Progress on Low-Power Turbo-Brayton Converters

Mark V. Zagarola, Christopher J. Crowley and Walter L. Swift

Creare Incorporated, 16 Great Hollow Road, P.O. Box 71, Hanover, NH 03755
603-643-3800; [email protected]

Abstract. Previous work has shown that closed-loop Brayton cycle power converters are an extremely attractive
option for long-duration (> 10 years) space missions. To date, this technology has been only demonstrated at power
levels above 1 kWe. Creare's progress towards the demonstration of the first-generation, low-power converter for use
with radioisotope power sources is the subject of this paper. At the 100 We power level, Brayton systems should attain
conversion efficiencies of 20% to 40% depending upon the operating conditions. The converter mass for a flight unit is
expected to be about 3 kg. The detailed design, performance predictions, and test plans for the first-generation
converter are reviewed in this paper.

INTRODUCTION
NASA is planning several missions that will require efficient and lightweight Radioisotope Power Systems (RPSs).
They include Mars and deep-space exploration missions where power levels range from 100 We to 300 We. The
current state-of-the-art converter is a SiGe Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) that has a system
conversion efficiency of 6.5% and a system specific power of about 5 We/kg. At this performance level, eighteen
General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) modules would be required to meet electrical power requirements of 285 We.
Due to the cost of GPHSs (~$1M/GPHS), the mass of GPHSs (1.4 kg/GPHS), and the limited domestic supply of
Pu-238, alternative converter technologies are needed to meet the needs of future missions. These converters must
be safe, have lifetimes greater than ten years, high efficiency, low mass, and have high reliability to meet mission
goals.
Trade studies on converters for RPS missions have considered Stirling generators, Alkali-Metal-Thermal-to-Electric
Converters (AMTEC), thermophotovoltaic converters, and RTGs (e.g., El-Genk, 2003; Cockfield, 2001; Determan
et al., 1990). Turbo-Brayton Converters (TBCs) have typically been discounted as a viable option for low power
applications, because (1) there have been no demonstrations of the technology at low power levels, and (2) the
efficiency and specific power of the technology was believed to scale poorly to low power levels. For example, the
1.3 kWe and 10.5 kWe systems developed in the 1960s and 1970s (McCormick 1978, Davis 1972) are heavy and
inefficient when directly scaled to the 100 We power level. New fabrication techniques and component technologies
were needed to enable lightweight, high-performance TBCs at low power levels.
During the past 20 years, new turbo-Brayton technologies have been developed at Creare for high-performance
cryogenic refrigerators. The heritage and features of these technologies, and their applicability to low-power
converters are described in previous work (Zagarola et al., 2002). Turbo-Brayton refrigerators use miniature, high-
speed turbomachines and compact, effective heat exchangers for high performance at low power levels, and
precision gas bearings for long, maintenance-free life (>10 years) and vibration-free operation. The first space
implementation of these technologies was the NICMOS Cryogenic Cooler, which was installed on the Hubble Space
Telescope in March 2002 (Swift et al., 2002) and has over 12,000 hours of on-orbit operation as of September 2003.

The key technical challenges in applying these refrigeration technologies to power conversion systems are (1) the
collocation of the compressor, turbine and alternator on a single high-speed rotor, and (2) the high temperature
operation of the turbine and recuperator. An initial demonstration of a low-power TBC rotor was described in
previous work (Zagarola et al., 2003). High-temperature issues include the proper selection of materials and

CP699, Space Technology and Applications International Forum–STAIF 2004, edited by M.S. El-Genk
© 2004 American Institute of Physics 0-7354-0171-3/04/$22.00
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bonding methods, effective thermal isolation of the hot and cold ends of the TBC, and thermal expansion
mismatches. Work is in progress to demonstrate the 1st-generation TBC. The preliminary design of this unit was
given in Zagarola et al., 2003. This paper describes the detailed design, provides updated performance predictions,
and reviews test plans for the 1st-generation converter.

FIRST-GENERATION CONVERTER DEVELOPMENT

Creare Inc. is currently developing a 1st-generation, low power, turbo-Brayton converter for NASA Glenn Research
Center under funding from the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program. The overall goal of the project
is to demonstrate the operational features and the mass, size and performance benefits of a low-power converter at
the brassboard level. During an initial study phase, we proved the feasibility of the concept by developing a
preliminary design, predicting the performance of a converter, and by demonstrating the operation of a prototypical
turbomachine rotor in gas bearings at speeds in excess of the design speed. The rotor was fabricated from the
materials selected for the 1st-generation converter and had the correct mass, inertia, and overall geometric features.
In the present phase of the work, we have completed the detailed design and fabrication of the Turbo-Alternator-
Compressor (TAC). The TAC will be tested in an instrumented test facility to determine the operational
characteristics and thermodynamic performance.
The converter consists of a TAC, hot-side interface heat exchanger, cold-side interface heat exchanger, recuperator
and electronics. Our initial development effort focuses on the key technical challenges associated with high
temperature operation of the TAC. In our test configuration, the cold-side interface heat exchanger and radiator will
be simulated using a liquid-cooled precooler, the GPHS will be simulated using an electrical heater attached to a
non-prototypical hot-side interface heat exchanger, a Commercial-Off-the-Shelf (COTS) recuperator will be used to
improve cycle efficiency, and laboratory electronics will be used to start the TAC and convert the high-frequency
AC waveform produced by the alternator to DC power.
The test configuration and instrumentation are designed to quantify the efficiency of the converter, identify
components for additional development, and verify the analyses used to support the design. The efficiency of the
1st-generation converter is predicted to be greater than 20%. Advanced development efforts currently underway will
focus on the development of the 2nd-generation converter including the TAC, electronics and heat exchangers.

Design
The 1st-generation TAC and hot-side interface heat exchanger are shown in FIGURE 1. The overall size of the
assembly is 21 cm long and 9 cm in diameter. The mass of the TAC is less than 3 kg, and the mass of the hot-side
interface heat exchanger is approximately 2 kg. The mass of both components can be considerably reduced for a
flight unit by the elimination of the bolted connections which permit convenient assembly/disassembly and the
removal of material that is not required for structural integrity.
The TAC consists of a compressor, turbine and permanent-magnet alternator. The rotor is supported by gas bearings
and is located within an electrical stator. During start-up, the rotor is driven by the electrical field applied to the
stator. Heat is then supplied at the hot-side interface heat exchanger which increases the temperature of the turbine
inlet flow. At adequately high turbine inlet temperatures, the power produced by the turbine exceeds the power
required to drive the compressor and electrical power may be extracted from the rotor. The 1st-generation TAC has
been designed to operate at a compressor inlet temperature of about 320 K and a turbine inlet temperature of
1050 K. Thermal isolation between the hot and cold ends is built into the rotor and housing of the TAC.
Macor, a high temperature machinable ceramic, is used as the material for the shaft and turbine because it has low
density, excellent machinability, and extremely low thermal conductivity. A photograph of the shaft and turbine is
shown in FIGURE 2. The shaft has been sputtered with a thin layer of titanium to allow the use of capacitance-
based speed sensors. The strength of Macor at high temperatures is adequate for this application, although the
maximum continuous operating temperature for Macor is 1073 K, which constrains the maximum turbine inlet
temperature. The compressor is fabricated from a titanium alloy and is connected to the shaft using a bolt and a
threaded shaft insert. The compressor impeller and turbine rotor diameter are 10 mm (0.4 in.) and 13 mm (0.5 in.),
respectively. These diameters provide good aerodynamic performance and maintain the centrifugal stresses in the

454
turbine and compressor to acceptable values. The shaft diameter is 6.4 mm (0.25 in.), and the rotating mass is less
than 8 grams.

(a) Rendering

(b) Layout
FIGURE 1. 1st-Generation TAC and Hot-Side Interface Heat Exchanger.

455
 Turbine

Shaft

FIGURE 2. Macor Turbine and Shaft.

The rotating shaft is supported by self-acting gas bearings that support the shaft with no surface-to-surface contact.
They are located at the cold end of the TAC to minimize issues arising from differential thermal expansion. The
journal bearings use small shaft/bearing clearances (on the order of a few microns) which permit stable shaft rotation
at high speeds and also allow the use of very small clearance seals at the rotors to mitigate leakage, a significant
performance penalty for miniature turbomachines. The self-acting thrust bearings act on the shroud and back face of
the compressor. The alternator uses a rare-earth permanent magnet located in the hollow shaft to create a rotating
magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field produces AC current in the windings of the electrical stator. The
temperature of the alternator is maintained well below the Curie temperature of the magnet and stator core by
circulating the compressor discharge gas through the stator and by thermal isolation in the assembly.
The hot end of the TAC and hot-side interface heat exchanger are fabricated from Inconel 718, which has high
strength and good creep resistance at high temperatures. The hot and cold ends of the TAC are connected at the
shaft diameter using thin-walled bellows and at the outer diameter using a thin-walled shell. The shell and bellows
are fabricated from Inconel 718 and are brazed to the hot and cold ends of the TAC. The low conductivity of
Inconel 718, the thin walls and the geometric configuration of the shell and bellows provide good thermal isolation
between the hot and cold ends, which reduces heat input, improving converter efficiency. The space between the
bellows and shell is filled with layers of zirconia felt insulation and evacuated to further improve thermal isolation.

Performance Predictions
The operating conditions and predicted performance of the 1st-generation TBC are listed in TABLE 1. These values
have been modified slightly from the values determined in an earlier design study to reflect more detailed analysis
(Zagarola et al., 2003). The cycle gas is xenon. The converter requires 288 Wt of heat to produce 60 We of
electrical output power, which corresponds to a conversion efficiency of 21%. The turbine inlet temperature is 1050
K and the compressor inlet temperature is 324 K. The heat input at a turbine inlet temperature of 1050 K is
predicted to be slightly more than 250 Wt, the heat provided by a single GPHS at beginning of life and the original
design point. The predicted difference was considered acceptable for the 1st-generation unit.
The required component performance values are also listed in TABLE 1. The performance values for the turbine and
compressor are based on scaling the performance of existing designs to the appropriate flow rates, temperatures and
power levels. The electronics efficiency value is based on scaling the performance of an existing power circuit to
the appropriate power levels. The laboratory electronics may have somewhat lower performance than predicted for
an optimized design. A parallel effort is underway to develop and demonstrate the 1st-generation electronics. The
performance values for the commercial recuperator are based on the supplier’s calculations.

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 TABLE 1. Predicted Performance of 1st-Generation TBC at Design Operating Conditions.
Design Operating Conditions
Turbine Inlet Temperature 1050 K
Compressor Inlet Temperature 324 K
Cycle Gas Xe
Mass Flow Rate 13 g/s
Compressor Inlet Pressure 5 atm
Compressor Pressure Ratio 1.35
Rotational Speed 3,400 rev/s
Converter Performance
Heat Input to Cycle 288 Wt
Net 28 VDC Output Power 60 We
Turbine Shaft Power 211 W
Compressor Shaft Power 116 W
Drag, Leakage & Alternator Losses 32 W
Power Conditioning Electronics Losses 3W
Heat Rejected from Cycle 228 Wt
Heat Transfer from Warm to Cold End 34 Wt
Thermal Efficiency of TBPU 21%
Component Performance
Electronics Efficiency 95%
Turbine Efficiency 89%
Compressor Efficiency 73%
Recuperator Thermal Effectiveness 0.953
Recuperator Pressure Loss ( ∆ P/P × 100%) 0.6%

FIRST-GENERATION CONVERTER TESTS

The TAC will be installed in an instrumented test loop, and the loop will be placed inside a vacuum chamber for
testing at prototypical temperature and power levels. The test set-up is shown in FIGURE 3. During testing, the
external surfaces of hot components and tubing will be covered with a micro-porous insulation (not shown in
FIGURE 3) to reduce heat loss to the environment. The flow loop schematic with instrument locations is shown in
FIGURE 4.

FIGURE 3. 1st-Generation TBC Test Set-Up.

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 FIGURE 4. 1st-Generation TBC Instrumentation.

Test Plan and Expected Results

The test plan is designed to establish a performance map for the TAC as a function of rotor speed and turbine inlet
temperature. The control parameters for the test are the turbine inlet temperature, compressor inlet temperature and
rotational speed of the TAC rotor. The turbine inlet temperature will be set by adjusting the electrical power
supplied to the heater located on the hot-side interface heat exchanger. The compressor inlet temperature will be
controlled by adjusting the set-point temperature of the liquid coolant loop. The rotational speed of the converter
will be set by adjusting the voltage and frequency commanded by the electronics. The anticipated test matrix is
given in TABLE 2. We plan to test at four turbine inlet temperature and two compressor inlet temperatures. At
each test condition, we plan to vary the rotational speed from 2000 rev/s to 4000 rev/s. Samples of anticipated test
results are shown in FIGURE 5.

TABLE 2. Test Matrix for 1st-Generation TBC Test.

Variable Design Point Performance Map
Turbine Inlet Temperature (K) 1050 750, 850, 950, 1050
Compressor Inlet Temperature (K) 324 300, 324
Shaft Rotational Speed (rev/s) 3400 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000
Heat Input (Wt) 288 0 to 500
Net Electrical Output (We) 60 0 to 120
Mass Flow Rate (g/s) 13 5 to 20
Pressure Ratio (-) 1.34 1.1 to 1.5

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 (a) Electrical Output Power

(b) Converter Efficiency

FIGURE 5. Predicted Performance of 1st-Generation TBC.

Test Sequence
The anticipated test procedure is as follows. The coolant flow will be initiated to the precooler. The coolant set-
point temperature will be adjusted until a compressor inlet temperature of 300 K or 324 K is achieved. The TBC
will be activated by applying 3-phase power to the stator windings using laboratory electronics. The electronics at
this step are supplying power to drive the rotor. The rotational speed of the rotor will be set to 2000 rev/s by
changing the frequency and voltage commanded by the electronics. Heat will be input to the TBC at the hot-side
interface heat exchanger by increasing the voltage applied to the electrical heater. The heater power will be
gradually increased until a steady-state temperature of nominally 750 K is reached at the turbine inlet. At a
temperature of 750 K, the TBC should sustain rotation at all test speeds without power being supplied from the
electronics. The heat input required to achieve this condition depends upon the speed. The electronics at this step
are dissipating the power produced by the rotor. The rotational speed of the rotor will be varied from 2000 rev/s to
4000 rev/s by adjusting the frequency and voltage commanded by the electronics. The heater power will be
gradually increased until a steady state is reached at turbine inlet temperatures of nominally 850 K, then 950 K, and
1050 K. At each temperature, the rotational speed of the rotor will again be varied from 2000 rev/s to 4000 rev/s by
adjusting the frequency and voltage command by the electronics. The test will be ended by deactivating the
electrical heater and then deactivating the electronics once the turbine inlet temperature is below 750 K.

459
 Measurements
The test loop is instrumented to yield overall performance of the converter and to establish the performance of
individual components. The instrumentation and measurements of the TBC are as follows.
Temperature – Eight Type-K thermocouples (TCs) will be used to measure temperatures in the flow loop and the
heated surface of the hot-side interface heat exchanger. The TCs in the flow loop will be installed using thermal
wells such that the sensing elements are immersed in the gas stream, except at the compressor outlet (T2a) which will
be mounted to the diffuser. This mounting arrangement was required due to the complex flow manifolding in this
area and will provide a reasonable estimate of the compressor outlet flow.
Pressure – Two absolute pressure transducers will be used to measure the compressor inlet and outlet pressures
(P1 and P2b). These pressure transducers will be mounted inside the test facility, connected through small-diameter
metal tubes. The pressure drops through the recuperator and precooler are expected to be negligible so these
measurements will provide a reasonable estimate of the turbine inlet and outlet pressures. The pressure drops
through the recuperator and precooler will be measured to verify that they are negligible prior to installation in the
test facility.
Mass Flow Rate (m) – The mass flow rate will be determined using a venturi meter with a differential pressure
transducer. The venturi will be located between the exit of the precooler and the inlet of the compressor. The
differential pressure transducer will be mounted inside the test facility, connected through small-diameter metal
tubes. The output from the differential pressure transducer and the absolute pressure P1 will be converted to a mass
flow rate in the Data Acquisition System (DAS) using the manufacturer’s supplied calibration curve.
Speed (N) – The rotational speed and radial displacement of the rotor will be measured using a Creare custom-built
capacitance probe. The signal from the capacitance probe will be conditioned and fed to a frequency-to-voltage
converter to permit readout of the speed by the DAS.
Heater Input Power (Eheater) – The input power to the electrical heater will be measured using an AC power
transducer. The transducer uses the AC voltage and current inputs to the electrical heater to determine the root-
mean-square power.
Output Power – The AC and DC output voltages and currents from the TAC and TBC will be measured using multi-
meters with shunt resistors and/or hall-effect sensors.

Data Reduction
Key calculated quantities will be determined in real time using the DAS. These quantities include:
P2 b
System pressure ratio (PR): PR = (1)
P1

Heat rejected from working fluid ( Qout ): Qout = mC p (T6 − T1 ) (2)

Bearing heat load ( Qcooling ): Qcooling = mC p (T2 a − T2b ) (3)

Heat input to working fluid ( Qin ): Qin = mC p (T4 − T3 ) (4)

Heat loss from heater ( Qloss ): Qloss = Eheater − Qin (5)

T4 − T5
Turbine efficiency ( ηturbine ): ηturbine = (6)
T4 − T5 s

T2 as − T1
Compressor efficiency ( η compressor ): ηcompressor = (7)
T2 a − T1

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 T3 − T2 b T5b − T6
Recuperator effectiveness ( ε recuperator ): ε recuperator = = (8)
T5b − T2 b T5b − T2 b

VDC out I DC out

Converter efficiency ( η converter ): ηconverter = (9)
Qin
Here Cp is the constant-pressure specific heat of xenon, numeric subscripts refer to the state points indicated in
FIGURE 4, and quantities that include the subscript s refer to isentropic quantities. The isentropic quantities are
determined from the measured inlet temperature and pressure ratio. Note that the bearing heat load (Eq. 3) is
comprised of the (1) losses in the bearings and alternator, and (2) the heat transfer from the hot end to cold end of
the TAC. The values of each component can not be distinguished using the current test set-up, but the sum of these
quantities will provide guidance for future designs or upgrades.

CONCLUSIONS
TBCs promise to be lightweight, compact, highly reliable, and highly efficient power sources for future long-
duration space missions. Creare is currently developing a 1st-generation TBC that is based on demonstrated turbo-
Brayton refrigerator technology. The TBC is predicted to provide 60 We of DC power with a net thermal efficiency
of 21% and a TAC mass of less than 3.0 kg. The detailed design and fabrication of the TAC is complete. The
assembly is in progress. Initial test results are expected in February 2004.

NOMENCLATURE
T = temperature (K)
P = pressure (Pa)
m = mass flow rate (g/s)
N = rotational speed (rev/s)
Cp = constant pressure specific heat (J/kg-K)
V = voltage (V)
I = current (A)
Q = heat (Wt)
E = electrical power (We)
PR = system pressure ratio (-)
η = efficiency (-)
ε = thermal effectiveness (-)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was performed by Creare under the guidance of NASA Glenn Research Center (Contract Number
NAS3-02176). Their support is gratefully acknowledged.

461
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