Renewable energy and sustainable technologies Laboratory

Experiment NO. 1

(Solar panel)

Student Name: Muhamad Nadr Ahmad

Class: Fourth Stage

Course Title: Renewable energy and sustainable technologies
Department: Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering

College of Engineering
Salahaddin University-Erbil
Academic Year (2022-2023)

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Content:
Introduction.
Different system of solar panel.
Main component of the solar panel.
Invertor
Battery.
Area: Where Are the PV Modules Going?
Calculation of irradiance

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Introduction:
A solar panel, or photovoltaic PV module, is a device that is composed of solar cells
and which, when struck by photons of light from the sun, generates an electrical
current which can then be used to power DC or AC electrical loads.
Made most commonly using the mineral silicon, solar cells essentially create
electricity by converting photons of light into electrons. The "photovoltaic effect"
occurs when photons of light from the sun strikes these cells, a portion of the
energy is absorbed into the silicon, displacing electrons which then begin to flow.
In order to harness this flow, the electrons are drawn into a magnetic field
generated by positively- and negatively-charged metal contacts on the top and
bottom of the cell. producing direct current, or DC, electricity. Using a DC to AC
inverter, the DC current is converted to alternating current, or AC, which can then
be used to power electrical appliances. Solar energy begins with the sun. Solar
panels (also known as "PV panels") are used to convert light from the sun,
which is composed of particles of energy called "photons", into electricity that
can be used to power electrical loads. Solar panels can be used for a wide
variety of applications including remote power systems for cabins,
telecommunications equipment, remote sensing, and of course for the
production of electricity by residential and commercial solar electric systems.

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Different system of solar panel
There are three main types of solar power systems:

1. On-Grid System
On-grid or grid-tie solar systems are by far the most common and widely used
by homes and businesses. These systems do not need batteries and use either
solar inverters or micro-inverters and are connected to the public electricity
grid. Any excess solar power that you generate is exported to the electricity
grid and you usually get paid a feed-in-tariff (FiT) or credits for the energy you
export.

Unlike hybrid systems, on-grid solar systems are not able to function or
generate electricity during a blackout due to safety reasons. Since blackouts
usually occur when the electricity grid is damaged; If the solar inverter was
still feeding electricity into a damaged grid it would risk the safety of the
people repairing the fault/s in the network. Most hybrid solar systems with
battery storage are able to automatically isolate from the grid (known as
islanding) and continue to supply some power during a blackout.

Batteries are able to be added to on-grid systems at a later stage if required.

The Tesla Powerwall 2 is a popular AC battery system which can be added to
an existing solar system.

In an on-grid system, this is what happens after electricity reaches the

switchboard:

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 • The meter. Excess solar energy runs through the meter, which calculates
how much power you are either exporting or importing (purchasing).
• Metering systems work differently in many states and countries around
the world. In this description I am assuming that the meter is only
measuring the electricity being exported to the grid, as is the case in
most of Australia. In some states, meters measure all solar electricity
produced by your system, and therefore your electricity will run
through your meter before reaching the switchboard and not after it. In
some areas (currently in California), the meter measures both
production and export, and the consumer is charged (or credited) for
net electricity used over a month or year period. I will explain more
about metering in a later blog.
• The electricity grids. Electricity that is sent to the grid from your solar
system can then be used by other consumers on the grid (your
neighbors). When your solar system is not operating, or you are using
more electricity than your system is producing, you will start importing
or consuming electricity from the grid.

2. Off-Grid System
An off-grid system is not connected to the electricity grid and therefore
requires battery storage. Off-grid solar systems must be designed
appropriately so that they will generate enough power throughout the year
and have enough battery capacity to meet the home’s requirements, even in
the depths of winter when there is generally much less sunlight.

The high cost of batteries and off-grid inverters means off-grid systems are
much more expensive than on-grid systems and so are usually only needed in
more remote areas that are far from the electricity grid. However battery costs
are reducing rapidly, so there is now a growing market for off-grid solar
battery systems even in cities and towns.

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AC-coupled off-grid solar systems use a solar inverter together with a multi-
mode battery inverter.

There are different types of off-grid systems which we will go into more detail
later, but for now I will keep it simple. The above diagram is for a larger AC
coupled system. In smaller scale DC coupled systems, a solar charge controller
is used to manage the battery charging, then the DC power is converted to AC
using an off-grid inverter and sent to your home appliances.
• The battery banks. In an off-grid system there is no public electricity
grid. Once solar power is used by the appliances in your property, any
excess power will be sent to your battery bank. Once the battery is full
it will stop receiving power from the solar system. When your solar
system is not working (night time or cloudy days), your appliances will
draw power from the batteries.
• Backup Generator. For times of the year when the batteries are low on
charge and the weather is very cloudy you will generally need a backup
power source, such as a backup generator or gen-set. The size of the gen-
set (measured in kVA) should to be adequate to supply your house and
charge the batteries at the same time.
3. Hybrid System
Modern hybrid systems combine solar and battery storage in one and are now
available in many different forms and configurations. Due to the decreasing
cost of battery storage, systems that are already connected to the electricity
grid can start taking advantage of battery storage as well. This means being
able to store solar energy that is generated during the day and using it at night.
When the stored energy is depleted, the grid is there as a back up, allowing
consumers to have the best of both worlds. Hybrid systems are also able to

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charge the batteries using cheap off-peak electricity (usually after midnight to
6am).

There are also different ways to design hybrid systems but we will keep it
simple for now. To learn more about the different hybrid and off-grid power
systems refer to our detailed guide to home solar battery systems.

• The battery banks. In a hybrid system once the solar power is used by
the appliances in your property, any excess power will be sent to the
battery bank. Once the battery bank is fully charged, it will stop
receiving power from the solar system. The energy from the battery can
then be discharged and used to power your home, usually during the
peak evening period when the cost of electricity is typically at it’s
highest.
• The meter and electricity grid. Depending on how your hybrid system is
set up and whether your utility allows it, once your batteries are fully
charged excess solar power not required by your appliances can be
exported to the grid via your meter. When your solar system is not in
use, and if you have drained the usable power in your batteries your
appliances will then start drawing power from the grid.

Simplified layout of a hybrid solar system

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Main component of the solar panel
Inverter:
All PV systems include one or more inverters that convert the solar generated DC
power to AC power for use in the house and for utility hookup for grid-tied systems
(utility power also is AC). Options for grid-tied systems are discussed here. Off-grid
systems have a somewhat different setup, which typically includes one or more
inverters that receive DC power from the batteries and send AC power to the
house. There are two types of inverters for grid-tied systems: string inverters and
microinverters.
String inverters are relatively large units that mount (usually on a wall) at the
ground-floor level, often near the hookup components and usually in a garage or
basement. Most units have outdoor-rated enclosures and can also be mounted on
the exterior wall. They receive DC power from the series-strings of the array and
deliver AC power to the electrical loads of the house. Most residential PV systems
with string inverters have one or two inverters, depending on the array size and
layout. String inverters for grid-tied systems are commonly referred to as “grid-tie
inverters,” to distinguish them from stand-alone inverters (sometimes called
“battery inverters”) used for off-grid systems. This is standard industry terminology
you’ll see when shopping for inverters.
Microinverters are small units that mount onto the back side of each module or
onto the racking system below the modules. Typically, each module has its own
microinverter, although some microinverters can be fed from two modules.
Microinverters convert DC power to AC power at the individual module, so all of
the wiring that connects the modules and runs down to the ground carries AC
electricity.

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Battery:
There are many types, sizes, prices, characteristics, and behaviors of batteries.
There are also countless personal experiences and opinions out there, not to
mention the fact that the same batteries often perform differently for different PV
systems, and under varying solar irradiance, temperature, and electrical load
conditions. With that in mind, we’ll discuss the basics to get you started. And the
reality is, batteries last only about 5 to 8 years on average (although some newer
types are predicted to last 10 to 15 years), so you’ll likely go through several sets
during the life of your PV system, learning what works best along the way. One
universal rule is to use only deep-cycle batteries, which are designed for the regular
deep discharges of a PV system. By contrast, starter batteries, such as car batteries,
are designed for quick bursts of discharge to start the engine, followed by
immediate recharging while the engine is running. The deep discharge of a PV
charge-recharge cycle would quickly kill a car battery.

Area: Where Are the PV Modules Going?

On a typical home in the Northern Hemisphere, the ideal place for a PV array is a
south-facing rooftop. Here, the modules are out of the way (and not taking up
space in your yard), they face the sun during the peak hours of daylight, and they’re
above a lot of obstructions that might cast shadows onto the array. It’s okay if your
roof doesn’t face due south; PV systems can work on east- and west-facing roofs,
too, but any rotation toward the south is helpful. To determine whether your roof
is big enough, start with a ballpark estimate: PV modules can produce about 10 to
15 watts per
square foot of area. A 5,000-watt, or 5-kilowatt (kW), system needs
about 500 square feet of roof area. (We’ll get to sizing in a minute.)

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Calculation of irradiance
The amount of irradiance received is related to the location of the project on earth.
The term action comprises the latitude of the project, the orientation towards the
sun and the sounding sunray obstacles and shades. The prevailing weather forecast
is another factor which is much related to the irradiance.
Effect of project location
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) provide maps and
space images of irradiance intensity around the world as demonstrated in figure
previously These are reliable data which take the latitude and the year-round
ambient conditions in consideration.

The effect of panel tilt

The amount of energy collect by the panel depends on the tilt angle of the panel
and its section. The most effective tilt angle of the solar panel from the vertical can
be calculated by the following equation:
optimum fixed year-round setting = 90"- location's latitude
The angle of the incident beam of light varies throughout the day and the season
based on the sun position. Therefore, to get most of the irradiance, a sun tracker
could be used to rotate the panel array so that the incident beam be normal to the
panel surface. In fact, this arrangement is complex, power consuming, unaffordable
and perhaps impractical for larger installations. The most practical solution is to
install the panels on an adjustable holder. This arrangement gives the freedom to
adjust the tilt angle every month. Usually the panels are adjusted twice a year, a
summer setting and a winter setting. In the northern hemisphere the panel tilt
angle is calculated by the following formula

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optimum fixed year-round setting 90°- location's latitude± 15.6
The plus and minus signs in the last term refer to the summer and winter settings
respectively.

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