Unit 3: Parasitolgy

1. Objectives: By the end of lecture students will be

 Able to Define parasites and Parasitology
 Able to Explain and understand different terms used in Parasitology
 Able to list different types of parasites
 Able to understand different types of fecal examination and able to differentiate
between them
 Able to differentiate internal and external parasites of livestock and poultry
 Able to perform fiscal examination
 Able to do skin scraping

2. Contents:
 Definition of parasites and Parasitology
 Common internal parasites of livestock and poultry
 Terminology used in parasitology
 Faecal sample collection
 Faecal examination methods
 Common external parasites of livestock and poultry
 Skin scrapping test

A. Definition of parasites and Parasitology

Parasite: A parasite is an organism that lives on or in another organism (host) and gets its food
from or at the expense of its host. Broadly speaking there are two types of parasites:

 Endoparasites: live within the host. They may be obligate parasites

(dependent on their hosts and cannot live without the host), facultative
parasites, and accidental parasites.
 Ectoparasites: are parasites which live on the outer surface of the host.

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Parasitology: is the study of parasites and is traditionally limited to parasitic protozoa,
helminths, and arthropods. Veterinary Parasitology covers many aspects of parasites of domestic
animals and their hosts including:

◦ morphology,

◦ biochemistry,

◦ physiology and life cycles of parasites,

◦ immunological, pathological and clinical responses of the host to the presence of

parasites,

◦ all aspects of treatment and control of parasitic infections and

◦ diseases and the public health aspects of parasites of domestic animals that may
also infect humans.

B. Terminology used in parasitology

 Adjuvant: an additive to a vaccine in order to stimulate or potentiate the immune response.

In experimental animals Freund's adjuvant is often used. In humans this is not allowedand as
adjuvant BCG is often used
 Anaemia: reduced number of erythrocytes or red blood cells often resulting by haemolysis
due to the damaging action of intra erythrocytic parasites suchg as Plasmodium or Babesia or
by immunological reactions due to the presence of trypanosomes in the circulation.
 Congenital transmission: transfer of pathogens from mother to foetus via the placenta. In
this case the child will be born infected.
 Ectoparsites: parasites such as lice and flies that live on the bodies outer surface.
 Endoparasites: parasites the infect the internals parts of the body, such as trypanosomes or
Ascaris worms.
 Facultative parasite: is an organisms that may survive and dwell in the absence of a host
but that occasinally infects a host organism.
 Haemolysis: lysis of red blood cells due to the damaging action of intra erythrocytic
parasites suchg as Plasmodium or Babesia or by immunological reactions due to the
presence of trypanosomes in the circulation.
 Haematophagous: bloodsucking, used for insects that need blood either as the major
nutrient, or for producing fertilized eggs (female mosquitoes or sand flies).
 Host: an organism that gives food and shelter to an oher organism (often a parasite).
 Definitive host: harbors sexual (mature) stages of parasite if parasite undergoes sexual
reproduction, it will occur in this host.

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 Intermediate host: required in life cycleof parasite parasite must undergo some
development in this host.
 Paratenic or Transport host: no parasite development in this host, but parasite remains
alive and infective for a normal host (sort of a parasite “fail-safe” plan to continue its
existenceand hope it makes it to right host).
 Reservoir host: A host that serves as a source for the parasiteto be transmitted to the usual
host And: a host upon which the organism depends for survival in nature when not in usual
host.

 Infestation: contamination with parasites present on the outside of the host organisms, such
as by ectoparasites or the contamination of a habitat with mosquitos.

 Infection: contamination with parasites present inside of the host organism, such as by
malaria parsites or by schistosomes.
 Parasite: an organism that lives at the expense of its host.
 Symbiosis:“Living together”-close interrelationship between two different organisms for
long periods of time.
 Mutualism: both organisms benefit from this relationship.
 Comensalism: one benefits, the other is unaffected.
 Parasitism: one organism (parasite) benefits, one organism (host)is harmed.
 Ectoparasite: found on (not in) host example: tick, mite, flea, fly.
 Endoparasite: found internally in host example: hookworms in intestine.
 Obligate parasite: all or part of the life cycle must be a parasitic relationship with a host.
 Faculatative: opportunist” - not normally a parasite (does not require a host to survive) but
will become parasitic if opportunity arises Example: Naegleria fowleria free living amoeba
which can establish an infection in human host brain.
 Incidental (exotic): normal host is a different species --may not survive very long in wrong
host --may survive and be highly pathogenic in wrong host.
 Quartan fever: fever caused by malaria parasites with a periodicity of 72 hours
 Relapses: spontaneous return of the parasitaemia and the disease symptoms after a period of
apparent cure.
 Sylvatic: from the forest or present in the forest
 Tertian fever: fever caused by malaria parasites with a periodicity of 48 hours
 Thrombocytopenia : condition where there is an abnormally small number of thrombocytes
or blood platelets in the circulating blood.
 Therapeutic window: difference between the ED50 (half-maximal effective dose) and
LD50 (half-maximal toxic dose), indicating the dose range in which the drug is active.
 Vector: an agent and very often a biting insect that is responsible for the transmission of the
disease.
 Zoonosis: a parasitic disease mainly infecting animals and occasionally humans. The animal
host serves as the major parasite reservoir.

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C. Common internal parasites of livestock and poultry
The common internal parasites of livestock and poultry are helminthes. Helminthes are
further classified into three categories:
 Nematode/ Round worm
 Trematode/ Flat worm
 Cestode /Tape worm

common internal parasites of livestock:

Scientific name Common name

1. Nematodes (round worms) Ascaris, Large round worm
Haemonchus Barbell pole worm
Ostertagia spp. Brown stomach worm
Trichostrongylus Bankrupt worm/Black worm
Trichuris, Whip worm
Cooperia, intestinal worm
Bunostomum, Hook worm
Strongyloides Intestinal thread worm
Oesophagustomum Nodular worm
2. Trematodes (flat worms) Fasciola, Liverfluke
Schistosoma Nasal fluke
Paramphistome etc Rumen fluke
3. Cestodes (tape worms) Monezia,
Taenia, Tape worm
Dictyocaulus etc Lung worm

common internal parasites of poultry:

Scientific name Common name

1. Nematodes (round worms) Ascaris sp. Large round worm
Capillariasp. Small round worm
Heterakis gallinarum Capillary worm/thread worm
2. Trematodes (flat worms)
3. Cestodes (tape worms) Raillietina echinobothrida

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D. Faecal sample collection

Faecal sample can be collected by to methods namely;

 From rectum: 5-10 GM of fecal sample can be directly collected from the rectum
of the animal. In case of small animals fecal samples can be collected from the
rectum with the help of fingers.
Procedure:
 Put on a clean glove. Apply a nickel size amount of water or water
based lubricant on index and middle finger.
 Insert index and middle fingers into the rectum of the animal, one
finger at a time.
 Spread fingers to allow air into the rectum helps a wave of
muscular movement will often moves feaces into hand, need not to
go very deep.
 Remove 5-10 gm of fecal matter.
 Peel the gloves off from the hand keeping fecal sample encased
within it.
 Squeeze as much air as possible out of the gloves.
 Twist the wrist portion the glove and fasten with a label making
sure the label sticks to it.
 From groud: The samples should be collected from the middle part of the
excreted feces. Samples should be kept on the clean and dry vials or zipping
plastic bag.

The samples should be preserved on ice if there is delay on dispatch. Samples can be also
preserved by adding 2-4 drops of 10% formalin solution. Sample can also be stored at 4°C on
refrigerator. Addition of chemical should not be done on the suspected samples of lung
worm.

 Solid, semi-solid, watery or rice gruel etc.

 Presence/absence of the white segments of the tape worm should also be included on the
report.

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 Shape and color of feces of different animals

Species Shape of feces Color of feces

1. Cattle/Buffalo Cake like Dark brown to dark green
2. Sheep/Goat Pellet Yellowish brown to black
3. Pig cylindrical Dark yellow
4. Horse/Mule Bolus Yellowish brown to dark green
5. Dog,Cat Cylindrical Yellowish brown

E. Faecal examination methods

Fecal examination methods likely to be accepted and implemented in most veterinary practices
include flotation (centrifugal or passive), sedimentation, and direct examination (direct smear).
Only flotation and sedimentation are concentration procedures. Direct smears have poor
sensitivity because of the small amount of feces examined, but may be useful for demonstrating
motile organisms. It has been recommended that feces be routinely screened by a centrifugal
flotation method, which is consistently more sensitive than simple flotation. Accuracy of
centrifugal flotation techniques depends on procedural details and specimen attributes.

 Sample size and preparation:

 Specimen size should be at least 1 gram of formed feces (1 cubic centimeter or a
cube about one-half inch on a side).
 If feces are soft, sample size should be 2 grams. If it is slurry-like, the sample should
be 4 grams.
 For liquid feces, a sample of 6 grams or greater might be appropriate.
 Inadequate sample size (e.g., fecal loop sample) may result in false-negative results.
 To remove large fecal debris, sieving is recommended prior to centrifugation.
 The sample is sieved through cheesecloth or a tea strainer after mixing with water or
flotation solution.
 Passive flotation kits typically include a device that prevents larger particles from
floating to the surface.
 Flotation solution: Both the type and concentration of sugar or salt solutions used can
affect recovery of diagnostic stages of parasites from feces.
 Common flotation solutes include sodium nitrate, zinc sulfate, sucrose (usually
granulated sugar), magnesium sulfate, and sodium chloride.
 These solutes can be mixed at varying concentrations with water to achieve flotation
solutions with different densities.
 Flotation solutions with higher densities are capable of floating heavier (denser)
parasite stages.
 However, higher density flotation solutions also float many other fecal particles that
can render preparations more difficult to examine and can collapse thin-shelled
parasite stages, making them difficult to identify or causing them to float poorly.

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  More viscous solutions, such as Sheather's sugar (sucrose) solution, are more
efficient for centrifugation.
 Most salt solutions dry very quickly, crystallizing on slides and obscuring
observation.

1. Gross examination. Specimens should be examined grossly for the consistency

 Solid, semi-solid, watery or rice gruel etc.

 Presence/absence of the white segments of the tape worm should also be included on the
report.

Shape and color of feces of different animals

Species Shape of feces Color of feces

6. Cattle/Buffalo Cake like Dark brown to dark green
7. Sheep/Goat Pellet Yellowish brown to black
8. Pig cylindrical Dark yellow
9. Horse/Mule Bolus Yellowish brown to dark green
10. Dog,Cat Cylindrical Yellowish brown

2. Microscopic fecal examination methods

1. Direct smear method
2. Flotation method
a. Saturated sodium chloride solution method
b. Saturated sugar solution/zinc sulphate solution method
3. Sedimentation method
1. Direct smear method:
 1 drop of normal saline is placed on a clean glass slide.
 With the help of spatula, small amount of feces is kept on the slide with
normal saline.
 Mix well the normal saline and feces and make a thin smear.
 Cover the smear with cover slip and examine under 10 x at first and then at 40
x objective lens.
 In place of normal saline lugol’s iodine may also be used. Lugol’s iodine is quite
helpful to detect the larva of third stage and protozoa.
2. Flotation method:
a. Saturated sodium chloride solution method:
 At first 3 GM of feces is measured and mixed with 42 ml of water and sieved.
 15 ml of the sieved solution is kept on centrifuge tube with round bottom.
 Centrifuge tube is centrifuged on 1000 RPM for 5 minutes.

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  The clear upper part of the solution is removed after centrifuge is completed,
centrifuge tube is filled with the solution of sodium chloride and the mouth
of centrifuge tube is sealed with cello tape.
 Centrifuge tube is again centrifuged for 5 minutes on 1000 RPM.
 Cello tape is kept under the microscopic field and observed under10 x
objective lens.
b. Saturated sugar solution/zinc sulphate solution method:
 At first 3 GM of feces is measured and mixed with 42 ml of water and sieved.
 15 ml of solution is kept on centrifuge tube and centrifuged on 1000 RPM for
5 minutes.
 The clear upper part of the solution is removed after centrifuge is completed,
centrifuge tube is filled with the solution of saturated sugar or zinc sulphate
and the mouth of centrifuge tube is sealed with cello tape or cover slip.
 Let the solution inside tube touch the cello tape or cover slip.
 Examine the cello tape or cover slip under microscope.
3. Sedimentation method:
 Prepare the solution of feces similarly as done in flotation method.
 Keep the solution on a clean beaker and let it to sediment, leave it for 15-
30 minutes and remove the upper part of the solution.
 Fill the beaker with water.
 Continue the process for 3 times.
 Again fill the beaker with water.
 Remove the upper portion of water and keep 2 ml of sediment on the beaker.
 Add 3-4 drops of methylene blue on the beaker containing the sediment.
 Keep 1-2 drops of the sediment on the glass slide.
 Cover it with cover slip.
 Observe it under 5x, 10x objective lens

F. Common external parasites of livestock and poultry

Flies: mosquito, sand fly, house fly, green blue bottle fly, black fly, nasal fly, horse fly,
warble fly, green bottle fly etc.

Lice:

Sucking lice:

Mammals: Haematopinus, Linognathus,

Birds:,Goniocotes, Goniodes, Menopon and Cuclotogastor

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 Chewing lice:

Mammals: Damilinia, Amblycera

Birds: Lipeurus, Goniodes, Amblycera, Menopon gallinae- Shaft louse of

poultry, Menacanthus-large body louse of fowl

Ticks:

Hard ticks (Ixodidae): Boophilus (1 host),Hyalomma (2 host usually),Dermacenter (3

host),Haemaphysalis (3 host), Ixodes (3 host), Rhipicephalus ( 3 host except R. evertsi
– 2 host)

Soft ticks (Argasidae): Argas (fowl tick), Otobius(Spinose ear tick), Ornithodoros and
Multiple host.

Mites:

Burrowing (Sarcoptidae):

Knemidocoptes: The "scaly-leg" mite of chickens

 K. mutans – scaly leg mite of chicken.

 K. gallinae - depluming itch.
 K. pilae – Scaly face of poultry or scaly leg of other birds.

non burrowing (Psoroptidae):

 Psoroptes sp.
 Ornithonyssus ; O. sylviarum (Northern fowl mite)
 Dermanyssus gallinae ( Red mite of poultry, or chicken mite)

Fleas .

G. Skin scrapping test:

Skin scrapping is a collection of a sample of skin cells that are observed and evaluated under
a microscope. Skin scrapping is performed to identify or diagnose the skin infestation,
fungal infection and skin cancer. The test is most effectively used for determining the mite
infesting skin. by external parasite mostly by mites. Following procedure can be performed
in the field for the skin scrapping test:

Material required:

 Scalpel blade

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  Latex gloves
 Microscope
 Microscope slide
 Mineral oil

Procedure:

 At first the skin samples from the animals suffering from mites should
be collected.
 While collecting the samples the infected part should be lubricated with Vaseline.
 Squeeze an affected skin site between thumb and forefinger.
 Gently. But firmly scrape the scalpel edge (with a dull blade) against the
skin, taking care not to cause an iatrogenic laceration.
 After that the infected parts should be scrubbed with clean scalpel blade until
the blood oozes out.
 The skin samples should be kept on a clean piece of paper or petri dish.
 After taking the sample to lab, it should be kept on test tube.
 Samples should be mixed with 5 ml of 10% potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide on test tube.
 The test tube should be heated on water bath so that the hairs and skin
gets digested.
 Let the test tube to cool down.
 When the test tube cools, centrifuge it at 1500 RPM for 5 minutes.
 Discard the upper portion of solution.
 Place 1-2 drops of the sediment on clean glass slide, observe it under microscope.

Reference:

 https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/parasitology
 https://www.coursehero.com/file/17474986/General-Parasitology-Terminology/
 https://www.deduveinstitute.be/~opperd/parasites/terms.htm
 https://capcvet.org/articles/fecal-exam-procedures/

 Foreyt, W. J. (2001). Veterinary Parasitology reference manual (5th ed.). Ames,

Lowa, U.S.A: Black publishing.

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