PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYHCOLOGY NOTES

Chapter 1
Biopsychology → Scientific study of the biology of behavior.
Descartes → Cartesian Dualism (Mind and Body are separate).
Connection point is Pinual Gland.
Origins of Biopsychology → The organization of Behaviour (D. Hebb).
Advantages of Human Subjects → They can follow instructions, they
can report their subjective experiences and less expensive.
Advantages of Non-Human Subjects → Simpler NS, Comparative
approach, Fewer ethical constraints.
֍ Pure Research ( Bilim için Bilim) → Pure research is motivated
primarily by the curiosity of the researcher—it is done solely for the
purpose of acquiring knowledge
֍ Applied Research (Toplum için Bilim) → Applied research is
intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind.
֍ Translational research → Research that aims to translate the
findings of pure research into useful applications for humankind.
֍ 6 Major Divisions of Biopsychology ֍
►Physiological psychology : Physiological psychology studies the
neural mechanisms of behavior through the direct manipulation and
recording of the brain in controlled experiments—surgical and
electrical methods are most common.
►Psychopharmacology : Study of the effects of drugs on the brain
and behavior.
►Neuropsychology : Neuropsychology is the study of the
psychological effects of brain dysfunction in human patients.
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►Psychophysiology : Psychophysiology studies the relation between

physiological activity and psychological processes in humans. The
usual measure of brain activity is the scalp electroencephalogram
(EEG). Other common psychophysiological measures are muscle
tension, eye movement, and several indicators of autonomic nervous
system activity.
►Cognitive neuroscience : Cognitive neuroscience is the youngest
division of biopsychology. Cognitive neuroscientists study the neural
bases of cognition, a term that generally refers to higher intellectual
processes such as thought, memory, attention, and complex
perceptual processes. The major method of cognitive neuroscience is
functional brain imaging: recording images of the activity of the
living human brain while a participant is engaged in a particular
mental activity.
►Comparative psychology : : Study of the evolution, genetics, and
adaptiveness of behavior, largely through the use of the comparative
method. Focuses on the behavior of animals in their natural
environments.
Chapter 2:Evolution, Genetics and Experience
Charles Darwin’s book » On the Origin of Species. Provides 3
evidence. Fossil records, structural similarities and selective breeding.
Fitness, in the Darwinian sense, is the ability of an organism to
survive and contribute its genes to the next generation.
Chordates are Animals with dorsal nerve cords. The spinal bones are
called vertebrae and the chordates that possess them are called
vertebrates.
֍ Evolution of the Human Brain » The brain has increased in size
during evolution. Most of the increase in size has occurred in the
cerebrum. An increase in the number of convolutions—folds on the
cerebral surface—has greatly increased the surface area of the
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cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of cerebral tissue. Brain size is

not correlated with intelligence. It’s related with body size.
Chapter 3 : Anatomy of the Nervous System

The somatic nervous system (SNS) → Interacts with the external

environment. It is composed of afferent nerves(bottom to top) that
carry sensory signals from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, eyes,
ears, and so on, to the central nervous system and efferent
nerves(top to the bottom) that carry motor signals from the central
nervous system to the skeletal muscles.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) → Regulates the body’s
internal environment. It is composed of afferent nerves that carry
sensory signals from internal organs to the CNS and efferent nerves
that carry motor signals from the CNS to internal organs.
Sympathetic NS → Sympathetic nerves stimulate, organize, and
mobilize energy resources in threatening situations. Sympathetic
changes are indicative of psychological arousal.
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Parasympathetic NS → Parasympathetic nerves act to conserve

energy. Parasympathetic changes are indicative of psychological
relaxation.
Cranial Nerves → Consists 12 different nerves which project from the
brain. Signals directly transmitting to the brain via cranial nerves.
֍֍֍The brain and spinal cord (the CNS) are the most protected
organs in the body. They are encased in bone and covered by three
protective membranes, the three meninges. The outer meninx is a
tough membrane called the dura mater (tough mother).
Immediately inside the dura mater is the fine arachnoid membrane
(spider-web-like membrane). Beneath the arachnoid membrane is a
space called the subarachnoid space, which contains many large
blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid; then comes the innermost
meninx, the delicate pia mater (pious mother), which adheres to the
surface of the CNS.

֍֍֍ Also protecting the CNS is the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which
fills the subarachnoid space, the central canal of the spinal cord, and
the cerebral ventricles of the brain. The central canal is a small
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central channel that runs the length of the spinal cord; the cerebral
ventricles are the four large internal chambers of the brain: the two
lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle.

֍ Blood–Brain Barrier → This barrier is a consequence of the special

structure of cerebral blood vessels. In the rest of the body, the cells
that compose the walls of blood vessels are loosely packed; as a
result, most molecules pass readily through them into surrounding
tissue. In the brain, however, the cells of the blood vessel walls are
tightly packed, thus forming a barrier to the passage of many
molecules—particularly proteins and other large molecules.
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Anatomy of Neurons

Lipid Bilayer → Protects cell body.

Direction of signal is Dendrites to the Terminal button. Dendrites
receive info, axon transferring info and terminal buttons sending info.
֍֍ A neuron with more than two processes extending from its cell
body is classified as a multipolar neuron; most neurons are
multipolar. A neuron with one process extending from its cell body is
classified as a unipolar neuron, and a neuron with two processes
extending from its cell body is classified as a bipolar neuron. Neurons
with a short axon or no axon at all are called interneurons; their
function is to integrate neural activity within a single brain structure,
not to conduct signals from one structure to another.
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→→ Gray matter is composed largely of cell bodies and

unmyelinated interneurons, whereas white matter is composed
largely of myelinated axons. (It is the myelin that gives the white
matter its glossy white sheen.)
֍ Glial Cells → There are roughly two glia for every three neurons in
your brain.
֍Types of Glial Cells֍
Oligodendrocytes → Myelination in the CNS.
Schwann Cells → Myelination in the PNS.
Microglia → Smallest glia. They have immune system responsibility.
Role in cell death, synapse formation and elimination.
Astroglia(Astrocytes) → Star-shaped largest glia. Provides nutrition
from blood to neurons and also make contacts with neurons.
Directions in the Vertebrate Nervous System
Directions in the vertebrate nervous system are described in relation
to the orientation of the spinal cord. The vertebrate nervous system
has three axes: anterior–posterior, dorsal– ventral, and medial–
lateral.
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1→Anterior(rostral) means toward the nose end (the anterior

end),and posterior(caudal) means toward the tail end (the posterior
end).
2→Dorsal means toward the surface of the back or the top of the
head (the dorsal surface), and ventral means toward the surface of
the chest or the bottom of the head (the ventral surface).
3→ Medial means toward the midline of the body, and lateral means
away from the midline toward the body’s lateral surfaces.
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Horizontal sections, frontal sections (also termed coronal sections),

and sagittal sections.
Neuroanatomical Techniques
→Golgi stain by Camillo Golgi. Golgi stains are commonly used to
discover the overall shape of neurons.
→The first neural staining procedure to overcome this shortcoming
was the Nissl stain, which was developed by Franz Nissl. The most
common dye used in the Nissl method is cresyl violet.
→A neuroanatomical technique that provides information about the
details of neuronal structure is electron microscopy.
→ Neuroanatomical tracing techniques are of two types:
anterograde (forward) tracing methods and retrograde (backward)
tracing methods. Anterograde tracing methods are used when an
investigator wants to trace the paths of axons projecting away from
cell bodies located in a particular area. Retrograde tracing methods
work in the reverse manner; they are used when an investigator
wants to trace the paths of axons projecting into a particular area.
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Spinal Cord

The two dorsal arms of the spinal gray matter are called the dorsal
horns, and the two ventral arms are called the ventral horns. All
dorsal root axons, whether somatic or autonomic, are sensory
(afferent) unipolar neurons with their cell bodies grouped together
just outside the cord to form the dorsal root ganglia. The neurons of
the ventral root are motor (efferent) multipolar neurons with their
cell bodies in the ventral horns. Those that are part of the somatic
nervous system project to skeletal muscles; those that are part of the
autonomic nervous system project to ganglia, where they synapse on
neurons that in turn project to internal organs
5 Major Divisions of Brain
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֍ The myelencephalon (or medulla,brain stem), the most posterior

division of the brain, is composed largely of tracts carrying signals
between the rest of the brain and the body. Reticular formation
(Reticular activation system) is part of myelencephalon whic is
responsible for arousal, alertness (attention).
֍ The metencephalon consist the pons and cerebellum. Both are
responsible for movement.
֍ The mesencephalon, like the metencephalon, has two divisions.
The two divisions of the mesencephalon are the tectum and the
tegmentum. The tectum (roof) is the dorsal surface of the midbrain.
The tectum is composed of two pairs of bumps, the colliculi (little
hills). The posterior pair, called the inferior colliculi, have an auditory
function. The anterior pair, called the superior colliculi, have a visual-
motor function; more specifically, to direct the body’s orientation
toward or away from particular visual stimuli. The tegmentum is the
division of the mesencephalon ventral to the tectum. In addition to
the reticular formation and tracts of passage, the tegmentum
contains three colorful structures of particular interest to
biopsychologists: the periaqueductal gray, the substantia nigra, and
the red nucleus.
֍ The diencephalon is composed of two structures: the thalamus
and the hypothalamus. The thalamus comprises many different pairs
of nuclei, most of which project to the cortex. The most well-
understood thalamic nuclei are the sensory relay nuclei—nuclei that
receive signals from sensory receptors, process them, and then
transmit them to the appropriate areas of sensory cortex. The
hypothalamus is located just below the anterior thalamus. It plays an
important role in the regulation of severalmotivated behaviors (e.g.,
eating, sleep, and sexual behavior). It exerts its effects in part by
regulating the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, which
dangles from it on the ventral surface of the brain. In addition to the
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pituitary gland, two other structures appear on the inferior surface of

the hypothalamus: the optic chiasm and the mammillary bodies.
»» The optic chiasm is the point at which the optic nerves from each
eye come together and then decussate (cross over to the other side
of the brain). The mammillary bodies, are a pair of spherical nuclei
located on the inferior surface of the hypothalamus, just behind the
pituitary.
֍ The telencephalon, the largest division of the human brain,
mediates the brain’s most complex functions. It initiates voluntary
movement, interprets sensory input, and mediates complex cognitive
processes such as learning, speaking, and problem solving. The large
furrows in a convoluted cortex are called fissures(boşluk,yarık), and
the small ones are called sulci (singular sulcus). The ridges between
fissures and sulci are called gyri (singular gyrus).
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Chapter 4: Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission

» Transduction (sensory coding): Transduction is the conversion of
one form of energy to another. Visual transduction is the conversion
of light to neural signals by the visual receptors. Brain only
understand electrochemical signals so transduction is necessary.
Afferent nerves active during this transmission.
► Membrane potential: The difference in electrical charge
between the inside and the outside of a cell. This steady membrane
potential of about −70 mV is called the neuron’s resting potential. In
its resting state, with the −70 mV charge built up across its
membrane, a neuron is said to be polarized (it has a membrane
potential that is not zero). In resting neurons, there are more Na+
ions outside the cell than inside and more K+ ions inside than
outside.
»» Microelectrodes (their tips are less than one-thousandth of a
millimeter in diameter—much too small to be seen by the naked eye.
When both elect) ; scientist placing inside and outside the neuron
and they can measure electirical difference.
» Ion channels: Specialized pores in the neural membrane.
→ How are action potentials (APs) produced? How are they
conducted along the axon? The answer to both questions is the
same: through the action of voltage-gated ion channels— ion
channels that open or close in response to changes in membrane
potential
֍ Postsynaptic potentials (PSPs): Disturbances of the resting
membrane potential are termed.
֍»»֍ When neurotransmitter molecules bind to postsynaptic
receptors, they typically have one of two effects, depending on the
neurotransmitter, receptor, and postsynaptic neuron in question.
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They may depolarize the receptive membrane (decrease the resting

membrane potential, from −70 to −67 mV, for example), or they may
hyperpolarize it (increase the resting membrane potential, from −70
to −72 mV, for example).
֍»»֍ If the sum of the depolarizations and hyperpolarizations
reaching the axon initial segment at any time is sufficient to
depolarize the membrane to a level referred to as its threshold of
excitation—usually about −65 mV—an action potential is generated.
The action potential (AP) is a massive but momentary—lasting for 1
millisecond—reversal of the membrane potential from about −70 to
about +50 mV. Unlike PSPs, APs are not graded responses: Their
magnitude is not related in any way to the intensity of the stimuli
that elicit them. To the contrary, they are all-or-none responses; that
is, they either occur to their full extent or do not occur at all.
►All the electirical events occurs throughout the axon called action
potential and all the electirical events occuring on the dendrites and
cell body called postsynaptic potential. > Hocadan
֍֍֍ Postsynaptic depolarizations are called excitatory postsynaptic
potentials (EPSPs) (DEPOLARIZATION OCCURS) because, they
increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire. Postsynaptic
hyperpolarizations are called inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
(IPSPs) (HYPERPOLARIZATION OCCURS) because they decrease the
likelihood that the neuron will fire.
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֍ There is a brief period of about 1 to 2 milliseconds after the

initiation of an AP during which it is impossible to elicit a second AP.
This period is called the absolute refractory period. The absolute
refractory period is followed by the relative refractory period—the
period during which it is possible to fire the neuron again but only by
applying higher-than-normal levels of stimulation.
Axonal Conduction of Action Potentials
The conduction of APs along an axon differs from the conduction of
PSPs in two important ways. First, the conduction of APs along an
axon is typically nondecremental; APs do not grow weaker as they
travel along the axonal membrane. Second, APs are conducted more
slowly than PSPs.
One AP will travel along the axon back to the cell body—this is called
antidromic conduction; the second AP will travel along the axon
towards the terminal buttons—this is called orthodromic conduction.
►The transmission of APs in myelinated axons is called saltatory
conduction.
Hodkin-Huxley Model
»» The preceding account of neural conduction is based largely on
the Hodgkin-Huxley model, the theory first proposed by Hodgkin and
Huxley in the early 1950s. Fully deserving of the 1963 Nobel Prize, the
model provided a simple, effective introduction to what we now
understand about the general ways in which neurons conduct signals.
Transmission between Neurons
►Neurotransmitters release from presynaptic membrane, release to
the synaptic cleft(Exocytosis) and neurotransmitter molecules
produce signals in postsynaptic neurons by binding to receptors in
the postsynaptic membrane. Any molecule that binds to another is
referred to as its ligand, and a neurotransmitter is thus said to be a
ligand of its receptor. The different types of receptors to which a
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particular neurotransmitter can bind are called the receptor subtypes

for that neurotransmitter. The binding of a neurotransmitter to one
of its receptor subtypes can influence a postsynaptic neuron in one of
two fundamentally different ways, depending on whether the
receptor is ionotropic or metabotropic.
► Ionotropic receptors are associated with ligand-activated ion
channels; metabotropic receptors are typically associated with signal
proteins and G proteins.
► One type of metabotropic receptor is autoreceptors.
Autoreceptors are metabotropic receptors that have two
unconventional characteristics: They bind to their neuron’s own
neurotransmitter molecules, and they are located on the presynaptic,
rather than the postsynaptic, membrane.
Axodendritic synapse → synapse of an axon terminal button onto a
dendrite.
Axosomatic synapses → synapses of axon terminal buttons on somas
(cell bodies).
» All large neurotransmitters are neuropeptides. Neuropeptides are
short amino acid chains composed of between 3 and 36 amino acids;
in effect, they are short proteins.
» Small-molecule neurotransmitters are typically synthesized in the
cytoplasm of the terminal button and packaged in synaptic vesicles
by the button’s Golgi complex.
Reuptake, Enzymatic Degradation, and Recycling
→ If nothing intervened, a neurotransmitter molecule would remain
active in the synapse, in effect clogging that channel of
communication. However, two mechanisms terminate synaptic
messages and keep that from happening. These two message-
terminating mechanisms are reuptake by transporters and enzymatic
degradation.
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Acetylcholine, one of the few neurotransmitters for which enzymatic

degradation is the main mechanism of synaptic deactivation, is
broken down by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.

The Roles and Functions of Neurotransmitters

֍ Amino acids → The first three are common in the proteins we
consume, whereas GABA is synthesized by a simple modification of
the structure of glutamate. Glutamate is the most prevalent
excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous
system. GABA is the most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter;
however, it has excitatory effects at some synapses.
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֍ Monoamine neurotransmitters → The monoamines are present in

small groups of neurons whose cell bodies are, for the most part,
located in the brain stem.