmankind.)

Page 28 of 191
Why Should I Care about Personal Pronouns?

Native English speakers nearly always use the correct personal pronouns, and there
are few serious mistakes associated with them, but here are two noteworthy
points.

(Point 1) The subjective pronoun "I" can't be the object of a verb or the object of a preposition.

 They found my wife and I under a snowdrift. 

(The subjective pronoun "I" must be the subject of a verb. Here, it's the
direct object of the verb found. It should read "They found my wife and
me." Of note, however, the term "my wife and me" grates on the ear of
most native English speakers, who prefer the word order "me and my
wife." This is also a factor in writers opting for "my wife and I," which for
many sounds more natural than "my wife and me.")

 I sent condolences from my wife and I. 

 Keep this between you and I. 
(The term "between you and I" is always wrong.)

(Point 2) This is good stuff for learning a foreign language.

Knowing personal-pronoun terminology will help with learning a foreign language.

If you're a native English speaker, whether you know it or not, you currently select
a personal pronoun having first determined its:

 Number. Is the personal pronoun representing something singular or

plural?
 Person. Is the personal pronoun representing something in the first
person, i.e, the speaker himself or a group that includes the speaker (I,
we), the second person, i.e., the speaker's audience (you), or the third
person, i.e., everybody else (he, she, it, they)?
 Gender. Is the personal pronoun representing something male, female or
neuter?
 Case. Is the personal pronoun functioning as a subject or an object?
So, when you say something as simple as "We like him," your brain has whipped
through that list twice, making eight decisions on personal pronouns. It's flash
processing. However, when you start learning a foreign language (particularly in
the classroom), this grammar processing is done far more consciously. If you
understand our grammar terms, you'll absorb their language mucho mas rapido.

Key Points
 Don't use a term like "my wife and I" unless it's the subject of a verb.
 Never say "between you and I."

Page 29 of 191
Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun shows possession. The possessive pronouns
are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs.

 I always check if the art across the street is better than mine. (Artist
Andy Warhol)
 Humans are the only animals that have children on purpose with the
exception of guppies, who like to eat theirs. (Satirist P J O'Rourke)
Be aware that my, your, his, her, its, our, and their (called possessive
adjectives in traditional grammar but possessive determiners in
contemporary grammar) can also be classified as pronouns because they too
replace nouns.

 Is that the Queen's hat? No, it's her crown.

(Her replaces the Queen. That's why it's classified as a pronoun.)

Ad by Valueimpression

Why Should I Care about Possessive Pronouns?

Don't put an apostrophe in yours, hers, ours, or theirs.

By far the most common mistake related to possessive pronouns is including

an apostrophe with yours, hers, ours, or theirs. There are no apostrophes in
any possessive pronouns.

 There are gods above gods. We have ours, and they have theirs.

That's what's known as infinity.   (French poet Jean Cocteau)
Key Point
 Don't put an apostrophe in yours, hers, ours, or theirs.

Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun introduces a clause that describes a noun. (The clause is
called an adjective clause.) The relative pronouns
are that, which, who, whom, and whose. The following relative pronouns
introduce adjective clauses (underlined) that provide information necessary
to identify their nouns. (Note that there are no commas.)

 Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change

the world. (President of South Africa Nelson Mandela)
 An atheist is a man who has no invisible means of support.
(Canadian politician John Buchan)
The following relative pronouns introduce adjective clauses that give
unnecessary but interesting information about their nouns. (Note that there
are commas.)

Page 30 of 191
  The United Nations, whose membership comprises almost all the
states in the world, is founded on the principle of the equal worth of
every human being. (UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan)
 The man Dickens, whom the world at large thought it knew, stood
for all the Victorian virtues even as his novels exposed the greed
and cruelty of the Victorian age. (Author Robert Gottlieb)
Why Should I Care about Relative Pronouns?

Here are the top five questions related to relative pronouns:

(Question 1) Do you put a comma before which or who?

The answer is sometimes yes and sometimes no. This applies to all relative
pronouns, not just which and who. (Actually, it doesn't apply to that, but
we'll cover that later.) Look at these two examples using who:

 The man who won last week’s lottery gave all his money to a donkey

sanctuary. 
 My neighbour, who won last week’s lottery, gave all his money to a
donkey sanctuary. 
These two sentences are nearly identical, but one has commas and one
doesn’t. It all depends whether the adjective clause (the underlined text)
specifies its noun. If it does (like in the first example, where it specifies the
man), then don’t use commas. If it doesn’t (like in the second example,
where it’s just additional information about my neighbour), then use
commas. Now look at this example:

 My neighbour who won last week’s lottery gave all his money to a

donkey sanctuary. 
This is also correct. This time the adjective clause is specifying my
neighbour. We’re now talking about my lottery-winning neighbour as
opposed to any neighbours who didn’t win the lottery. So, you have to think
carefully about whether an adjective clause specifies or doesn’t.

Good Tip

Treat the commas like brackets. If you’d happily put brackets around the
adjective clause, then use commas because the clause will just be additional
information. (Similarly, if you'd happily delete the clause, then it must be
just additional information.)

"That" is different. Lots of Americans, and increasingly Brits, insist on

using that instead of which without a comma (i.e., when which heads an
adjective clause that specifies its noun). Look at these examples:

Page 31 of 191
  The dog which bit the postman has returned.   (but Americans
would whinge)
 The dog that bit the postman has returned.   (for everybody)
Both are correct, but some find the top one a little awkward. (When a clause
specifies its noun, it's called a restrictive clause. When it’s just additional
information, it’s called a non-restrictive clause.)

So, which can head a restrictive adjective clause (without commas) or a

non-restrictive one (with commas), but, if you’re writing to Americans,
use that for the former.

 My dog gives a trust which / that is total. 

(Both options work for a restrictive adjective clause, but Americans
will hate which being used.)

 My dog gives total trust, which / that is very endearing. 

(Only which works with a non-restrictive adjective clause.)

Had the question been "Do you put a comma before that?", the answer
would've been quick. No.

 How can you govern a country which has 246 varieties of cheese? 

(Charles De Gaulle)
(This translation of De Gaulle's quotation is fine, but for many "that"
would've read better.)

Here's a real-life example:

 War should only be declared by the authority of the

people, whose toils and treasures are to support its burdens, instead
of the government which is to reap its fruits.   (US President
Madison)
(The first adjective clause is non-restrictive (just "additional
information" about the people). The second is restrictive (specifies
the government). Get it?)

Using a comma before a word like which is not an aesthetics thing. It's not a
fly-by-the-seat-of-your pants thing. It's a depends-on-the-intended-
meaning thing.

(Question 2) Can you use whose for inanimate things?

Yes. Who is used for people. Which is used for things. Whose is used for

people and things.

 Never go to a doctor whose office plants have died.   (Author Erma

Bombeck)

Page 32 of 191
 (Whose has been used with a person. That's normal.)

 An invasion of armies can be resisted, but not an idea whose time

has come.   (French poet Victor Hugo)
(Whose has been used with something inanimate (idea). That's
acceptable.)

(Question 3) When do you use whom?

Here's the rule: Use who when it’s the subject of verb (the verb is shown in
bold), otherwise use whom.

 Never lend your car to anyone who calls you mum. 

(Who is the subject of the verb calls.)

 Never lend your car to anyone whom you have given birth to.   

(Author Erma Bombeck)
(Whom is not the subject of a verb. You is.)

Many consider whom to be an obsolete word. So, if you're unsure whether

to use who or whom, use who.

(Question 4) Can you use that for people?

That, like whose, can be used for people or things.

 The dog that bit the postman. 

 The postman that bit the dog.  (but not popular)
Try to use who instead of that with people (especially in formal writing).
Some of your readers might find that with people a little uncouth.

(Question 5) What's the difference between whose and who's?

Who's is a contraction. It is short for who is or who has. If you can't expand

your who's to one of those, then use whose.

 A weed is a plant who's virtues have never been discovered.   

(should be whose)

Key Point
 If you'd happily put your adjective clause in brackets, then it doesn't
specify its noun. Offset it with commas.

Page 33 of 191
Demonstrative Pronouns
The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. A
demonstrative pronoun can refer to something previously mentioned or to
something in the speaker's surroundings (e.g., something being pointed at
by the speaker).

 Those are my principles, and if you don't like them...well, I have

others. (Groucho Marx)
 Some people get so rich they lose all respect for humanity. That is
how rich I want to be. (Comedian Rita Rudner)
Why Should I Care about Demonstrative Pronouns?

When using a demonstrative pronoun, make sure your link to

its antecedent is obvious. Typically in writing, the antecedent of a
demonstrative pronoun is close by in the previous text. In these two
examples, the links to the antecedents (shown in bold) are not ambiguous.

 My court case isn't a trial. This is a lynching. (Pathologist Jack

Kevorkian)
 Liberty means responsibility. That is why most men dread it.
(Playwright George Bernard Shaw)
(The whole previous sentence, i.e., the idea, is the antecedent of
That.)

You must ensure your demonstrative pronoun's antecedent is clear. Let's

imagine George Bernard Shaw had written this instead:

 Liberty means responsibility. That is what most men dread.   

(ambiguous)
(Is the antecedent of that the whole idea as before? It's now less
clear because the antecedent could be liberty or responsibility.)

Here's another example with an ambiguous antecedent:

 The next intake of recruits will receive four presentations on the new
procedures. These are scheduled to start in mid-August.   
(ambiguous)
(The antecedent of these is ambiguous. It could be the recruits, the
presentations, or the procedures.)

Such ambiguity occurs because a writer knows what the antecedent is and
assumes others will spot it with the same clarity. (Unfortunately though,
that clarity doesn't always shine through the words.) Ambiguity most often
occurs when a writer has expressed a multi-component idea and then starts
a sentence with a term like This means…, This explains…, or This is why….

Page 34 of 191
If you find yourself starting a sentence this way, ask yourself a question
like What means?, What explains?, or What is why?. If the answer doesn’t
leap out at you, you should consider a rewrite or a demonstrative
determiner and a noun to spell it out more clearly.

 The next intake of recruits will receive four presentations on the new
procedures. These presentations are scheduled to start in mid-
August.   (clearer)
(Using These presentations (a demonstrative determiner and a
noun) makes it clear what These refers to.)

Key Point
 If your sentence starts with something like This is…, make sure it's
clear what This refers to.

Emphatic Pronouns
An emphatic pronoun is paired with another noun or pronoun (shown in
bold) to emphasise it. The emphatic pronouns
are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
and themselves.

 The Queen herself attended the party.

(The Queen is the noun being emphasised. The Queen is the
antecedent of herself.)

 Nothing is impossible for the man who doesn't have to do it himself.

("Weiler's Law")
 Learn from others' mistakes. You won't live long enough to make
them all yourself. (Anon)
Why Should I Care about Emphatic Pronouns?

Using an emphatic pronoun is far slicker than bolding a word, WRITING IT

IN UPPERCASE LETTERS, or underlining it. Yuk! When speaking, you can
emphasize a word with your voice, so there's an alternative to using an
emphatic pronoun. In writing, however, the alternatives are often unwieldy
or ambiguous.An emphatic pronoun just provides emphasis, but that's a
pretty important job. It's often the reason the sentence exists.

 She will attend the reception drinks herself.

Note than an emphatic pronoun can be removed from a sentence without
affecting the sentence's core meaning.

Key Point
 Emphatic pronouns emphasize. That itself is a good reason to learn
about them.

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Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun is paired with another noun or pronoun to show it is acting on
itself. They have a different function to emphatic pronouns, but they're the same
words (myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
and themselves). In these examples, the subject (in bold) is the antecedent of the
reflexive pronoun.

 Alison does not trust herself.

 I often quote myself. It adds spice to my conversation. (Playwright George
Bernard Shaw)
 If the world blew itself up, the last voice would an expert's saying it's
impossible. (Actor Peter Ustinov)
Why Should I Care about Reflexive Pronouns?

"You" can't do something to "myself"; only "I" can. The most common mistake
involving reflexive pronouns is using one when the subject of the verb is not doing
something to itself. (In these examples, the subjects, which are also the
antecedents of the reflexive pronouns) are shown in bold.)

 He did it to myself. 
 I did it to myself. 
 He did it to himself. 
Most often, writers make this mistake because they think myself sounds more
formal than me.

 He insulted the doctor and myself. 

 Please pass any comments to the director or myself. 
(This example has the implied subject "you", i.e., "Please [will you] pass
any comments…". See also imperative sentence.)

Here are better versions:

 He insulted the me and the doctor.

 Please pass any comments to me or the director.
(Note how "me" now comes first. If it didn't, these sentences would sound
awkward, and that also contributes to writers going for "myself.")

Here's the issue. The antecedent of "myself" is always "I." If "I" isn't doing
something to "myself," then "myself" is wrong. Ironically, lots of people who
mistakenly use "myself," "yourself," etc. do so believing a reflexive pronoun sounds
more highbrow than the correct personal pronoun ("me," "you," etc.).

Oh, and don't write hisself…ever. It's himself.

Key Point
 "Myself" and "yourself" are not posh versions of "me" and "you." (Only "I"
can touch "myself.")

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Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun refers to a person or a thing without being specific.
The most common indefinite pronouns
are any, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, ma
ny, no one, nobody, none, several, some, somebody, and someone.

 A classic is something that everybody wants to have read

and nobody wants to read. (Writer Mark Twain)
 I don't know anything about music. In my line, you don't have to.
(Singer Elvis Presley)
Do not confuse indefinite pronouns with indefinite determiners (also called
quantifiers or, in traditional grammar, indefinite adjectives). Here's the
difference: An indefinite pronoun stands alone. An indefinite determiner
modifies a noun or a pronoun. Here are some examples with indefinite
determiners (bold) and indefinite pronouns (shaded).

 Some people have so much respect for their superiors they

have none left for themselves. (Playwright George Bernard Shaw)
 Each one of us alone is worth nothing. (Revolutionary Che Guevara)
(Indefinite determiners can even modify indefinite pronouns.)

More about Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural. Here's a list:

 Always Singular. another, anybody, anyone, anything, each,

either, enough, everybody, everyone, everything, less, little, much,
neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone,
and something.
 Always Plural. both, few, fewer, many, others, and several.
 Singular or Plural. all, any, more, most, none, some, and such.
Ad by Valueimpression

Why Should I Care about Indefinite Pronouns?

There are four common issues related to indefinite pronouns.

(Issue 1) None can be singular or plural.

Your retiring English teacher might tell you that none is always singular, but
that's outdated. None can be singular or plural.

 None of the students is expected to get an A. 

 None of the students are expected to get As or Bs. 
If your none best translates as not one of, go singular. If it best
translates not any of, go plural. That's the usual advice given, but it's not
great because not any of sounds awkward, which steers writers away from

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going plural with none. Here's some more-useful advice. Follow your
instincts, but, if you're still unsure, go singular.

There's another factor. If you find yourself treating none as singular with a

singular they or their (see Issue 4), go plural throughout.

 None of the students has done their homework.   (untidy)

(None is singular (hence has). Using their is acceptable, but it's
untidy.)

 None of the students have done their homework.   (tidy)

(None is plural (hence have). Using their is natural. This is tidy.)

(Issue 2) Either and neither are singular.

Even though the pronouns either and neither naturally refer to two things,

treat them as singular.

 Either of the brothers are welcome to attend. 

(Either is singular. It should be "is welcome to attend.")

 Men's anger about religion is like two men quarrelling over a

lady neither of them care for.   (1st Earl of Halifax Edward Wood)
(Neither is singular. It should be "neither of them cares for.")

(Issue 3) Some indefinite pronouns (e.g., all, some) can be singular or plural.

The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, and some are singular when

they refer to something singular but plural when they refer to something
plural.

 More of them were needed. 
(Them is plural; therefore, were is correct.)

 More of it was needed. 
(It is singular; therefore, was is correct.)

This point gets a little more complicated when the indefinite pronoun is used
with a collective noun (e.g., crowd, team).

 Most of the crowd is leaving. 

 Most of the crowd are waving their national flags. 
When used with a collective noun, an indefinite pronoun is singular if you
envisage it representing a single body but plural if you envisage it
representing individuals.

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(Issue 4) Words like someone and anyone (i.e., singular indefinite
pronouns that represent people) are gender neutral, but it's not
always easy to keep that neutrality.
The singular indefinite pronouns that represent people
(e.g., anyone, each, everyone, no one, nobody, someone) are gender
neutral. However, many other singular pronouns used for people
(e.g., his, her, he, she) aren't gender neutral. We have the gender
neutral it and its, but they're not used for people. It's a gap in English
grammar, and it can cause problems.

 No one knows what he can do till he tries. (Latin writer Publilius

Syrus)
(Why he? This also applies to women.)

 From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.

(Revolutionary Karl Marx)
(Why his?)

This problem is easy to fix. There are two good options:

(Option 1) Reword and go "all plural."

 People don't know what they can do till they try. 

(Option 2) Treat they and their as singular. 

 From each according to their abilities, to each according

to their needs.   (acceptable)

Key Points
 None can be singular or plural. Follow your instincts.
 Either and neither are singular. Don't follow your instincts.

Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. The interrogative pronouns
are what, which, who, whom, and whose.

 Which is worse, failing or never trying?

 What is originality? Undetected plagiarism. (Dean of St Paul's Cathedral
William Inge)
The other, less common interrogative pronouns are the same as the ones above
but with the suffix -ever or -
soever (e.g., whatever, whichever, whatsoever, whichsoever). They're used for
emphasis or to show surprise.

 Whatever did you say?

 Whomsoever did you find?

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The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is the answer to the question.

Interrogative pronouns can also be used to create indirect questions (underlined).

 Do you know what this is?

(The interrogative pronoun what heads an indirect question in a question.)

 I want to know what this is.

(Here, what heads an indirect question in a statement.)

Do not confuse interrogative pronouns with interrogative determiners

(called interrogative adjectives in traditional grammar), which look the same as
interrogative pronouns.

 Which feat is the greater?

(This is not an interrogative pronoun. It's an interrogative determiner. The
word Which modifies feat. Therefore, it's a determiner.)

Also, do not confuse interrogative pronouns with interrogative

adverbs (how, when, why, where), which are also used to ask questions.
Interrogative adverbs ask about the time, place, reason, or manner an action
occurs. (In these examples, the action, i.e., the verb, is shown in bold.)

 When will the game start?
 Why is common sense seldom common practice? (Eliyahu Goldratt)
How is also used to ask about amounts, quantities, and degrees.

 How much coke have you got?
 How many skittles have you eaten?
Let's unpick this example:

 Who are you and how did you get in here?

 I'm a locksmith. And...I'm a locksmith. (from the TV series "Police
Squad!")
(The answer to the interrogative pronoun who is the noun phrase a
locksmith. The answer to the interrogative adverb how is the, albeit
unstated, adverbial phrase by virtue of being a locksmith. The answer to a
question starting with an interrogative pronoun will be a noun, typically a
person, place, or thing. The answer to an interrogative adverb will be an
adverb, typically words that specify a time, place, reason, or manner.)

Interrogative determiners and adverbs have been included here because

they too have antecedents (the answers to the questions they ask). Like
some other determiners, that makes them pretty pronouny (or pronominal,
as they say).

Why Should I Care about Interrogative Pronouns?

Mistakes involving interrogatives (pronouns, determiners or adverbs) are

rare, but here are two reasons to think about them.

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(Reason 1) Punctuating sentences correctly.

Only questions get question marks. It sounds obvious, but it's not uncommon for
writers to use a question mark at the end of a non-question featuring an indirect
question (underlined).

 Please tell me who told you? 

(This is not a question. It's a statement. It should end in a period (full
stop).)

Before using a question mark, make sure the sentence is a question.

 Can you tell me who told you? 

(Reason 2) Creating rhetorical questions.

Interrogatives can be used to ask a rhetorical question (a question for which no

answer is expected). Posing a rhetorical question is an efficient and engaging way
of making a point or introducing a new idea.

 What is a weed? A weed is a plant whose virtues have never been

discovered. (American poet Ralph Waldo Emerson)
Rhetorical questions are also useful for making a point in a non-antagonistic or
diplomatic way.

 Do Europe's royal families pay their way?

Key Points
 A sentence featuring an indirect question might not be a question, so
careful with those question marks.
 Is a question a good way to introduce a topic?
Reciprocal Pronouns

A reciprocal pronoun is used to express a mutual action or relationship. The

reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.

 When two people are like each other, they tend to like each other.

(Author Tony Robbins)
 Gentlemen don't read each other's mail. (US Secretary of War Henry
Stimson)
 Laws, like houses, lean on one another. (Statesman Edmund Burke)
Why Should I Care about Reciprocal Pronouns?

There are two common questions related to reciprocal pronouns?

(Question 1) Do you write each others' or each other's?

Write each other's and one another's. (In other words, put the apostrophe

before the s when you need the possessive form.)

 We drink one another's healths and spoil our own. (Author Jerome K

Jerome)

Page 41 of 191
Even though a reciprocal pronoun refers to two or more things, the
possessive form is created by adding 's (i.e., like for the possessive form of
a singular noun). Some writers, sensing the plurality of a reciprocal
pronoun, feel an urge to place the apostrophe after the s (i.e., like for the
possessive form of a plural noun). Whatever. The apostrophe goes before
the s.

(Question 2) What's the difference between each other and one another?

When the antecedent of a reciprocal pronoun is two things, use each other.

When it's more than two things, use one another.

 My dog and cat love each other. 

 My dog, cat, and emu love one another. 
Under this ruling, the following quotation is wrong:

 I think a couple should complete one another, not compete

with one another.   (Singer Marie Osmond)
It's a little more complicated than that because it depends on what the
writer had in mind:

 Friends are kind to one another's dreams.   (for lots of friends)

 Friends are kind to each other's dreams.   (for two friends)
 Old and young disbelieve one another's truths.   (Aphorist Mason
Cooley)
(Each other could be justified if you think of two discrete groups and
not lots of individuals.)

If you're picked up for writing each other instead of one another, you might

be able to defend your each other by claiming you had two people (or
things) in mind. If you're picked up for writing one another with an
antecedent of two, you're toast. Moreover, if you're picked up for either,
you're dealing with a grammar pedant.

Key Point
 Write each other's and one another's (not each others' and one
anothers').

Page 42 of 191
 Types of Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun in a sentence. Pronouns are used to avoid repeating the
same nouns over and over again. For example, "Jeremy ran so fast, you'd think his life was on
the line." The pronoun "his" saved us from repeating the name Jeremy again.
Common pronouns include I, me, mine, she, he, it, we, and us. In truth, there are many different
types of pronouns, each serving a different purpose.

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are used as a substitute for a person's name. There are two kinds: subjective
and objective pronouns. That is, they either act as the subject of the sentence or the object of the
sentence.
As the subject of a sentence, they are:
 I
 you
 he
 she
 it
 we
 they

For example:

 They went to the store.

 I don't want to leave.
 He runs a great shop in town.
 You can't leave, either.
As the object of the sentence, they are:
 me
 you
 her
 him
 it
 us
 them

Page 43 of 191
 For example:

 Please don't sit beside me.

 Go talk to her.
 Mary put the gift under it.
 Don't look at them.
For more, check out Subject Versus Object Pronouns.

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns show ownership or possession of a noun. They are:
 my
 our
 your
 his
 her
 its (note there is no apostrophe)
 their

For example:

 Is that my book?
 No, that's his book.
 That's its shelf.
 I'd like to see their bookshelves.
However, there are also independent possessive pronouns. These pronouns
refer to a previously named or understood noun. They stand alone and aren't
followed by any other noun. They are:
 mine
 ours
 yours
 his
 hers
 its
 theirs

For example:

 That's mine.
 Wrong. It's ours.

Page 44 of 191
 So, I suppose those clothes are yours?
 No, it's theirs.

Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns don't point to particular nouns. We use them when an
object doesn't need to be specifically identified. As such, it can remain
indefinite. They include:
 few
 everyone
 all
 some
 anything
 nobody

For example:

 Most wealth is held by a select few.

 Everyone is here already.
 I don't have any paper napkins. Can you bring some?
 He's nobody.

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or
pronoun. We often see them when we need to add more information. They
are:
 who
 whom
 which
 whoever
 whomever
 whichever
 that

For example:

Page 45 of 191
 The driver who ran the stop sign was careless.
 I don't know which pair of shoes you want.
 Take whichever ones you want.
 No, not that one.

Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns emphasize, or intensify, nouns and pronouns. Typically,
we find them right after the noun they're intensifying. These pronouns typically
end in -self or -selves. They are:
 myself
 himself
 herself
 themselves
 itself
 yourself
 yourselves
 ourselves

For example:

 I myself like to travel.
 He himself is his worst critic.
 She approved the marriage herself.
 We went to hear W.B. Yeats himself speak.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns take the place of a noun that's already been
mentioned. They can be singular or plural. There are five of them. They
include:
 these
 those
 this
 that
 such

Page 46 of 191
 For example:

 These are ugly.
 Those are lovely.
 Don't drink this.
 Such was his understanding.

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns do just what they say. They work in sentences that are
posing a question. They are:
 who
 whom
 which
 what
 whoever
 whomever
 whichever
 whatever

For example:

 Who is going to arrive first?

 What are you bringing to the party?
 Which of these do you like better?
 Whatever do you mean?

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are similar to intensive pronouns. The difference between
the two is that intensive pronouns aren't essential to a sentence's meaning.
Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are. Also, they're used when the subject and
the object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing. These pronouns
end in -self or -selves. They are:
 myself
 yourself
 himself

Page 47 of 191
 herself
 itself
 ourselves
 yourselves
 themselves

For example:

 I told myself not to spend all my money on new shoes.

 You're going to have to drive yourself to the restaurant today.
 We gave ourselves plenty of extra time.
 They bought themselves a new car.

A Pronoun-Testing Paragraph
See if you can locate all the pronouns in this paragraph:

No matter what your teachers may have taught you about pronouns, they
don't always have it right. If your teachers ever warned you about the evils of
gambling, however, they were right about that. You don't want someone
breaking your kneecaps with his crowbar; it will hurt, the police might arrest
you, and you may never forgive yourself.

Answers:
(Pronouns in bold)
No matter what your teachers may have taught you about
pronouns, they don't always have it right. If your teachers ever
warned you about the evils of gambling, however, they were right
about that. You don't want someone breaking your kneecaps
with his crowbar; it will hurt, the police might arrest you, and you may never
forgive yourself.

Page 48 of 191
 Pronoun Proficiency
Who knew there were so many hidden depths to "he," "she," "it," "they" and
other pronouns? Interesting, right? Pronouns are multi-taskers, working busily
to point us in different directions, freeing us from the catastrophe of repeated
nouns.

Allow your pronoun knowledge to continue unfolding with these free pronoun

worksheets. Then, see how you do in this handy pronoun quiz!

The Adjective (adj.)

An adjective is a word which describes a noun or pronoun, there are
thousands of adjectives within the English language.
Examples:

Beautiful, seven, cute, second, tall, blue, angry, brave, careful, healthy,

little, old, generous, red, smart, two, small, tall, some, good, big, useful,
interesting…
Brown dog, red car, tall boy, fat cat, big garden.
Adjective example sentences:
 This is a blue car.
 The small squirrel ran up the tree.
 During the thunderstorm, we saw some heavy rain.
 My mother has short hair.
 The documentary on TV last night was very interesting.
 My son has an impressive collection of toy soldiers.
 The weather is hot and sunny today.
 My vacation was exciting.
 The leaves on that tree are green and large.

Page 49 of 191
 What Are Adjectives?

The Quick Answer

Adjectives are describing words.

Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. (Old, green, and cheerful are
examples of adjectives.)

Easy Examples of Adjectives

In each example, the adjective is highlighted.

An adjective usually comes directly before the noun or pronoun it describes

(or modifies, as they say).

 old man
 green coat
 cheerful one
Page 50 of 191
(When adjectives are used like this, they're called attributive adjectives.)

An adjective can come after the noun.

 Jack was old.
 It looks green.
(Adjectives can describe – or modify – pronouns too.)

 He seems cheerful.
In the three examples above, the adjectives have followed linking
verbs (was, looks, and seems) to describe the noun or pronoun. (When
adjectives are used like this, they're called predicative adjectives.)

Sometimes, an adjective comes immediately after a noun.

 the Princess Royal
 time immemorial
 body beautiful
 the best seats available
 the worst manners imaginable
When adjectives are used like this, they're called postpositive adjectives.
Postpositive adjectives are most common with pronouns.

 someone interesting
 those present
 something evil

A descriptive adjective will usual fit into one of the following categories:

Category Example

Appearance attractive, burly, clean, dusty

Colour azure, blue, cyan, dark

Condition absent, broken, careful, dead

Personality annoying, brave, complex, dizzy

Quantity ample, bountiful, countless, deficient

Page 51 of 191
Sense aromatic, bitter, cold, deafening

Size and Shape angular, broad, circular, deep

Time ancient, brief, concurrent, daily

More about Adjectives

The Transition from Adjectives to "Determiners"

For centuries, the term "adjective" has been used for a word type now
called determiners. Determiners are still classified as adjectives by most
people but not everyone [evidence]. Determiners indicate qualities such as
the following:

 Possession (e.g., my dog)
 Specificity (e.g., that dog)
 Quantity (e.g., one dog)
 Definiteness (e.g., a dog)
Regardless of whether you classify determiners as adjectives, this much is
true: determiners are not like descriptive adjectives. Here are the four main
differences between determiners and normal adjectives:

(Difference 1) A determiner cannot have a comparative form.

 Normal adjective: pretty > prettier

(Prettier is the comparative form of pretty.)

 Determiner: that > [nothing fits here]

(There is no comparative form.)

(Difference 2) A determiner often cannot be removed from the

sentence.

 Normal adjectives removed: The young boy stole a silver watch. 

(This is grammatically sound with the normal adjectives removed.)

 Determiner: The Young boy stole a silver watch. 

(The sentence is flawed with the determiners removed.)

(Difference 3) A determiner often refers back to something (i.e., it's

like a pronoun).

 Determiner: Release those prisoners immediately.

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 (The determiner those refers back to something previously mentioned. In
other words, it has an antecedent (the thing it refers to).)

(Difference 4) A determiner cannot be used as a subject

complement.

 Normal adjective: She is intelligent.

(The normal adjective intelligent can be used after a linking verb (here, is)
and function as a subject complement.)

 Determiner: She is [nothing fits here].

(You can't use a determiner as a subject complement. NB: If you think
you've found a determiner that fits, then you've found a pronoun not a
determiner.)

Below is a brief description of the main determiners. (There is a separate page on

each one.)

Possessive Determiners. The possessive determiners (called "possessive

adjectives" in traditional grammar) are my, your, his, her, its, our, their,
and whose. A possessive determiner sits before a noun (or a pronoun) to show who
(or what) owns it.

 When a man opens a car door for his wife, it's either a new car or a new
wife. (Prince Philip)
 The only time a wife listens to her husband is when he's asleep.
(Cartoonist Chuck Jones)
Read more about possessive determiners/adjectives.

Demonstrative Determiners. The demonstrative determiners (called

"demonstrative adjectives" in traditional grammar) are this, that, these,
and those. A demonstrative determiner makes a noun (or a pronoun) more
specific by relating it to something previously mentioned or something being
demonstrated.

 That man's silence is wonderful to listen to. (Novelist Thomas Hardy)

 Maybe this world is another planet's hell. (Writer Aldous Huxley)
Read more about demonstrative determiners/adjectives.

Articles. The articles are the words a, an, and the. They are used to define
whether something is specific or unspecific.

 The poets are only the interpreters of the gods. (Philosopher

Socrates)
 I'm an optimist – but an optimist who carries a raincoat. (Prime
Minister Harold Wilson)

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Read more about the articles.

Numbers (or Cardinal Numbers). The cardinal numbers

are one, two, three, etc. (as opposed by first, second, third, etc., which are
known as ordinal numbers). Cardinal numbers are used to specify quantity.
They are part of the group of determiners known as "quantifiers."

 If two wrongs don't make a right, try three wrongs. (Canadian

educator Laurence Peter)
 One loyal friend is worth ten thousand relatives. (Greek Tragedian
Euripides)
Read more about "quantifiers" on the determiners page.

Indefinite Determiners. The most common indefinite determiners (called

"indefinite adjectives" in traditional grammar)
are no, any, many, few, several, and some. Indefinite determiners modify
nouns in a non-specific way usually relating to quantity. Like numbers, they
are part of the group of determiners known as "quantifiers."

 If you live to be one hundred, you've got it made. Very few people

die past that age. (Comedian George Burns)
 If this is coffee, please bring me some tea; but if this is tea, please
bring me some coffee. (US President Abraham Lincoln)
Read more about indefinite determiners/adjectives.

Interrogative Determiners. The most common interrogative determiners

(called "interrogative adjectives" in traditional grammar) are which, what,
and whose. They are used to ask questions.

 If you decide that you're indecisive, which one are you?

 What hair colour do they put on bald person's driving licence?
Read more about interrogative determiners/adjectives.

Nouns Used as Adjectives

Many words that are usually nouns can function as adjectives. For example:

 autumn colours
 boat race
 computer shop
 Devon cream
 electricity board
 fruit fly
Here are some real-life examples:

 Not all face masks are created equal. (Entrepreneur Hannah

Bronfman)

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  You cannot make a revolution with silk gloves. (Premier Joseph
Stalin)
When used like adjectives, nouns are known as attributive nouns.

Participles Used as Adjectives

Formed from a verb, a participle is a word that can be used as an adjective.
There are two types of participle:

 The present participle (ending -ing)

 The past participle (usually ending -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n)
Here are some examples of participles as verbs:

 The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds

new discoveries, is not "Eureka!" but "That's funny." (Writer Isaac
Asimov)
 Always be wary of any helpful item that weighs less than
its operating manual. (Author Terry Pratchett)
 While the spoken word can travel faster, you can't take it home in
your hand. Only the written word can be absorbed wholly at the
convenience of the reader. (Educator Kingman Brewster)
 We all have friends and loved ones who say 60 is the new 30. No,
it's the new 60. (Fashion model Iman)
A participle is classified as a verbal (a verb form that functions as a noun or
an adjective).

Infinitives Used as Adjectives

An infinitive verb (e.g., to run, to jump) can also function as an adjective.

 No human creature can give orders to love. (French novelist George

Sand) (Here, the infinitive to love describes the noun orders.)
 Progress is man's ability to complicate simplicity. (Norwegian
adventurer Thor Heyerdahl)
(An infinitive will often head its own phrase. Here, the infinitive
phrase to complicate simplicity describes the noun ability.)

Read more about infinitive verbs.

The Order of Adjectives

When two or more adjectives are strung together, they should be ordered
according to the following list:

Orde Category Examples

r

1 Determiner the, my, those

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 2 Number one, two, ninety-nine

3 Opinion lovely, attractive, rare

4 Size small, medium, large

5 Physical Quality thin, lumpy, cluttered

6 Shape round, square, triangular

7 Age young, middle-aged, old

8 Colour red, white, blue

9 Origin British, German, Russian

10 Material wood, metal, plastic

11 Type L-shaped, two-sided, all-purpose

12 Purpose cooking, supporting, tendering

13 Attributive Noun service, improvement, head

Here is an example of a 14-adjective string (shaded) that is ordered

correctly:

 My two lovely XL thin tubular new white Spanish metallic hinged

correcting knee braces.
Regardless of how many adjectives are used (more than 3 is rare), the
established order is still followed.

 That's a lovely, mixing bowl

(1: Determiner 2: Opinion 3: Purpose)

 Who's nicked my two black, wooden spoons?

(1: Number 2: Colour 3: Material)

 Give your ticket to the Italian old waiter. 

(Age comes before origin. Therefore, the old Italian waiter would
have been better.)

This list of precedence is not universally agreed, but all versions are pretty
similar. The area of most dispute is age and shape. The order can change
for emphasis too. If there were two old waiters, one Italian and one
Spanish, then the wrong example above would be correct, and the
word Italian would be emphasised.

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If you're a native English speaker, you are safe to ignore this list and let
your instinct guide you. (You already know this stuff, even if you don't know
you know it.)

Compound Adjectives
Not all adjectives are single words...far from it. Often, a single adjective will
comprise two or more words. A single adjective with more than one word is
called a compound adjective. For example:

 Happiness is having a large, loving, caring, close-knit family in

another city. (Comedian George Burns)
 Be a good-looking corpse. Leave a good-looking tattoo. (Actor Ed
Westwick)
 I like the busted-nose look. (Actor Peter Dinklage)
Compound adjectives are usually grouped with hyphens to show they are
one adjective.

Adjective Phrases
In real-life sentences, adjectives are often accompanied
by modifiers like adverbs (e.g., very, extremely) and prepositional
phrases (e.g., ...with me, ...about the man). In other words, an adjective
(shown in bold) will often feature in an adjective phrase (shaded).

 My bankers are very happy with me. (The popstar formerly known

as Prince)
(In this example, the adjective phrase describes bankers.)

 The dragonfly is an exceptionally beautiful insect but a fierce

carnivore.
(Here, the adjective phrase describes insect.)

Here's a more formal definition:

Formal Definition for Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase is a group of words headed by an adjective that

describes a noun.

Read more about adjective phrases.

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Adjective Clauses
The last thing to say about adjectives is that clauses can also function as
adjectives. With an adjective clause, the clause is linked to the noun being
described with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that or which) or a
relative adverb (when, where or why). Like all clauses, it will have a subject
and a verb.

 The people who make history are not the people who make it but

the people who make it and then write about it. (Musician Julian
Cope)

 I live in that solitude which is painful in youth but delicious in the
years of maturity. (Physicist Albert Einstein)
(It can start getting complicated. In the adjective clause
above, painful in youth and delicious in the years of maturity are
adjective phrases.)

Here's a formal definition:

Formal Definition for Adjective Clause

An adjective clause is a multiword adjective that includes a subject and a verb.

Why Should I Care about Adjectives?

This section covers a lot of adjective-associated terms, most of which have their own pages that
highlight their quirks and issues. Below are six top-level points linked to adjectives.

(Point 1) Reduce your wordcount with the right adjective.

Try to avoid using words like very and extremely to modify adjectives. Pick better adjectives.
 very happy boy   > delighted boy 
 very angry   > livid 
 extremely posh hotel   > luxurious hotel 
 really serious look   > stern look 
The examples above are not wrong, but they are not succinct. The best writing is precise and concise.

(Point 2) Reduce your wordcount by removing adjectives.

Picking the right noun can eliminate the need for an adjective.

 whaling ship   > whaler 

 disorderly crowd   > mob 
 organized political dissenting group   > faction 
You can also reduce your wordcount by removing redundant adjectives.

 joint cooperation   > cooperation 

 necessary requirement   > requirement 
 handwritten manuscript   > manuscript 

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The examples above are not wrong, but they are not succinct. The needless repetition of a single
concept is known as tautology.

(Point 3) Avoid incomprehensible strings of "adjectives."

In business writing (especially with technical subjects), it is not unusual to encounter strings of
attributive nouns. In each example below, the attributive-noun string is shaded.

 Factor in the service level agreement completion time.   (difficult to understand)

 Engineers will install the email retrieval process improvement software.   (difficult)
 He heads the network services provision team.   (difficult)
 The system needs a remote encryption setting reset.   (difficult)
Noun strings like these are difficult to follow. If you use one, you will almost certainly bring the
reading flow of your readers to a screeching halt as they stop to unpick the meaning, or, worse, they'll
zone out and skim over your words without understanding them.

To avoid such barely intelligible noun strings, do one or all of the following:

 Completely rearrange the sentence.

 Convert one of the nouns to a verb.
 Use hyphens to highlight the compound adjectives.
Here are the reworked sentences:

 Factor in the time to complete the service-level agreement.   (better)

 Engineers will install the software to improve the email-retrieval process.   (better)
 He heads the team providing network services.   (better)
 The system needs a reset of the remote-encryption setting.   (better)
(Point 4) Punctuate your string of adjectives correctly.
With a string of adjectives, it's pretty difficult to mess up the punctuation because the rules are
relaxed.

For two adjectives:

 vast, inhospitable moor (with a comma) 

 vast and inhospitable moor (with and) 
 vast inhospitable moor (with nothing) 
For three or more adjectives:

 vast, inhospitable, windy moor (commas between) 

 vast, inhospitable and windy moor (comma(s) between and then and) 
(Those who use the Oxford Comma should stick a comma before and.) 

 vast inhospitable windy moor (nothing between) 

 vast inhospitable and windy moor (nothing and then and) 
When the string of adjectives is used predicatively, switch to normal writing rules.

 The moor is vast and inhospitable. 

 The moor is vast, inhospitable and windy. 
Adjectives that modify the same noun are called coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives should
follow the precedence list above. Be careful with the precedence list though because not all adjectives
in a string of adjectives are coordinate. It's fairly common for one of the adjectives and the noun to
be inseparable because they belong together as a single semantic unit (a recognised thing).

 A Chinese wooden guitar. 

 A wooden Spanish guitar. 
(As a Spanish guitar is a thing, Spanish doesn't take its place according to the precedence
list. It can't be separated from guitar.)

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  I was given a Chinese incapacitating drug. 
 I was given an incapacitating Chinese burn. 
(A Chinese burn is thing. Never heard of it? Ask the school bully.)

Don't think about it too much. Just follow your instincts. You'll get it right.

(Point 5) Don't complete a linking verb with an adverb.

Most writers correctly use an adjective after a linking verb.

 It tastes nice. It smells nice. It seems nice. By Jove, it is nice. 

There's an issue though. For some, the linking verb to feel doesn't feel like a linking verb and,
knowing that adverbs modify verbs, they use an adverb.

 I feel badly for letting you down. 

(Badly is an adverb. It should be bad.)

This error happens with other linking verbs too, but it's most common with to feel.

 Bad service and food tasted awfully.   (Title of an online restaurant review by "Vanessa")

(Awfully is an adverb. It should be awful.)

(Point 6) Use postpositive adjectives for emphasis.

Putting an adjective immediately after a noun (i.e., using the adjective postpositively) is a technique
for creating emphasis. (The deliberately changing of normal word order for emphasis is
called anastrophe. There's an entry for anastrophe.)

 I suppressed my thoughts sinful and revengeful. 

 The sea stormy and perilous steadily proceeded. 
Key Points
 Go concise by going precise.
 Improve sentence flow by avoiding long attributive-noun strings.
 Don't say you feel badly unless you're bad at feeling stuff.
 Use an adjective postpositively to create a thought everlasting.

The Adverb (adv.)

An adverb is used to modify, or further explain an adjective, verb or another adverb. They
can add more information to a sentence making it more clear and easier for the listener to
imagine what is being described in detail. Most of the time, adverbs will end in the letters -
ly but there are some exceptions to this rule such as the words very and never.
Examples:

Neatly, in the market, every day, tomorrow, very, badly, fully, carefully, hardly, nearly,

hungrily, never, quickly, silently, well, really, almost…
Adverb example sentences:

 This is an extremely attractive photograph.

 I have a very large pet dog.
 My car drives quickly.
 When I am running late for work, I eat my breakfast rapidly.
 The boy is crying loudly.
 She carefully preserved all his letters.

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 What Are Adverbs?

The Quick Answer

What Is an Adverb?
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
For example:

 She swims quickly.
(Here, the adverb quickly modifies the verb swims.)

 She is an extremely quick swimmer.

(Here, the adverb extremely modifies the adjective quick.)

 She swims extremely quickly.
(Here, the adverb extremely modifies the adverb quickly.)

When an adverb modifies a verb, it usually tells us how, when, where, how
often, and how much the action is performed. Here are some examples of
adverbs modifying verbs:

 How: He ran quickly.
 When: He ran yesterday.

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  Where: He ran here.
 How often: He ran daily.
 How much: He ran fastest.
In the examples above, every adverb is a single word, but an adverb can be
made up of more than one word. For example:

 How: He ran at 10 miles per hour.

 When: He ran when the police arrived.
 Where: He ran to the shops.
 How often: He ran every day.
 How much: He ran quicker than me.
Read more about adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses.

Adverbs
At school, you may have been told that adverbs end -ly and modify verbs.
That is all true, but adverbs do far more than that description suggests.

Adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs. Although many
adverbs end -ly, lots do not
(e.g., fast, never, well, very, most, least, more, less, now, far, and there).

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Adverbs Modifying Verbs
An adverb that modifies a verb usually tells you when, where, how, in what
manner, or to what extent the action is performed. (NB: The ones that
end ly are usually the ones that tell us how the action is performed,
e.g., quickly, slowly, carefully, quietly.)

Here are some examples of adverbs modifying verbs:

 Anita placed the vase carefully on the shelf.

(The word carefully is an adverb. It shows how the vase was
placed.)

 Tara walks gracefully.
(The word gracefully is an adverb. It modifies the verb to walk.)

 He runs fast.
(The word fast is an adverb. It modifies the verb to run.)

 You can set your watch by him. He always leaves at 5 o'clock.

(The word always is an adverb. It modifies the verb to leave.)

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 The dinner guests arrived early.
(Here, early modifies to arrive.)

 She sometimes helps us.
(Here, sometimes modifies to help.)

 Will you come quietly, or do I have to use earplugs? (Comedian

Spike Milligan)
(Here, quietly modifies to come.)

 I am the only person in the world I should like to know thoroughly.

(Oscar Wilde)
(Here, thoroughly modifies to know.)

Adverbs Modifying Adjectives

If you examine the word adverb, you could be forgiven for thinking adverbs
only modify verbs (i.e., "add" to "verbs"), but adverbs can also modify
adjectives and other adverbs. Here are some examples of adverbs modifying
adjectives:

 The horridly grotesque gargoyle was undamaged by the debris.

(The adverb horridly modifies the adjective grotesque.)

 Peter had an extremely ashen face.

(The adverb extremely modifies the adjective ashen.)

 Badly trained dogs that fail the test will become pets.

(The adverb badly modifies the adjective trained.)
(Note: The adjective trained is an adjective formed from the verb to
train. It is called a participle.)

 She wore a beautifully designed dress.

(The adverb beautifully modifies the adjective designed.)

Adverbs Modifying Adverbs

Here are some examples of adverbs modifying adverbs:

 Peter Jackson finished his assignment remarkably quickly.

(The adverb quickly modifies the verb to finish. The
adverb remarkably modifies the adverb quickly.)

 We're showing kids a world that is very scantily populated with

women and female characters. They should see female characters
taking up half the planet, which we do. (Actress Geena Davis)
(The adverb scantily modifies the adjective populated. The
adverb very modifies the adverb scantily.)

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More about Adverbs
When an adverb modifies a verb, it can often be categorized as one of the
following:

Type Examples

Adverb of Manner An adverb of manner tells us how an action occurs.

(how)
 The lion crawled stealthily.
 Will you come quietly, or do I have to use
earplugs? (Comedian Spike Milligan)
(NB: Lots of adverbs of manner end -ly.)

Adverb of Time An adverb of time tells us when an action occurs or how

(when and how often.
often)
 I tell him daily.
 What you plant now, you will harvest later.
(Author Og Mandino)
(NB: Adverbs of time that tell us how often something
occurs (e.g., always, often, sometimes) are also known as
"adverbs of frequency.")

Adverb of Place An adverb of place tells us where an action occurs.

(where)
 I did not put it there.
 Poetry surrounds us everywhere, but putting it on
paper is, alas, not so easy as looking at it. (Artist
Vincent Van Gogh)

Adverb of Degree An adverb of degree tells us to what degree an action

(aka Adverb of occurs.
Comparison)
(how much)  He works smarter.
 Doubters make me work harder to prove them
wrong. (Businessman Derek Jeter)
These are the main four categories. We'll discuss the others in a bit. Don't
forget that adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs.

 To expect the unexpected shows a thoroughly modern intellect.

(Playwright Oscar Wilde)
(The adverb thoroughly modifies the adjective modern.)

 If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing very slowly. (Burlesque

entertainer Gypsy Rose Lee)
(The adverb very modifies the adverb slowly.)

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Even More about Adverbs
In all the examples above, the adverbs have been single words, but multi-
word adverbs are common too. Adverbs commonly come as phrases (i.e.,
two or more words) or clauses (i.e., two or more words containing a subject
and a verb). Below are some examples of multi-word adverbs. This list also
includes adverbs of condition, adverbs of concession, and adverbs of reason.

Type Examples

Adverb of Manner An adverb of manner often starts with

a preposition (e.g., in, with) or one of the
following: as, like, or the way. (These are
called subordinating conjunctions.)

 Money speaks, but it speaks with a male voice.

(Author Andrea Dworkin)
(This is called a prepositional phrase. It's also an
adverbial phase.)

 People who say they sleep like a baby does usually

don't have one. (Psychologist Leo J. Burke)

Adverb of Time An adverb of time often starts with a preposition or one of

the following subordinating conjunctions: after, as, as long
as, as soon as, before, no sooner than, since, until, when,
or while.

 A company like Gucci can lose millions in a second.

(Gucci CEO Marco Bizzarri)
 After the game has finished, the king and pawn go
into the same box. (Italian proverb)

Adverb of Place An adverb of place often starts with a preposition or one of

the following subordinating
conjunctions: anywhere, everywhere, where, or wherever.

 Opera is when a guy gets stabbed in the back and,

instead of bleeding, he sings. (Ed Gardner)
 Some cause happiness wherever they go;
others whenever they go. (Playwright Oscar Wilde)

Adverb of Degree An adverb of degree often starts with one of the following
(aka Adverb of subordinating conjunctions: than, as...as, so...as,
Comparison) or the...the.

 Nothing is so contagious as enthusiasm. (Poet

Samuel Taylor Coleridge)
 Be what you are. This is the first step toward

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 becoming better than you are. (Writer Julius
Charles Hare)
Read more about comparatives of adverbs (like more
cleverly).

Adverbs of An adverb of condition tells us the condition needed before

Condition the main idea comes into effect. An adverb of condition
often starts with if or unless.

 If the facts don't fit the theory, change the facts.

(Theoretical physicist Albert Einstein)
 Age doesn't matter, unless you're a cheese.
(Filmmaker Luis Bunuel)

Adverbs of An adverb of concession contrasts with the main idea. An

Concession adverb of concession often starts with a subordinating
conjunction like though, although, even
though, while, whereas, or even if.

 Although golf was originally restricted to wealthy,

overweight Protestants, today it's open to anybody who
owns hideous clothing. (Comedian Dave Barry)

 A loud voice cannot compete with a clear voice, even if

it's a whisper. (Writer Barry Neil Kaufman)

Adverbs of Reason An adverb of reason gives a reason for the main idea. An
adverb of reason usually starts with a subordinating
conjunction like as, because, given, or since.

 I don't have a bank account because I don't know

my mother's maiden name. (Comedian Paula
Poundstone)
 Since we cannot change reality, let us change the
eyes which see reality. (Greek author Nikos
Kazantzakis)

Why Should I Care about Adverbs?

At school, you may have been told that an adverb is a word that ends -
ly and tells us how a verb is performed. Yes, that does describe an adverb,
but it doesn't describe all adverbs, as we've seen. Here are the six most
common issues related to adverbs.

(Issue 1) Use adverbs ending -ly sparingly.

Professional writers (particularly fiction writers) don't like adverbs that end -ly.
They consider them unnecessary clutter. If you were to attend a fiction-writing

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course, you would be taught to craft words that render -ly adverbs redundant. On
that course, you would undoubtedly be shown this quote:

 The road to hell is paved with adverbs. (Author Stephen King)

As Stephen King advocates, if you choose the right verb or the right dialogue, you
don't need an adverb. Compare these two examples:

 Extremely annoyed, she stared menacingly at her rival.

(Critics on that course would trash this.)

 Infuriated, she glared at her rival.

(This is far sharper.)

Here are the three good reasons to kill a -ly adverb:

(1) The adverb is a tautology (i.e., needless repetition of an idea).

 She smiled happily.
(2) The adverb is "spoon feeding" the reader.

 She smiled disappointedly.
(By the time your readers reach this sentence, they should know from
context that it's a disappointed smile. The trick is to show them, not
literally tell them, that she's disappointed. It's far more engaging. Less is
more.)

Spoon-feeding with an adverb happens most commonly with verbs like said, stated,
and shouted (known as verbs of attribution).

 "Ow, pack that in," Rachel shrieked angrily.

(You can scrap the adverb if it's implicit from the dialogue or context.)

(3) The adverb is only there because of a badly chosen verb.

 Sitting dejectedly in its cage, the parrot looked utterly unhappy.

(This would cause a click-fest as those critics armed their red pens.)

 Looking miserable, the parrot lay on the floor of its cage.

(This is sharper. Your readers will know that parrots don't ordinarily lie on
the floor.)

Avoiding adverbs is a self-imposed restraint that many writers follow. It's like a
game. Upon completing their work, professional writers will often do a text search
for "ly " (note the space) to find adverbs and to re-justify their use before
submission. Remember though that if your adverb is part of the story, keep it.

 Your son is surprisingly handsome.

(Issue 2) Delete very and extremely.
Professional writers hate adverbs such as extremely, really,
and very (called intensifiers). For them, using an intensifier demonstrates a

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limited vocabulary. It's a fair point. If you choose the right words, you can
avoid intensifiers.

Don't write… Go for something like…

very bad atrocious

extremely hungry ravenous

really old ancient

incredibly tired exhausted

Many writers assert that intensifiers are so useless, you should delete them
even if you can't find a more descriptive word.

 Ireland is great for the spirit but very bad for the body. (Actor Hugh
Dancy)
(The deletion kills a word but no meaning.)

Writer Mark Twain shared this view:

 Substitute "damn" every time you're inclined to write "very". Your

editor will delete it, and the writing will be just as it should be.
Here's a good tip. Press "CTRL H". Put "very" in the Find box. Put nothing in
the Replace box. Click Replace All.

(Issue 3) When an adverb modifies an adjective, don't join them

with a hyphen.
When an adverb modifies an adjective, don't join the two with a hyphen.

 I don't sleep with happily married men. (Actress Britt Ekland) 

 Ironically, he described himself as "a professionally-qualified
grammarian". 
(Don't join the adverb and the adjective with a hyphen.)

Remember that not all adverbs end -ly.

 The beginning is the most-important part of the work.   (translation

of Greek philosopher Plato)
As covered next, this no-hyphen rule applies only to adverbs that are
obviously adverbs (e.g., ones that end -ly).

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(Issue 4) When an adverb that could feasibly be an adjective
modifies an adjective, use a hyphen.
A few adverbs (e.g., well and fast) look like adjectives. To make it clear your
adverb is not an adjective, you can link it to the adjective it's modifying with
a hyphen. The hyphen says "these two words are one entity," making it
clear they're not two adjectives.

 She's a well-known dog. 

(The hyphen makes it clear that the dog is famous (i.e., well-known)
as opposed to well (i.e., healthy) and known (i.e., familiar).)

 He sold me six fast-growing carp.

(The hyphen makes it clear the carp are ones that grow quickly and
not growing ones that can swim quickly.)

This issue crops up occasionally with well, and well is almost never used as

an adjective (meaning healthy) in a chain of other adjectives. So, in real life,
there's almost never any ambiguity caused by these adjectivey-looking
adverbs. Therefore, the following rule will cover 99% of situations: use a
hyphen with well when it precedes an adjective.

 It's a well-known tactic. 

(This is not really about avoiding ambiguity. It's more about
protecting readers from a reading-flow stutter caused by the
feasibility of ambiguity.)

 It's a widely known tactic. 

(Don't use a hyphen with normal adverbs. They don't cause reading-
flow stutters.)

Read about hyphens in compound adjectives.

(Issue 5) Make it clear what your adverb is modifying.

Whenever you use an adverb (a single-word or multi-word one), do a quick
check to ensure it's obvious what it refers to. Here are some examples of
badly placed adverbs.

 Singing quickly improved his stammer.

(It's unclear whether quickly modifies singing or improved. This is
called a squinting modifier.)

 Peter told us after Christmas that he plans to diet.

(Here, after Christmas sits grammatically with told but logically with
plans. This is called a misplaced modifier.)

 I recorded the hedgehog feeding its hoglets cautiously.

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 (It's unclear whether cautiously modifies recorded or feeding.)

Usually a badly placed modifier can be fixed by putting it nearer to the verb
it's modifying. (The top two examples can be fixed by moving the shaded
text to the end. The third can be fixed by moving cautiously either to the left
of recorded or to the left of feeding, depending on the intended
meaning.) Read more about squinting modifiers.
Read more about misplaced modifiers.

It's worth mentioning limiting modifiers (e.g., hardly, nearly, only) because

these commonly create logic flaws or ambiguity.

 I only eat candy on Halloween. No lie. (Actor Michael Trevino) 

(Logically, this means all he does on Halloween is eat candy;
therefore, he doesn't work, sleep, or drink on that day. In everyday
speech, we all get away with misplacing only, but we should try to
be more precise in our writing.)

 I eat candy only on Halloween.

(This is sharper. As a rule of thumb, the best place for only is never
to the left of a verb.)

The two examples below are correct, but they mean different things.

 Lee copied nearly all 10 of your answers.

(This tells us Lee copied most of the answers.)

 Lee nearly copied all 10 of your answers.

(Here, Lee might have copied none to nine.)

It's worth spending a second to ensure your limiting modifiers are well

positioned.

(Issue 6) Use a comma after a fronted adverbial.

When an adverbial phrase or clause is at the start of a sentence, it is usual
to follow it with a comma.

 In colonial America, lobster was often served to prisoners because it

was so cheap and plentiful.
 One April day in 1930, the BBC reported, "There is no news."
 If you're called Brad Thor, people expect you to be 6 foot 4 with
muscles. (Author Brad Thor)
When the adverbial is at the back, the comma can be left out. Each of these
could be re-written without comma and with the shaded text at the end.

When the adverbial is at the front, it's not a serious crime to omit the

Page 71 of 191
comma, but you should use one because it aids reading. When the adverbial
is short (one or two words), your readers won't need helping, so you're safe
to scrap the comma if you think it looks unwieldy.

 Yesterday I was a dog. Today I'm a dog. Tomorrow I'll probably still

be a dog. Sigh! There's so little hope for advancement. (Cartoonist
Charles M. Schulz via Snoopy)
Read more about adverbial phrases.
Read more about adverbial clauses.

Key Points
 Try to render adverbs ending -ly redundant with better word choice.
 Have you used very? Yes? Delete it.
 Don't join an adverb to an adjective unless that adverb is well.
 Put your adverbs close to what they're modifying and far from what
they're not.

The Conjunction (conj.)

A conjunction is used as a way of joining two or more ideas or words
together. Most commonly you will see the words for, and, not, but, or, yet
and so used as a conjunction.
Examples:

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 And, however, still, but, or, so, after, since, before, either, neither, because,
unless…
Conjunction example sentences:

 My boyfriend and I are going on a date.

 I will go to the shop but not before I have had something to eat.
 This is a gift for my friend.
 I was tired yet I still went to the gym.

What Are Conjunctions?

Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. There
are three types of conjunctions:

 Coordinating Conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions join like

with like (i.e., they join a noun with another noun, an adjective with
another adjective, etc.). The most common ones are and, but,
and or. There are seven in total: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
(You can remember them using the mnemonic F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.)

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  Subordinating Conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions
join subordinate clauses to main clauses. Common examples
are although, because, if, since, unless, until, and while.
 Correlative Conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions are used in
pairs to join alternatives or equal elements. The most common pairs
are either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.


Easy Examples of Conjunctions

Here are some examples of coordinating conjunctions (shaded):

 The comment was blunt but effective.

(The conjunction joins two adjectives.)

 Familiarity breeds contempt and children.

(The conjunction joins two nouns.)

Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions:

 We'll stay in the car until the hail stops.

 I'm leaving if Lee starts telling us about that bass again.
Here are some examples of correlative conjunctions:

 I could neither laugh nor cry.
 She was not only smart but also beautiful.

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Real-Life Examples of Coordinating Conjunctions
Here are some real-life examples of coordinating conjunctions (shaded):

 If a man should challenge me to a duel, I would take him

kindly and forgivingly by the hand and lead him to a quiet place to
kill him. (Writer Mark Twain)
(Here, the first conjunction joins two adverbs (kindly and
forgivingly). The second joins two verbs (take and lead).)

 The best solutions are often simple yet unexpected. (Rock musician

Julian Casablancas)
 He is richest who is content with the least, for content is the wealth
of nature. (Greek philosopher Socrates)
Read more about coordinating conjunctions.

Real-Life Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions

The role of the subordinating conjunction and subordinate clause is to
establish a time, a place, a reason, a condition or a concession for the main
clause. Below are some real-life examples of subordinating conjunctions. (In
these examples, the subordinating conjunctions are highlighted and the
subordinate clause is bolded.)

 I find television very educating. Every time somebody turns on

the set, I go into the other room and read a book. (Comedian
Groucho Marx)
(The subordinate clause establishes a time for the main clause.)

 Wherever the art of medicine is loved, there is also a love of

humanity. (Greek physician Hippocrates)
(The subordinate clause establishes a place for the main clause.)

 People are more violently opposed to fur than leather because it's

safer to harass rich women than motorcycle gangs.
(The subordinate clause establishes a reason for the main clause.)

 Man is ready to die for an idea, provided that idea is not quite

clear to him. (Author Paul Eldridge)
(The subordinate clause establishes a condition for the main clause.)

 I'm always ready to learn, although I do not always like being

taught. (Sir Winston Churchill)
(The subordinate clause establishes a concession for the main
clause.)

When a sentence has a main clause (also called an independent clause) and
at least one subordinate clause (also called a dependent clause), it is known
as a complex sentence.

Page 75 of 191
Real-Life Examples of Correlative Conjunctions

 Flowers are restful to look at. They

have neither emotions nor conflicts. (Austrian neurologist Sigmund
Freud)
 Education is not only the filling of a pail but also the lighting of a
fire. (Irish poet William Butler Yeats)
 It is not death but dying which is terrible. (Author Henry Fielding)

Why Should I Care about Coordinating Conjunctions?

There are two common questions related to coordinating conjunctions:

(Question 1) Do you put a comma before and?

Mostly no but sometimes yes. Unfortunately, the answer to this question
isn't short. Here's a summary of the rules:

The Rule for Two Items

When and (or any coordinating conjunction) joins two items, don't use a
comma.

 Lee has eaten all the cheese and biscuits.  The whole world agrees on
this point. (Look at the first five examples in the "Easy Example" section.)
So far so good. However, if you think it helps your reader, you can use a
comma.

 The Bakerloo line runs between Elephant and Castle, and Harrow

and Wealdstone. 
(Using a comma with two list items is not that uncommon. It
happens when the list items themselves contain commas. Here, the
comma before and helps readers to spot the list items faster. They
could work it out, but the comma helps.)

 I used to watch Colombo, and Cagney and Lacey. 

(This example also has two list items: "Colombo" and "Cagney and
Lacey". This time, the comma is more important because the list
items could feasibly be "Colombo and Cagney" and "Lacey".)

So, in summary, don't use a comma when and (or any other coordinating

conjunction) joins two items unless it helps your readers.

There's a very important exception to this rule though. It's important

exception because it's common.

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The Exception to the Rule for Two Items
When your coordinate conjunction joins two (or more) independent clauses
(i.e., ones that could stand alone as individual sentences), then use a
comma.

 I like sweet things, but I prefer savoury dishes. 

(Here, the clauses being joined (shown in bold) could stand alone.
They are independent clauses. That's why there is a comma
before but.)

Compare that with this:

 I like sweet things but prefer savoury dishes. 

(This is very similar, but prefer savoury dishes is not an independent
clause. It's not a sentence. That's why there's no comma
before but.)

Here are some real-life examples:

 The lion and the calf shall lie down together, but the calf won't get
much sleep.  (Film director Woody Allen)
(The first coordinating conjunction (and) joins two nouns, so no
comma is required. The second (but) joins two independent clauses,
so a comma is required.)

 Basically, my wife was immature. I'd be at home in my

bath, and she'd come in and sink my boats.   (Woody Allen)
(The first coordinating conjunction (and) joins two independent
clauses, so a comma is required. The second (and) joins two verbs,
so no comma is required.)

Hopefully, that's all clear. But, there's a quirk: If the two "sentences" (i.e.,
the independent clauses) are very short, it is acceptable – for style purposes
– to omit the comma.

 Craig caught a bass and Lee caught a goby. 

 Craig caught a bass, and Lee caught a goby. 
(Both versions are acceptable.)

Look at this though:

 The man caught the boy and the girl caught the dog. 
(For a fleeting moment, your readers will think that the man caught
"the boy and the girl". You should try to write in a way that doesn't
cause your reader to readjust.)

 The man caught the boy, and the girl caught the dog. 

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 (Your readers will not need to readjust now. This example captures
why we need a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins
two independent clauses.)

The Rule for Three or More Items

When there are three or more list items, life starts getting a little more
complicated because there is no unified position on whether to use a comma
with the coordinating conjunction.

Some people will write this:

 Bacon, eggs, and tomatoes
(The comma before the and is called an Oxford Comma. This is the
convention followed by most (but not all) Americans.)

Some people will write this:

 Bacon, eggs and tomatoes

(This is the convention followed by most (but not all) Brits. The most
notable exception is the Oxford University Press, after which the
Oxford Comma is named.)

There are plenty of people out there who would happily start a fight with you
for not using an Oxford Comma, but there are also plenty of others who
consider the Oxford Comma a waste of printer ink. In essence, it's a battle
of clarity versus economy.

Advocates of the Oxford Comma claim it eliminates ambiguity. They have a

point. The Oxford Comma is certainly useful for showing the separations
between the list items.

 £3 for a mug of tea, bacon and eggs and toast

(Without an Oxford Comma, this could mean (1) a mug of tea, (2)
bacon, and (3) eggs and toast.)

 £3 for a mug of tea, bacon and eggs, and toast

(With an Oxford Comma, the list items are clear.)

Protestors to the Oxford Comma claim it introduces ambiguity because

commas can be used like brackets. Look at these two sentences:

 Jack left the pub with John (a policeman) and Simon.

 Jack left the pub with John, a policeman, and Simon.
(With an Oxford Comma, this could feasibly refer to two people (like
in the top example) or three people.)

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Advocates claim that the Oxford Comma actually eliminates, not creates,
such ambiguity, and they routinely cite this probably apocryphal book
dedication:

 This book is dedicated to my parents, Ayn Rand and God.

(This could feasibly be read as "…my parents (Ayn Rand and God)".
The same "ambiguity" wouldn't exist with an Oxford Comma before
and.)

So, there are arguments for and against the Oxford Comma. As it happens,
you probably don't have a choice whether to adopt the Oxford Comma or
not. If you live in the UK, you probably shouldn't adopt it (unless you're at
Oxford). If you live in the US, you probably should. Whatever convention
you go for, be consistent.

Well, actually, be flexibly consistent. If your chosen convention creates

ambiguity, break the convention. There's only one 100% rule when it comes
to the Oxford Comma: clarity trumps convention.

In other words, everyone (regardless of what convention they follow) should

write this when they mean four people:

 I have the twins, Joe, and Callum.   (for four people)

Remember that clarity comes first. Loyalty to, or hatred of, the Oxford
Comma comes second.

(Question 2) Can you start a sentence with And or But?

Despite what you may have been told at school, you can start a sentence
with a conjunction like And, Or and But.

Bear in mind though that a conjunction at the start of a sentence looks quite
striking, so don't do it too often (it gets annoying quickly). However, you
should definitely keep this practice in your back pocket to create an
impactful start to your sentence. Think of it like this:

And is an impactful way of saying In addition

But is an impactful way of saying However
Or is an impactful way of saying Put another way

Here are some real-life examples:

 And let every other power know that this hemisphere intends to
remain the master of its own house.   (US President John F
Kennedy)

Page 79 of 191
  I've had a perfectly wonderful evening. But, this wasn't it.   
(Comedian Groucho Marx)
When a conjunction starts a sentence, you could argue it's not being used to
join like terms but as a link between two sentences (i.e., like a conjunctive
adverb such as however, consequently, and therefore).

So, the real question is not whether you can use a coordinate conjunction to
start a sentence but whether and, but and or are conjunctive adverbs as
well as coordinating conjunctions. And, it seems they are.

Therefore, should you put a comma after your conjunction like you do with a
conjunctive adverb? Well, that's up to you. If you want a pause, go for it. If
you don't, don’t.

 It is better to be beautiful than to be good. But, it is better to be

good than to be ugly.   (Oscar Wilde)
(The comma after But provides a pause. It's not a grammar thing.
It's a controlling-the-flow-of-text thing.)

 And I will always love you. (Singer Whitney Houston) 

(There's no pause for Whitney.)

Key Points for Coordinating Conjunctions

 Don't use a comma with a coordinating conjunction that joins two
items.
 Don't use a comma with a coordinating conjunction in a list of three
or more items (unless you're American or studying at Oxford).
 Break both of the rules above if using or omitting a comma makes
the text clearer.
 Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two
independent clauses.
 You can start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, and you
can put a comma after it if you want a pause. But, don't start a
sentence with a coordinating conjunction too often. It gets annoying.

Why Should I Care about Subordinating Conjunctions?

As a native English speaker, you don't need to worry about whether your
subordinating conjunction is heading up a clause that establishes a time, a
place, a reason, a condition or a concession. You'll do that bit naturally.

The most common question related to subordinating conjunctions is whether

to offset the subordinate clause with a comma or not. Here's the guidance:

When a subordinate clause starts a sentence, separate it from the main

clause with a comma.

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  If you shoot at mimes, should you use a silencer?  (Comedian
Steven Wright)
 Now that I'm over sixty, I'm veering toward respectability. 
(Actress Shelley Winters)
These are often called fronted subordinate clauses. A comma is used with a
fronted subordinate clause because the comma makes it clear where the
main clause starts.

When a subordinate clause ends a sentence, you can drop the comma.

 Should you use a silencer if you shoot at mimes? 

 I'm veering toward respectability now that I'm over sixty. 
There's a quirk though: You can use a comma for a deliberate pause.

As a rule, try to resist using a comma before a subordinating conjunction.

However, if you want to create a pause for effect, then a comma can be
used.

 Money is better than poverty, if only for financial reasons. 

(Film director Woody Allen)
 Man is ready to die for an idea, provided that idea is not quite
clear to him. 
If you were told at school that a comma represents a pause, then your
teacher was giving you reading advice not writing advice. There are specific
rules on using commas and "to create a pause" isn't one of them, even
though you'd likely whack in a few accurate commas if you adopted that
rule. That said, this is a time when a comma can be used to create a pause.
That's why it's a quirk. It's also pretty common.

Let's complicate the issue a bit. The rule that states "do not use a comma
when subordinate clause follows the independent clause" is not really the
rule. The real rule is "use a comma if the clause is nonessential." The
problem, however, is that it's really difficult to decide whether an adverbial
clause is essential or nonessential. (It is much easier with adjective clauses.)
As the vast majority of adverbial clauses are essential, it's pretty safe, but
not entirely safe, to declare that a post-positioned (as it's called when it's at
the back) subordinate clause clause isn't preceded by a comma.

Key Points for Subordinating Conjunctions

 If your subordinate conjunction heads up a clause at the start of
your sentence, offset the clause with a comma.

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  If your subordinate conjunction heads up a clause at the back of
your sentence, don't use a comma (unless you want a pause for
effect).
Why Should I Care about Correlative Conjunctions?
Correlative conjunctions are useful for keeping your writing succinct. They
not only provide a succinct structure to say two things but also express how
those two things relate to each other.

Generally, correlative conjunctions don't cause native English speakers too

much grief, but there are four noteworthy issues associated with correlative
conjunctions.

(Issue 1) Keep a parallel structure.

Correlative conjunctions come in pairs. You must use the same type of word
after each one in the pair.

 Lee not only likes pies but also cakes. 

(Here, the first conjunction in the pair sits before a verb (likes), but
the second sits before a noun (cakes). It's not parallel. It's untidy.)

 He should either sell his watch or his car. 

(Here, the first conjunction sits before a verb (sell), but the second
sits before a noun (his car). It's not parallel. Untidy.)

 Lee likes not only pies but also cakes. 

 He should sell either his watch or his car. 
(In these examples, the first and second conjunctions sit before
nouns. Both examples now have parallel structures. Tidy.)

 Lee not only likes pies but also likes cakes. 

 He should either pawn his watch or sell his car. 
(In these examples, the first and second conjunctions sit before
verbs. Parallel. Tidy.)

In truth, few people would describe a non-parallel structure with correlative

conjunctions as a serious error, and you'd be very unlikely to create
ambiguity if you committed that "crime". Nevertheless, try to use parallel
terms because, firstly, parallel structures are easier to read and, secondly,
you will feel some comfort knowing your sentence structure is sound.

(Issue 2) Don't use commas with correlative conjunctions. (Beware the exceptions!)
Sometimes, writers are unsure whether to use a comma with correlative
conjunctions. This question arises most often with the pairing not only/but also.
Here's the rule: Don't use commas with correlative conjunctions.

 Lee likes not only pies, but also cakes. 

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Unfortunately, it's a little bit more complicated than that. Here's the exception: If
the second conjunction sits before an independent clause (i.e., words that could be
a standalone sentence), then use a comma.

 As a father has compassion on his children, so God has compassion on

those who fear him.   (Bible, Psalm 103:13)
It is rare for an independent clause to follow a correlative conjunction, but it does
happen, especially with the pairing not only/but also.

 Not only does Lee like pies, but he also likes cakes. 

(Note that the subject of the independent clause (he) splits but also. This
is necessary because the word but is playing two roles. We know it is part
of the correlative conjunction not only/but also, but, in this sentence, it's
also a coordinating conjunction. Remember that coordinating conjunctions
(e.g., and, or, but) are used to join like elements. Here, it's joining two
independent clauses.)

Also, be mindful that you might find yourself using a comma before a correlative
conjunction because the comma is needed for another reason.

 Lee likes not only pies, especially cheese and onion, but also cakes. 

(Here, the commas are offsetting especially cheese and onion, which is
just some additional information (called a parenthesis). So, the comma
before but also has got nothing to do with correlative conjunctions.)

(Issue 3) Be careful with subject-verb agreement.

When the pairing either/or or neither/nor features in the subject of a verb, the verb
is singular if both elements are singular.

 Neither the inspector nor the constable was available for comment. 

(Both elements (the inpector and the constable) are singular, so the verb
(was) is singular; i.e., using were would be wrong.)

However, things get complicated if one of the elements is plural because there are
two conventions:

Convention 1: The Proximity Rule. Under this convention, the element

nearest the verb determines whether it's singular or plural.

 Neither the inspector nor the constables were available for comment. 

(The element nearest the verb (constables) is plural, so the verb (were) is
plural.)

Convention 2: The Logic Rule. Under this convention, if any of the elements
are plural, the verb is plural.

 Neither the inspectors nor the constable were available for comment.

(Here, the first element (inspectors) is plural, so the verb is plural. This
would be wrong using The Proximity Rule.)

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So, should you use the Proximity Rule or the Logic Rule if one of your elements is
plural? Well, both are common, so the quick answer is pick one and be consistent.
But, there's a far better answer: satisfy both rules at once. If one of your elements
is plural, deliberately put it nearest to the verb.

 Either the budgies or the cat have to go.

(This is correct under the Logic Rule but wrong under the Proximity Rule.)

 Either the car or the budgies have to go. 

(Here, the plural element is nearest to the verb. This is now correct under
both rules. Winner.)

This all applies to or by itself (i.e., without either).

(Issue 4) Don't forget that neither/nor plays a negative role.

Be aware that neither/nor plays a negative role in your sentence. Be careful not to
use a double negative.

 We did not discuss neither the flooding nor the landslide. 

(This is a double negative.)

Remember, two negatives make a positive. So, the example above means that the
flooding and the landslide were discussed, which would not have been the intended
meaning. Here are two better options:

 We discussed neither the flooding nor the landslide. 

 We did not discuss either the flooding or the landslide. 
Of course, two positives don't make a negative, but it can happen. Yeah, right.

Key Points for Correlative Conjunctions

 Position your correlative conjunctions in your sentence so the same
type of word follows each one. In other words, use a parallel
structure.
 Don't use a comma with a correlative conjunction unless the words
after it could be a standalone sentence (i.e., contain a subject and a
verb and convey a complete idea).
 Treat a subject that features either/or or neither/nor as singular if
the elements after the conjunctions are singular. If one is plural, put
it nearest to the verb and use a plural verb.
 Don't use a negative verb with neither/nor otherwise you'll create a
double negative.

The Preposition (prep.)

A preposition is used in English to show a relationship between two words or
phrases. You might recognise a preposition as being words such as in,
before, on, at, to, between etc.
Examples:

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 In, on, at, about, apropos, according to, after, along, above, except, from,
near, of, before, since, between, upon, with, to, after, toward…
Preposition example sentences:
 The cat is sitting on the wall.
 I am going to the salon after my dinner.
 The boy ran along the street for an hour.
 You will find the theatre in the town centre.
 I saw that news in the newspapers.

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 What Are Prepositions?

The Quick Answer

A preposition is a word (usually a short word) that shows the relationship

between two other nearby words. For example (prepositions highlighted):

 a boy from the ghetto
(Here, the preposition from tells us the relationship
between ghetto and boy.)

 a bone for the dog
(Here, the preposition for tells us the relationship
between dog and bone.)

The following are all examples of

prepositions: in, on, at, around, above, near, underneath, alongside, of,
and for.

Note: The word preposition means positioned before. A preposition will sit

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before a word (a noun or a pronoun) to show that word's relationship to
another nearby word.

Prepositions
A preposition is a word (often a short word) that expresses the relationship
between two other nearby words. In the examples below, each preposition
(highlighted) shows us the relationship between the word book and the
word wizard.

 The book about the wizard

 The book by the wizard
 The book near the wizard
 The book behind the wizard
 The book under the wizard

List of Common Prepositions

Here is a list of common prepositions:

above, about, across, against, along, among, around, at, before,

behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during,
except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, since, to,
toward, through, under, until, up, upon, with, within

The Role of a Preposition

A preposition precedes a noun (or a pronoun) to show the noun's (or the
pronoun's) relationship to another word in the sentence. In each example
above, the preposition preceded the noun the wizard to show that noun's
relationship with the noun The book.

Here are some more examples:

 It is a container for butter.
(The preposition for shows the relationship
between butter and container.)

 The eagle soared above the clouds.

(The preposition above shows the relationship
between eagle and clouds.)

 He is the President of the United States.

(The preposition of shows the relationship between the United
States and President.)

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A Good Way to Think about Prepositions
When you're first learning about prepositions, it is useful to think about
prepositions as anywhere a mouse could go.

This works because lots of prepositions show the relationship between two
words by expressing their location relative to each other (e.g., on, near,
behind, under, inside).

Real-Life Examples of Prepositions

 I cook with wine. Sometimes, I even add it to food. (Actor W C
Fields)
(With shows the relationship between wine and cook. To shows the
relationship between food and add it.)

 Behind every great man is a woman rolling her eyes. (Actor Jim

Carrey)
(Behind shows the relationship between every great man and is. The
term every great man is a noun phrase. Note that a preposition can
sit before a noun, a noun phrase, a noun clause, or a pronoun.)

 The difference between stupidity and genius is that genius has its

limits. (Physicist Albert Einstein)
(Between shows the relationship between stupidity and genius.)

 If you haven't got anything nice to say about anybody, come sit next

to me. (Writer Alice Roosevelt Longworth)

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 (About shows the relationship between anybody and to say. Next
to shows the relationship between me and sit. Note that a
preposition can be more than one word. Other common multi-word
prepositions are close to, ahead of, in front of, and according to.)

Origin of the Word Preposition

The word preposition comes from the idea of being positioned before.

Object of a Preposition
The word (or words) that follows a preposition is called the object of a
preposition. If there is a preposition, there will always be an object of the
preposition. A preposition cannot exist by itself.

Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition and the object of the
preposition (including any modifiers). Prepositional phrases are very
common. They function as either adjectives or adverbs. For example
(prepositional phrases highlighted):

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  It is a message from Mark.
(Here, the prepositional phrase from Mark is functioning like an
adjective because it is describing message.)

 Mark is trapped on the island.

(Here, the prepositional phrase on the island is functioning like an
adverb because it is modifying the verb is trapped.)

Why Should I Care about Prepositions?

There are four common issues involving prepositions:

(Issue 1) Try to avoid ending a sentence in a preposition.

What percentage of people think you can't end a sentence with a
preposition?

Have a look at our poll. It tells us the percentage of people who still think
you can't end a sentence with a preposition.

Lots of people think it is incorrect to end a sentence in a preposition

because, as we've just covered, a preposition is supposed to sit before a
noun. (It is, after all, how preposition gets its name.) Therefore, if the
preposition is the last word in the sentence, it can't sit before anything. So,
there's some logic to this ruling, which many people follow. However, this
issue is far more complicated than many realise, and the best way to
summarize it is by saying that, in the overwhelming majority of cases, it's
perfectly acceptable - from a grammatical perspective - to end a sentence in
a "preposition." (I'll explain the quotation marks later.)

Here's the rub. Even though you'd very likely be correct by ending your
sentence with a "preposition," you should be mindful that a fair few of your
readers will think it's a grammar mistake or sloppy writing. As we still
haven't trained ourselves to strikethrough this so-called ruling, we can't

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ignore it. I like to think of "avoiding a preposition at the end of a sentence"
as a game rather than a ruling. Let's look at an example:

 It is a scenario I have not thought of.

(This is natural sounding, but it ends in a preposition.)

Let's play the game. Let's restructure our sentence:

 It is a scenario of which I have not thought.

(This sounds awful. It's unnatural and contrived. On the plus side,
our preposition now sits before the pronoun which, and that fits the
rule for siting a preposition.)

But, it sounds terrible, so let's keep playing. Let's reword our sentence:

 It is a scenario I have not considered.

(Yes! This sounds natural, and it does not end in a preposition. This
keeps everyone happy...except those people who think we shouldn't
pander to those who still think you can't end a sentence in a
preposition.)

So, for now, I'm advising you become a panderer to this non-ruling. I must
say this though. If restructuring your sentence makes it sound contrived and
you can't reword it, then just let the preposition at the end ride. If you're
questioned on it, fight like a dog because you'll be in the right.

So, why was preposition in quotation marks earlier in this section? Well,
quite often, your sentence will end in something that looks like a preposition
but isn't. Be mindful that it could be part of a phrasal verb, i.e., a verb made
up of a verb and another word (either a preposition or a particle), e.g., fill
in, stick to, catch up, catch out. Quite often, these words must be next to
each other, and that's often a factor in your sentence structure.

A Key Point

The best way to avoid a preposition at the end of a sentence is to choose a

non-phrasal verb with the same meaning. This usually leads to a shorter,
better-flowing sentence. That's the best reason to avoid a preposition at the
end of a sentence.

 It is a scenario we should not put up with.

(This is sloppy, but it's not technically wrong.)

 It is a scenario we should not tolerate. 

(This is much sharper.)

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(Issue 2) Don't use the wrong case after a preposition.
The word or words that follow a preposition are called the object of a preposition.
The object of a preposition is always in the objective case. This just means that
words like I, she, we, and they change to me, her, us, and them when they follow a
preposition (e.g., about me, with her, for us, against them). This is a pretty simple
concept for a native English speaker, but it still catches some people out.

 It is present from my wife and I. 

(This is wrong because I cannot be the object of the preposition from.)

 It is present from me and my wife. 

 Between you and I 
(This is wrong because I cannot be the object of the preposition between.)

 Between you and me 

Ironically, many people use terms like "from my wife and I" and "between you and
I" with a highbrow tone, believing them to be grammatically pure. They're not
grammatically pure. They're wrong.

Another one that catches people out is using who after a

preposition. Who becomes whom in the objective case. In other words, who is
to whom as he is to him or they is to them. The bottom line is who cannot be the
object of a preposition. You need whom.)

 You went with who? 
 You went with whom? 
(Write whom after a preposition.)

(Issue 3) Don't confuse prepositions with other words.

Writers sometimes confuse prepositions with other words. Here are the most
common issues ordered by how frequently they are seen:

 Writing the adverb too (which means overly or as well) instead of the

preposition to (which has several meanings including towards and for).
 Writing the preposition of instead of have when writing could've, should've,
or would've in full.
 Writing the noun dependant (a person, usually a child or spouse) in the
multi-word preposition dependent on (which means reliant on).
 Writing the preposition past (beyond) instead of passed (past tense of to
pass).
 Writing the preposition between (usually used with two distinct points)
instead of the preposition among (in the middle of a group).

(Issue 4) Keep your writing succinct.

Some phrasal verbs (i.e., multi-word verbs) have prepositions that do not
add anything. When you encounter one of these, delete the prepositions to
improve succinctness.

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  I cannot face up to the consequences.
(This is correct, but it's not succinct.)

 I cannot face the consequences.

(This is sharper. The prepositions were a waste of ink.)

Key Points
 You can end a sentence in a preposition, but you run the risk of
irking people who still think you can't.
 Don’t say "between you and I" or "from my wife and I." They're both
wrong.
 "Too" means overly or as well. "To" doesn't.
 Write "have" not "of" when expanding a contraction like "would've."
 "Dependent on" means reliant on. A "dependant" is a person.

The Interjection (interj.)

An interjection could also be thought of as a exclamation. They are used to
emotion, reaction or excitement and have no grammatical link to anything
else within the sentence they appear.
Examples:

Ahem!, aha!, gosh!, aw!, great!, hey!, hi!, hooray!, oh!, yeah!, oops!,
phew!, eh!, oh!, ouch!, hi!, well!…
Interjection example sentences:

 Phew! That was a close call.

 Wow! Did you see how big that bird was?
 Oh, I forgot to tell you that I saw your father last week.
 Hooray! You passed your exam!
 Well, what did he say?
 Yeah! She’s going with us tonight!

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Interjections
Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion.
They are included in a sentence (usually at the start) to express a sentiment
such as surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or enthusiasm.

An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of the

sentence.

Examples of Interjections
In the following examples, the interjections are shaded.
 Hey! Get off that floor!
 Oh, that is a surprise.
 Good! Now we can move on.
 Jeepers, that was close.

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Yes and No
Expressions such as yes, no, indeed, and well are often used as interjections. For
example:

 Indeed, this is not the first time the stand has collapsed.
 Yes, I do intend to cover the bet.

Phew!
Some interjections are sounds. For example:

 Phew! I am not trying that again.

 Humph! I knew that last week.
 Mmmm, my compliments to the chef.

Multi-word Interjections
Some interjections are more than one word. For example:

 Oh, really? I doubt that.

 Holy moly! She won!
They're not always at the start of a sentence. For example:

 It is cold, indeed.

Page 95 of 191
Real-Life Examples of Interjections
 I'm sure I don't know half the people who come to my house. Indeed, for
all I hear, I shouldn't like to. (Poet and playwright Oscar Wilde)
 Yes, it's absolutely true that anything worth doing is worth doing poorly
until you can do it well. (Author Zig Ziglar)
 Well, it's 1 a.m. Better go home and spend some quality time with the
kids. (Homer Simpson)
 Ah! Don't say you agree with me. When people agree with me, I always
feel that I must be wrong. (Oscar Wilde)
 It's smoke, and it's in flames now; and the frame is crashing to the
ground, not quite to the mooring mast. Oh, the humanity! (Radio journalist
Herbert Morrison reporting on the 1937 Hindenburg disaster)

Why Should I Care about Interjections?

There are two common questions related to interjections.

(Question 1) What punctuation follows an interjection?

Recognizing an interjection will help you to choose the punctuation that follows it. If your
interjection is not a question (and most aren't), you have a choice. You can use a comma, a
period (full stop) or an exclamation mark. Commas and periods are used for mild
interjections, while exclamation marks are used for stronger expressions of emotion. Often,
an interjection followed by an exclamation mark will be followed by an exclamatory
sentence (i.e., one with an exclamation mark).

 Jeepers! You scared the life out of me!

 Crikey! Do you think before you speak?
(You can't use an exclamation mark at the end of your sentence if it's a question.)

The choice between a comma and a period depends on your desired flow of text. In other
words, choose what looks good to you. If your interjection is a question, you must use a
question mark.

 I always cheer up immensely if an attack is particularly wounding because I

think, well, if they attack one personally, it means they have not a single political
argument left. (Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher)
(When an interjection is in the middle of the sentence, you must offset it with
commas. It doesn't happen often.)

(Question 2) Can you use interjections in business writing?

As a general rule, you should avoid using interjections in business writing, but, used very
infrequently, they can be impactful and insert some pep into a document. Too much
interjection-invoked pep, however, could make you look a little scatty.

Key Point
Use a comma or a period (full stop) after a mild interjection as you think looks best.
For a stronger blurt of emotion, use an exclamation mark.

Page 96 of 191
Tenses

Learn Verb Tenses

What Is Verb Tense? (with Examples)

Verb Tense (with Examples)

The tense of a verb is determined by when the action took place. The three
main tenses are as follows:

 The Past Tense (e.g., I walked.)

 The Present Tense (e.g., I walk.)
 The Future Tense (e.g., I will walk.)
The tense of a verb can also tell us things like whether the action is habitual,
ongoing, or completed. This is called the aspect of the verb, which is part of
tense.

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Examples of Tenses
Here are some examples of verbs in different tenses:

 I walked to work.
(The verb walked is in the past tense.)

 I walk to work.
(The verb walk is in the present tense.)

 I will walk to work.

(The verb will walk is in the future tense.)

Remember that verbs do not just express actions. They can also express a state of being.
For example:

 I was happy.
(The verb was is in the past tense.)

 I am happy.
(The verb am is in the present tense.)

 I will be happy.
(The verb will be is in the future tense.)

Examples of Verbs in Different Tenses

Here are some more examples of verbs in the past, present, and future tenses:

 The hardest that I have laughed at a movie was probably Team America.
I laughed 'til I thought I was going to throw up. (Ron White)
(The shaded verbs are in the past tense.)

 You laugh at me because I'm different. I laugh at you because you are all the

same. (Jonathan Davis)
(The shaded verbs are in the present tense.)

 Nobody will laugh long who deals much with opium; even its pleasures are of a
grave and solemn complexion. (Thomas de Quincey)
(The shaded verbs are in the future tense.)

You will notice that some of the verbs in the past tense example about Team America are
made up of more than one word (have laughed, was going). We need these different
versions of the tenses because they help us to state whether the action (or state of being)
is in progress or completed. For example, the different versions of the verb to laugh are as
follows:

 Past Tense: laughed, was/were laughing, had laughed, had been laughing
 Present Tense: laugh, am/is/are laughing, has/have laughed, has/have been
laughing
 Future Tense: will laugh, will be laughing, will have laughed, will have been
laughing

Page 98 of 191
The Full List of Tenses
The table below shows the full list of the tenses:

The 4 Past Tenses Example 1 Example 2

simple past tense I went I laughed

past progressive I was going I was laughing

tense

past perfect tense I had gone I had laughed

past perfect I had been going I had been laughing

progressive tense

The 4 Present
Example 1 Example 2
Tenses

simple present tense I go I laugh

present progressive I am going I am laughing

tense

present perfect tense I have gone I have laughed

present perfect I have been going I have been laughing

progressive tense

The 4 Future
Example 1 Example 2
Tenses

simple future tense I will go I will laugh

future progressive I will be going I will be laughing

tense

future perfect tense I will have gone I will have laughed

future perfect I will have been I will have been laughing

progressive tense going

An Quick Explanation of the Tenses with an Example

Page 99 of 191
Past Simple Tense.
Simple Past Tense. The simple past tense is used to describe a completed
activity that happened in the past.

What Is the Simple Past Tense? (with Examples)

Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense is used to describe a completed activity that
happened in the past. In other words, it started in the past and ended in the
past. For example:

 John baked a cake.
 They painted the fence.

Infographic for the Simple Past Tense

Here is an infographic explaining the simple past tense:

Real-life Examples of the Simple Past Tense

Here are some real-life examples of the simple past tense:

 I saw the angel in the marble and carved until I set him free. (Italian

sculptor Michelangelo)
 I asked God for a bike, but I know God doesn't work that way so
I stole a bike and asked for forgiveness.

Forming the Simple Past Tense

If you're dealing with a regular verb, the simple past tense is formed like
this:

base form of verb + "ed"

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  jump > jumped
 paint > painted
However, there are some spelling rules.

Spelling Rules
If a verb of one syllable ends [consonant-vowel-consonant], double the final
consonant and add "ed":

 chat > chatted

 stop > stopped
If the final consonant is w, x, or y, don't double it:

 sew > sewed

 play > played
 fix > fixed
If last syllable of a longer verb is stressed and ends [consonant-vowel-consonant],
double the last consonant and add "ed":

 incur > incurred

 prefer > preferred
If the first syllable of a longer verb is stressed and the verb ends [consonant-
vowel-consonant], just add "ed":

 open > opened

 enter > entered
 swallow > swallowed
If the verb ends "e", just add "d":

 thrive > thrived

 guzzle > guzzled
If the verb ends [consonant + "y"], change the "y" to an "i" and add "ed":

 cry > cried

 fry > fried

Forming the Simple Past Tense of Irregular Verbs

If it's an irregular verb, the simple past tense is formed in all sorts of
different ways. Here are some examples:

 break > broke

 catch > caught
 find > found
 see > saw
You just have to learn them.

Using the Simple Past Tense

When making a statement, you can use the following word order:
Page 101 of 191
[subject] +[verb]

 The Martians landed near the aqueduct.

 The burglar used the fire escape.

The Negative Version

If you need the negative version, you can use the following word order:

"did not" +base form of verb

 The Martians did not land near the aqueduct.

(We could have used "didn't" instead of "did not.")

 The burglar did not use the fire escape.

The Question Version

If you need to ask a question, you can use the following word order for a
yes/no question:

"did" + [subject]  +base form of verb

 Did the Martians land near the aqueduct?

 Did the burglar use the fire escape?
You can use the following word order for a question-word question:

[question word] + "did" + [subject] + base form of verb

 Why did the Martians land near the aqueduct?

 When did the burglar use the fire escape?
You can use the following word order for a choice question:

"did" + [subject] + base form of verb + choice A + or + choice B

 Did the Martians land near the aqueduct or the town?

 Did the burglar use the fire escape or the stairs?

The Simple Past Tense with Time Expressions

The simple past tense is often seen with a time expression explaining when
the activity took place or how long it lasted.

Examples of "when an activity took place":

 On Tuesday last week, the Martians landed near the aqueduct.

("On Tuesday last week" tells you when it happened. It's called
an adverbial phrase of time. Other examples are"Yesterday," "Last year,"
"Before breakfast,". They are really common. When any adverb appears at
the front of a sentence, it is usual to follow it with a comma. A comma is
not usually used when the adverbial phrase appears at the back of a

Page 102 of 191

 sentence. NB: This is not a strict rule. Use a comma if it helps your
reader.)

 The Martians landed near the aqueduct on Tuesday last week.

(Note: No comma)

 Just before he was caught, the burglar considered using the fire escape.

("Just before he was caught" tells you when the activity took place.)

Examples of "how long an activity took":

 Last week, the council inspected the drains.

("Last week" tells you when it happened and for how long.)

 Her daughter hid under the bed for three hours.

(Using "for" is a common way of describing how long an activity
lasted.)

Past Continuous Tense.

What Is the Past Progressive Tense? (with Examples)

Past Progressive Tense

The past progressive tense is used to describe an ongoing activity in the
past. For example:

 John was baking a cake.

 They were painting the fence.
Often, the past progressive tense is used to set the scene for another action.
For example:

 John was baking a cake when the storm started.

 They were painting the fence while I was cutting the grass.
The past progressive tense is also known as the "past continuous tense" or
the "past continuing tense".

Infographic for the Past Progressive Tense

Page 103 of 191

Here is an infographic explaining the past progressive tense:

Examples of the Past Progressive Tense and Its Uses

Here are three common uses of the past progressive tense:
(1) The past progressive tense can be used to describe an activity in the past that
was interrupted:

 He was painting the door when a bird struck the window.

 They were sleeping when the alarm went off.
(2) The past progressive tense can be used for describing an action taking place
when another occurred.

 While they were painting the door, I painted the windows.

 While they weren't painting the door, I painted the windows.
 Were they painting the door when I painted the windows?
 Weren't they painting the door when I painted the windows?
(3) The past progressive tense can be used for describing an action that was taking
place at the same time as another:

 While they were painting the door, I was painting the windows.

Forming the Past Progressive Tense

The past progressive tense is formed like this:
For singular:

[singular subject] + "was"  + [present participle ("verb-ing")]

For plural:

[plural subject] + "was" + [present participle]

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Forming the Present Participle
The [verb] + "ing" part is known as a present participle. It is formed like this:

Add "ing" to most verbs:

 play > playing

 shout > shouting

For verbs that end "e", remove the "e" and add "ing":

 prepare > preparing

 ride > riding

For verbs that end "ie", change the "ie" to "y" and add "ing":

 lie > lying

 untie > untying

For verbs whose last syllable is written [consonant-vowel-consonant] and is stressed,

double the final consonant and add "ing":

 run > running

 forget > forgetting

The Negative Version

If you need the negative version, you can use the following construction:

"was not" or "were not" + [present participle]

 He was not painting the door when a bird struck the window.

 They were not sleeping when the alarm went off.
Remember that "was not" and "were not" are sometimes written as
the contractions "wasn't" and "weren't."

The Question Version

If you need to ask a question, you can use the following word order for a yes/no
question:

"was" or "were" + [subject] + [present participle]

 Was John painting the door when a bird struck the window?

 Were they sleeping when the alarm went off?
You can use the following word order for a question-word question:

[question word] + "was" or "were" + [subject] + [present

participle]

 When was John painting the door?

 Where were they sleeping when the alarm went off?
You can use the following word order for a choice question:

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"was" or "were" + [subject] + [present participle] + choice
A + or + choice B

 Was John painting the door or the window?

"was" or "were" + [subject] + present participle A + or + present
participle B

 Were they sleeping or playing when the alarm went off?

Past Perfect Tense.

What Is the Past Perfect Tense? (with Examples)

Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense describes a completed activity in the past. It is
used to emphasize that an action was completed before another action took
place. For example:

 John had baked a cake before you arrived.

 They had painted the fence before I had a chance to speak to them.

A Video Summary
Here is a short video summarizing the past perfect tense:

Infographic for the Past Perfect Tense

Here is an infographic explaining the past perfect tense:

More Examples of the Past Perfect Tense

Here are some more examples of the past perfect tense (shaded):

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  Silverfinger had taken the pill before the team reached him.
(First: He took the pill. Next: The team reached him.)

 I had called the police before I investigated the noise in the garden.

(First: I called the police. Next: I investigated the noise.)

 The weather changed, but the team had planned its next move.

(First: The team planned. Next: The weather changed.)
Forming the Past Perfect Tense
The past perfect tense is formed:
"had" + [past participle]

 I had jumped  I had met

Forming the Past Participle (Regular Verbs)
If it's a regular verb, the past participle is the same as the simple past
tense. In other words, it is formed like this:
Add "ed" to most verbs:
 jump > jumped  paint > painted

If a verb of one syllable ends [consonant-vowel-consonant], double the final

consonant and add "ed":
 chat > chatted  stop > stopped

If the final consonant is "w," "x" or "y," don't double it:

 sew > sewed
 play > played
 fix > fixed

If last syllable of a longer verb is stressed and ends [consonant-vowel-consonant],

double the last consonant and add "ed":
 incur > incurred
 prefer > preferred

If the first syllable of a longer verb is stressed and the verb ends [consonant-
vowel-consonant], just add "ed":
 open > opened
 enter > entered
 swallow > swallowed

If the verb ends "e," just add "d":

 thrive > thrived  guzzle > guzzled

If the verb ends [consonant + "y"], change the "y" to an "i" and add "ed":
 cry > cried  fry > fried
Forming the Past Participle (Irregular Verbs)
If it's an irregular verb, the past participle is formed in all sorts of different
ways. Here are some examples:

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  arise > arisen
 catch > caught
 choose > chosen
 know > known

You just have to learn them.

The Negative Version
If you need the negative version, you can use the following construction:

"had not" + [past participle]

 Silverfinger had not taken the pill before the team reached him.

 I had not called the police before I investigated the noise in the garden.
 The weather changed, and the team had not planned its next move.
Remember that "had not" is sometimes written as the contraction "hadn't."
The Question Version
If you need to ask a question, you can use the following word order for a yes/no
question:

"had" + [subject] + [past participle]

 Had Silverfinger taken the pill before the team reached him?

 Had the team planned its next move before the weather changed?
You can use the following word order for a question-word question:

[question word] + "had" + [subject] + [past participle]

 Why had Silverfinger taken the pill before the team reached him?
 Where had the team planned its next move before the weather changed?
Using Contractions
Don't forget that in speech and writing (especially informal writing), you will
encounter the following contractions:

 I had > I'd

 You had > You'd
 He had > He'd
 She had > She'd
 It had > It'd
 We had > We'd
 They had > They'd
Also, for the negative version, you will commonly see "hadn't" instead of
"had not."

Past Perfect Continuous Tense.

What Is the Past Perfect Progressive Tense? (with Examples)

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Past Perfect Progressive Tense
The past perfect progressive tense is used to show that an ongoing
action in the past has ended. For example:

 John had been baking a cake.

 They had been painting the fence.
A Video Summary
Here is a short video summarizing the past perfect progressive tense:

Infographic for the Past Perfect Progressive Tense

Here is an infographic explaining the past perfect progressive tense:

More Examples of the Past Perfect Progressive Tense

Here are some more examples of the past perfect progressive tense
(shaded):

 She had been painting the door before the dog scratched it.

 The jury had been considering its verdict for several hours when the
judge effectively ordered them to find Jones guilty.
 He just couldn't summon the energy. He had been working at the
dock all afternoon.
 I was coming home from kindergarten. Well, they told me it was
kindergarten. I found out later I had been working in a factory for
ten years. (Comedian Ellen DeGeneres)
 Many people had been asking me to write an autobiography. I
thought I'd better tell my story before other people told it for me.
(Comedian Michael Palin)

Forming the Past Perfect Progressive Tense

The past perfect progressive tense is formed:

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[subject] + "had been" + [present participle]

 I had been jumping.

 They had been meeting.

Forming the Present Participle

The last word in each example above (i.e. the [verb] + "ing" part) is
known as a present participle. It is formed like this:

Add "ing" to most verbs:

 play > playing
 shout > shouting

For verbs that end "e," remove the "e" and add "ing":
 prepare > preparing
 ride > riding

For verbs that end "ie," change the "ie" to "y" and add "ing":
 lie > lying
 untie > untying

For verbs whose last syllable is written [consonant-vowel-consonant] and is

stressed, double the final consonant and add "ing":
 run > running
 forget > forgetting

The Negative Version

If you need the negative version, you can use the following construction:
[subject] + "had not been" + [present participle]

 She had not been painting the door.

 The jury had not been considering its verdict for very long when the
judge effectively ordered them to find Jones guilty.
 He had plenty of energy. He had not been working at the dock at all
that afternoon.
Remember that "had not" is sometimes written as the contraction "hadn't."

The Question Version

If you need to ask a question, you can use the following word order for a
yes/no question:

"had" + [subject] + "been" + [present participle]

 Had she been painting the door?

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 Had the jury been considering its verdict for very long when the
judge ordered them to find Jones guilty?
 Why was he so tired? Had he been working at the dock all
afternoon?
You can use the following word order for a question-word question:

[question word] + "had" + [subject] + "been" + [present participle]

 When had she been painting the door?

 Why was he so tired? Why had he been working at the dock all
afternoon?
 I ran to the shops.
Past Progressive Tense. The past progressive tense is used to describe an
ongoing activity in the past. Often, it is used to set the scene for another
action.

 I was running to the shops when I saw Bruno.

Past Perfect Tense. The past perfect tense is used to emphasize that an
action was completed before another took place.

 I had run to the shops, but they were closed.

Past Perfect Progressive Tense. The past perfect progressive tense is
used to show that an ongoing action in the past has ended.

 I had been running to the shops, but I have now started walking.

Present Simple Tense.

The Present Tenses

Simple Present Tense. The simple present tense is mostly used to

describe facts and habits.

 I run daily.

Present Continuous Tense.

Present Progressive Tense. The present progressive tense is used for an
ongoing action in the present.

 I am running to your house at the moment.

Present Perfect Tense.

Present Perfect Tense. The present perfect tense is used for actions
began in the past. (Often, the actions continue into the present.)

 I have run for 5 miles so far.

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Present Perfect Continuous Tense.
Present Perfect Progressive Tense. The present perfect progressive
tense is used for a continuous activity that began in the past and continues
into the present, or a continuous activity that began in past but has now
finished (usually very recently).

 I have been running for hours.

What Is the Present Tense? (with Examples)

Present Tense
The present tense is a verb tense used to describe a current activity or state
of being. However, somewhat unusually, the present tense can also be used
to describe past and future activities. For example:

 I swim in the sea every Saturday.

(This is a current activity.)

 I am happy.
(This is a current state of being)

 The meeting ends at 6 o'clock.

(This is a future activity.)

 A man walks into a bar. Ouch!

(This is a past activity.)

The tense of a verb is determined by when the action took place. This page
is about the present tense. Here are links to the other two tenses:

 The Past Tense

 The Future Tense

Examples of the Types of Present Tense

The present tense is categorized further depending on whether the action is
in progress or completed (called the aspect of a verb). The four present
tenses are:

The 4 Present
Examples Uses
Tenses

simple present  I go. The simple present

tense  I like chocolate. tense is used:
 The train gets in at

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 5 o'clock. (1) To describe facts
 A horse walks into and habits.
a bar, and the (2) To describe
barman says, "why
scheduled events in the
the long face?"
future.
(3) To tell stories to
make your listener or
reader feel more
engaged with the story.

present_progres  I am going. The present progressive

sive tense  Barny is looking for tense is used for an
the latest brochure. ongoing action in the
present.

present perfect  I have gone. The present perfect

tense  David has worked tense is used to
alongside two of describe actions that
the world's finest
began in the past and
scientists in the
field of are still continuing into
entomology. the present.

present perfect  I have been going. The present perfect

progressive  Julie has been progressive tense is
relying on a pay used for:
rise to pay her
student loan.
(1) a continuous activity
that began in the past
and continues into the
present, or
(2) a continuous activity
that began in past but
has now finished
(usually very recently).

Page 113 of 191

More about the Simple Present Tense
Here is an infographic summarizing the simple present tense.

Examples of the Simple Present Tense

base form or base form  + "s"

 I play every Tuesday
 My family goes to France every Summer.
 Between two evils, I always pick the one I have never tried before.
 Before I refuse to take your questions, I have an opening statement.
(US President Ronald Reagan)
 I like the word indolence. It makes my laziness seem classy.
(Philosopher Bernard Williams)
 I love deadlines. I like the whooshing sound they make as they fly
by. (Author Douglas Adams)
 I base most of my fashion taste on what doesn't itch. (Comedian
Gilda Radner)
 War does not determine who is right - only who is left. (Philosopher
Bertrand Russell)

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More about the Present Progressive Tense
Here is an infographic summarizing the present progressive tense.

Examples of the Present Progressive Tense

"am," "is," or "are" + [present participle]

 I am playing at the moment.

 I am not getting any younger!
 My family is emigrating to Australia next June.
 People rarely succeed unless they have fun in what they are doing.
(Author Dale Carnegie)
 I am not afraid of storms for I am learning how to sail my ship.
(Author Louisa May Alcott)
 I am returning this otherwise good typing paper to you because
someone has printed gibberish all over it and put your name at the
top.
 A lot of good arguments are spoiled by some fool who knows what
he is talking about. (Playwright Miguel de Unamuno)
 A fellow who is always declaring he's no fool usually has his
suspicions. (Playwright Wilson Mizner)
(Note that adverbs (here, always) sometimes appear between the
verb "to be" (here, is) and the present participle (here, declaring).)

 As long as you're having fun, that's the key. The moment it becomes

a grind, it's over. (Singer Barry Gibb)
 Middle age is when you're sitting at home on a Saturday night and
the telephone rings and you hope it isn't for you. (Poet Ogden Nas)
 I'm leaving because the weather is too good. I hate London when
it's not raining. (Comedian Groucho Marx)

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More about the Present Perfect Tense
Here is an infographic summarizing the present perfect tense.

Examples of the Present Perfect Tense

"has" or "have" + [past participle]

 I have played for his team before.

 Don't take the wrong side of an argument just because your
opponent has taken the right side.
 Poets have been mysteriously silent on the subject of cheese.
 If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon the
shoulders of giants. (Physicist Isaac Newton)
 Only the dead have seen the end of the war. (Philosopher George
Santayana)
 It has been my experience that folks who have no vices have very
few virtues. (US President Abraham Lincoln)
 Like all great travellers, I have seen more than I remember, and
remember more than I have seen. (British Prime Minister Benjamin
Disraeli)
 I have taken more out of alcohol than alcohol has taken out of me.
 I may not have gone where I intended to go, but I think I have
ended up where I intended to be. (Author Douglas Adams)
 I've failed over and over and over again in my life and that is why I
succeed. (Basketball star Michael Jordan)
 Our scientific power has outrun our spiritual power. We have
guided missiles and misguided men. (Activist Martin Luther King Jr)

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More about the Present Perfect Progressive Tense
Here is an infographic summarizing the present perfect progressive tense.

Examples of the Present Perfect Progressive Tense

"has been" or "have been" + [present participle]

 I have been playing for a year.

 Fiona has not been playing well for 2 months.
 My grandparents have been living in this house for 50 years.
 Mary has been relying on a pay rise to pay her credit card bills.
 We have been learning since we were children how to make money,
buy things, and build things. The whole education system is set up
to teach us how to think, not to feel. (Comedian Yakov Smirnoff)
 My son has been laughing at inappropriate situations for the past
two years.
 While I thought that I was learning how to live, I have been
learning how to die. (Polymath Leonardo da Vinci)
 Well, I think money has been going into political campaigns for a
very long time. (Businesswoman Carly Fiorina)
 I have been doing marriage counseling for about 15 years and I
realized that what makes one person feel loved, doesn't make
another person feel loved. (Author Gary Chapman)
 Either I've been something or nothing has been going on.

Verb Tense Widget

Use this widget to learn about the different tenses. How do you use this widget? Well, if
there's a button, a drop-down menu, or a  , then you can click it!

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Present Tenses 
Simple Present 

I break
you break
he/she/it breaks
we break
you break
they break

Present Progressive Tense 

I am breaking
you are breaking
he/she/it is breaking
we are breaking
you are breaking
they are breaking

Present Perfect Tense 

I have broken
you have broken
he/she/it has broken
we have broken
you have broken
they have broken

Present Perfect Progressive Tense 

I have been breaking
you have been breaking
he/she/it has been breaking
we have been breaking
you have been breaking
they have been breaking

The Future Tenses

Simple Future Tense. The simple future tense is used for an action that
will occur in the future.

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  I will run to the shops tomorrow.
Future Progressive Tense. The future progressive tense is used for an
ongoing action that will occur in the future.

 I will be running to the shops every day after today.

Future Perfect Tense. The future perfect tense is used to describe an
action that will have been completed at some point in the future.

 I will have run to work by 12 o'clock.

Future Perfect Progressive Tense. The future perfect progressive tense is
used for an ongoing action that will be completed at some specified time in
the future.

 I will have been running for 3 hours by 12 o'clock.

Future Tense (with Examples)

Simple Future Tense.

Future Continuous Tense.

Future Perfect Tense.

Future Perfect Continuous.

Future Tense
The future tense is a verb tense used for a future activity or a future state of
being. For example:

 I will jump in the lake.

(This is a future activity.)

 I will be happy.
(This is a future state of being.)

The tense of a verb is determined by when the action took place. The three
main tenses are:

 The Past Tense

 The Present Tense
 The Future Tense

Examples of the Types of Future Tense

The future tense is categorized further depending on whether the action will
be in progress or will be completed (called the aspect of a verb). The four
future tenses are:

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The 4 Future
Examples Uses
Tenses

simple future  I will go. The simple future tense is

tense  We will celebrate used for an action that will
our anniversary by occur in the future.
flying to New York.

future  I will be going. The future progressive tense

progressive  The Moscow State is used for an ongoing action
tense Circus will be that will occur in the future.
performing in
Cheltenham for the
next 3 weeks.

future perfect  I will have gone. The future perfect tense is

tense  By the time you used to describe an action
arrive, we will that will have been
have finished the
completed at some point in
meal and the
the future.
speeches.

future perfect  I will have been The future perfect

progressive going. progressive tense is used for
 In July next year, an ongoing action that will be
you will have been
completed at some specified
studying for three
time in the future.
years.

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More about the Simple Future Tense
Here is an infographic summarizing the simple future tense.

Examples of the Simple Future Tense

"will" + [base form of the verb]

 I will play after breakfast.

 Susan will not go to Germany.
 What we achieve inwardly will change outer reality. (Greek
biographer Plutarch)
 Always do your best. What you plant now, you will harvest later.
(Author Og Mandino)
 Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you
everywhere. (Physicist Albert Einstein)
 Women and cats will do as they please, and men and dogs should
relax and get used to the idea. (Robert A Heinlein)
 In the end, we will remember not the words of our enemies, but the
silence of our friends. (Activist Martin Luther King Jr)
 Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in
your life. (Chinese philosophe Confucius)
(Have to is known as a modal auxiliary verb. Like must, it is used to
express obligation.)

 Happiness is your dentist telling you it won't hurt and then having

him catch his hand in the drill. (Producer Johnny Carson)
(Remember that won't is a contraction of will not and is often used
to form the simple future tense.

 I won't be a rock star. I will be a legend. (Singer Freddie Mercury)

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More about the Future Progressive Tense
Here is an infographic summarizing the future progressive tense.

Examples of the Future Progressive Tense

"will be" + [present participle]

 I will be playing for an hour.

 Will I be spending too much money if I buy the newer model?
 He will be fighting his way to the boxing championship.
 Always be nice to those younger than you because they are the ones
who will be writing about you.
 In September, we will be enjoyingall the fruit we planted last March.
 Those who are laughing now will be crying later.
 Soon I will be doing what I love again. (Guitarist Vinnie Vincent)
 I'll be performing at 80 years old. Music is like fashion - it changes.
But some things will always be the same. (Singer Toni Braxton)
(Remember that I'll is a contraction of I will.)

 Every breath you take. Every move you make. Every bond you
break. Every step you take, I'll be watching you. (Singer Sting)
 She'll be coming around the mountain when she comes.
(She'll is a contraction of she will.)

 She'll be riding six white horses when she comes.

 The next time you see a spider's web, please pause and look a little
closer. You'll be seeing one of the most high-performance materials
known to man. (Biologist Cheryl Hayashi)
(You'll is a contraction of you will.)

 In my case, there's no revolving door. I won't be going back to

government. (Politician Mary Schapiro)
(Won't is a contraction of will not.)

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More about the Future Perfect Tense
Here is an infographic summarizing the future perfect tense.

Examples of the Future Perfect Tense

"will have" + [past participle]

 I will have played by breakfast.

 By September, Jenny will have taken over that role.
 Will you have graduated by this time next year?
 I hope that, when I leave this planet, I will have touched a few
people in a positive way. (Actor Will Rothhaar)
 The rain will not have stopped before the competition starts.
 You won't have sold a single car by tomorrow if you stay here.
(Won't is a contraction of will not.)

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More about the Future Perfect Progressive Tense
Here is an infographic summarizing the future perfect progressive tense.

Examples of the Future Perfect Progressive Tense

"will have been" + [present participle]

 I will have been playing for 2 hours by breakfast.

 By the time the boat arrives, they will have been living without
proper food for two weeks.
 Shops that will have been running for three or two years by then will
have to close down.
 They will have been driving for ten hours by the time they arrive in
Scotland.
 If it rains again tomorrow, then it will have been raining for three
days.
 He will be agitated when he arrives because he will have been
working for ten hours.
 When you are promoted next year, how long will you have been
working on the factory floor?
 You will not have been waiting for over an hour when the taxi
arrives. That's not true.

Verb Tense Widget

Use this widget to learn about the different tenses. How do you use this
widget? Well, if there's a button, a drop-down menu, or a  , then you can
click it!

Page 124 of 191

Present Tenses /Past Tenses /Future Tenses 
Simple Future

I will come
you will come
he/she/it will come
we will come
you will come
they will come

Future Progressive Tense 

I will be coming
you will be coming
he/she/it will be coming
we will be coming
you will be coming
they will be coming

Future Perfect Tense 

I will have come
you will have come
he/she/it will have come
we will have come
you will have come
they will have come

Future Perfect Progressive Tense 

I will have been coming

you will have been coming
he/she/it will have been coming
we will have been coming
you will have been coming
they will have been coming

Page 125 of 191

 Sentences

What Is A Sentence?
A sentence refers to a clause, word, phrase, or a group of phrases, words,
or clauses that give a complete idea/thought. A sentence can give a
statement, ask a question, give a command, indicate an exclamation,
express a wish or an assertion, and could also show action performance.
When writing, a sentence always starts with a capital letter and a full-stop,
exclamation, or a question mark ends the sentence.
Characteristics of A Sentence
First and foremost, a sentence must have a capital letter at the start and a
period, exclamation mark, or question mark in the end. Secondly, a
sentence should express a complete thought or idea; otherwise, it is not a
sentence. Lastly, it must have a verb and a subject.

For example:

 The happy father. (This is a phrase and isn’t a sentence since it doesn’t have
a verb. It does not state anything about the happy father; hence the phrase
does not give a complete thought. Remember, a phrase must give a
complete thought or idea for it to be a sentence.)
Examples of Sentences
 The girl is cooking some stew. (This sentence shows a statement.)
 Is it raining? (The sentence asks a question. It has a capital letter at the
beginning but ends with a period (question mark.))
 What an incredible miracle! (The sentence ends with an exclamation mark
as the period.)
 You must do it. (The sentence expresses a command.)
Sentence Structures
There are four structures, namely: compound-complex sentences, simple
sentences, complex sentences, and compound sentences.
Simple Sentences
These sentences have one clause (the independent clause.) The clauses
usually express just one idea/ thought. Additionally, these sentences only
carry a single verb.
Examples:

 The maid is cooking.

 Sam is sleeping.
 Her mother is sweeping the house.
Compound Sentences
Compound sentences refer to sentences whose independent clauses are
more than one. Meaning, their minimum independent clauses are two, and
they do not have dependent clauses. These independent clauses are joined
together using conjunctions, or punctuation. The punctuation mark used is
the semi-colon and conjunctions include: and, but, yet, for, so, nor, and or.

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 Examples:

 Michael studied at the US and Elizabeth studies in China. (The independent

clauses are “Michael studied at the US” and “Elizabeth studied in China” and
are joined by the conjunction “and”) They are independent clauses since
they express a complete idea.
 Mary is cooking, but Moses is washing the dishes. (The sentence has two
verbs “cooking” and “washing,” hence two clauses. The clauses are joined
together by the conjunction “but”)
 My vehicle broke down; I arrived late. (The semi-colon joins the clauses in
this sentence)
Complex Sentences
These sentences have a main clause and a dependent clause (at least one).
Additionally, complex sentences have to subordinate conjunctions which
indicate a dependent clause, such include, like because, after, as, although,
how, before, since, if, once, then, where, until, whether, that, till, and while.

Examples:

 I missed my exam because I was late. (The independent clause is “I missed

my exam,” whereas the dependent clause is “because I was late” and the
subordinating conjunction is “because”)
 I cooked hurriedly after his arrival. (“I cooked hurriedly” is the independent
clause whereas the dependent clause is “after his arrival” and “after” is the
subordinating conjunction)
Complex-compound Sentences
These sentences have multiple clauses, that is, a minimum of two
independent/main clauses and a minimum of one dependent clause.

Examples:

 Mary didn’t sit the exam because she came late, so the teacher was angry .
(The independent clauses in this sentence are “Mary didn’t sit the exam” and
“The teacher was angry.” On the other hand, the dependent clause is
“because she came late” )
 The teacher, who is on duty, is incompetent, but the principal is competent .
(The independent clauses are, “The teacher is incompetent” and “the
principal is competent.” “Who is on duty” is the dependent clause.”) In
addition to subordinate conjunctions, dependent clauses can also begin with
relative pronouns like whose, whom, who, which, and that.
Types of Sentences
There are four types of sentences, namely, imperative, declarative,
exclamatory, and interrogative.

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 Declarative Sentences
These sentences are the most common. They refer to sentences that make
statements, describe things/ people, and also express feelings /opinions.
They must end with a full-stop.

Examples:

 Mary loves eating cookies. (Statement)

 I am excited because of the upcoming sports day. (Feeling)
 His wife is smartly dressed. (Describes a person)

Interrogative Sentences
These refer to sentences that help people ask questions. They must have a
question mark at the end. They can begin with words like do, why, what,
how, when, did, where.

Examples:

 What is an interrogative sentence?

 Did you complete your assignment?
 Do you know the answers to the mathematics assignment?

Imperative Sentences
These are sentences that express a command, instruction, or request. They
have a full-stop at the end but could also have an exclamation mark in case
of forceful demands.
Examples:

 Please give me some tea. (a request)

 Stop it! (Command)
 Close the door immediately after cleaning the house. (instruction)

Exclamatory Sentences
These are sentences that express emotions. They thus must have an
exclamation mark at the end.

 Wow, he got a law degree!

 What a great day!
 How well she dances!
 I can’t believe she is finally getting married!
A sentence refers to a clause, word, or a group of clauses or words that
express a complete thought. A sentence must begin with a capital letter and
end with an exclamation mark, full-stop or question mark) There are
different types of sentence structures and types and help in writing correct
and complete sentences.

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 Phrases,

What is a Phrase?
A phrase is a group of words in a sentence that does not have a subject nor
a verb. A phrase cannot express a complete thought on its own because it
lacks a subject and a verb. This is what differentiates a clause from a phrase
in that it can convey a complete idea on its own because it has a subject and
a verb.
A phrase is composed of a head, also known as a headword, which defines
the grammatical nature the unit will assume and a single or multiple
optional modifiers. A phrase may further comprise of other phrases within
them.

Types of Phrases
Phrases are grouped into eight categories, namely;  noun phrases, infinitive
phrases, verb phrases, appositive phrases, participial phrases, gerund
phrases, absolute phrases, and prepositional phrases.
Let’s take a look at each of the phrases in detail and its examples:

Noun Phrases
A noun phrase is composed of a noun and modifiers. Examples in a
sentence:

 The disabled woman was left out of the trip.

 The deceased person was humble and faithful.
 The young vet had come across several cases of pneumonia.
 Sunday became a quiet, sorrow evening.
 The ailing mother was generous and honest.

Verb Phrases
A verb phrase is composed of a verb and words that modify the verb.

Examples:

 She was waiting for the bus to arrive.

 She was interested in watching the film.
 You have not uttered a word since morning.
 You might enjoy a cup of tea.
 He was excited to be part of the party.
 He was anxious to meet her favorite actor
 She was distressed when she failed the test.
 He was pleased to have his application approved.
 He was eager to say goodbye to his classmates.
 You might find it necessary to carry an umbrella.
 You could have won the race if you had prepared in advance.
 He was prepared to quit the job if her nemesis was to become the CEO.

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 Gerund Phrases
A gerund phrase is a noun phrase that starts with a verb that acts as a
noun. Here are the examples:

 Walking in a thorny bush can be stressful.

 Marking assignments can be challenging.
 Getting married is exciting.
 Taking my daughter out is fun.
 Wandering across the street is awkward.
 Getting a good grade was the result of hard work.
 Doing an assignment for her friends was the only way to earn a living.
 Attending extra classes wasn’t enough to better her grades.
 Washing clothes is tedious.
 Starring at the visitors all day did not earn her a living.

Infinitive Phrases
It is a noun phrase that starts with an infinitive verb. The following are the
examples:

 I moved to the city to work on a government project.

 He planned protests to send a message to the authorities.
 I tried to convince him, but he couldn’t listen.
 The institution decided to reduce the workers’ pay.
 To prepare a meal, you need to have all the ingredients in place.
 She needs counseling to change her behavior.
 He needs to work out on his weaknesses.
 I tried to stop the boys from fighting, but my effort ended in vain.
 .He could have made it, but he was not aggressive enough.
 He has to improve if he has to be promoted to the next class.
 She has to prepare supper on time if she wants to stand a chance to do the
assignment.

Appositive Phrases
An appositive phrase is a phrase that defines and reaffirms a noun. It’s
composed of single or multiple words. Here are the examples:

 Eliud, the most famous marathoner, can run 42 kilometers in less than two
hours.
 My thought, submitting all the assignments in a PDF format, was welcomed
by the lecturer.
 Chelsea, my favorite football club, is doing well in the competition.
 A lion, the king of the jungle, is feared by all animals.
 My house girl, the helper of the family, is also part of my family.
 Her pet, Golden Retriever, was her everything.
 My boyfriend, the love of my life, is also a workmate.
 Christiano Ronaldo, the most famous footballer of all time, is the most
adored.

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 Participial Phrases
This type of phrase starts with a present or past participle. Here are the
examples:

 Being aware of the situation, I wish I had never told her the truth.
 We are eager to start a new chapter, having completed the previous one
yesterday.
 I’m more than happy, knowing the number of guests that have confirmed to
attend the ceremony.
 Painted light-blue, the old car seemed new.
 Stolen with my computer, my watch is nowhere to be found.

Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase can function as an adverb, adjective, or a noun and
starts with a preposition.

Here are the examples:

 He beat the odds to win the top award.

 The screwdriver was on the chair.
 I didn’t sleep for a while.
 He was surrounded by dogs.
 We stayed indoors due to bad weather.
 She wrote an interesting article.
 She knew it was as a result of neglecting duties.
 We didn’t talk for a while.
 We parted ways a long time ago.
 He doesn’t see eye to eye with her younger sister.

Absolute phrases
An absolute phrase is composed of a modifier, noun, and a participle. Here
is an example:

 The harvest declined with excessive sunlight.

Conclusion
Phrases are a great addition to any form of writing. As a writer, the addition
of phrases in your content is one of the ways to make it more meaningful
and useful to your readers. Correct use of phrases ensures your content has
a smooth flow, and the readers will love reading it again and again. Also,
phrases add clarity to any form of writing, which means the reader can
easily understand the intent of the writer. The choice of phrases is also
important because not all phrases can fit in a particular sentence
or paragraph. Ensure the phrase you choose only makes your content
better.
Mastery of phrases is essential because, as a writer, you will not take time
thinking of the phrases to apply to your writing to make it exciting and
meaningful.

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Clauses

Clause
A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. (A clause
functions as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.)

A clause contrasts with a phrase, which does not contain a subject and a
verb. The distinction between a clause and a phrase is clearer when you see
them side by side:

when she wakes up.

(This is a clause. It has a subject ("she") and a verb ("wakes up").)
Anna sings...
in the morning.
(This is a phrase. There is no subject and no verb.)

Easy Examples of Clauses

 During the day, Vlad slept in a coffin.
(The subject of this clause is "Vlad." The verb is "slept." "During the day"
is a phrase because there is no verb.)

 When the Moon shone, he lurked in the shadows.

(The subject of the first clause is "the Moon." The verb is "shone." The
subject of the second clause is "he." The verb is "lurked.")

 He stalked a pretty milkmaid, who lived in the neighbouring village. (The

subject of the first clause is "He." The verb is "stalked." The subject of the
second clause is "who." The verb is "lived.")

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Real-Life Examples of Clauses
There are two types of clause:
 An independent clause (one that can stand alone as a sentence).
 A dependent clause (one that is usually a supporting part of a sentence).
In these three quotations, the independent clauses are shown in bold and the
dependent clauses aren't.
 Even though I made $800 million, I am still grounded. (Boxer Floyd
Mayweather)
(The independent clause could be a standalone sentence, but the
dependent clause couldn't.)
 A computer once beat me at chess but was no match for me at kick
boxing. (Louis Hector Berlioz)
 After I die, I'll be forgotten. (Anon)
The opening words of the dependent clauses above ("Even though," "but," and
"After") are all subordinating conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions link a
dependent clause to an independent clause.
How Are Clauses Used in Sentences?
Clauses can play a variety of roles in sentences. A clause can act as a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb.

(1) Noun Clauses

 She cannot remember what she said last night.
(The clause acts like a noun. It could be replaced with a noun, e.g., "her
rant.")

 Now I know why tigers eat their young. (Mobster Al Capone)

(This clause could be replaced with a noun, e.g., "the reason.")

Read more about noun clauses.

(2) Adjective Clauses

 My friend who lives in London looks like Homer Simpson.
(The clause acts like an adjective. It could be replaced with an adjective,
e.g., "my London-based friend.")

 You should never make fun of something that a person can't change about
themselves. (YouTuber Phil Lester) (This clause could be replaced with an
adjective, e.g., "unchangeable.")
Read more about adjective clauses.

(3) Adverbial Clauses

 He lost his double chin after he gave up chocolate.
(The clause acts like an adverb. It could be replaced with an adverb, e.g.,
"recently.")

 I am not afraid of the pen, the scaffold or the sword. I will tell the
truth wherever I please. (Labour-rights campaigner Mary Harris Jones aka
"Mother Jones")
(This clause could be replaced with an adverb, e.g., "there.")

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Why Should I Care about Clauses?
Native English speakers can create and combine clauses and phrases without
stumbling into too many snags. However, there are two great reasons to care
about clauses.

(1) Understanding when to offset an adjective clause with commas.

The adjective clauses in these two sentences are identical, except one is offset with
commas and one isn't. They are both punctuated correctly. So, what's going on?

 A boy who went to my school won the lottery. 

 Michael Carroll, who went to my school, won the lottery. 
Look at the first example. When an adjective clause is required to identify its noun
(here, "boy"), then it is not offset with commas. (Put another way, the subject of
the sentence is "A boy who went to my school.")

Look at the second example. When an adjective clause is just additional

information, then it is offset with commas. (Put another way, the subject of the
sentence is "Michael Carroll.") If you'd happily put brackets around the clause or
delete it, then it should be offset with commas.

Here are some more examples:

 You went through a phase when you dyed your hair purple.   (There is no
comma because the clause is needed to identify the phase. A clause that's
necessary for identification is called a restrictive clause.)
 You went through a punk phase, when you dyed your hair purple. 
(There is a comma because the phase has already been identified as the
punk phase. The clause is just additional information. A clause that's just
additional information is called a non-restrictive clause.)

 You went through a mod phase, when you started school, a punk

phase when you dyed your hair purple and a punk phase when you dyed
your hair green. 
(The first adjective clause is just additional information (hence the
commas), but the other two are required to identify the punk phases
(hence no commas).)

Lots of writers fly by the seat of their pants when it comes to commas, and
mistakes with commas are extremely common. Therefore, this is a key point for
writers. It crops up all the time (especially with "who" and "which"). It is covered
again from slightly different perspectives in the entries on adjective
clauses, adjective phrases, relative adverbs, relative pronouns, restrictive clauses,
and non-restrictive clauses. Don't worry though! It's the same idea across all of
these topics:

The Same Idea Every Time

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If you'd happily put your clause in brackets or delete it, then use commas because
it must be non-essential.

(2) Understanding when to offset an adverbial clause with commas.

The adverbial clauses in these two sentences are identical, except one is offset with
a comma and one isn't. They are both punctuated correctly. So what's going on?

 When the game has finished, the king and pawn go in the same box.   
(Italian Proverb)
 The king and pawn go in the same box when the game has finished. 
When your adverbial clause (or phrase for that matter) is at the front of a sentence
(often called a "fronted adverbial"), it is good practice to use a comma afterwards
(as in the first sentence above). When it's at the back, the comma tends to be
omitted (as in the second sentence).

This "rule" works well with most adverbial clauses (which tend to be adverbs of
time, place, or condition). Look at the commas after the fronted adverbials in these
examples:

Adverbial Clauses of Time

 When you win, say nothing. When you lose, say less.  (NFL coach Paul
Brown)
 Say nothing when you win. Say less when you lose. 
Adverbial Clauses of Place
 Where there are too many soldiers, there is no peace. Where there are too
many lawyers, there is no justice.   (Chinese philosopher Lin Yutang)
 There is no peace where there are too many soldiers. There is no
justice where there are too many lawyers. 
Adverbial Clauses of Condition
 If you think you can, you can. If you think you can't, you're right.   
(Businesswoman Mary Kay Ash)
 You can if you think you can. You're right if you think you can't. 

Key Points
 If your clause is needed to identify your noun, don't offset it with commas.
 The only man who never makes a mistake is the man who never
does anything.   (US President Theodore Roosevelt)
 If your clause is just additional information that you'd happily put in
brackets or delete, offset it with commas.
 My father, who had previously been a civil engineer, died in the
great influenza epidemic of 1918.   (Physicist James Rainwater)
 If your adverbial clause is fronted, use a comma.
 Don't use a comma if your adverbial clause is at the back.

Conditionals,

Conditional Sentence (with Examples)

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Ad by Valueimpression
Conditional Sentence
A conditional sentence is a sentence that gives a condition (e.g., If it snows)
and the outcome of the condition occurring (e.g., the game will be
cancelled).
Easy Examples of Conditional Sentences
In each example below, the clause expressing the condition is highlighted.

There are four types of conditional sentences:

Type Function Example

zero Expresses something as a If you sleep, you dream.

conditional fact

first States the result of a If you get some sleep, you

conditional possible future event will feel better.
occurring

second States the result of an If you became an insomniac,

conditional unlikely event occurring or you would understand.
an untruth being true (unlikely event occurring)

If you were an insomniac,

you would understand.
(untruth being true)

third States how the situation If you had slept last night,
conditional would be different with a you would have beaten your
different past record.

Here is a short video summarizing this lesson.

Some Real-Life Examples of Zero Conditional Sentences

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A zero-conditional sentence expresses a general fact (i.e., a situation where one
thing always causes another).
If you rest, you rust. (Actress Helen Hayes)
If you think you can, you can. And if you think you can't, you are right. (Business
magnate Henry Ford)
You do ill if you praise, but you do worse if you censure, what you do not
understand. (Polymath Leonardo da Vinci)
Structure: With a zero-conditional sentence, the simple present tense is used in
both clauses. Also, the words if and when are interchangeable.
If I make money, I'm happy. When I lose money, I'm happy. (Gambling magnate
Lui Che Woo)
(With a zero-conditional sentence, the message is expressed as a fact. That doesn't
mean it's true of course.)

Some Real-Life Examples of First Conditional Sentences

A first-conditional sentence states the result of a hypothetical, but possible, future

event (e.g., If you rest) occurring.

If one swain [young lover] scorns you, you will soon find another. (Roman poet
Virgil)

If I like a food, even if it's bad for me, I will eat it. (Reality TV star Kim Kardashian)

Structure: With a first-conditional sentence, the simple present tense is used in the
if-clause, and the simple future tense used in the main clause.

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Some Real-Life Examples of Second Conditional Sentences

A second-conditional sentence states the result of an unlikely event occurring

(e.g., If the boat sank) or an untruth being truth (e.g., If they were on time).

If I won the lottery, I would still love you. I'd miss you, but I'd still love you.
(Comedian Frank Carson)

If I saw a heat wave, I would wave back. (Comedian Steven Wright)

If I had any humility, I would be perfect. (Media mogul Ted Turner)

If you set out to be liked, you would compromise on everything and achieve
nothing. (Margaret Thatcher)

Structure: With a second-conditional sentence, the simple past tense is used in the
if-clause, and would (rarely should or could) with the base form of a verb is used in
the main clause.

Nowadays, it's safe to say that the simple past tense is used in the if-clause, but in
fact it's the past subjunctive, which is identical to the simple past tense apart from
when I and he/she/it are used with the verb to be (e.g., If I were millionaire, If she
were to try). (There's an entry on the subjunctive mood.)

If I were a rich man, all day long I'd biddy-biddy-bum. (Extract from "Fiddler on the
Roof")

(I'd is short for I would. To biddy-biddy-bum must be a verb.)

Life would be tragic if it weren't funny. (Theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking)

That said, it is now common to see the simple past tense used in all circumstances.

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If I was a man, I don't know whether I'd settle down long before I was 50.
(Journalist Mariella Frostrup)

Some Real-Life Examples of Third Conditional Sentences

Third-conditional sentences express how the situation would be different if the past
had been different.

If my lawyer and I had communicated properly in January 1958, this whole history
would have been entirely different. (Inventor of the laser Gordon Gould, who
fought unsuccessfully to patent it)

If I had learned education, I would not have had time to learn anything else.
(Business magnate Cornelius Vanderbilt)

If I had known how hard it would be to do something new in the payments

industry, I would never have started PayPal. (Co-founder of PayPal Peter Thiel)

With a third-conditional sentence, the past perfect tense is used in the if-clause,
and would have (rarely could have) with a past participle is used in the main
clause.

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More about Conditional Sentences

If-clauses without an If. An if-clause can be introduced with other terms such
as when, unless, provided that and as long as or by using inversion (e.g., Were he
available, he would be selected.)

I will swim unless the water is too cold.

I will swim as long as the water is not too cold.

I will swim provided that the water is not too cold.

When they introduce an if-clause, when, provided that and as long as can usually

be replaced with if. Also, unless could be replaced with an if..not construction
(e.g., if the water is not too cold). So, the term if-clause, despite being disliked by
some grammarians, is pretty accurate. It's certainly convenient.

Mixed Conditionals. Occasionally, a conditional sentence will "steal" the structures

from two different types of conditional sentences. This most commonly occurs with
a conditional sentence that uses the structure of a second-conditional sentence for
one clause and the structure of a third-conditional sentence for the other. These
are called mixed conditionals.

If we were smarter, we wouldn't have set off in this weather.

(The if-clause is second-conditional structure. The main is third-conditional

structure.)

If you had checked the weather, we wouldn't be stranded now.

(The if-clause is third-conditional structure. The main is second-conditional

structure.)

Mixed conditionals like these are typically used to express regret for past action or
past inaction.

Why Should I Care about Conditional Sentences?

Fortunately, the vast majority of native English speakers can create conditional
sentences of all 4 "flavours" and the mixed "flavours" without tripping themselves
up. It's because native English speakers are naturally great at tenses. That said,
there are some fairly common hiccups related to tense worth covering and also a
point on using commas.

(Point 1) Using a comma with an if-clause.

When the if-clause precedes the main clause, use a comma after the if-clause.

If I were white, I could capture the world. (African-American actress Dorothy

Dandridge, 1922-65)

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If you steal from one author, it's plagiarism; if you steal from many, it's research.
(Playwright Wilson Mizner)

If the main clause precedes the if-clause, don't use a comma before the if-clause
(unless you think it helps the reader).

Dreams grow if you grow. (Author Zig Ziglar)

There are consequences if you act militarily, and there are big consequences if you
don't act. (US Diplomat Dennis Ross)

Here's an example that sums everything up:

There are economic risks if we leave. If we remain, there are economic risks.
(Politician Michael Gove)

(Issue 2) Using the wrong tense in one of your clauses.

Tense errors can creep in. Below are the most common ones with each structure.

Zero-conditional Structure. To express something as a fact, writers should use the

zero-conditional structure (if + simple present tense, simple present tense).
However, writers sometimes use the first-conditional structure (if + simple present
tense, simple future tense), which states the result of a possible future event
occurring.

If you sleep, you will dream. 

When dogs die, they will go to doggy heaven. 

(In both examples, the will should be deleted.)

With this mistake, the sentence structure is grammatically sound. It's the wrong
sentence structure though, which affects the intended meaning.

First-conditional Structure. With the first-conditional structure, writers sometimes

use the simple future tense (instead of the simple present tense) in the if-clause.

If you will get some sleep, you will feel better.

You can have everything in life you want if you will just help other people
get what they want. (Author Zig Ziglar)

(In both examples, the will should probably be deleted.)

These haven't been marked as wrong because this structure is sometimes

used to emphasise that the future action must occur. (And, that's a good
get-out if you're ever picked up for this mistake.)

Second-conditional Structure. With the second-conditional structure, writers

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sometimes use the simple present tense (instead of the simple past tense)
in the if-clause.

If you become an insomniac, you would understand. 

(If you became an insomniac would be correct.)

The next most common mistake is to use will (instead of would) in the main

clause.

If you became an insomniac, you will understand. 

(You would understand would be correct.)

Third-conditional Structure. With the third-conditional structure, writers

sometimes use would have (instead of the past perfect tense) in the if-
clause.

If you would have slept last night, you would have beaten your record. 

(If you had slept last night would be correct.)

Key Points

When the if-clause is before the main clause, use a comma.

Do not use a comma when the if-clause is after the main clause.

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Reported speech

Page 143 of 191

Passive voice

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Active and passive voice examples for different tenses.

Using the passive with all tenses in English.

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 Quantifiers

What is a Quantifier?
Quantifier definition: A quantifier is a word or number that shows an amount or
number.
Examples: one, each, every, a little, much…

Example sentences:

 I have a few friends.
 I have a little money.
The quantifier a few is used before friends, which is a countable noun. A little is
used before money, an uncountable noun.
Quantifiers are adjectives and adjective phrases that go before nouns. They give
information about how much or how many of an item you are talking about. Some
quantifiers, like a few, few, many go only before countable nouns. Others, like a
little, little, much go only before uncountable nouns. And a few quantifiers can go
before countable or uncountable nouns.
How to Use Quantifiers?
Learn how to use quantifiers with countable and uncountable nouns in English with
example sentences and ESL pictures.
Quantifiers Used with Countable Nouns (One, Each, Every)
One, each and every are examples of countable noun quantifiers.
Examples:

 One movie that I enjoy is “The name of the King.”

 Each child had to give a short speech to the rest of the class.
 There are two boys. Each is smiling.
 Every glass in my recent order was chipped.
 The manager wants to speak to every employee in his office.
 They enjoyed every minute of their holidays.
With plural count nouns, just add of the between the quantifier and the noun it
describes.
 One of the boys tripped over and crashed into a tree.
 Each of the cars has air conditioning.
 Every one of the students is intelligent.
If you have more than two countable items, you can use several, a few,
many and a number of.
Examples:

 Several villages have been isolated by the heavy snowfall.

 I saw a few prisoners run away from the prison.
 All she wanted was a few moments on her own.
 Many students now see university as a stepping stone to a good job.
 We don’t have many things to do today.
 How many siblings do you have?
 A number of the computers are imported.

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Page 147 of 191
 Quantifiers Used with Uncountable Nouns (A Little, Much and A
Great Deal of)
A little, much and a great deal of are examples of uncountable noun
quantifiers.
Examples:

 Swirl a little oil around the frying pan.

 She saves a little money every month.
 She’s got so much energy she never seems to tire.
 She didn’t have much homework last night.
 A motorcar costs a great deal of money.
Quantifiers Used with both Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Some, most, plenty of, all and any are examples of quantifier that can go
with both countable and uncountable nouns
Examples:

 There is some bread apart from the milk. (uncountable noun)

 We’ve got some oranges. (countable noun)
 Paul has strong opinions on most subjects. (countable noun)
 Don’t worry. We have plenty of time. (uncountable noun)
 Send me an e-mail when you have any news. (uncountable noun)
 

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Page 149 of 191
Page 150 of 191
Determiners

What Is a Determiner?
What is a determiner? Learn different types of determiners in English with
meaning, list and example sentences.

An important role in English grammar is played by determiners – words or

phrases that precede a noun or noun phrase and serve to express its
reference in the context / to give more information about the noun.
The most common of these are the definite and indefinite articles, the and a,
an. Other determiners in English include demonstratives such
as this and that, possessives such as my and the boy’s, and quantifiers such
as all, many and three.
Types of Determiners
The following is a rough classification of determiners used in English,
including both words and phrases:

What Is a Determiner?

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Definite Determiners
Which imply that the referent of the resulting noun phrase is defined
specifically:

1. The definite article the.

Example: The girl, all the factories, the red wine
2. The demonstrative adjectives

Examples: this, that, these, those

3. Possessive adjectives

Examples: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose, one’s, everybody’s, Cind
y’s, Linda’s, a boy’s, the man we saw yesterday’s.
4. Interrogatives

Examples: which, what (these can be followed by -ever for emphasis).

5. Relative determiners: which, whichever and whatever…

Example: Whichever way you look at it, things are pretty bad.

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 Indefinite Determiners
1. The indefinite article

Example: a or an
2. The word some
Used as an equivalent of the indefinite article with plural and non-count
nouns.

3. The strong form of some

Example: Some people pretend to despise the things they cannot have.
4. The word any
Often used in negative and interrogative contexts in place of the article -
equivalent some (and sometimes also with singular count nouns). It can also
be used to express alternative.

Quantifiers
1. Words indicating a large or small quantity and their comparative and superlative
forms
Examples: much/many, little/few, more, most, less/fewer, least/fewest.
2. Phrases expressing similar meanings to the above.
Examples: a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of, tons of, etc.
3. Words and phrases expressing some unspecified or probably quite small amount
Examples: a few/a little (learners often confuse these with few/little), several, a
couple of, a bit of, a number of, etc.
4. Cardinal numbers
Examples: zero (quite rare as determiner), one, two, etc.
5. Other phrases expressing precise quantity
Examples: a pair of, five liters of, etc.
6. Words and phrases expressing multiples or fractions
Examples: half, half of, double, twice, three times, twice as much, etc.
7. Words expressing maximum, sufficient or zero quantity
Examples: all, both, enough, sufficient, no.
Note that many of these quantifiers can be modified by adverbs and adverbial
phrases such as almost, over, more than, less than, when the meaning is
appropriate.

Personal Determiners
The words you and we/us, in phrases like we teachers; you guys can be analysed
as determiners.
Examples:
 I thought you guys all wore those penguin coats.
 Us girls wear woolen socks in winter.
These examples can be contrasted with a similar but different use of pronouns in
an appositional construction, where the use of other pronouns is also permitted but
the pronouns cannot be preceded by the (pre-) determiner “all”.
Examples:
 I/we, the undersigned, . . . , 
 We, the undersigned, . . . , (but not All we, the undersigned, . . .)

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 Other Cases
1. The words such and exclamative what
These are followed by an indefinite article when used with a singular noun.

Examples:

 Such a long way.

 What a disaster!
2. Noun phrases used as determiners

Example: This color and what size (as in I don’t like the color furniture; What size
shirt does he wear?)

Zero Determiners
In some contexts a complete noun phrase can exist without any determiner
(or with “zero determiner”). The main types of such cases are:
1. With plural or uncountable nouns used to refer to a concept or members
of a class generally
Examples:
 Cars are useful. (but the cars when specific cars are being referred to)
 Happiness is contagious. (but the happiness when specific happiness is
referred to, as in the happiness that laughter engenders…)
2. With plural or uncountable nouns used to refer to some unspecified
amount of something
Examples:
 There are dogs under the table.
 Do you take milk in your tea?
3. With many proper names
Examples: Tom Smith, Birmingham, Italy, Jupiter, Mars, Paris, Thomas
Johnson
4. With singular common nouns in some common expressions
Examples: smiling from ear to ear, leaving town today.

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Synonyms

Synonyms
A synonym is a word or phrase that means the same (or very nearly the
same) as another word or phrase. Words that are synonyms are described
as synonymous.

Easy Examples of Synonyms

 He is happy /glad.
(Happy and glad are synonymous.)

 Actress Kate Beckinsale studied / read French and Russian literature

at Oxford.
(Studied and read are synonymous.)

Bear in mind that synonyms in one context might not be synonyms in

another.

 He studied / read in the kitchen.

(Here, studied and read are not synonymous.)

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More Examples of Synonyms
Synonyms usually relate to adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or verbs. However,
they can be any part of speech.

Adjectives

 The reason is unimportant.

 The reason is irrelevant.
Adverbs

 He eats fast.
 He eats quickly.
Nouns

 Shall I take the dogs?

 Shall I take the mutts?
Verbs

 I need to contemplate the consequences.

 I need to consider the consequences.
Conjunctions

 I should tell her as she is my sister.

 I should tell her because she is my sister.
(Note: These are known as subordinating conjunctions.)

Interjections

 Yes, Captain.
 Aye, Captain.
Prepositions

 Upon arrival, take a ticket.

 On arrival, take a ticket.
Pronouns

 I'll show you my yacht "Unsinkable II". She is a beauty.

 I'll show you my yacht "Unsinkable II". It is a beauty.

Synonyms Contrast with Antonyms.

Synonyms contrast with antonyms. Antonyms are words with opposite
meanings, making them the opposite of synonyms. For example:

 "Bad" is an antonym of "good."

 "Coward" is an antonym of "hero."

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Examples of Synonyms and Antonyms.
The table below shows some examples of synonyms and antonyms.

Word Synonym Antonym

always forever never

blend mix separate

clarify explain, simplify confuse

defend protect, shield attack, assault

enemy foe, opponent ally, friend

false incorrect, untrue true

gather collect, accumulate scatter, disperse

humble modest vain

irritate annoy, agitate, provoke soothe, calm

jubilant delighted, elated, overjoyed dejected, depressed

kind considerate, tender, thoughtful mean, cruel, inconsiderate

loose slack, limp tight

maximum greatest, highest, uppermost minimum, least

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Why Should I Care about Synonyms?
There are three good reasons and one bad reason to care about synonyms:

(Good Reason 1) To keep your writing interesting

Repeating the same word can make writing dull.

 Thank you for your cooperation. We would have failed without

your cooperation.
Keep your writing interesting by creating some literary variance with synonyms.

 Thank you for your assistance. We would have failed without

your cooperation.
(You don't have to achieve literary variance as you're typing. Just repeat the word
and then let your thesaurus earn its living.)

(Good Reason 2) To fine-tune your communications

Remember that synonyms are words that mean, or very nearly mean, the same.
Those differences can be important. Recognizing the different connotations (i.e.,
the implied meanings) of synonyms will help you nail the right word, be it in a
poem or a business letter.

 The pond was dark /murky.

(Choose the word that fits the precise image you want to portray.)

(Good Reason 3) To find a rhyming, rhythmic, or alliterative word

To find a word that fits your needs poetically, put a synonym and then use your
thesaurus to hunt down a better-fitting synonym.

 A piece shard of shrapnel shaved her shoulder blade.

(Bad Reason 1) To avoid a word you can't spell

According to Musician Burt Bacharach, a synonym is "a word you use when you
can't spell the first word you thought of." (He was joking, of course.)

 My conscence consiance integrity won't allow it.

(If you can't spell conscience...)

It's hard to condone this reason, but, hey, it's not unhelpful.

Key Points
 Use synonyms to apply literary variance.
 Use the subtle differences in synonyms to fine-tune your message.
 Use your thesaurus to find the word that fits your needs poetically.

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Punctuation Marks
Punctuation is the use of conventional characters (e.g., commas, semicolons) to improve
clarity. In general, punctuation aids comprehension by showing a reader which words are
grouped and where to pause.

Spacing 
Rule 1
With a computer, use only one space following periods, commas, semicolons, colons,
exclamation points, question marks, and quotation marks. The space needed after these
punctuation marks is proportioned automatically.
Rule 2
Use no spaces on either side of a hyphen.
Example:
We borrowed twenty-three sheets of paper.

Periods
Rule 1. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.
Example: I know him well.
Rule 2. If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation that ends in a period, do not
follow it with another period.
Incorrect: This is Alice Smith, M.D..
Correct: This is Alice Smith, M.D.
Correct: Please shop, cook, etc. We will do the laundry.

Rule 3. Question marks and exclamation points replace and eliminate periods at the end of
a sentence.

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Commas
Commas and periods are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas
customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as periods.
Rule 1. Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series of three or more
items.
Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and nephew.
Note: When the last comma in a series comes before and or or (after daughter-in-law in
the above example), it is known as the Oxford comma. Most newspapers and magazines
drop the Oxford comma in a simple series, apparently feeling it's unnecessary. However,
omission of the Oxford comma can sometimes lead to misunderstandings.
Example: We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.
Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear that cheese and crackers represents one
dish. In cases like this, clarity demands the Oxford comma.
We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes.
Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford comma. Writers must decide
Oxford or no Oxford and not switch back and forth, except when omitting the Oxford
comma could cause confusion as in the cheese and crackers example.
Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the order of the adjectives is
interchangeable.
Example: He is a strong, healthy man.
We could also say healthy, strong man.
Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.
We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.
Another way to determine if a comma is needed is to mentally put and between the two
adjectives. If the result still makes sense, add the comma. In the examples above, a
strong and healthy man makes sense, but an expensive and summer resort does not.
Rule 3a. Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using a
comma instead of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more
technically, a comma splice.
Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.
There are several simple remedies:
Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.
Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.
Rule 3b. In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such
as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause.

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 Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.
Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both quite short:
Example: I paint and he writes.
Rule 3c. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally
unnecessary.
Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.
But sometimes a comma in this situation is necessary to avoid confusion.
Confusing: I saw that she was busy and prepared to leave.
Clearer with comma: I saw that she was busy, and prepared to leave.
Without a comma, the reader is liable to think that "she" was the one who was prepared to
leave.
Rule 4a. When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a comma after it.
Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Follow the same policy with introductory phrases.
Example: Having finally arrived in town, we went shopping.
However, if the introductory phrase is clear and brief (three or four words), the comma is
optional.
Example: When in town we go shopping.
But always add a comma if it would avoid confusion.
Example: Last Sunday, evening classes were canceled. (The comma prevents a
misreading.)
When an introductory phrase begins with a preposition, a comma may not be necessary
even if the phrase contains more than three or four words.
Example: Into the sparkling crystal ball he gazed.
If such a phrase contains more than one preposition, a comma may be used unless a verb
immediately follows the phrase.
Examples:
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue, the mayor's
mansion stands proudly.
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue is the mayor's
mansion.
Rule 4b. A comma is usually unnecessary when the sentence starts with an independent
clause followed by a dependent clause.
Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

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Rule 5. Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases (see Who, That,
Which, Rule 2b).
Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.
Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.
Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home.
Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.
In the preceding examples, note the comma after sister and late. Nonessential words,
clauses, and phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by commas. The closing
comma is called an appositive comma. Many writers forget to add this important comma.
Following are two instances of the need for an appositive comma with one or more nouns.
Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.
Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.
Incorrect: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper were on the table.
Correct: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper, were on the table.

Rule 6. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is
considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.
Examples:
Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.
If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not essential.

The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.

We do not know which boy is meant without further description; therefore, no commas
are used.
This leads to a persistent problem. Look at the following sentence:
Example: My brother Bill is here.
Now, see how adding two commas changes that sentence's meaning:
Example: My brother, Bill, is here.
Careful writers and readers understand that the first sentence means I have more than one
brother. The commas in the second sentence mean that Bill is my only brother.
Why? In the first sentence, Bill is essential information: it identifies which of my two (or
more) brothers I'm speaking of. This is why no commas enclose Bill.
In the second sentence, Bill is nonessential information—whom else but Bill could I mean?—
hence the commas.
Comma misuse is nothing to take lightly. It can lead to a train wreck like this:
Example: Mark Twain's book, Tom Sawyer, is a delight.

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Because of the commas, that sentence states that Twain wrote only one book. In fact, he
wrote more than two dozen of them.
Rule 7a. Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well, yes,
why, hello, hey, etc.
Examples:
Why, I can't believe this!
No, you can't have a dollar.
Rule 7b. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless,
after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).
Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.
Rule 8. Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of a
person directly addressed.
Examples:
Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes, old friend, I will.
Good day, Captain.
Rule 9. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, and—what most
people forget!—always put one after the year, also.
Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition.
No comma is necessary for just the month and year.
Example: It was in a June 2003 article.

Rule 10. Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and remember to put one after the
state, also.
Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area.
Rule 11. Traditionally, if a person's name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the last
name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered mandatory. However, if a
comma does precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must follow the entire name when it
appears midsentence.
Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here.
Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.
Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.
Rule 12. Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names.
Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.
Rule 13a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.

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 Examples:
He said, "I don't care."
"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"
This rule is optional with one-word quotations.
Example: He said "Stop."
Rule 13b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana
insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only
one word.
Examples:
"I don't care," he said.
"Stop," he said.
Rule 13c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a
comma.
Examples:
Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?
Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.
Rule 13d. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.
Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.
Rule 14. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.
Example: I can go, can't I?

Rule 15. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.

Example: That is my money, not yours.
Rule 16a. Use a comma before and after certain introductory words or terms, such
as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., and for instance, when they are followed by a series of items.
Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and
warm clothing.
Rule 16b. A comma should precede the term etc. Many authorities also recommend a
comma after etc. when it is placed midsentence.
Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are in the tent.

Semicolons
It's no accident that a semicolon is a period atop a comma. Like commas, semicolons
indicate an audible pause—slightly longer than a comma's, but short of a period's full stop.

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Semicolons have other functions, too. But first, a caveat: avoid the common mistake of
using a semicolon to replace a colon (see the "Colons" section).
Incorrect: I have one goal; to find her.
Correct: I have one goal: to find her.
Rule 1a. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between
two closely linked sentences.
Examples:
Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.
We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.
Rule 1b. Avoid a semicolon when a dependent clause comes before an independent clause.
Incorrect: Although they tried; they failed.
Correct: Although they tried, they failed.
Rule 2. Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore, that
is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete sentence. It is
also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.
Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short supply.

Rule 3. Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain
commas.
Incorrect: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho,
Springfield, California, Alamo, Tennessee, and other places as well.
Note that with only commas, that sentence is hopeless.
Correct: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho; Springfield,
California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well. (Note the final semicolon,
rather than a comma, after Tennessee.)
Rule 4. A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a connector, such
as and, but, or, nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in the first clause.
Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad to help you; and that is a
promise I will keep.

Rule 5. Do not capitalize ordinary words after a semicolon.

Incorrect: I am here; You are over there.

Correct: I am here; you are over there.

Colons
A colon means "that is to say" or "here's what I mean." Colons and semicolons should
never be used interchangeably.
Rule 1a. Use a colon to introduce an item or a series of items. Do not capitalize the first
item after the colon (unless it's a proper noun).

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 Examples:
You know what to do: practice.
You may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags, pans, utensils, and warm
clothing.
I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.
I need an assistant who can do the following: input data, write reports, and complete
tax forms.
Rule 1b. A capital letter generally does not introduce a word, phrase, or incomplete
sentence following a colon.
Examples:
He got what he worked for: a promotion
He got what he worked for: a promotion that paid a higher wage.
Rule 2. Avoid using a colon before a list if it directly follows a verb or preposition that
would ordinarily need no punctuation in that sentence.
Not recommended: I want: butter, sugar, and flour.
Recommended: I want butter, sugar, and flour. OR
Here is what I want: butter, sugar, and flour.
Not recommended: I've seen the greats, including: Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.
Recommended: I've seen the greats, including Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.

Rule 3. When listing items one by one, one per line, following a colon, capitalization and
ending punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases preceded by letters,
numbers, or bullet points. If each point is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word and
end the sentence with appropriate ending punctuation. Otherwise, there are no hard and
fast rules, except be consistent.
Examples:
I want an assistant who can do the following:
a. input data
b. write reports
c. complete tax forms

The following are requested:

 Wool sweaters for possible cold weather.
 Wet suits for snorkeling.
 Introductions to the local dignitaries.

These are the pool rules:

1. Do not run.
2. If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
3. Did you remember your towel?
4. Have fun!

Rule 4. A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when the
second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first sentence.
Example: He got what he worked for: he really earned that promotion.
If a complete sentence follows a colon, as in the previous example, authorities are divided
over whether to capitalize the first word. Some writers and editors feel that capitalizing a
complete sentence after a colon is always advisable. Others advise against it. Still others
regard it as a judgment call: If what follows the colon is closely related to what precedes it,
there is no need for a capital. But if what follows is a general or formal statement, many
writers and editors capitalize the first word.
Example: Remember the old saying: Be careful what you wish for.
Rule 5. Capitalize the first word of a complete or full-sentence quotation that follows a
colon.

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 Example: The host made an announcement: "You are all staying for dinner."
Rule 6. Capitalize the first word after a colon if the information following the colon requires
two or more complete sentences.
Example: Dad gave us these rules to live by: Work hard. Be honest. Always show up
on time.
Rule 7. If a quotation contains two or more sentences, many writers and editors introduce
it with a colon rather than a comma.
Example: Dad often said to me: "Work hard. Be honest. Always show up on time."

Rule 8. For extended quotations introduced by a colon, some style manuals say to indent
one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only on the left
margin. Quotation marks are not used.
Example: The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter:
Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate patterns of
burned moth wings in the translucent glass of the overhead light.
Her father was in "hyper mode" again where nothing could calm him
down.
Rule 9. Use a colon rather than a comma to follow the salutation in a business letter, even
when addressing someone by his or her first name. (Never use a semicolon after a
salutation.) A comma is used after the salutation in more informal correspondence.
Examples:
Dear Ms. Rodriguez:
Dear Dave,

Question Marks

Rule 1. Use a question mark only after a direct question.

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 Correct: Will you go with me?
Incorrect: I'm asking if you will go with me?

Rule 2a. A question mark replaces a period at the end of a sentence.

Incorrect: Will you go with me?.

Rule 2b. Because of Rule 2a, capitalize the word that follows a question mark.

Some writers choose to overlook this rule in special cases.

Example: Will you go with me? with Joe? with anyone?

Rule 3a. Avoid the common trap of using question marks with indirect

questions, which are statements that contain questions. Use a period after an
indirect question.

Incorrect: I wonder if he would go with me?

Correct:
I wonder if he would go with me.
OR
I wonder: Would he go with me?

Rule 3b. Some sentences are statements—or demands—in the form of a question.

They are called rhetorical questions because they don't require or expect an
answer. Many should be written without question marks.

Examples:
Why don't you take a break.
Would you kids knock it off.
What wouldn't I do for you!

Rule 4. Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question.

Example: You do care, don't you?

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Rule 5a. The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a
question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the
quotation marks.

Examples:
She asked, "Will you still be my friend?"
The question Will you still be my friend? is part of the quotation.

Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?
The question Do you agree with the saying? is outside the quotation.

Rule 5b. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a
comma.

Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.

Parentheses and Brackets

Parentheses and brackets must never be used interchangeably.

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Parentheses
Rule 1. Use parentheses to enclose information that clarifies or is used as
an aside.
Example: He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that
he did not understand the question.
If material in parentheses ends a sentence, the period goes after the
parentheses.
Example: He gave me a nice bonus ($500).
Commas could have been used in the first example; a colon could have been
used in the second example. The use of parentheses indicates that the
writer considered the information less important—almost an afterthought.
Rule 2a. Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside
the parentheses.
Example: Please read the analysis. (You'll be amazed.)
This is a rule with a lot of wiggle room. An entire sentence in parentheses is
often acceptable without an enclosed period:
Example: Please read the analysis (you'll be amazed).
Rule 2b. Take care to punctuate correctly when punctuation is required
both inside and outside parentheses.
Example: You are late (aren't you?).
Note the question mark within the parentheses. The period after the
parentheses is necessary to bring the entire sentence to a close.
Rule 3. Parentheses, despite appearances, are not part of the subject.
Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence:
Example: Joe (accompanied by his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
Rule 4. Commas are more likely to follow parentheses than precede them.
Incorrect: When he got home, (it was already dark outside) he fixed
dinner.
Correct: When he got home (it was already dark outside), he fixed
dinner.

Brackets

Brackets are far less common than parentheses, and they are only used in
special cases. Brackets (like single quotation marks) are used exclusively
within quoted material.

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Rule 1. Brackets are interruptions. When we see them, we know they've
been added by someone else. They are used to explain or comment on the
quotation.

Examples:
"Four score and seven [today we'd say eighty-seven] years ago..."
"Bill shook hands with [his son] Al."

Rule 2. When quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or

presents material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and
enclose it in nonitalic (unless the surrounding text is italic) brackets.

Sic ("thus" in Latin) is shorthand for, "This is exactly what the original

material says."

Example: She wrote, "I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the
same outfit as my sister."

The [sic] indicates that then was mistakenly used instead of than.

Rule 3. In formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity
of both a quotation and the sentences others use it in.

Example: "[T]he better angels of our nature" gave a powerful ending to

Lincoln's first inaugural address.

Lincoln's memorable phrase came midsentence, so the word the was not

originally capitalized.

Apostrophes

Rule 1a. Use the apostrophe to show possession. To show possession with a

singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter s.

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 Examples:
a woman's hat
the boss's wife
Mrs. Chang's house
Rule 1b. Many common nouns end in the letter s (lens, cactus, bus, etc.). So do a
lot of proper nouns (Mr. Jones, Texas, Christmas). There are conflicting policies and
theories about how to show possession when writing such nouns. There is no right
answer; the best advice is to choose a formula and stay consistent.
Rule 1c. Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe to all nouns ending in s.
And some add an apostrophe + s to every proper noun, be it Hastings's or Jones's.
One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe
+ s ('s) to common nouns ending in s, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to proper
nouns ending in s.
Examples:
the class's hours
Mr. Jones' golf clubs
the canvas's size
Texas' weather
Care must be taken to place the apostrophe outside the word in question. For
instance, if talking about a pen belonging to Mr. Hastings, many people would
wrongly write Mr. Hasting's pen (his name is not Mr. Hasting).
Correct: Mr. Hastings' pen
Another widely used technique is to write the word as we would speak it. For
example, since most people saying "Mr. Hastings' pen" would not pronounce an
added s, we would write Mr. Hastings' pen with no added s. But most people would
pronounce an added s in "Jones's," so we'd write it as we say it: Mr. Jones's golf
clubs. This method explains the punctuation of for goodness' sake.
Rule 2a. Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the
letter s or es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural
possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s.
Correct: guys' night out (guy + s + apostrophe)
Incorrect: guy's night out (implies only one guy)

Correct: two actresses' roles (actress + es + apostrophe)

Incorrect: two actress's roles
Rule 2b. Do not use an apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural.

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 Incorrect: Apostrophe's are confusing.
Correct: Apostrophes are confusing.

Incorrect: We've had many happy Christmas's.

Correct: We've had many happy Christmases.
In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not normally a
noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity.
Example: Here are some do's and don'ts.
In that sentence, the verb do is used as a plural noun, and the apostrophe was
added because the writer felt that dos was confusing. Not all writers agree; some
see no problem with dos and don'ts.
However, with single lowercase letters, it is advisable to use apostrophes.
Example: My a's look like u's.
Imagine the confusion if you wrote that sentence without apostrophes. Readers
would see as and us, and feel lost.
Rule 2c. English also has many irregular nouns (child, nucleus, tooth, etc.).
These nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite
different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire irregular plural noun
before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.
Incorrect: two childrens' hats
The plural is children, not childrens.
Correct: two children's hats (children + apostrophe + s)

Incorrect: the teeths' roots

Correct: the teeth's roots
Rule 2d. Things can get really confusing with the possessive plurals of proper
names ending in s, such as Hastings and Jones.
If you're the guest of the Ford family—the Fords—you're the Fords' guest
(Ford + s + apostrophe). But what if it's the Hastings family?
Most would call them the "Hastings." But that would refer to a family named
"Hasting." If someone's name ends in s, we must add -es for the plural. The plural
of Hastings is Hastingses. The members of the Jones family are the Joneses.
To show possession, add an apostrophe.
Incorrect: the Hastings' dog
Correct: the Hastingses' dog (Hastings + es + apostrophe)

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 Incorrect: the Jones' car
Correct: the Joneses' car
In serious writing, this rule must be followed no matter how strange or awkward
the results.
Rule 2e. Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.
Incorrect: The Wilson's are here.
Correct: The Wilsons are here.

Incorrect: We visited the Sanchez's.

Correct: We visited the Sanchezes.
Rule 3. With a singular compound noun (for example, mother-in-law), show
possession with an apostrophe + s at the end of the word.
Example: my mother-in-law's hat
If the compound noun (e.g., brother-in-law) is to be made plural, form the plural
first (brothers-in-law), and then use the apostrophe + s.
Example: my two brothers-in-law's hats
Rule 4a. If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after the
second name only.
Example: Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of redwood.
However, if one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive
form for both.
Incorrect: Maribel and my home
Incorrect: Mine and Maribel's home
Correct: Maribel's and my home
Incorrect: he and Maribel's home
Incorrect: him and Maribel's home
Correct: his and Maribel's home
Incorrect: you and Maribel's home
Incorrect: yours and Maribel's home
Correct: Maribel's and your home
Note: As the above examples demonstrate, when one of the co-owners is written
as a pronoun, use possessive adjectives (my, your, her, our, their).
Avoid possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such
constructions.
It should be mentioned that compound possessives are often clunky as well as
confusing. For instance, a picture of her and Cesar's house could refer to a photo of

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"her" in front of the house that Cesar owns or a photo of the house that she and
Cesar co-own. Big difference. Such ambiguous sentences should just be rewritten.
Rule 4b. In cases of separate rather than joint possession, use the possessive
form for both.
Examples:
Cesar's and Maribel's homes are both lovely.
They don't own the homes jointly.

Cesar and Maribel's homes are both lovely.

The homes belong to both of them.
Rule 5. Use an apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is placed where a
letter or letters have been removed.
Examples: doesn't, it's, 'tis, can't, you'd, should've, rock 'n' roll, etc.
Incorrect: does'nt
Rule 6. There are various approaches to plurals for abbreviations, single letters,
and numerals.
Many writers and editors prefer an apostrophe after single capitalized letters.
Example: I made straight A's.
With groups of two or more capital letters, apostrophes seem less necessary.
Examples:
There are two new MPs on the base.
He learned his ABCs.
She consulted with three M.D.s. OR She consulted with three M.D.'s.
Some write M.D.'s to give the s separation from the second period.
Single-digit numbers are usually spelled out, but when they aren't, you are just as
likely to see 2s and 3s as 2's and 3's. With double digits and above, many (but not
everyone) regard the apostrophe as superfluous: I scored in the high 90s.
There are different schools of thought about years and decades. The following
examples are all in widespread use:
Examples:
the 1990s
the 1990's
the '90s
the 90's
Awkward: the '90's

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Rule 7. Amounts of time or money are sometimes used as possessive adjectives
that require apostrophes.
Incorrect: three days leave
Correct: three days' leave

Incorrect: my two cents worth

Correct: my two cents' worth
Rule 8. The personal pronouns hers, ours, yours, theirs, its, whose, and the
pronoun oneself never take an apostrophe.
Examples:
Correct: Feed a horse grain. It's better for its health.

Incorrect: Who's glasses are these?

Correct: Whose glasses are these?

Incorrect: Talking to one's self in public is odd.

Correct: Talking to oneself in public is odd.
Rule 9. When an apostrophe comes before a word or number, take care that it's
truly an apostrophe (’) rather than a single quotation mark (‘).
Incorrect: ‘Twas the night before Christmas.
Correct: ’Twas the night before Christmas.

Incorrect: I voted in ‘08.

Correct: I voted in ’08.

NOTE
Serious writers avoid the word 'til as an alternative to until. The correct word is till,
which is many centuries older than until.
Rule 10. Beware of false possessives, which often occur with nouns ending in s.
Don't add apostrophes to noun-derived adjectives ending in s. Close analysis is the
best guide.
Incorrect: We enjoyed the New Orleans' cuisine.
In the preceding sentence, the word the makes no sense unless New Orleans is
being used as an adjective to describe cuisine. In English, nouns frequently become
adjectives. Adjectives rarely if ever take apostrophes.

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 Incorrect: I like that Beatles' song.
Correct: I like that Beatles song.
Again, Beatles is an adjective, modifying song.
Incorrect: He's a United States' citizen.
Correct: He's a United States citizen.
Rule 11. Beware of nouns ending in y; do not show possession by changing
the y to ies.
Correct: the company's policy
Incorrect: the companies policy
To show possession when a noun ending in y becomes plural, write ies'. Do not
write y's.
Correct: three companies' policies
Incorrect: three company's policies
Exception: Names and other proper nouns ending in y become plural simply by
adding an s. They do not form their plurals with an apostrophe, or by changing
the y to ies.
Correct: The Flannerys are coming over.
Incorrect: The Flannery's are coming over.
Incorrect: The Flanneries are coming over.
Correct: The Flannerys' house was robbed.
Incorrect: The Flanneries' house was robbed.

Hyphens

There are two commandments about this misunderstood punctuation mark.

First, hyphens must never be used interchangeably with dashes (see
the Dashes section), which are noticeably longer. Second, there should not be
spaces around hyphens.

Incorrect: 300—325 people
Incorrect: 300 - 325 people
Correct: 300-325 people

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Hyphens' main purpose is to glue words together. They notify the reader that two
or more elements in a sentence are linked. Although there are rules and customs
governing hyphens, there are also situations when writers must decide whether to
add them for clarity.

Hyphens Between Words

Rule 1. Generally, hyphenate two or more words when they come before a noun
they modify and act as a single idea. This is called a compound adjective.

Examples:
an off-campus apartment
state-of-the-art design

When a compound adjective follows a noun, a hyphen is usually not necessary.

Example: The apartment is off campus.

However, some established compound adjectives are always hyphenated. Double-

check with a dictionary or online.

Example: The design is state-of-the-art.

Rule 2a. A hyphen is frequently required when forming original compound verbs
for vivid writing, humor, or special situations.

Examples:
The slacker video-gamed his way through life.
Queen Victoria throne-sat for six decades.

Rule 2b. When writing out new, original, or unusual compound nouns, writers
should hyphenate whenever doing so avoids confusion.

Examples:
I changed my diet and became a no-meater.
No-meater is too confusing without the hyphen.

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 The slacker was a video gamer.
Video gamer is clear without a hyphen, although some writers might prefer to
hyphenate it.

Writers using familiar compound verbs and nouns should consult a dictionary or
look online to decide if these verbs and nouns should be hyphenated.

Rule 3. An often overlooked rule for hyphens: The adverb very and adverbs ending
in ly are not hyphenated.

Incorrect: the very-elegant watch

Incorrect: the finely-tuned watch

This rule applies only to adverbs. The following two examples are correct because
the ly words are not adverbs:

Correct: the friendly-looking dog

Correct: a family-owned cafe

Rule 4. Hyphens are often used to tell the ages of people and things. A handy rule,
whether writing about years, months, or any other period of time, is to use
hyphens unless the period of time (years, months, weeks, days) is written in plural
form:

With hyphens:
We have a two-year-old child.
We have a two-year-old.

No hyphens: The child is two years old. (Because years is plural.)

Exception: The child is one year old. (Or day, week, month, etc.)

Note that when hyphens are involved in expressing ages, two hyphens are
required. Many writers forget the second hyphen:

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 Incorrect: We have a two-year old child.

Without the second hyphen, the sentence is about an "old child."

Rule 5. Never hesitate to add a hyphen if it solves a possible problem. Following

are two examples of well-advised hyphens:

Confusing: Springfield has little town charm.

With hyphen: Springfield has little-town charm.

Without the hyphen, the sentence seems to say that Springfield is a dreary place.
With the hyphen, little-town becomes a compound adjective, making the writer's
intention clear: Springfield is a charming small town.

Confusing: She had a concealed weapons permit.

With hyphen: She had a concealed-weapons permit.

With no hyphen, we can only guess: Was the weapons permit hidden from sight, or
was it a permit for concealed weapons? The hyphen makes concealed-weapons a
compound adjective, so the reader knows that the writer meant a permit for
concealed weapons.

Rule 6. When using numbers, hyphenate spans or estimates of time, distance, or

other quantities. Remember not to use spaces around hyphens.

Examples:
3:15-3:45 p.m.
1999-2016
300-325 people

Note: Most publishers use the slightly longer en dash instead of a hyphen in this
situation.

Examples:
3:15–3:45 p.m.

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 1999–2016
300–325 people

Here is how to type an en dash: On a PC, hold down the ALT key and type 0150 on
the numeric keypad located on the far right of the keyboard. On a Mac, hold down
the Option key and type the minus sign located at the top of the keyboard.

Rule 7. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

Examples:
thirty-two children
one thousand two hundred twenty-one dollars

Rule 8a. Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions. But do not hyphenate fractions

introduced with a or an.

Examples:
More than one-third of registered voters oppose the measure.
More than a third of registered voters oppose the measure.

Rule 8b. When writing out numbers with fractions, hyphenate only the
fractions unless the construction is a compound adjective.

Correct: The sign is five and one-half feet long.

Correct: A five-and-one-half-foot-long sign.
Incorrect: The sign is five-and-one-half feet long.

Rule 9a. Do not hyphenate proper nouns of more than one word when they are
used as compound adjectives.

Incorrect: She is an Academy-Award nominee.

Correct: She is an Academy Award nominee.

Rule 9b. However, hyphenate most double last names.

Example: Sir Winthrop Heinz-Eakins will attend.

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Rule 10. Many editors do not hyphenate certain well-known expressions. They
believe that set phrases, because of their familiarity (e.g., high school, ice
cream, twentieth century), can go before a noun without risk of confusing the
reader.

Examples:
a high school senior
an ice cream cone
a twentieth century throwback

However, other editors prefer hyphenating all compound modifiers, even those with
low risk of ambiguity.

Examples:
a high-school senior
an ice-cream cone
a twentieth-century throwback

Rule 11. When in doubt, look it up. Some familiar phrases may require hyphens.
For instance, is a book up to date or up-to-date? Don't guess; have a dictionary
close by, or look it up online.

Hyphens with Prefixes and Suffixes

A prefix (a, un, de, ab, sub, post, anti, etc.) is a letter or set of letters placed before
a root word. The word prefix itself contains the prefix pre. Prefixes expand or change a
word's meaning, sometimes radically: the prefixes a, un, and dis, for example, change
words into their opposites (e.g., political, apolitical; friendly, unfriendly; honor, dishonor).
Rule 1. Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns or proper adjectives.
Examples:
trans-American
mid-July

Rule 2. In describing family relations, great requires a hyphen, but grand becomes part of

the word without a hyphen.
Examples:
My grandson and my granduncle never met.
My great-great-grandfather fought in the Civil War.
Do not hyphenate half brother or half sister.
Rule 3. For clarity, many writers hyphenate prefixes ending in a vowel when the root word
begins with the same letter.
Example:
ultra-ambitious
semi-invalid
re-elect

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Rule 4. Hyphenate all words beginning with the prefixes self-, ex- (i.e., former), and all-.
Examples:
self-assured
ex-mayor
all-knowing
Rule 5. Use a hyphen with the prefix re when omitting the hyphen would cause confusion
with another word.
Examples:
Will she recover from her illness?
I have re-covered the sofa twice.
Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with recover.

I must re-press the shirt.

Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with repress.

The stamps have been reissued.

A hyphen after re- is not needed because there is no confusion with another word.
Rule 6. Writers often hyphenate prefixes when they feel a word might be distracting or
confusing without the hyphen.
Examples:
de-ice
With no hyphen we get deice, which might stump readers.

co-worker
With no hyphen we get coworker, which could be distracting because it starts with cow.
A suffix (y, er, ism, able, etc.) is a letter or set of letters that follows a root word. Suffixes
form new words or alter the original word to perform a different task. For example, the
noun scandal can be made into the adjective scandalous by adding the suffix ous. It
becomes the verb scandalize by adding the suffix ize.

Rule 1. Suffixes are not usually hyphenated. Some exceptions: -style, -elect, -free, -based.

Examples:
Modernist-style paintings
Mayor-elect Smith
sugar-free soda
oil-based sludge

Rule 2. For clarity, writers often hyphenate when the last letter in the root word is the
same as the first letter in the suffix.

Examples:
graffiti-ism
wiretap-proof

Rule 3. Use discretion—and sometimes a dictionary—before deciding to place a hyphen

before a suffix. But do not hesitate to hyphenate a rare usage if it avoids confusion.

Examples:
the annual dance-athon
an eel-esque sea creature

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Although the preceding hyphens help clarify unusual terms, they are optional and might not
be every writer's choice. Still, many readers would scratch their heads for a moment
over danceathon and eelesque.

Dashes

Dashes, like commas, semicolons, colons, ellipses, and parentheses, indicate added
emphasis, an interruption, or an abrupt change of thought. Experienced writers know that
these marks are not interchangeable. Note how dashes subtly change the tone of the
following sentences:
Examples:
You are the friend, the only friend, who offered to help me.
You are the friend—the only friend—who offered to help me.
I pay the bills; she has all the fun.
I pay the bills—she has all the fun.
I wish you would … oh, never mind.
I wish you would—oh, never mind.
Rule 1. Words and phrases between dashes are not generally part of the subject.
Example: Joe—and his trusty mutt—was always welcome.
Rule 2. Dashes replace otherwise mandatory punctuation, such as the commas
after Iowa and 2013 in the following examples:

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 Without dash: The man from Ames, Iowa, arrived.
With dash: The man—he was from Ames, Iowa—arrived.
Without dash: The May 1, 2013, edition of the Ames Sentinel arrived in June.
With dash: The Ames Sentinel—dated May 1, 2013—arrived in June.

Rule 3. Some writers and publishers prefer spaces around dashes.

Example: Joe — and his trusty mutt — was always welcome.

Ellipses
Definition

An ellipsis (plural: ellipses) is a punctuation mark consisting of three dots.

Use an ellipsis when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from
a quoted passage. Ellipses save space or remove material that is less
relevant. They are useful in getting right to the point without delay or
distraction:

Full quotation: "Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the

bill."

With ellipsis: "Today … we vetoed the bill."

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Although ellipses are used in many ways, the three-dot method is the
simplest. Newspapers, magazines, and books of fiction and nonfiction use
various approaches that they find suitable.

Some writers and editors feel that no spaces are necessary.

Example: I don't know…I'm not sure.

Others enclose the ellipsis with a space on each side.

Example: I don't know … I'm not sure.

Still others put a space either directly before or directly after the ellipsis.

Examples:
I don't know …I'm not sure.
I don't know… I'm not sure.

A four-dot method and an even more rigorous method used in legal works
require fuller explanations that can be found in other reference books.

Rule 1. Many writers use an ellipsis whether the omission occurs at the
beginning of a sentence, in the middle of a sentence, or between sentences.

A common way to delete the beginning of a sentence is to follow the

opening quotation mark with an ellipsis, plus a bracketed capital letter:

Example: "… [A]fter hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."

Other writers omit the ellipsis in such cases, feeling the bracketed capital
letter gets the point across.

For more on brackets, see Parentheses and Brackets.

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Rule 2. Ellipses can express hesitation, changes of mood, suspense, or
thoughts trailing off. Writers also use ellipses to indicate a pause or
wavering in an otherwise straightforward sentence.

Examples:
I don't know … I'm not sure.
Pride is one thing, but what happens if she …?
He said, "I … really don't … understand this."

Quotation Marks
The rules set forth in this section are customary in the United States. Great Britain and
other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations are governed by quite different
conventions. Nowhere is this more apparent than in Rule 4 in this section, a rule that has
the advantage of being far simpler than Britain's and the disadvantage of being far less
logical.
Rule 1. Use double quotation marks to set off a direct (word-for-word) quotation.
Correct: "I hope you will be here," he said.
Incorrect: He said that he "hoped I would be there." (The quotation marks are
incorrect because hoped I would be there does not state the speaker's exact words.)
Rule 2a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.
Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."
Rule 2b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.
Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."
Rule 3a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.

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 Examples:
He said, "I don't care."
"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"
This rule is optional with one-word quotations.
Example: He said "Stop."
Rule 3b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or
a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.
Examples:
"I don't care," he said.
"Stop," he said.
Rule 3c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a
comma.
Examples:
Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?
Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.

Rule 4. Periods and commas ALWAYS go inside quotation marks.

Examples:
The sign said, "Walk." Then it said, "Don't Walk," then, "Walk," all within thirty
seconds.
He yelled, "Hurry up."
Rule 5a. The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question
is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.
Examples:
She asked, "Will you still be my friend?"
The question Will you still be my friend? is part of the quotation.
Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?
The question Do you agree with the saying? is outside the quotation.
Rule 5b. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.
Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.
Rule 6. Quotation marks are used for components, such as chapter titles in a book,
individual episodes of a TV series, songs from a Broadway show or a music album, titles of
articles or essays in print or online, and shorter works such as short stories and poems.
It is customary in American publishing to put the title of an entire composition in italics. Put
the title of a short work—one that is or could be part of a larger undertaking—in quotation
marks.

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A "composition" is a creative, journalistic, or scholarly enterprise that is whole, complex, a
thing unto itself. This includes books, movies, plays, TV shows, newspapers, magazines,
websites, music albums, operas, musical theater, paintings, sculptures, and other works of
art.
Example: Richard Burton performed the song "Camelot" in the 1960 Broadway
musical Camelot.
Although the word is the same, "Camelot" the song takes quotation marks because it's part
of a larger work—namely, a full-length show called Camelot.

Rule 7. Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.

Example: Dan said: "In a town outside Brisbane, I saw 'Tourists go home' written on a
wall. But then someone told me, 'Pay it no mind, lad.' "
Note that the period goes inside both the single and double quotation marks. Also note that,
as a courtesy, there is visible space between adjacent single and double quotation marks.
Rule 8a. Quotation marks are often used with technical terms, terms used in an unusual
way, or other expressions that vary from standard usage.
Examples:
It's an oil-extraction method known as "fracking."
He did some "experimenting" in his college days.
I had a visit from my "friend" the tax man.

Rule 8b. Never use single quotation marks in sentences like the previous three.
Incorrect: I had a visit from my 'friend' the tax man.
The single quotation marks in the above sentence are intended to send a message to the
reader that friend is being used in a special way: in this case, sarcastically. Avoid this
invalid usage. Single quotation marks are valid only within a quotation, as per Rule 7,
above.
Rule 9. When quoted material runs more than one paragraph, start each new paragraph
with opening quotation marks, but do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the
passage.
Example:
She wrote: "I don't paint anymore. For a while I thought it was just a phase that I'd
get over.
"Now, I don't even try."

Exclamation Points
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Rule 1. Use an exclamation point to show emotion, emphasis, or surprise.
Examples:
I'm truly shocked by your behavior!
Yay! We won!
Rule 2. An exclamation point replaces a period at the end of a sentence. It also replaces a
midsentence comma.
Incorrect: I'm truly shocked by your behavior!.
Correct: I'm truly shocked by your behavior!

Incorrect: "I'm truly shocked by your behavior!," I told her.

Correct: "I'm truly shocked by your behavior!" I told her.
Rule 3. Avoid using an exclamation point in formal business writing.
Rule 4. Overuse of exclamation points is a sign of undisciplined writing. The writer F. Scott
Fitzgerald once said, "An exclamation point is like laughing at your own joke." Do not use
even one of these marks unless you're convinced it is justified.

Slashes

Despite its popularity, the slash (/), technically known as a virgule, is frowned upon by
purists. Other than to indicate dates (9/11/2001) or to separate lines of poetry ("Celery,
raw / Develops the jaw"), it has few defensible uses.
Usually a hyphen, or in some cases the word or, will suffice. Instead of writing the
novelist/poet Eve Jones, make it the novelist-poet Eve Jones. Rather than available to any
man/woman who is qualified, make it any man or woman.
The slash has always been a handy tool for taking notes and writing rough outlines.
Substituting w/o for without, y/o for years old, and b/c for because can save valuable time
and space.

However, most slashes can—and should—be removed from a final draft. Writers should
replace a construction like any man/woman with any man or woman in their finished work.
"The virgule is a mark that doesn't appear much in first-rate writing," says Bryan A. Garner
in A Dictionary of Modern American Usage. "Use it as a last resort."

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