9.

2 Waves at Media Boundaries

Recall from Chapter 8 that wave speed depends on some of the properties of the medium
media boundary the location where two through which the wave is travelling. For example, the speed of sound in air depends on
or more media meet air temperature, and the speed of a wave along a rope depends on the density and ten-
sion of the rope. What happens if the medium changes? For example, what happens to a
wave when it moves down a rope and encounters a different medium, such as air?
No medium is infinitely large, so all media have boundaries. The location where
two media meet is called a media boundary. Media boundaries can take many forms.
For example, they can be a change in the characteristics of a rope or the edge of a
drumhead. A media boundary might also be the surface of the walls of a room where
air and the wall material meet. Understanding how waves behave at media boundaries
is useful. For instance, most schools have individual classrooms so that the discussion
in one classroom does not interfere with the discussion next door. Musicians record
Figure 1 The walls and shapes of their music in soundproof rooms so that only their own sound is recorded (Figure 1).
recording studios are carefully designed You will learn more about the effect of sound produced in enclosed or restricted
to ensure that the sound going to the spaces—acoustics—in Chapter 10.
microphone is a true representation To explore the behaviour of waves at media boundaries, we first examine what
of the work of the musician. The walls happens in two simple cases: free-end reflections and fixed-end reflections.
contain materials that absorb sound.

Free-End Reflections
Consider two media, say medium 1 and medium 2, and a wave travelling through
medium 1 into medium 2. If medium 1 is denser than medium 2, then the wave will
move faster in medium 1 than in medium 2. In this case, the wave moving toward the
free-end reflection a reflection that
boundary will be reflected in the same orientation as the incoming wave and with the
occurs at a media boundary where the
same amplitude as the incoming wave (Figure 2). This is called a free-end reflection.
second medium is less dense than the first
You can generate a free-end reflection yourself by snapping a towel. The movement
medium; reflections have an amplitude
of the free end of a flag attached to a flagpole is another example of a free-end reflec-
with the same orientation as the original
wave
tion (Figure 3). The flag flutters in the wind, but at its free end the wave encounters
the atmosphere. The speed of the wave in each medium is significantly different. In
free-end reflections, the medium the wave has been travelling through ends abruptly,
typically into the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere is less dense than most media,
the end of the medium can move freely.

Figure 3 When the waves in the flag

reach the right side, they will reflect
back through the flag material.

media boundary

Figure 2 When a wave in one medium (for example, string) encounters a medium with a lower
density (for example, air), the wave is reflected with the same orientation and amplitude as the
original pulse.

420 chapter 9 • wave interactions NEL

 As another example, suppose you are holding one end of a rope. If you send a pulse
through the rope, the loose end moves freely. When the pulse encounters the end of
the rope, it is reflected back to the source (Figure 2). Notice that the reflected wave
from a free-end reflection is upright, and the characteristics of the pulse in the reflected
waveform are identical to the characteristics of the original pulse. The wave does not
continue to the right, beyond the media boundary. This is because the wave speed in the
second medium is slower than the wave speed in the first medium.

Fixed-End Reflections
If a medium is fixed at one end, then when a wave reaches the media boundary a
fixed-end reflection occurs. A fixed-end reflection also occurs when a medium is fixed fixed-end reflection a reflection that
at both ends, as in a harp (Figure 4). occurs at a media boundary where one
Consider a pulse in a string moving toward a rigid, denser medium such as a wall end of the medium is unable to vibrate;
(Figure 5). When the pulse reaches the fixed end, it is reflected. As you see in Figure 5, reflections are inverted
the reflected pulse has the same shape as the incoming pulse, but its orientation is
inverted. We may explain this inversion as follows. When the pulse reaches the fixed
end of the string, it exerts an upward force on the wall. In response, the wall exerts
a downward force on the string in accordance with Newton’s third law of motion.
Therefore, the incoming upright pulse is inverted upon reflection.

incoming pulse

Figure 4 A harp has strings anchored

at both ends. When you pluck a harp
string, you produce a wave. The wave
reflected pulse
moves back and forth along the string
Figure 5 When a pulse in one medium meets a boundary with a denser medium, the reflected and encounters a fixed end at each end
pulse is inverted. of the string.

The difference in the media as a wave reaches a media boundary may not be
as dramatic as either the free-end or the fixed-end case. In nature there are media
boundaries that are neither free-end nor fixed-end. For example, the boundary
between water and air and the boundary between air and a tree are neither fixed-end
boundaries nor free-end boundaries. If a wave travels from a medium in which its
speed is faster to a medium in which its speed is slower, the wave particles can move
more freely than they did in the faster medium. This may seem opposite to what you
might think, but the motion of particles in media where the wave speed is higher is
tightly controlled by molecular forces. So the transfer of the wave energy to the next
particle is very efficient. This is similar to the free-end case, so the reflected wave has
the same orientation as the original. Conversely, if a wave travels from a medium in
which its speed is slower to a medium in which its speed is faster, the wave cannot
move as freely. This is similar to the fixed-end case, so the reflected wave is inverted
(see Figure 6 on the next page).

NEL 9.2 waves at Media boundaries 421

transmission  the motion of a wave Media Boundaries: Amplitudes
through a medium, or motion of a wave
The amplitude of a wave before it encounters a media boundary is closely related to
from one medium to another medium
the wave’s energy. The amplitude does not change if the wave’s energy remains con-
stant. When a wave encounters a media boundary that is not strictly an ideal free-end
or fixed-end boundary, the wave splits into two. One wave is reflected, and the other
web Link
is transmitted. The term transmission describes the process of a wave moving through
To see an animation of reflection and a medium or moving from one medium into another medium. The amplitude of the
transmission, original wave may not be shared equally by the reflected wave and the transmitted
wave. However, the sum of the two amplitudes must equal the amplitude of the
g o t o n e l so n sci e nce
original wave (Figure 6). 

faster medium slower medium

nodes

If the difference between the wave speeds in the two media is small, transmission
antinodes
is preferred—the amplitude of the transmitted wave is closer to the amplitude of
the original wave. As a result, the amplitude of the reflected wave is much smaller
Figure 7  A standing wave pattern
because of the conservation of energy. For cases in which the wave speed is signifi-
Science Physics 11 cantly different between the two media, reflection is preferred—the amplitude of the
standing wave  an interference pattern
ISBN: ISBN # 0176504338
reflected wave is closer to the amplitude of the original wave.
produced when incoming and reflected
FN other; the effect C09-F13a-OP11USB
waves interfere with each
is a wave pattern thatCO
appears to be NGIStanding Waves
stationary
Pass 5th A special case of reflection at a media boundary is the production of standing waves.
Pass
node  in a standing wave, the location Suppose you send a series of waves at a certain frequency along a string of length L.
where the particles ofApproved
the medium are The string is fixed at both ends. At the correct frequency, waves will reflect, and the
at rest Not Approved
reflected waves will superimpose on the stream of incoming waves to produce an
antinode  in a standing wave, the location interference pattern that makes the waves appear to be stationary. This interference
where the particles of the medium are pattern is called a standing wave and is shown in Figure 7.
moving with greatest speed; the amplitude In a standing wave there are locations where the particles of the medium do not
will be twice the amplitude of the move, called nodes. Standing waves also contain regions where the particles of the
original wave medium move with greatest speed. These regions are called antinodes.
The waves in a standing wave pattern interfere according to the principle of super-
Investigation 9.2.1 position. The waves are moving continuously. When the original wave is upright, so is
the reflected wave from the previous crest. When the reflection has a trough, so does
Investigating Wave Speed on a
String (p. 438) the original wave. At the antinodes, the amplitudes of the troughs and the crests are
In this investigation, you will thus double that of the original wave. At the nodes, the amplitudes are the same but
investigate the wave speed of a one is a crest and one is a trough, so they cancel each other out.
standing wave. The interference pattern appears to be stationary because it is produced by two
otherwise identical waves travelling in opposite directions. The wave speed of a
 standing wave interference pattern is the difference between the wave speeds of the web Link
incoming and reflected waves. Since these are the same (direction is ignored), the
wave speed of the standing wave is zero. However, remember that a standing wave To see an animation of a standing
is created by the interference of the incoming and reflected waves because these two wave,
waves are continuously moving. 
go t o n elson s c i en c e

Standing Waves between Two Fixed Ends

The properties of standing waves can be predicted mathematically. Consider a string
with two fixed ends—it has a standing wave with nodes at both ends, as occurs when
both ends are fixed (Table 1). In this case, the shortest length of the string, L, is equal
to one half of the wavelength, λ/2, where λ is the wavelength. The frequency of the
wave that produces the simplest standing wave is called the fundamental frequency (f0) fundamental frequency or first
or the first harmonic. All standing waves after this require frequencies that are whole- harmonic (f0)  the lowest frequency that
number multiples of the fundamental frequency. These additional standing wave can produce a standing wave in a given
frequencies are called the nth harmonic of the fundamental frequency, where n 5 1 medium
for the fundamental frequency. Harmonics consist of the fundamental frequency (or harmonics  whole-number multiples of
first harmonic) of a musical sound as well as the frequencies that are whole-number the fundamental frequency
multiples of the fundamental frequency. When a string, such as a violin string,
vibrates with more than one frequency, the resulting sounds are called overtones. An overtone  a sound resulting from a
overtone is very similar to the harmonic, except that the first overtone is equal to the string that vibrates with more than one
frequency
second harmonic.

Table 1  Producing Standing Waves in a Medium with Fixed Ends

Number of nodes
Symbol between ends Diagram Harmonic (n ) Overtone

f0 0 antinode first fundamental

f0

n1 1
L1  – 
2

f1 1 second first
node

f1

n2 L2  
antinode

f2 2 third second
node node

f2

n3 3
L3  – 
antinode 2

f3 3 fourth third
node node node

f3

n4 L4  2 
antinode
Ontario Physics 11 U
0176504338
NEL 9.2 Waves at Media Boundaries   423
FN C09-F15a-OP11USB
 Standing Waves between Free Ends and Fixed–Free Ends
Figure 8 shows standing waves in a medium with two free ends. Brass instruments,
for example, have an open end for the musician to blow through and a bell at the
other end for the music to come out of. Figure 9 shows standing waves in a medium
with a combination of free and fixed ends. An example of such a combination is a
Figure 10  A mute attached to the bell brass instrument using a mute, which is a device that fits over the end of the bell to
of a trumpet changes the sound. change the sound the instrument makes (Figure 10).

Figure 8  Standing waves can be generated in a medium with two open (free) ends. These types of
standing waves are very common in brass instruments.


– n; n  3 
– n; n  2 
– n; n  1
2 2 4

Figure 9  A standing wave may be generated by having a source on one end, which is an antinode,
and a node at the other end. Such standing waves can be created by a clarinet.

Calculations with Standing Waves

A brief inspection of the standing waves in Table 1 on page 423, Figure 8, and
Ontario Physics 11 U Figure 9 generated in media with two fixed ends or two free ends shows that the
0176504338 standing waves have the same mathematical properties. In general, the length of the
medium, L, is equal to the number of the harmonic, n, times half the standing
FN C09-F16-OP11USB l
CO wave’s wavelength,
CrowleArt Group :
2
Deborah Crowle
nl
Pass 1st pass Ln 5   for n 5 1, 2, 3, . . . ; media with fixed ends or free ends
2
Approved
Not Approved For media with a combination of fixed and free ends—a node at one end and an
l
antinode at the other—the shortest possible length to produce a standing wave is
Ontario Physics 11 U l 4
(see Figure 9). The next distance that produces a standing wave is more than this,
0176504338 3l 2
FN which is
C09-F17-OP11USB . Therefore, the sequence of possible medium lengths to produce a standing
4 l 3l 5l
CO wave inGroup
CrowleArt media with a free end and a fixed end is , , , and so on. The general
4 4 4
Deborah Crowle
equation for determining the length of the medium with an antinode at one end and
Pass 2nd apass
node at the other end is as follows:
Approved
12n 2 12
Not Approved Ln 5 l   for n 5 1, 2, 3, . . . ; media with a fixed end and a free end
4

We can use the mathematical relationships between the variables to predict what
characteristics are required to produce standing waves. In Tutorial 1, we will demon-
strate calculations using standing wave equations.

424   Chapter 9 • Wave Interactions NEL

 Tutorial 1 Standing Waves
Sample Problem 1 Solution: Calculate the wavelength:
The speed of a wave on a string with a fixed end and a free end v
l5
is 350 m/s. The frequency of the wave is 200.0 Hz. What length f
of string is necessary to produce a standing wave with the first 350 m/s
5
harmonic? 200.0 Hz
Given: free and fixed ends; v = 350 m/s; f = 200.0 Hz; n = 1 l 5 1.75 m 1one extra digit carried2
Required: L1 Calculate the length of string:
Analysis: We first determine the wavelength using the universal 12n 2 12
Ln 5 l
wave equation. We can then use the formula for fixed and free 4
ends to calculate the required length. 1
v 12n 2 12 L1 5 l
l 5 ; Ln 5 l 4
f 4
1
5 11.75 m2
4
L1 5 0.44 m
Statement: A string that is 0.44 m long will produce a standing
wave with the first harmonic.

Sample Problem 2 Solution: L6 5

nl
The sixth harmonic of a 65 cm guitar string is heard. If the speed 2
of sound in the string is 206 m/s, what is the frequency of the 2L6
l5
standing wave? n
Given: two fixed ends; L6 5 0.65 m; n 5 6; v 5 206 m/s 122 10.65 m2
5
Required: f6 6
Analysis: First, we determine the wavelength of the guitar l 5 0.2167 m 1two extra digits carried2
string using the relationship for fixed ends. Then we use the v 5 f6l
universal wave equation to calculate the frequency of the v
standing wave. f6 5
l
nl
Ln 5 ; v 5 f6l 206 m/s
2 5
0.2167 m
f6 5 950 Hz
Statement: The frequency of the standing wave is 950 Hz.

Practice
1. A 0.44 m length of rope has one fixed end and one free end. A wave moves along the rope at
the speed 350 m/s with a frequency of 200.0 Hz at n 5 1.  T/I
(a) What is L1 if the frequency is doubled? [ans: L1 5 0.22 m]
(b) What is the length of the string if n 5 3? [ans: 2.2 m]
(c) What is L1 if the speed of the wave on the string is reduced to 200 m/s? [ans: 0.25 m]
2. The speed of a wave travelling along a 0.65 m guitar string is 206 m/s. At n 5 6, the
frequency is 950 Hz.  T/I
(a) What is the frequency if a string with a wave speed of 150 m/s is used? [ans: 690 Hz]
(b) What is the frequency if the string is tightened to make the wave speed 350 m/s? [ans: 1600 Hz]
3. A string fixed at both ends has a length of 1 m. With a frequency of 44 kHz (fourth overtone),
standing waves are produced. Which harmonics will be audible to a human? (The frequency
range for human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz.)  T/I [ans: the first and second harmonics]

NEL 9.2 Waves at Media Boundaries   425

 Mini investigation
Creating Standing Waves
SKILLS
Skills: Predicting, Performing, Observing, Analyzing, Communicating HANDBOOK A2.1

In this activity, you will create standing waves using a skipping A. How did you know when you had reached f0? k/U

rope and then using a standing wave machine. B. Was the experience of moving the rope any different when
Equipment and Materials: standing wave machine; skipping the first harmonic was achieved? k/U
rope or other rope with a diameter of approximately 1 cm and
Part B: Using a Standing Wave Machine
length of approximately 3 m to 4 m
4. Connect the standing wave machine to its electrical power
Part A: Using a Skipping Rope supply or to a wave function generator.
1. Hold one end of the skipping rope tightly, and have your 5. Slowly increase the frequency of the function generator and
partner hold the other end. Slowly oscillate the skipping generate as many harmonics as possible.
rope while your partner keeps his or her hand still while still
C. Using the characteristics of the standing wave machine
holding onto the rope.
provided by your teacher, predict f0. T/i
2. Slowly increase the frequency until you reach f0.
D. Did the frequencies at which the standing waves were
3. Try to double the frequency and produce f1. produced agree with your predictions in C? Explain. k/U

Unit tAsK BOOkMARk 9.2 summary

As you work on the Unit Task on
• The location where two different media meet is called a media boundary. At a
page 486, apply what you have
media boundary, a wave is partly reflected and partly transmitted.
learned about standing waves and
musical instruments. • Free-end reflections produce reflections with the same orientation as the
original wave, and fixed-end reflections produce reflections that have the
opposite orientation to the original wave.
• A standing wave is a special case of interference. The waves in a standing wave
pattern interfere according to the principle of superposition.
• In cases where a standing wave is produced in a medium where the medium
is fixed at both ends or open at both ends, the length of the medium is a
l
whole-number multiple of , the first harmonic.
2
• In cases where a standing wave is produced in a medium where the medium
is fixed at one end and open at the other end, the length of the medium is
12n 2 12
determined by Ln 5 l.
4

9.2 Questions
1. Define the following terms in your own words: k/U C would produce a first harmonic. Assume the string has
(a) standing wave (c) node nodes at both ends. k/U
(b) fundamental frequency (d) harmonics 6. You have an open air column of length 1.2 m in air at
2. Identify from your own experience an example of a wave 20 °C. Calculate the frequency of the second harmonic.
that encounters a media boundary. A (Hint: An open air column has an antinode at both ends.) T/i

(a) From your observations, is the amplitude of the reflected 7. The air temperature is 25 °C, and an air column carries a
wave or transmitted wave increased? standing sound wave at a frequency of 340 Hz. What is the
(b) Does the change in the medium support your answer length of the air column, which is closed at one end, if you
to (a)? Explain. want to hear the third harmonic? k/U
3. Describe from your own experience an example of a 8. Consider a standing wave that has two fixed ends. Sketch
free-end reflection and a fixed-end reflection. A (a) the original wave without a reflection
4. Describe the conditions required to form a standing wave. k/U (b) the reflected wave, without the original but synchronized
5. A string is 2.4 m long, and the speed of sound along this in time to the original
string is 450 m/s. Calculate the frequency of the wave that (c) the superposition of these two waves k/U C

426 chapter 9 • wave interactions NEL