Techniques 3.1 NEED FOR MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES : Multiple access schemes are used to have effective utilization of available set of resources in a system. Such a schemes allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum. Sharing of spectrum is done to achieve high capacity, without severe degradation in performance of system Key element in multiple access is to make transitted signals from different users orthogonal to each other. Frequency Division Multiple Access, Time Division Multiple Access and Code Division. Multiple Acess are the three commonly used multiple access systems. In addition to these three multiple access systems there are two additional multiple access techniges namely Packet Radio and Space Division Multiple Access. These are discussed in detail in this chapter. 3.2. FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (FDMA) : Frequency Division Multiple Access assign individual channels to individual users. Each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel. Channel assignment can be fixed or dynamic based upon system requirements. Orthogonality among transmitted signals from different mobile users is achieved by bandpass filtering in frequency domain. One problem with FDMA is that it leads to wastage of bandwidth when user is in dormant state. (Chapter-a) (iene Ra ‘Scanned with CamScanner| w N i _. d downlink ons Interference free transmission between uplink andieoun ink is achievey by allocating frequencies maintaining sufficient in between ingiy idual users, Seneral Characteristics of FDMA System : FDMA channel carries one user at a time. i it sits i id cannot If an FDMA channel is not in use, than it sits idle an ot be used by other users to increase or share capacity. Bandwidth of FDMA channel are relatively narrow as FDMA channel supports only one circuit at time. FDMA systems are simpler to implement than TDMA system. FDMA is a continuous transmission system. So, less number of bits are required for synchronization and framing purpose. FDMA circuits require tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference. RF filters are heavy, cumbersome and costly. 3.3 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA) : Time Division Multiple Access is a digital transmission technology that allows a number of users to access a single radio frequency channel by allocating unique time slots to each user within a channel. Users have to transmit in their assigned slots from frame to frame. If the assigned slots are fixed from frame to frame for duration of connection, the users have to synchronize to their respective time slots. This mode of TDMA is referred to as synchronous TDMA (S-TDMA). TDMA type in which transmission slots are dynamically assigned from frame to frame is referred to Asynchronous TDMA. TDMA relies on the fact thi ’ at audio signal has been digitized; that is divi into number of millccecs n digitized; that is divided nds long packets, Itallocates a single f other channel Ste frequency channel for a short time and than moves to TDMA substanti; ally impr i like FDMA it hae weak roved “Pon efficiency of analog cellular, However ‘Scanned with CamScannerTechniques squltil e ta through pauses which norma contains. ETDMA sends da Pi i ig ich normal speech «In ETDMA instead of arbitrarily assi as tie requirement. ly assignment, time is allocated as per The Conept of TDMA is shown in Fig. 3.1 Frequency Jom Fig. 3.1 TOMA System Concept Features of TDMA System : TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each user makes use of non overlapping time slots. Number of time slots per frame depends upon number of factors such as modulation techniques, available bandwidth etc. Hand off process is much simpler in TDMA system due to discontinous transmission. TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplexers are not required. Due to high transmission rates than FDMA adaptive equalization is one of the principle requirement of TDMA. High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst transmission. ‘Scanned with CamScanner=| Mobile Comimunicaie ns e TDMA ——igsion are slotted, and this requires the receivers 4 eynchronized for each data burst. «TDMA has advantage in that it is possible to allocate different Dumber of time slots per frame to different users. «Bandwidth can be supplied in demand to different users by concatenating or reassigning time slots based on priority Advantages and Disadvantages of TDMA : TDMA system offers a number of advantages and disadvantages listed below, Advantages of TDMA system : 1. TDMA has provide with increase in efficiency of transmission. It can be easily adapted to transmission of data and voice communication. 2. TDMA also provides user with increased battery life as mobile is transmitting a portion of time (from 1/3 to 1/10) of time during conversation. 3. It is most cost effective technology for upgrading current analog system to digital. 4, TDMA installations offer substantial saving in base station equipment, space and maintenance. Disadvantages of TDMA system : 1 Primary disadvantages is that it all time slots in a cell are occupied by present users a newly arrived user may find a busy signal and call may be disconnected. 2. Multipath distortion is also one of limitation of TDMA. Such a phenomenon generally occur at cell fringes where reflections and refractions may weaken signal. 3.4 CONCEPT OF SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES : Spread Spectrum Multiple Access uses signal which have transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude greater than minimum RF Bandwidth. General characteristics of spread spectrum is shown in Fig. 3.2. Input is fed into channel encoder that produces analog signal with relatively narrow bandwidth around some centre frequency. Signal is further modulated using sequence of bits known as spreading sequence. Modulation is accomplished to increase bandwidth of input signal. At the receiver side, same bit sequence is used to demodulate the spread spectrum signal. ‘Scanned with CamScanner“niple Access Techniques [Multpe 4 - 3.5 or yp___,[ Channel = Encoder | >| Modulator +} Channel [Channel LOecoder | Spreading] - Spreading) L_Gode_| Code Fig. 3.2 Concept of Spread Spectrum Several things can be gained from this apparent waste of spectrum. ix One can gain immunity from various kinds of noise and multi-path distortion. It can be used for hiding and encrypting signals. 3. Several users can independently use the same highere bandwidth with very limited interference. * Essential idea is to spread the information sign bandwidth to make jamming and interception more difficult. ent when al over a wider + Spread spectrum multiple access is not very bandwidth effici used by a single user. * There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniges: Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum, Code Division Multiple Access, which are discussed in next sections. 3.5 DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM (DSSS) TECHNIQUE : wn spread spectrum technique. The data signal dom Noise Code (PNcode). A PNcode is a d 1 (non-polar) and has Direct sequence is the best kno is multiplied by a Pseudo Ran sequence of chips valued -1 and 1 (polar) or 0 an noise-like properties. This results in low cross-correlation values among the codes. Several families of binary PN codes exist; they are addressed as little later, A usual way to create a PIN code is by means of at least one shift register. When the length of such a shift-register is n, the following can be said about the period N,, of the above mentioned code-families : Nyy = 2"-2 In direct-sequence systems the length of the code is the same as the spreading- factor with the consequence that : G, (DS) = Nos tiple bits using spreading code which spreads band. In proportion to number of bits used, Each bit is represented by mul ds signal across 10 times bandwidth of 1 - bit signal across wider frequency e.g. 10-bit spreading code spree code. — iChapter-3) ‘Scanned with CamScanner3.6 Mobile Communications Bits {In this Drawing, 1 Bit = 8 Chipsh oN a, Rate "= Matched titi Data Chip, mW Wi Code af ‘Transmitted and cL - I zl Received Signal | [) LIL cones JLT ‘Scrambling Ti An PN Codo | l u { a Baso Band : : Date I ! a Fig. 3.3 Direct - Sequence Spreading end Despreading 4 Signal Energy O41 tT Ts «0 Spectrum of Orginal Signal ¢ a 0 Te Te ) Spectrum of Pseudocode Signal ‘ ©) Spectrum of combined Signal Fig. 3.4 Spread Spectrum Concept This can also be seen from Fy : h : 1a. 3.3 where we sh is combi wath the dta-sgnal, in this Example N,. = 10, pou Space bcauabinea ow multiplied by a factor N ‘ 4) aA poor of the data es esi i wer contents however ‘Scanned with CamScannersqultit SSS | 3.7 js the same, with the result th. a eae ae stays at the power 7 generation of PN codes is relatively easy; a a density lowers. The quired. For this reason it is easy to intro i Sequence systems. is Direct 36 FREQUENCY HOPPED SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS) TECHNIQUE : When applying frequency hopping, the carrier frequency is ‘hopping’ according toa unique sequence (an FH-sequence of length N,,,). In this way the bandwidth is increased by a factor N,,, (If the channels are non-overlapping) G, (FH) = N,, The process of frequency hopping is illustrated in Fig. 3.5. A disadvantage of Frequency - Hopping as opposed to Direct-Sequence is that obtaining a high processing - gain is hard. There is need for a frequency-synthesizer able to perform fast-hopping over the carrier-frequencies. The faster the “hopping-rate is, the higher the processing gain. Power > Frequency 7m. ja Desired signal hops from Z| fone frequency to another Time x Frequency Hopping Concept On the other hand, Frequency-Hopping is less affected by the Near-Far effect than Direct-Sequence. Frequency-Hopping sequences have only a limited number of “hits” with each other. This means that if a near-interferer is present, only a number of “frequency-hops” will be blocked in stead of the whole signal.From the “hops” that are not blocked it should be possible to recover the original data-message 3,7 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA) : * In code Division Multiple Access. the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal called spreading signal. (Chapter-3) Fig. 3.5 Illustration of th ‘Scanned with CamScanner— = ions} 3.8 = = ! i ‘i noise coder that has chip rate which is orge, Fj Mobile Commu + Spreading signal is pseudo of magnitudes greater than dat * All users in CDMA system, use simultancously. ja rates same carrier frequency and may transmit * Each user has its own pseudo random unique codeword which js 7 ords. approximately orthogonal to all other code w ified codeword by accomplishing time co-relation + Receiver can detect spec! operation. * In CDMA power of multiple users at a rece! after decorelation. iver determines the noise floor + Multipath fading if present may be substantially reduced because signal is spread over large spectrum. ¢ of Poor-orthogonality of individual PN sequence: ation of CDMA system. ae ih cos .s, self jamming may occur which is one of limit Properties of CDMA : 1. Universal Frequency Reuse : Due to orthogonality of individual transmitted signals, the total frequency spectrum allocated to system can be reused from cell to cell. hi 2. Soft Handoff : Frequency reuse facilitates simultaneous communication of mobile station with a number of nearby base stations. This will improve gy handoff performance. 3. High Transmission Accuracy : Transmission accuracy can be increased by employing rake receivers for reception purpose. 4, Flexibility : CDMA is more flexible than TDMA and FDMA in supporting multimedia services with various time varying traffic rates Limitation of CDMA : * CDMA system requires power control to achieve high capacity. With increase in processing gain, the maximum transmission rate in each code channel is limited. This can be ot ai vercome by pi ission of i aral of information to or from mobile user. ¥ Hel transmission * Receivers used for CDMA reception are much complex than those used in * CDMA systems operate at high / the receiver, igh rate and require PN synchronization at ———— ECT ‘Scanned with CamScanner TDMA or FDMA systems. _"Ve SSSS== 1 SoMPARISION OF MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUrg a 5 Various properties of multiple access systems are com In practice, communication system multiple access system to exploit ti pared in this secti ti generally empl ion. OY two o1 hese inherent ai T More of these dvantages. parameter FDMA TDMA CDMA Modulation B/w Efficient Biw Efficient Simple Source Improves Improves Improves Coding Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency [User Simple Medium Complex | Terminal ‘Complex Handover Hard Soft Soft Synchronization Low resolution | Mid resolution High resolution Bandwidth To fit to Medium Large | Requirement Application Bandwidth Bandwidth | Flexibility Less Moderate High 3.9 NEAR-FAR EFFECT IN CDMA : Itis a condition in CDMA based systems in which two transmitters one close to the Base Station and other far from the Base Station transmit at equal power but the signal received from the closer transmitter has high SNR (Good) while the Signal received from the far transmitter has low SNR (Bad) at the receiver (Base Station). ignal received from the far Someti aver cannot detect the weaker signal metimes the receiver ca! cou i victectsblerange. transmitter if the SNR is very low and bi al from the far transmitter, the signs is will cause more mit power but thi m this transmitter. In order for the receiver to receive the transmitter will have to increase it trans noise and lower SNR to other users far fr0 Station will have to transmit at a The CDMA Phone which is far from the Base 1 NE at the jitters in or Power higher than the closer transmitters in © Base station. der to maintain 9 ‘Scanned with CamScanner[3.10 - ——— = =| Mobile Communicay~ [3.10 = = =) | Effects of Near-Far Problem = | | Channel Capacity : | Theorem, C = 10* Log 2 (1 + SNR). SNR & chang r According to Shannon's capacity are directly propor each other. Lower the SNR, lower 4, tional to capacity. Service Degradation : The service quality degrades du by the UE's at the cell edge transmit good SNK at the Base station. e to low SNR due to higher interference cause ting at higher power in order to maintain Battery Drain : This will have an impact on Because it has to transmit the Base station. Solutions for Near-Far Problem : | the battery life of the UE far from the Base Station, at higher power in order to maintain good SNR at | | Power control : ol mechanism can compensate for the fading fluctuations. The Power Contre ontrolled to be equal at the SNR's from multiple UE's (Near or far) can be c Base Station. Node B Sensitivity : Improve Uplink Sensitivity by using a MHA/TMA/LNA Amplifiers. 3.10 SOFT HANDOFF & POWER CONTROL IN CDMA : | Soft handoff (or soft handover) is an innovation in mobility. It refers to the technique of adding additional base stations (in IS-95 as many as 5) toa connection to be certain that the next base is ready as you move through the terrain. However, it can also be used to move a call from one base station that is approaching congestion to another with better capacity. As a result, signal quality and handoff robustness is improved compared to TDMA systems. In TDMA and analog systems, each cell transmits on its own frequency, different from those of its neighbouring cells. fa mobile device reaches the edge of the cell currently serving its call, it is told to break its radio link and quickly tune t° the frequency of one of the neighbouring cells where the call has been move by the network due to the mobile's movement. If the mobile is unable to tune f° the new frequency in time the call is dropped. ‘Scanned with CamScanner3. Techniques { [wultiple Acc In CDMA, a set of neighb and distinguish cells (or offset” a time offset from the beginning 0 sequence that is used to spread the signa the cells are on the same frequency, listening to an exercise in digital signal processing based on offsets from the PN se not RF transmission and reception based on separate frequencies. network, it detects the PN offsets of the neighbouring cells and reports the strength of each signal back to the reference cell of the call (usually the strongest cell). If the signal from a neighouring cell is directed to “add a leg” to its call and start strong enough, the mobile will be transmitting and receiving to and from the new cell in addition to the cell (or cells) already hosting the call. Likewise, if a cell’s signal beomes too weak the mobile is directed to drop that leg. In this way, the mobile can move from cell to cell and add and drop legs as necessary in order to keep the call up without ever dropping the link. When there are frequency boundaries between different carriers or sub networks, a CDMA phone behaves in the same way as TDMA or analog and performs a hard handoff in which it breaks the existing connection and tries to pick up n the new frequency where it left off. ouring cells all use the same frequency for transmi base stations) by means of a number called the “PN f the well-known pseudo random noise I from the base station. Because all of different base stations is now quence, As the CDMA phone roams through the ‘Scanned with CamScanner