Irrigation and Nutrient

Management Practices
for Commercial
Leatherleaf Fern Production
in Florida
Second Edition

Robert H. Stamps, Ph.D.

 Funding for printing this bulletin
was provided by
Florida's Department of Environmental Protection
and the
St. Johns River Water Management District

Copyright © 2006 by the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences

Copyright 1995 by the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences

Print on recycled paper Recyclable

 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices
for Commercial Leatherleaf Fern Production
in Florida

Robert H. Stamps, Ph.D.

This publication offers the improved irrigation and nutrient

management practices for use during the commercial
production of leatherleaf fern. These management practices
are designed to reduce production costs and improve crop
quality while simultaneously protecting ground water
quality.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his gratitude to W. Chris Fooshee and Sheila Motley for
technical assistance; and to reviewers J. M. Bennett, C. A. Conover, M. W. Dobson, E.
R. Emino, E. A. Hanlon, B. K. Harbaugh, R. W. Henley, A. G. Hornsby, L. B. McCarty,
B. L. McNeal, C. G. Moore, G. A. O'Connor, K. J. Phillips, L. N. Satterthwaite, V. D.
Singleton, A. G. Smajstrla, C. D. Stanley, D. S. Vogel and W. E. Waters.

Robert H. Stamps is a Professor of Environmental Horticulture and Extension Cut Foliage Specialist,
Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Department of Environmental Horticulture,
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida,
2725 South Binion Road, Apopka, FL 32703-8504
 Table of Contents
page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Industry History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Leatherleaf Fern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Water and Plant Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Soil Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Plant Water Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Water and Leatherleaf Fern Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sources of Crop Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Nutrients and Leatherleaf Fern Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Irrigation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Irrigation System Design and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Irrigation System Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Irrigation Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Monitoring Soil Water Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Tensiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Additional Methods for Measuring Soil Water Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Resistance blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Soil psychrometers and freezing point depression apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Neutron, time domain reflectometry and other moisture probes . . . . . . . . . . 9
Soil Water Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Estimating Soil Water Withdrawals (evapotranspiration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Evaporation pans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Predictive evapotranspiration models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Generalized evapotranspiration rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Calculating Soil Water Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Determining Water Application Amounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Additional Factors to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Irrigation Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Bicarbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Irrigation for Cold Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

iii
 Sprinklers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Dual Irrigation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Determining When to Start/Stop Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Additional Factors to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Nutrient Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Nutrient Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Nutrient Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Cation exchange capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Nutrient Removal due to Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Gaseous Nitrogen Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Denitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ammonia volatilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Nutrient Sources and Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fertilizer Application Methods and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fertilizer Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fertilizer Sources and Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Determining Fertilizer Application Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Frond (Leaf) Tissue Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Irrigation and Nutrient Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Abbreviations and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Appendix A: Characteristics of Florida Soils Used for Leatherleaf Fern Production . . . . . 28

iv
 Leatherleaf Fern
Introduction
Leatherleaf fern is a true fern listed as be-
Industry History longing to the Dryopteridaceae family by many
taxonomists. Now named Rumohra adiantiformis
In 1895, a freeze devastated the central (G. Forst.) Ching, leatherleaf fern was formerly
Florida citrus industry. Growers, struggling to classified as Polystichum adiantiforme (G. Forst.)
survive the loss of their groves that were killed John Sm. It is native to tropical areas of Central
during the February freeze, began to look for and South America, South Africa, Madagascar,
alternative crops that they could produce on New Zealand and Australia.
their land. That search led to the creation of
Florida's cut foliage ("fern", florists' greens) in- Water and Plant Growth
dustry. The first crop produced by that industry
was an ornamental asparagus called plumosus The most abundant compound in actively
"fern" or fern asparagus (Asparagus setaceus, for- growing plant cells is water. Mature leatherleaf
merly Asparagus plumosus). fern fronds are about 75% water by weight;
immature fronds contain an even greater per-
Leatherleaf fern, Rumohra adiantiformis (syn-
centage of water. Water is essential for plant
onym Polystichum adiantiforme ), was first pro-
growth because it serves as (1) a solvent in
duced in Florida during the 1930s, but major
which vital reactions take place; (2) a raw mate-
plantings were not started until the early 1950s.
rial critical for the synthesis of organic com-
Leatherleaf is popular with florists because of its
pounds; (3) a transport medium for plant nutri-
good keeping quality, low cost, ready and year-
ents; and (4) the source of turgor pressure neces-
round availability, and versatile design
sary to drive cell expansion (plant growth) and
qualities—form, texture and color. These quali-
prevent cell collapse (plant wilting). In addition,
ties have made leatherleaf the cut foliage most
evaporation of water from leaf surfaces results in
used by florists worldwide.
cooling, which is important for keeping tissue
Despite foreign competition, mounting gov- temperatures in the range suitable for biological
ernmental regulations, soaring land prices and activity.
hurricanes, Florida continues to be a leader in
production of leatherleaf fern with approxi- Soil Water
mately 3,500 acres (1,415 hectares) in cultivation.
The wholesale value of sales in 2005 was over 50 Soil is the reservoir of water for plants such
million dollars with Florida accounting for 96% as commercially grown leatherleaf fern. The
of all U.S. production. predominant sources of soil water in leatherleaf
fern production are irrigation water and rain
This publication provides information for water. A third source of soil water (uncommon
commercial growers on how to manage their in fern production areas), capillary rise of water
irrigation systems and nutritional practices to from below the root zone, can occur in areas
reduce costs, maximize fern quality and protect with very high water tables. A soil may become
the environment. saturated (all soil pores are filled with water) if
heavy rainfall or irrigation occurs. Excess water
then drains readily downward through the soil
due to the force of gravity. After about a day
(for sandy soils typically used for leatherleaf retard establishment. Even so, irrigation inter-
fern production), this relatively rapid movement vals for newly planted fern may be longer than
of water virtually ceases in the crop root zone for established fern due to the low water use of
and the soil is said to be at field capacity. At this new plantings. Short duration water applica-
point, water has drained from the larger soil tions designed to lower temperatures and raise
pores (macropores) and has been replaced with relative humidities — and thereby reduce water
air. The smaller pores (capillary or micropores) losses from newly planted fern — should not be
retain water, some of which will be available to confused with irrigations designed to replenish
supply the crop with moisture in the days to available soil water.
come. The portion of soil water that can be read-
ily absorbed by plant roots is termed available Plant Water Use
water. Available water values for the vast major- Water from the soil enters the plant through
ity of soils used for the production of leatherleaf the roots and moves through the stem (rhizome)
fern are in the range from 0.6 to 1.2 inches per to the leaves (fronds) and then out of the leaves
foot [5 to 10 centimeters per meter]. into the air surrounding the leaves. This evapo-
The total amount of water available to rative loss of water from plants is called transpi-
leatherleaf fern, in inches, can be calculated as: ration, during which water is pulled through the
soil-plant-atmosphere system by differences in
water potentials (pressures) in various parts of
the system. Water moves from areas of higher
water potential to areas with lower water poten-
tials. Water potential is usually expressed as
Using the average of the range of available water bars, centibars, megapascals, or kilopascals (1
values listed above for soils in commercial bar = 100 centibars = 0.1 megapascal = 100 kilo-
leatherleaf fern production and an effective root pascals). Sandy soils saturated with water have
depth of 6 inches (0.5 foot) yields: water potentials of 0 and, after excess water has
drained due to gravity, potentials decrease to
about –0.1 bar/–10 centibars [–0.01 megapascal,
–10 kilopascals]. Water potentials decrease fur-
ther due to transpirational water loss and evapo-
ration of water directly from the soil. This water
loss directly from the soil to the air is a minor
In this example, there is a total of about 0.45 inch component of water loss in an established fern-
[1.1 centimeters] of water available to the crop. ery. The combination of evaporation + transpi-
However, as soil water is depleted, the remain- ration is called evapotranspiration. This process of
ing water is bound more tightly to the soil and, evapotranspiration depletes the soil water reser-
therefore, is more difficult for the plants to ex- voir (see Soil Water Budget, page 9).
tract. If the soil becomes too dry, crop growth
will be reduced. Therefore, growers should Water and Leatherleaf Fern Production
irrigate before soil water content reaches a level
Leatherleaf fern [ Rumohra adiantiformis
that significantly reduces yield.
(Forst.) Ching] is an herbaceous perennial crop
The percentage of total available water that that is grown predominantly on well-drained
is allowed to become depleted varies with crop (Figure 1), mostly sandy soils having low water-
growth stage, soil type (which affects soil avail- and nutrient-holding capacities. The high leach-
able water content), crop root zone depth, and ing potential of these soils places water resources in
micrometeorological factors. Generally, allowable leatherleaf fern production areas at risk of contamina-
soil water depletions of about one-half of total tion unless appropriate management practices are
available water are used, except for newly plant- followed.
ed fern where this level of water stress could

2 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

 shade, radiation amounts and wind speeds are
reduced compared to those occurring out in the
open. Because of these environmental differ-
ences, annual water use during leatherleaf fern
production (water transpired by the crop + a
small amount of water evaporated from the soil)
is only about 20 inches [50 centimeters]. This
water use rate is around 60 to 85% less than rates
for turfgrasses and perennial agronomic crops
grown in full sun. Additionally, 20 inches is less
water than most annual agronomic row crops
use during their 120–150 day growing period.

Figure 1. Water permeability rates of soils Nutrients

typically used for leatherleaf fern production in
Of the many elements known to be essential
Florida.
for plant growth and development, three —
Although annual precipitation in leatherleaf carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) (all of
fern-producing areas is around 50 inches [127 which the plants obtain from the air and/or
centimeters] per year, it occurs unevenly (Figure water) — typically account for 92% or more of
2). Fern growth and productivity are markedly plant dry weights. The other elements, all of
reduced under water stress and, therefore, sup- which may be supplied to plants using fertiliz-
plemental irrigation is required for commercial ers, account for only a small percentage of the
production. In addition, irrigation water is also plant dry weight. Even so, a deficiency of even
used commercially to deliver pesticides and one of these essential elements can lead to re-
nutrients to the crop. duced plant growth and/or quality.
The primary nutrient that is most often defi-
cient and growth limiting in soils in leatherleaf
fern producing areas is nitrogen (N). The N
sources used in commercial fertilizers consist of
urea (CO[NH2]2), ammonium (NH4+), and nitrate
(NO3–). The first two forms are quickly con-
verted to the NO3– form in the warm, moist,
well-aerated soils in leatherleaf ferneries. Most
N taken up by plants is in the NO 3– form. Since
both the NO3– ion and soil are negatively
charged, the NO3– ion is not bound to the soil.
Further, the soil particles generally repel the
NO3– ions causing them to remain in the soil
solution. Therefore, NO3-N moves freely with
Figure 2. Average monthly precipitation (in the soil solution and is readily leachable. This
inches) at the Pierson, Florida FAWN weather leachability is a cause for concern, since N can end up
station (1999 through 2005). in drinking water supplies where it may become a
Evapotranspiration is driven mainly by radi- health hazard.
ation — with wind, temperature and humidity The primary nutrient phosphorus (P), unlike
(vapor pressure differences between water in the NO3–, is not very leachable and has a low solu-
leaf and that of the surrounding air) also having bility at the pHs at which leatherleaf fern is nor-
an effect. Since all commercial leatherleaf fern mally grown (5.5–6.5). Phosphorus content of
production occurs under artificial or natural plants is often around one-tenth that of N or

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 3

potassium. High soil P can cause micronutrient when the soils have been heavily treated with
deficiencies, especially of iron (Fe), to occur. P fertilizers not containing micronutrients.
can form precipitates with iron rendering the
Boron (B) occurs as H3BO3 in the soil solution
iron unavailable to the fern. Both P and N are
and is prone to leaching on sandy soils. Plant
highly mobile inside plants, and deficiency
uptake of B decreases with increasing pH over
symptoms first appear on the older tissues from
the pH range from 5.0 to 7.0 and deficiency
which these elements have translocated to the
symptoms occur most commonly on alkaline
younger, more actively growing, tissues.
soils with high calcium content. Copper (Cu)
The third primary macronutrient, potassium deficiency is uncommon in ornamental plants in
(K), is usually present in ornamental plants in Florida. In fact, excess Cu in soils that were
about the same quantities as N. Potassium oc- previously in citrus production can sometimes
curs in the soil solution as the positively charged be a problem since Cu occurs in the soil as both
ion (cation) — K+. Most Florida soils contain monovalent (Cu[OH]+) and divalent (Cu2+) cat-
low amounts of K; due to the low cation ex- ions like iron (Fe[OH]2+, Fe[OH]+, Fe2+) and can
change capacities (CEC) of Florida's sandy soils induce iron deficiency. Maintenance of higher
and high rainfall, K is prone to leaching. Since K soil pHs (6.0 to 6.5) can reduce this problem
is also very mobile in plants, deficiency symp- because Cu becomes less available with increas-
toms appear in older tissues first. ing pH. Iron (Fe) deficiency is fairly common in
Florida and can be due to excesses of other
Two secondary nutrients, calcium (Ca) and
heavy metals (Cu, manganese, zinc) relative to
magnesium (Mg), occur in the soil solution as
Fe. Iron deficiency can also be due to Fe in the
divalent cations (Ca2+, Mg2+). Magnesium con-
soil being unavailable for plant use because of
tent of Florida's sandy soils is usually low and
high soil pH and/or high P levels. Leaf yellow-
Mg2+ is leachable so Mg deficiency is a common
ing due to Fe deficiency is fairly common where
nutritional problem. Magnesium is an essential
this element is not being supplied to the crop
component of chlorophyll, the pigment that
through fertilization.
gives leaves their green color. Therefore, a defi-
ciency in Mg can lead to light green or even Manganese (Mn), like Cu, Fe and zinc, occurs
yellow (chlorotic) leaves. Calcium is a compo- in soil in a divalent cation form (Mn2+) and com-
nent of liming materials that are used to correct petes with those other ions for binding locations
soil acidity problems. Both Ca and Mg are con- and root uptake. As with Fe and Mg, Mn defi-
tained in the liming materials dolomite and ciency can cause yellowing of foliage. Molybde-
dolomitic limestone. Since Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ all num (Mo) is required in very small amounts in
compete for the same exchange sites in the soil, plants and is rarely deficient when soil pH is
too much of any one of these elements can cause above 5.2. Zinc (Zn) deficiency on soils high in P
plant deficiencies of the other two. is fairly common. However, Zn is fairly immo-
bile in soils and deficiencies are uncommon in
Sulfur (S) is rarely deficient in ornamental
commercial production where Zn-containing
plant production because it is commonly a com-
fungicides and fertilizers are used.
ponent of fertilizer sources used to supply other
elements. In addition, S may be supplied by rain Additional elements — such as chlorine (Cl),
water and is sometimes applied to lower soil cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se) and silicon
pH. Sulfur occurs in the soil solution mainly as (Si) — have been shown to affect the growth of
the negatively charged sulfate (SO 42–) ion and is some plants but little is known about their role
subject to leaching like NO3–. in ornamental plant growth and development.
Interestingly, research has shown that the Si
Micronutrients are required in relatively
content and growth of one fern, Boston fern
small quantities, typically less than 5 pounds per
(Nephrolepis exaltata), growing in a soilless me-
acre per year [6 kilograms@ hectare–1@ year–1].
dium were increased when the fern was ferti-
Micronutrient deficiencies are not uncommon on
Florida's highly leached sandy soils, especially

4 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

gated with Si-supplemented nutrient solution
(see Reference 4). Irrigation Management
Sources of Crop Nutrients Proper irrigation management consists of
many components:
Nutrients necessary for crop production can
be supplied from minerals in the soil, decompo- g proper irrigation system design, installation,
sition of soil organic matter, rain and irrigation calibration and maintenance
water, deposition of airborne soil particles, pesti- g accurate irrigation scheduling
cides, and fertilizers. Of these sources, the soil g sensible timing of irrigation in relation to
and fertilizers supply the majority of the nutri- chemigation needs and rainfall
ents. Fertilizers are used to make up the differ-
ence between the amount of nutrients available g determination of correct amounts of irriga-
from the soil and the total amount necessary to tion water to be applied
produce optimum (economic) yield. Once a soil g precise use of water for cold protection.
test determines available soil nutrient levels,
fertilization amounts can be determined. Proper irrigation management helps maxi-
mize yields while minimizing production costs
(fuel, equipment repair, fertilizer, pesticides). At
Nutrients and
the same time, energy and water are conserved,
Leatherleaf Fern Production pollution is reduced, and washoff and leaching
Even though leatherleaf fern can grow of nutrients and pesticides is minimized. Grow-
epiphytically (on other plants, such as trees) and ers who do not practice good irrigation manage-
rupestrally (on rocks), production of commer- ment may find it impossible to produce com-
cially acceptable fronds in economically viable mercially acceptable leatherleaf fern without
numbers requires the application of nutrients to violating ground water quality standards.
the low nutrient-containing soils in which it is
grown. Two of the primary macronutrients, N Irrigation System Design
and K, each constitute about 2 to 3% of the dry and Installation
weight of commercially produced leatherleaf
Essentially all commercial leatherleaf ferner-
fern fronds and must be supplied through fertil-
ies have permanent solid set sprinkler irrigation
ization, usually in about equal amounts. Deter-
systems (pipes and sprinklers set in regular pat-
mining how much N and K to apply involves
terns to irrigate the entire crop at one time).
knowing how much is available in the soil.
These systems are used because the crop com-
Phosphorus (P), the other primary macronu- pletely covers the area within the fernery (ex-
trient, is usually available in sufficient quantity cluding roadways) and must be protected, using
in the soils to supply most of the P needed for water, when freezing temperatures occur. It is
commercial production of leatherleaf fern. very important that these irrigation systems be
However, applying P in the winter may result in designed, installed and maintained to provide
a crop response. water uniformly over the crop production area.
Systems should have uniform pressures
Secondary macronutrients and micronutri-
throughout and sprinklers should have the ap-
ents are often deficient in Florida's sandy soils
propriate diameter and pattern of water applica-
and must be applied to prevent yield or quality
tion for the riser spacing used. Sprinklers
reductions when producing leatherleaf fern.
should rewet the foliage frequently (every 30
However, application of excessive and/or arbitrary
seconds or more often, i.e., two or more revolu-
amounts of these nutrients can cause toxicity to
tions per minute) to maximize the effectiveness
leatherleaf fern.
of water for cold protection. Design of irrigation
systems should be done by knowledgeable pro-
fessionals and the systems should be installed as

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 5

designed. After installation, calibration should
be done to assure proper functioning and unifor-
mity of coverage.

Irrigation System Calibration This method does not require a flow meter. In
Irrigation system calibration can be accom- addition, if enough containers are used and
plished in several ways depending on the pur- especially if they are placed in the fernery sys-
pose and precision needed. A simple way to tematically, the results can be used to determine
determine the water application rate of an irriga- the uniformity (or nonuniformity) of the water
tion system is to run the system equipped with a distribution pattern in addition to the water
calibrated, correctly functioning flow meter for a application rate. Uniform water distribution is
given amount of time. Then, knowing the num- extremely important during the production of leather-
ber of gallons of water applied and the size of leaf fern since water, fertilizers, and pesticides are all
the irrigated area, the water application rate (in typically applied using the irrigation systems.
inches per hour) can be calculated as: If sprinkler spacing, spacing pattern, sprin-
kler nozzle orifice size, and water pressure at the
nozzle are known, irrigation water application
rates can be approximated using tables and equa-
tions (see Reference 22). Water pressure at the
nozzle should be measured throughout the sys-
tem using a pitot tube and pressure gauge.
Alternatively, if the irrigation system is run These readings will give an indication of the
at a constant pressure and the flow meter indi- pressure uniformity throughout the system —
cates the flow rate in gallons per minute (gpm), an indication of the quality of the design and
then the water application rate (in inches per installation of the system. Sprinkler manufactur-
hour) can be calculated as: ers' literature can then be consulted to determine
the water flow rate based on the pressure and
orifice size. Nozzle orifice size can change with
time due to abrasion from water and debris in
the water. Therefore, rates taken from the man-
ufacturers' specifications may not accurately
Another way to calibrate an irrigation sys- reflect actual water application rates of older
tem is to place containers (such as coffee cans) nozzles unless the actual orifice size is mea-
randomly throughout the fernery and run the sured. A more direct method of determining
system for a known period of time. The contain- water discharge rates would be to collect all the
ers should be straight-sided, lipless, all the same water flowing from individual sprinklers operat-
size, and located where fern foliage will not ing at a given pressure for a given time. Flexible
interfere with the direct flow of water from the tubing can be used to divert the water from the
sprinklers into the containers. The containers sprinklers into containers on the ground. These
may need to be placed on supports so that the flow rates, in gallons per minute (gpm) per
tops of the containers are just above the fern sprinkler, can be averaged, and using the tables
canopy. These tests should be run when there is mentioned previously, water application rates
no wind and maximum uniformity is obtainable can be determined. If the sprinklers are spaced
— the same conditions that should prevail when in rectangular, square or triangular patterns, the
the irrigation system is normally used for pur- water application rate (in inches per hour) can
poses other than cold protection. Measure the be calculated as:
depth of the collected water in each container
and average those numbers. The water applica-
tion rate (in inches per hour) is calculated as:

6 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

 As soil water is removed due to evapo-
transpiration, the soil water potential is reduced
and water moves from the tube through the
ceramic tip and into the soil, creating a partial
vacuum inside the tensiometer. The vacuum
where gpm = gallons per minute gauge registers these changes, indicating the
S = sprinkler spacing along the laterals energy necessary to extract water from the soil.
and L = spacing between the laterals. As water is added to the soil from rainfall or
irrigation, soil water potential increases and
Irrigation Scheduling water moves from the soil back into the tensio-
meter, resulting in lower readings on the vac-
Proper irrigation system management re-
uum gauge. Because the water must penetrate
quires knowing when irrigation is needed.
the soil and move down through the soil profile
Leatherleaf fern should not be irrigated on a calendar-
and into the tensiometer, there is a lag period
based schedule. Fortunately, several alternative
before equilibration is complete. Therefore,
irrigation scheduling methods are available for
growers should experiment to determine at
use during leatherleaf fern production. These
what point the irrigation system can be shut off
methods use direct measurements of soil water
and still have the vacuum gauges eventually
potentials or indirect methods to estimate
indicate a value near zero.
changes in the soil water reservoir.
Proper placement of tensiometers is essential
Monitoring Soil Water Status since they indicate the soil water status only in
Tensiometers the area directly around the porous tip. They
should be installed in areas that are representa-
Tensiometers are the most commonly used
tive of fernery conditions in general, not unusu-
method to monitor soil water status in Florida's
ally dry or wet areas. In addition, they should
sandy soils. They are inexpensive and easy to
be placed in the middle of the fern root zone at
use. Tensiometers are sometimes referred to as
two or more sites per fernery. Using more than
“mechanical roots”. Each one is composed of a
one tensiometer makes it possible to detect a
water-filled tube with a porous ceramic tip at
malfunctioning one by comparing the readings
one end and a vacuum gauge at the other end
from all the tensiometers. Since leatherleaf fern
(Figure 3).
root zones in Florida's sandy soils are generally
very shallow (3 to 6 inches [8 to 15 centimeters]),
vertically oriented tensiometers are usually in-
stalled so that the ends of the 2 1/4 inch- [6
centimeter-] long ceramic tips are 4 to 6 inches
[10 to 15 centimeters] below the soil surface. If
the tip of a tensiometer extends below the root
zone (where available water removal does not
occur), inaccurate readings (for irrigation pur-
poses) will occur. In fact, the vacuum gauge
readings may rarely vary from zero.
Irrigation setpoints of around –18 and –12
centibars [–18 and –12 kilopascals] for the 4-inch
[10-centimeter] and 6-inch [15-centimeter] instal-
lation depths, respectively, have been used suc-
cessfully for leatherleaf fern growing on well-
drained sandy soils. Growers can adjust their
Figure 3. Tensiometers measure soil water status setpoints depending on soil type, depth of the
and are useful tools for scheduling irrigation.

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 7

root zone, and other cultural and management fernery soil, the amount of water to apply can be
factors. determined from it.
Some tensiometers are designed to be in-
stalled horizontally and can, therefore, be used
underground where they are protected from
mechanical damage during harvesting or freeze
damage (ice forming in the tube and breaking it)
during cold weather. Disadvantages of install-
ing tensiometers horizontally are the cost and
time involved in preventing the soil from caving
in (usually by installing a valve cover box or
similar device) and in removing the valve box
cover in order to read the vacuum gauge. As
with vertically installed tensiometers, care
should be taken so that the porous ceramic tip
ends up in firm contact with the soil and is in the
middle of the root zone.
Tensiometers will not provide accurate soil
water potential measurements if the soil is saline
and/or the irrigation water is high in salts, both
very rare conditions in commercial leatherleaf
fern production areas of Florida. Readings can
also be erroneous if the tip is not in good contact
with the soil, the vacuum gauge is inaccurate, Figure 4. Characteristic soil water capacity curve
there is air in the tube, or there is an air leak in for a fine sand soil in Florida.
the system. Tensiometers are accurate for use in
irrigation scheduling over a range of about 0.1 to
Additional Methods for Measuring Soil Water
0.7 bar (10 to 70 centibars) [0.01 to 0.07 mega-
Status
pascal (10 to 70 kilopascals)], a range suitable for
leatherleaf fern production. See Reference 17 for Resistance blocks, soil psychrometers, freez-
more information about installation, mainte- ing point depression apparatus and moisture
nance, and use of tensiometers. Finally, the probes are included here for completeness; how-
rainfall distribution inside of shadehouses is ever, these methods are not well-suited for use
uneven due to the sagging of the shade cloth with leatherleaf fern growing in well-drained
and channeling of rain from higher areas near sandy soils. Resistance blocks are made of fi-
supports to lower ones before the water passes berglass, gypsum or other porous materials that
through the shade cloth. This factor may at absorb water in proportion to the moisture con-
times have an effect, so tensiometers should be tent of the surrounding soil. The blocks contain
placed in areas under, but not directly under, electrodes that measure electrical resistance and
shade cloth supports where the amount of rain that resistance depends on the amount and sa-
reaching the soil is the least. linity of the water in the blocks. Like tensiom-
eters, resistance blocks only gauge soil moisture
Tensiometers indicate only when to initiate conditions in the area directly surrounding
irrigation and not the amount of water to apply. them. Resistance blocks are accurate only at soil
Growers can experiment with irrigation system water potentials outside the range needed to
run-times to determine the minimum run-time schedule irrigation for leatherleaf fern growing
necessary to bring the soil around the tensiom- in sandy soils. Likewise, soil psychrometers
eters back to near field capacity. If a moisture and freezing point depression apparatus are
characteristic curve (Figure 4) is available for the not useful in the soil moisture ranges necessary

8 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

for irrigation scheduling of leatherleaf fern. In Estimating Soil Water Withdrawals (evapotran-
addition, these latter two methods require spe- spiration)
cialized equipment. Knowing the rate at which water is removed
Neutron, time domain reflectometry and from the soil and the available water-holding
other moisture probes can indirectly measure capacity of the soil, irrigation can be scheduled
soil water status in mineral soils. These probes using the water budget method (see page 10).
measure changes in neutron scattering and di- There are several ways to estimate the rate that
electric constants of soil, both characteristics that water is depleted from the soil due to evapo-
are greatly affected by water content. However, transpiration.
these moisture probes are expensive, are less Evaporation pans can be used to estimate
convenient than tensiometers, require calibra- the amount of water that is used by the crop.
tion, and do not work well near the soil surface, The rate at which water evaporates from these
which is where the root system of leatherleaf open pans of water (Epan) is determined by the
fern occurs. same climatic factors that affect evapotranspira-
tion (ETcrop). Therefore, the rate of water loss
Soil Water Budget from evaporation pans is proportional to the rate
A soil water budget (balance) is an account- of crop water use when soil water is readily
ing procedure that tracks water inputs and with- available, as is the case in commercial leatherleaf
drawals from the soil to determine soil water fern production. The relationship between Epan
content changes with time. These inputs and and ETcrop is termed crop coefficient, is defined as
withdrawals are illustrated in Figure 5. When ETcrop/Epan, and is symbolized as Kcrop. Kcrop for
the soil moisture content drops to a predeter- leatherleaf fern can vary depending on season
mined level, irrigation water is applied to bring (see Table 1).
the soil moisture content back up to field capac-
ity (or a slightly lower moisture content to allow Table 1. Seasonal monthly crop coefficients
(Kcrop=ETcrop/Epan) for leatherleaf fern growing in
for rainfall storage).
shadehouses covered with polypropylene shade
fabric designed to provide 70% shade. Evapora-
tion pan water loss (Epan) was determined outside
the fernery in a field of mowed bahiagrass.
Winter Spring/Fall Summer
(Nov.-Feb.) (Mar., Apr., Oct.) (May-Sep.)
0.31 0.23 0.31

United States Weather Service Class A evap-

oration pans are 47 1/2 inches [121 centimeters]
inside diameter by 10 inches [25 centimeters]
inside depth cylindrical tanks made of galva-
nized steel, stainless steel, or monel (nickel-al-
loy) metals (Figure 6). These pans are placed on
level wooden pallets that raise them 6 inches [15
centimeters] off the ground. Pans are usually
placed in open areas such as a field covered with
mowed bahiagrass. Placement of pans inside
the fernery is not recommended since applica-
tions of fertilizers and pesticides could contami-
nate the water in the pan. This contamination
Figure 5. Fernery water balance components. could cause corrosion of the pan and be a poten-
tial health hazard. Regardless of the location of

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 9

the evaporation pan, it should be open to unim- Table 2. Seasonal monthly crop coefficients
peded light, rain and wind. The use of fencing (Kcrop=ETcrop/ETo) for leatherleaf fern growing in
and/or bird netting may be necessary to protect shadehouses covered with polypropylene shade
the water from being used by humans and/or fabric designed to provide 70% shade. ETo was
wildlife. The water level in the pan is measured determined using the Penman equation and
weather station data collected in a bahiagrass
periodically and this information is used along field outside the shadehouse.
with the Kcrop listed above (Table 1) to estimate
crop water use. Evaporation pans can be used to Winter Spring/Fall Summer
determine both when and how much to irrigate. (Nov.-Feb.) (Mar., Apr., Oct.) (May-Sep.)
Further information about setting up, maintain- 0.49 0.37 0.47
ing and using evaporation pans is given in Ref-
erence 18. Generalized evapotranspiration rates (Table
3) can be used to estimate water removal rates
from the soil by the leatherleaf fern if no better
method is available. These generalized rates, of
course, do not reflect localized or yearly varia-
tions in evapotranspiration (ETcrop). In addition,
these generalized values are currently based on
data for only two years. Regardless, these val-
ues should provide better irrigation scheduling
than using no method at all.

Table 3. Generalized seasonal daily crop water

use (evapotranspiration, ETcrop) for leatherleaf fern
(in inches [cm]) growing in shadehouses covered
with polypropylene shade fabric designed to pro-
vide 70% shade.
Figure 6. United States Weather Service Class A Winter Spring/Fall Summer
evaporation pans are used to make standardized (Nov.-Feb.) (Mar., Apr., Oct.) (May-Sep.)
measurements of evaporation.
0.03 [0.08] 0.05 [0.11] 0.08 [0.19]

Predictive evapotranspiration models util-

ize weather station data to calculate reference Calculating Soil Water Budgets
(potential) evapotranspiration (ETo). The ETo
values are then adjusted using crop coefficients The water budget for irrigation scheduling
(Kcrop), as was done earlier to convert Epan values (on a daily basis) is calculated as:
(see above), to estimate ETplant. The Penman-
Monteith equation (Reference 1) is thought to be
the most accurate model for estimating daily where ΔS = change in soil water storage
water use under Florida conditions, but requires R = rainfall
considerable amounts of micrometeorological
input data and is fairly complex. Seasonal Kcrop D = drainage
relating weather station based ETo (Penman) to RO = runoff
ETactual have been determined for leatherleaf fern
growing in shadehouses (Table 2). ET = evapotranspiration, and
I = irrigation
The soil water budget is started with the soil
reservoir full, that is at field capacity, as it would
be about 24 hours after a heavy rain or irriga-

10 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

tion. Daily rainfall is added to and measure- scheduling irrigation using the water budget
ments or estimates of evapotranspiration are method. As was done in the preceding example,
subtracted from this value until the soil water entries start after a rain or irrigation event has
has been reduced by the allowable depletion returned soil moisture to field capacity (day 0).
amount. Drainage + runoff is calculated as the Reductions (evaporation, transpiration) and
depth of rain in excess of the amount that could increases (rain, irrigation) in soil water are tabu-
be stored in the root zone following each rain lated periodically (daily or slightly less fre-
event. quently, depending on weather conditions) until
For example, consider (established) leather- the allowable water depletion limit (.0) is
leaf fern with a 6-inch [15-cm] root zone growing reached. Irrigation water is then applied to re-
in Astatula fine sand with an available water- place all, or nearly all, of the available water the
holding capacity in the upper 6 inches [15 cm], soil can hold. If the gauge used to monitor rain-
as determined by the University of Florida for fall amounts is placed outside the shadehouse, it
the Soil Conservation Service (now known as the should be located where there are no obstruc-
Natural Resources Conservation Service ), of tions that can interfere with the rainfall pattern.
0.07 inch of water per inch [0.07 cm of water per Since shade cloth disrupts the evenness of rain
cm] of soil. It is very important for growers to find distribution inside the fernery, rain gauges in-
out what the available water-holding capacity of their side shadehouses should be placed under, but
soils are since these values are the basis for irrigation not directly under, the shade cloth supports
scheduling. (Appendix A: Characteristics of where rain penetration is typically lowest. Loca-
Florida Soils Used for Leatherleaf Fern Produc- tions under supports (high points in the shade-
tion lists available water-holding capacity ranges house roof) may receive only one-half the pre-
for various soils by county. Private analytical cipitation of locations between supports where
laboratories can determine more precise site- the shade fabric sags (low points in the shade-
specific available water-holding capacity values.) house roof). The gauge should also be elevated
so that irrigation water does not enter the gauge.

Determining Water Application Amounts

The amount of irrigation water that should
be applied is generally the amount needed to
eliminate the soil water deficit (restore soil mois-
ture nearly to field capacity). Applying more
The grower decides to limit the allowable
water can lead to leaching of nutrients and pesti-
soil water depletion to one-half the total avail-
cides beyond the root zone of the plant. Irrigat-
able water — 0.21 inch [0.5 centimeter]. Assum-
ing too often can encourage shallow rooting,
ing it is winter so the average daily
which is also undesirable.
evapotranspiration rate is about 0.03 inch [0.08
centimeter] (Table 3) and rain does not occur, the Several methods of determining how much
number of days that can elapse before irrigation water is needed to return the soil to (or near)
is necessary is calculated as: field capacity have been suggested earlier in this
publication. Trial and error manipulation of
irrigation run-times to return tensiometer read-
ings to values close to zero have been suggested.
The reason for the trial and error approach is
Therefore, it would be about a week before the that, due to the time required for the water
soil available water reached the critical level and movement in the soil and into the tensiometer
irrigation was required. (as mentioned previously under Tensiometers,
Table 9 (page 26) is an example of a filled-in page 7), irrigating until the vacuum gauge regis-
soil water budget worksheet. Table 10 (page 27) ters zero can result in overirrigation. An advan-
is a blank worksheet form that can be used for tage of this trial and error method is that it auto-

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 11

matically adjusts for evaporative water losses A survey of leatherleaf fern growers (Refer-
during the irrigation process. ence 25) indicates that some growers use appli-
Calculation of the soil water budget does not cation amounts much greater than the one calcu-
correct for irrigation water losses due to evapo- lated above. Those growers can save energy
ration, wind drift and percolation of water be- (fuel) and money by reducing the amount of
low the crop root zone. Therefore, these factors water they apply to the amount that is actually
must be considered when determining the needed by the crop. Water passing below the
amount of water to apply. (Run-off of water root zone is generally unavailable to the crop in
during irrigation of leatherleaf fern is uncom- Florida's sandy soils, where upward movement
mon due to the combination of well-drained of water is extremely limited.
soils and relatively low irrigation water applica-
tion rates.) Sprinkler irrigation system water Additional Factors to Consider
application efficiencies for field-grown crops are When planning irrigation events, factors
typically 70% (30% loss) if the water is applied such as the likelihood of rain and the need to
during the day and 85% if the water is applied at fertigate and/or chemigate should be consid-
night. Irrigation application efficiencies in ered. These additional uses of the irrigation
leatherleaf ferneries, where low-angle sprinklers system should be integrated into the irrigation
are used and evaporation is greatly reduced scheduling process to optimize the use of irriga-
compared to outside, should be higher. In fact, tion water. Additionally, irrigation water
Epan values inside ferneries average about 25% of should be applied when it will have the least
those measured outside. potential either to be lost due to evaporation or
to extend the period of foliar wetting that can
The above notwithstanding, tests of irriga-
enhance spore germination and subsequent
tion systems in many leatherleaf ferneries have
disease development. Early morning applica-
shown that the distribution of water is not very
tions generally do not extend the period of foliar
uniform, with DUs (distribution uniformitities)
wetting since the foliage is already wet with
ranging from 23 to 90% and averaging 67%.
dew. This is also the preferred time to apply
Nonuniform water application is likely the ma-
fertilizer and pesticides since temperatures are
jor factor reducing application efficiencies dur-
usually at their daily low and this tends to mini-
ing irrigation of leatherleaf fern. This lack of
mize crop damage. In addition, insects like cat-
uniformity is a cause for concern since it affects
erpillars tend to do more active feeding during
water, as well as fertilizer and pesticide applica-
the cooler part of the day and are thus more
tion amounts. Knowing, or estimating, the wa-
exposed and vulnerable to contact pesticides
ter application efficiency of the irrigation sys-
applied at that time of day. Growers should be
tem, the amount of irrigation water required can
aware that the application of fertilizer and some
be calculated (in inches) as:
pesticides (for example, herbicides) at the same
time can increase the potential for crop damage.

Irrigation Water Quality

Using the allowable soil water depletion The majority of the irrigation water used for
calculated previously of 0.21 inch and an irriga- leatherleaf fern production comes from the
tion application efficiency of 80%, the irrigation Floridan aquifer and is of high quality (low sa-
requirement is calculated as: linity, low in toxic ions). However, high dis-
solved bicarbonates can occur in water from this
aquifer. In addition, a few ferneries are located
where there may be water salinity problems,
such as along the St. Johns River. Other growers
are using surface water sources to reduce the
need to use ground water, especially for cold

12 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

protection. Regardless of the source of water — rpm) have been shown to provide equivalent
ponds and lakes, surficial aquifers, or deep aqui- cold protection using about 50% less water than
fers — growers should have their water tested when using conventional sprinklers (Reference
periodically to determine if there are changes 23).
occurring and/or problems with this resource.
Soil testing should also be done regularly to Dual Irrigation Systems
monitor pH trends and to help determine fertil- Shadehouses equipped with two irrigation
ization requirements. systems, one to apply water to the shade cloth
and one to apply water to the crop, can be used
Salinity to decrease the amount of water needed to cold
The salt tolerance of leatherleaf fern is un- protect leatherleaf fern during freeze events and
known. Although leatherleaf fern grows on to reduce the amount of crop damage during ad-
beaches and sand dunes, high soluble salts or vective freezes. The over-the-shade cloth irriga-
salinity in beds reportedly can reduce productiv- tion system is run just long enough to wet the
ity by damaging the roots. Growers using water cloth sufficiently so that ice can form and seal
with electrical conductivity above 0.75 the openings. Icing of the shade cloth reduces
deciSiemens/meter [mmhos/centimeter] or total advective and radiational heat losses.
dissolved solids concentrations above 480 parts
per million [milligrams @ liter–1] may need to use Determining When to Start/Stop Irrigation
special management techniques (see Reference During mild radiation freezes in which tem-
10). peratures drop slowly over the course of the
night, growers can watch for the onset of frost
Bicarbonates formation on the crop and start irrigating when
Water containing high bicarbonate levels can frost first starts to develop. An additional tech-
cause soil pH levels to increase to unacceptable nique growers can employ is to monitor imma-
levels for leatherleaf fern production. The more ture fronds and start irrigating when the tender
this water is applied, the worse the problem; exposed fronds at the top of the crop canopy
therefore, over-irrigation should be avoided (see first begin to stiffen up, but before ice forms that
Calculating Soil Water Budgets, page 10; Deter- causes plant damage. Fronds located in the
mining Water Application Amounts, page 11). coldest parts of the fernery should be monitored.
Acids and acid-forming fertilizers can be used to (See Additional Factors to Consider on the next
compensate for this problem (see Reference 9). page for another water-saving technique to use
during mild, calm freeze events.)
Irrigation for Cold Protection During more severe freezes, irrigation water
Essentially all commercial irrigation of applications for cold protection should start
leatherleaf fern is done using overhead irrigation when wet bulb temperatures in the shadehouse
systems that use impact sprinklers because these or hammock reach 34EF [1EC] and stop when
systems can be used to cold protect this subtrop- wet bulb temperatures rise to that same temper-
ical crop during freezes. There are several meth- ature, or slightly higher if it is windy.
ods and techniques that can be used to minimize
the amount of water necessary for cold protect-
ing this crop. See Reference 24 for additional Additional Factors to Consider
cold protection information not covered below. During moderate to severe freezes, irrigation
water is usually applied continuously to the
Sprinklers crop; however, intermittent water application
Frost protection impact sprinklers with faster can successfully be used to cold protect leather-
rotation rates (2 to 3+ revolutions per minute leaf fern during mild radiation freezes when
[rpm]) than conventional impact sprinklers (1 ambient temperatures stay in the upper 20sEF

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 13

[above –3EC]. Careful monitoring of leaf tem- the root zone (leaching) and removal of the nutri-
peratures and/or leaf surfaces for unfrozen wa- ents in the harvested fern fronds. In addition,
ter can be used to determine when to apply ad- under certain conditions, nitrogen can be con-
ditional irrigation water. As long as there is a verted to gaseous forms that are lost to the atmo-
significant amount of water on the foliage in the sphere (denitrification and ammonia volatilization).
liquid state, additional water application is un- Knowledge of these processes can enhance a
necessary. As the water turns to ice, heat energy grower's ability to manage nutrients and reduce
is released. When the supply of liquid water on the risk of ground water pollution.
the foliage gets low due to ice formation, addi-
tional water is applied. This technique is most Nutrient Leaching
practical for growers with one fernery or only a Nutrient leaching can occur readily from the
few ferneries located near one another. soils used to produce leatherleaf fern. Nitrogen,
Windbreaks and shelterbelts, when used in in the negatively charged nitrate (anionic) form
conjunction with irrigation water, can be benefi- NO3–, is by far the most abundant soluble nutri-
cial in reducing cold damage during windy ent in soil water. As mentioned in the introduc-
(advective) freezes by reducing air movement. tion (page 3), soils are also negatively charged so
However, temperatures inside shadehouses NO3– moves freely with soil water. The United
(prior to being cold protected) are often colder States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
than temperatures outside shadehouses during has set a maximum contamination level (MCL)
radiation freezes. Most freeze events in Florida for NO3-N in drinking water of 10 parts per
are the radiation type in which lack of air mixing million [10 milligrams@ liter –1] and this standard
is the problem. Under these calm conditions, has been adopted in Florida as an enforceable
windbreaks and shelterbelts can make the tem- ground water quality standard. Therefore, one
perature inversions caused by the stagnant air of the management goals for this nutrient is to
movement worse. Therefore, windbreaks that keep its concentration in the aquifer below the
can be opened and closed are preferred so that MCL. Over-irrigating and the resultant need to
they can be left open as long as possible during over-apply N is a situation that all growers should
radiation freezes and closed prior to advective avoid.
freezes. Even positively charged nutrient ions (cat-
ions) can easily be leached from most of the
Nutrient Management sandy soils used for leatherleaf fern production
since these soils have low cation exchange ca-
Proper nutrient management requires the pacities (CECs of 1–5 meq/100 g of soil) because
integration of irrigation, liming, pest control, they contain relatively little clay or organic mat-
and fertilization practices. Correct irrigation ter. These soils can generally be improved, both
management is essential to being able to fertilize in nutrient- and water-holding capacities, by the
leatherleaf fern efficiently. Excessive or poorly addition of organic matter. However, the addi-
scheduled irrigation events waste fuel, leach tion of organic matter in quantities sufficient to
nutrients, and may increase the potential for significantly improve these sandy soils is not
disease development. Nutrient contributions always economically feasible. Regardless, fre-
from water, soil, and pesticides should be deter- quent applications of small amounts of nutrients can
mined to aid in planning fertilization programs. be most effective and efficient. This applies to an-
Amounts of nutrient losses and the causes for ions as well as cations. A labor-saving alterna-
those losses should also be considered. tive to applying small amounts of nutrients fre-
quently is to use long-term controlled-/slow-
Nutrient Losses release nutrient sources. Both strategies can
optimize nutrient availability and minimize
The major avenues for nutrient losses from
fertilizer leaching potentials.
leatherleaf ferneries are movement in water past

14 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

Nutrient Removal due to Harvesting denitrification. Ammonia volatilization, the
Nutrient removal due to harvesting must be release of ammonia (NH3) to the atmosphere,
considered when determining nutrient applica- can occur if NH4-N or urea is placed on the sur-
tion rates. Frond production and nutrient con- face of alkaline (high carbonate content) soils.
tent can be useful in predicting nutrients needed Avoiding the use of NH4- and urea-containing
to reach specific production levels. For example, fertilizers directly following the application of
a grower might have quite different yield expec- liming materials and irrigating NH4-N and urea
tations/goals for a hammock producing fern for in with about one-quarter inch of water after
the domestic market and a shadehouse produc- application will prevent this potential loss of
ing fern for export to Europe. The amount of nitrogen.
nutrients required in the latter case might be two Nutrient Sources and Availability
or three times greater than for the hammock Nutrients are present in soil and water; how-
because of the differences in frond size, N con- ever, most are not present in sufficient quantities
tent, and frond numbers (see Table 4). to supply all the requirements for commercial
production of leatherleaf fern. Regardless, the
Table 4. Examples of annual nutrient removal due to
harvesting of leatherleaf fern fronds.Z amounts available from these sources should be
considered when determining fertilizer applica-
Low range - frond fresh High range - frond fresh
weight of 0.4 oz [11 g], weight of 0.6 oz [17 g], tion rates.
8 cases/acre/week 12 cases/acre/week Soils
Frond nu- Nutrient Frond nutri- Nutrient Sampling
trient con- removal ent content removal
tent (dry wt (lb/acre/ (dry wt (lb/acre/ The first step in getting a useful soil test is to
basis) year) basis) year) collect a representative composite sample for the
Primary macronutrients (%) fernery that excludes unusual areas (such as
N 2.00% 52.0 2.8% 163.8 where burn piles were located). Ten to 15 uni-
P 0.2% 5.2 0.4% 23.4 form soil cores taken from the soil surface down
K 2.30% 59.8 3.4% 198.9 to the bottom of the effective root zone — about
Secondary macronutrients (%) 4 to 6 inches [10–15 centimeters] for leatherleaf
0.30% 7.8 0.70% 41.0
fern — are enough for ferneries up to 40 acres
Ca
[16 hectares] in size. Samples should be taken at
Mg 0.20% 5.2 0.40% 23.4
least twice a year so that trends can be detected
–1
Micronutrients (ppm [mg@ kg ]) and action taken before major problems occur.
B 25 0.07 75 0.44
Samples should be analyzed by a competent
Cu 10 0.03 30 0.18 soil testing laboratory as soon as possible after
Fe 100 0.26 400 2.34 they are taken. Since testing methodologies vary
Mn 40 0.10 150 0.88 from lab to lab, it is important to find a good lab
Zn 30 0.08 150 0.88 and use them routinely so that results from sam-
Z
Assuming frond water content of 75%.
pling to sampling can be easily compared.
pH
Gaseous Nitrogen Losses
Although leatherleaf fern is tolerant of a
Gaseous nitrogen losses can occur under wide range of soil pHs (from below 4 to above
certain conditions. Denitrification, the change 7), soil pH should usually be maintained in a
of nitrate to N gases (N2, N2O) by bacteria, usu- range between 5.5 and 6.5 because of the effects
ally occurs in poorly aerated soils. Denitrifica- soil pH has on the relative availability of nutri-
tion can occur very rapidly in warm, slightly ents. The pH scale is a logarithmic measure of
acidic soils that are low in oxygen (as when wa- the soil hydrogen ion (H+) concentration, mean-
terlogged due to heavy rains and/or the pres- ing that at a pH of 4, the H + concentration is 10
ence of clay hardpans). Avoiding over-irrigation times greater than at pH 5, and 100 times more
and installing drainage tile can help prevent acidic than at pH 6. Many fertilizers contain

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 15

nutrient sources that can lower soil pHs, while are an often-overlooked source of nutrients,
irrigation water high in carbonates can cause soil especially micronutrients, and should be consid-
pH levels to rise (see Bicarbonates, page 13). ered when planning fertilization programs. For
To combat soil pH changes and/or to restore example, the fungicide mancozeb is commonly
soil pH to desired levels, liming materials such used on leatherleaf fern and contains, by weight,
as calcite (calcitic limestone, CaCO3) or dolomite 16% manganese (Mn) and 2% zinc (Zn). If this
(CaCO3@ MgCO3) are used to raise pH and ele- fungicide were applied ten times per year at the
mental sulfur (S) is used to lower pH. On the rate of 2 pounds (lbs) per acre [2.2 kilo-
sandy soils with low organic matter content (1 to grams@ hectare–1] per application (app), then the
2%) where most leatherleaf fern is grown in amounts of Mn and Zn applied would be:
Florida, a ton [907 kilograms] of calcite or dolo-
mite per acre will raise the root zone pH by ap-
proximately one pH unit. About one-third as
much S (660 pounds [302 kilograms]) is needed
to lower soil pH by one unit. Long-term use of S-
containing nutrient sources can help lower This fungicide could therefore supply all the Mn
and/or maintain pHs. The physical size of the and part of the Zn needed by the crop under
particles of these pH-adjusting materials have an certain production regimes. Other pesticides
effect on the rate and duration of the changes also contain micronutrients.
that occur. The finer the material, the faster and
the more short-lived the change in pH; the Fertilizer Application
coarser the material, the slower the change, but Methods and Forms
the longer the duration. Since the finer materials
Regardless of application method, large amounts
react more rapidly, they are more prone to cause
of soluble fertilizers should never be applied at one
injury if applied in excessive amounts.
time since the application of excessive amounts of
Water fertilizer can lead to ground water contamination.
Most fertilizers are applied to commercial
Irrigation water may contain plant nutrients leatherleaf fern as liquids using the irrigation
and these nutrients should be factored into fertil- system (fertigation) because this can be an effi-
izer management programs. For example, lim- cient and labor-saving method of application.
ing programs should take bicarbonates' and Fertigation makes the application of small
carbonates' contributions from irrigation water amounts of fertilizer at frequent intervals eco-
into account. As mentioned in the Water Qual- nomically feasible. Efficient fertigation is de-
ity section (page 13), the liming potential of irri- pendent upon good uniformity of application by
gation water can cause soil pH problems in some the irrigation system. Although the application
cases. The nutrient content of recycled water of dry fertilizers is more labor intensive than
and reclaimed wastewater is usually higher than chemigation, dry fertilizers are still used on
that of water from deep wells and can save leatherleaf fern. The development of controlled-
growers money by reducing fertilizer needs. release fertilizers that need to be applied only
Pesticides once or twice a year changes the application cost
differential between liquid and dry fertilizers.
Many factors affect the nutrient application Dry fertilizers have an advantage whether fertil-
rates needed for commercial production of izing newly planted fern or established leather-
leatherleaf fern. As mentioned previously, the leaf fern beds because they can be placed where
nutrient content of the soil and irrigation water the fern is located; whereas, much of the fertil-
must be taken into consideration. Soil and water izer applied using fertigation ends up outside
test results apply to both potential nutrient defi- the root zone. Therefore, costly nutrients are not
ciencies and excesses, conditions which may applied (as they are using fertigation) to aisles
reduce growth and/or crop quality. Pesticides and roadways where the nutrients can only

16 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

nourish weed growth and increase the potential ers should be determined according to the dura-
for nutrient leaching. tion of nutrient release. The application
Research on other crops in Florida has frequency can then be used to determine how
shown no differences in plant response to simi- much fertilizer to apply at each application.
lar amounts of nutrients whether from liquid or Durations of nutrient release are often tempera-
dry sources. Since nutrient uptake from the soil ture sensitive and this should be taken into con-
solution is in the form of ions, liquid or dry fer- sideration. For example, some controlled-release
tilizer form would not be expected to matter fertilizers (CRFs) release nutrients faster under
unless liquid fertilizer were specifically applied Florida conditions and therefore must be applied
as a foliar application, in a form that could be in smaller amounts at shorter intervals than
taken directly into the crop, and on a crop whose would be appropriate in cooler climates. Re-
foliage was permeable to the fertilizer. The deci- search has shown that applications of, at least
sion to use liquid and/or dry fertilizer should be some, CRFs should be timed to avoid having
based on availability, economics, environmental large stores of nutrients still in the prills at the
concerns and other criteria. onset of hot weather. Application of 3- to 4-
month release CRFs in early spring or 8- to 9-
Fertilizer Application Timing month release materials in the fall should mini-
mize the amount of residual nutrients available
Liquid fertilizers should be applied on a during hot weather.
regular basis to actively growing leatherleaf
fern. Weekly applications are most common Whether using liquid or dry fertilizer, fertil-
since this allows relatively small amounts of izer application amounts can be reduced in the
fertilizer to be applied at one time. However, winter when temperatures, light levels, and
during rainy weather weekly fertilizer applica- growth rates are reduced. In fact, ammonia
tions may not be desirable for several reasons. burn of leatherleaf fern has been observed dur-
First, irrigation of soils at or near saturation ing the winter in ferneries applying excessive
wastes energy (diesel fuel) since the water is not amounts of nitrogen fertilizer. The reddish-
needed. Second, additional wetting of the crop brown damage to the foliage caused by the fer-
foliage can wash off protective pesticides and tilizer can be mistaken for a fungal disease.
increase the potential for disease development. Fertilizer Sources and Formulations
Third, adding water to already-wet soils can
The nutrients in the soil are generally not
lead to saturated water flow and increased
available in adequate quantities for commercial
leaching of nutrients and pesticides. Fourth,
leatherleaf fern production, so additional nutri-
fern quality (frond vase life) has been shown to
ents are supplied using fertilizer. There are
decrease with increasing growth rate and add-
numerous sources of the various nutrients need-
ing water and fertilizer during the summer rainy
ed by leatherleaf fern (Table 5 and References 2,
season may increase the problem of postharvest
27, 29.)
wilt. If wet soil conditions cause the postponement of
fertilizer applications, the amount of fertilizer that is
applied after the postponement should not be in-
creased since this could lead to excessive nitrogen
level and leaching. Research has shown that com-
mercially acceptable leatherleaf fern can be pro-
duced for at least one full year using infrequent
(monthly) applications of fertilizer at rates as
low as 102 pounds nitrogen (N)/acre/year [114
kilograms N/hectare per year], so missing a
fertilizer application every now and then should
have little or no effect on overall production.
The frequency of application of dry fertiliz-

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 17

 Table 5. Approximate nutrient content of various materials.

Percentage composition (see text and Abbreviations on page 23)

Material N P2O5 K2O Ca Mg S Na Other
ammonium nitrate (nitrate of ammonia) 33.5
(mono)ammonium phosphate (MAP) 11.5 47–62
(di)ammonium phosphate (DAP) 17 52
ammonium sulfate (sulfate of ammonia) 20.5 23
ammonium thiosulfate 19 43
borax (sodium tetraborate decahydrate) 8.9 11 B
calcium-magnesium carbonates 20 11
(dolomite)
calcium nitrate (nitrate of lime) 15.5 20
calcium sulfate (gypsum) 22 17
copper oxide 75–89 Cu
copper sulfate 13 24 Cu
iron sulfate (ferrous sulfate, copperas) 11 20 Fe
magnesium nitrate 7 7
magnesium sulfate 18 24
mancozeb fungicides 16 Mn, 2 Zn
manganese oxide 33–77 Mn
manganese sulfate 13 23 Mn
potassium chloride (muriate of potash) 60 44 Cl
potassium magnesium sulfate (sulfate of 25 10.8 22 0.7 1 Cl
potash-magnesia, SPM)
potassium nitrate (nitrate of potash) 13 44
(mono)potassium phosphate 52 35
potassium sulfate (sulfate of potash) 48–51 18 2 Cl
sodium molybdate 14 39 Mo
sodium nitrate (nitrate of soda) 16 27
sodium and potassium nitrates (nitrate of 15 14 13 0.1 B
soda-potash)
superphosphate, triple (concentrated) 46 14 2
Tecmangam® 16 28 Mn
urea 45
urea, sulfur-coated 35 20
urea-formaldehyde (urea-form) 38
zinc oxide 80 Zn
zinc sulfate 12 36 Zn

18 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

 Determining Fertilizer Table 6. Annual nutrient application rates for com-
Application Rates mercial production of establishedZ leatherleaf fern in
Florida.
The nutrient application rates listed in
Table 6 are guidelines for the amounts of nutri- Application rateY - lbs/acre/year
Nutrient [kg@ ha–1@ yr–1]
ents that should be applied using fertilizers
when these elements are not available from the N 100–350 [112–392]
soil (soil test value of Very Low, see Reference
P as P2O5 120–150 [134–168]
7) or other sources (see Nutrient Sources and
Availability, page 15). The lower values in K as K2O 100–350 [112–392]
each range are for reduced-intensity produc- Ca variesX
tion (new plantings, old ferneries) or normal
Mg 50–150 [56–168]
production where the nutrients can be applied
directly to the fern beds. Research has shown S 20–60 [22–67]
that the lowest suggested application rates provide B 0.5–1.5 [0.6–1.7]
the greatest potential for avoiding violations of
water quality standards. The values at the upper Cu 0.3–1.1 [0.3–1.2]
end of the range are for very high-yielding, Fe 1.2–6.0 [1.3–6.7]
intensively managed leatherleaf fern at peak Mn 1–4.5 [1–5.0]
production. Use of the higher rates can lead to
ground water contamination if the crop does Zn 0.7–4.5 [0.8–5]
not grow vigorously enough to utilize the Z
Lower nutrient application rates should be used for newly
additional nutrients. If elements are available planted leatherleaf fern. Initial fertilizer applications
(other than for pH adjustment prior to planting) should not
from sources other than fertilizer, those start until feeder roots start developing on the trans-
amounts should be subtracted from the values planted rhizomes.
listed in Table 6. Y
Use periodic tests to determine how much of each nutri-
ent is available from the soil and water and reduce fertil-
Once the nutrient application rate has been izer application amounts accordingly. Some pesticides
decided upon, the fertilizer application rate contain micronutrients and these contributions should
also be subtracted from the annual amounts applied
can be determined. It is necessary to know the using fertilizers. Nutrients should be applied in small
concentration of the nutrients in the fertilizer amounts or in controlled-/slow-release forms to minimize
leaching and other losses.
and the nutrient-release characteristics for each X
Using dolomite to maintain soil pHs between 5.5–6.5
source to be able to calculate fertilizer applica- should supply adequate Ca for leatherleaf fern. Required
tion rates. Included below are some sample Ca application rates depend, in part, on the acidifying
calculations for nitrogen, the most limiting effects of the nutrient sources used for fertilization.
element of current environmental concern.
Example 1. Management has determined fertilizer will be applied using the overhead
that an annual nitrogen (N) application rate of irrigation system. Calculation of the weekly
250 pounds N/acre/year [280 kilograms application (app) rate follows:
N/hectare per year] is needed to produce
twenty 500-frond cases of leatherleaf fern per
acre per week (520,000 fronds/acre/year
[1,285,000 fronds@ ha–1@ yr–1]). Soil and water
tests indicate that essentially no N is available
from those sources. Therefore, management
plans to apply, on an almost weekly basis, an
8–0–8 liquid fertilizer containing micronutri-
ents that weighs approximately 10.3
pounds/gallon [1.2 kilograms@ liter–1]. The

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 19

Of course, the grower should decrease this
The amount of CRF needed to treat each acre
amount when the fern is growing slowly or
of fernery per year is:
during the summer when fertilization might
increase fern growth rate at the cost of lower
frond quality.
Table 7 lists approximate weekly liquid
fertilizer application amounts required to
achieve target annual nitrogen application Therefore, in this example, using dry fertilizer
rates. (CRF) placed in the fern beds requires that
Table 7. Gallons [liters] of liquid fertilizer* to apply only 175 pounds [79 kilograms] of N be ap-
approximately weekly (50 applications per year) to plied per acre of fernery per year compared to
achieve target nitrogen (N) application rate. 250 pounds when the fertilizer is applied in a
Target N appli- Gallons [liters] of liquid fertilizer liquid form using overhead irrigation (Exam-
cation rate per acre per week ple 1).
(lbs/acre/year
[kg/ha per yr])
6% Nitrogen 8% Nitrogen Frond (Leaf) Tissue Analysis
100 [112] 3.3 [12.6] 2.5 [9.5] Analysis of the elemental composition of
150 [168] 5.0 [18.9] 3.8 [14.2] leatherleaf fern fronds can sometimes be used
200 [224] 6.7 [25.2] 5.0 [18.9] to help determine the effects of nutrient man-
8.3 [31.6] 6.2 [23.7]
agement programs and as an aid in diagnosing
250 [280]
problems. Although excessive nutrient appli-
300 [336] 10.0 [37.8] 7.5 [28.4]
cations can eventually lead to obvious symp-
350 [392] 11.7 [44.2] 8.8 [33.1] toms (e.g., frond brittleness associated with
*Assumes the fertilizer weighs 10 pounds per gallon excess N), some problems (or potential prob-
[1.2 kg@liter–1].
lems) can be detected using tissue analysis
Example 2. Management decides to use a before visual symptoms appear. Additionally,
1-year-duration controlled-release fertilizer nutrient deficiencies and imbalance can some-
(CRF) source because they think the labor and times be detected using tissue analysis. Table
fuel savings will offset the higher fertilizer cost 8 lists desirable ranges for mature leatherleaf
compared to using liquid fertilizer. In addi- fern frond content of eleven essential elements.
tion, the use of dry fertilizer will allow greater
control over irrigation and foliar wetting,
thereby providing more management opportu-
nities for control of disease and postharvest
wilt using cultural methods. The CRF contains
18% N and will be applied to the fern beds that
cover 70% of the fernery (the remaining 30% is
occupied by aisles and roadways). Previous
testing indicates that an application rate (to the
beds) of 250 pounds N/acre/year [280 kilo-
grams N/hectare per year] is adequate to meet
production goals for quality and yield. Calcu-
lation of the yearly CRF application rate per
treated (fern bed) acre follows:

20 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

 Table 8. Desirable leaf tissue content (on a dry weight Figure 7A shows the trends in the annual
basis) of ten elements found in mature leatherleaf fern nitrogen application rates at the two ferneries.
fronds. The monthly nitrogen-applied numbers show
Element Frond content
the running averages for the previous twelve
months of nitrogen fertilizer applications.
Primary nutrients (%)
Both growers were using liquid 8-0-8 fertilizer
N 2.0–3.0 that was applied through the irrigation sys-
P 0.22–0.40 tems on a more or less weekly basis. Annual
K 2.3–3.4 nitrogen application rates ranged from 225 to
Secondary nutrients (%) 252 and from 255 to 275 lb/acre for Ferneries X
and Y, respectively. During the six-month
Ca 0.3–0.7
period shown in the figure, Fernery Y's nitro-
Mg 0.2–0.4 gen application (on an annual basis) averaged
S 0.2–0.5 263 lb/acre [295 kg@ha–1] compared to 236
Micronutrients (ppm [mg@ kg ])–1
lb/acre [264 kg@ha–1] for Fernery X. Therefore,
B 25–75 the nitrogen application rate for fernery Y was
about 11% higher than for Fernery X.
Cu 10–30
Fe 110–400 Despite this fairly small difference in nitro-
Mn 40–150 gen application rates, the NO x-N concentra-
tions in the surficial aquifer were quite differ-
Zn 30–150
ent (Figure 7B). NOx-N concentrations at Fern-
ery X ranged from 6.9 to 9 ppm and averaged
7.8 ppm compared to a range of 13.4 to 16.8
Irrigation and Nutrient ppm and an average of 15.4 ppm for Fernery
Management
Y. NOx-N concentrations at Fernery Y were
consistently above the maximum contamina-
tion level set by EPA (10 ppm) and were about
It should be obvious that irrigation and twice as high as those at Fernery X. Fernery
nutrient management go hand-in hand and X’s NOx-N values were consistently in compli-
that both must be managed together. An ex- ance with EPA regulations.
ample of the possible interaction of these two
factors is illustrated in the comparison of two Figure 7C illustrates the date and amount
ferneries shown in Figure 7. Fernery X is situ- of water applied at each irrigation event. Wa-
ated on Tavares fine sand and the soil under ter was applied more often (39 events) and in
Fernery Y is Astatula fine sand. Both soils about 42% greater amounts (0.27 inch [0.7
have very low available water-holding capaci- cm]/event) in Fernery Y than in Fernery X (24
ties (0.02–0.05 in/in) and very rapid (20+ events averaging 0.2 inch [0.5 cm]/event).
in/hr) permeabilities. The average organic Therefore, the amount of time that the applied
matter content was somewhat higher (1.8%) at nitrogen remained in the root zone of this
Fernery X than at Fernery Y (1.4%). These soil shallow-rooted crop may have been reduced in
differences could have had some effect on Fernery Y. In addition, the irrigation manage-
nitrate/nitrite concentration (NOx-N) concen- ment practices may have been at least partially
trations in the surficial aquifer under the fern- responsible for differences in the root zone
eries but another factor that could be signifi- depths at the two ferneries. Average root
cant is differences in the management of the depths were only 5.8 inch [14.7 cm] at Fernery
irrigation systems at the two sites. The nitro- Y and were 29% deeper (7.5 inch [19 cm]) at
gen showing up in the ground water under the Fernery X.
ferneries represents nutrients wasted and, Tracer studies using potassium bromide
potentially, future water quality problems. confirmed the longer retention time of nutri-

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 21

ents in Fernery X as compared to Fernery Y. In
addition, soil water potentials measured using Summary
tensiometers show that the soil was allowed to
become much drier in Fernery X and, there- U Measure irrigation system water applica-
fore, to frequently have greater water-storing tion rate (see Irrigation System Calibration,
capacity than the soil in Fernery Y. During page 6).
rain events, nutrient leaching would thus be U Determine soil available water holding
less likely to occur at Fernery X. capacity (see Calculating Soil Water Bud-
Irrigation system management is a key gets on page 10 and Appendix A on page
factor when producing a crop like leatherleaf 28).
fern and growers should not overlook the U Schedule irrigations using soil moisture
effects that it can have on nitrogen leaching as measurements (see Monitoring Soil Water
well as crop health and production. Status, page 7) or by keeping a soil water
budget (see page 9). Do not irrigate on a
calendar-based schedule.
U Apply only enough water to replenish the
(available) water deficit in the root zone
(see Determining Water Application
Amounts, page 11, and Irrigation and Nu-
trient Management, page 21).
U Integrate fertigation and chemigation
with irrigation events to conserve water
and to minimize irrigation runtimes and
foliar wetting durations.
U Consider soil, water, and pesticide nutri-
ent contents (see pages 15 and 16) when
determining fertilizer programs.
U Apply nutrients according to the guide-
lines listed in Table 6 (see page 19) —
keeping concerns about water resource
contamination in mind when selecting
sources and rates.
U Base nutrient application intervals on
nutrient release rates from the various
fertilizer sources (see Fertilizer Application
Figure 7. Comparison of nitrogen application Timing, page 17).
rates, surficial aquifer nitrate-nitrite nitrogen
concentrations and irrigation management at two
leatherleaf ferneries .

22 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

 Abbreviations and Symbols Conversion Factors
app(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . application(s) TO CONVERT MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . boron acre 43,560 square feet
Ca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calcium acres 0.4071 hectares
CEC . . . . . . . . cation exchange capacity
acre-inch (of wa- 27,154 gallons
cm(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeter(s) ter)
Cl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chlorine acre-inch/hr 453 gpm
CNR . . . . . . crop nutrient requirement
Ca 1.39 CaO
Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cobalt
hectare 2.471 acres
CRF . . . . . . controlled-release fertilizer
Cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . copper K 1.2 K2O
EC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degrees Celsius kilograms 2.2046 pounds
EF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degrees Fahrenheit K2O 0.83 K
EPA Envrionmental Protection Agency P 2.29 P2O5
Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iron P2O5 0.44 P
ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot, feet pounds 0.4536 kilograms
g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gram(s) pounds/acre 1.12 kg@ ha–1
gal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gallon(s)
gpm . . . . . . . . . . . . . gallons per minute
ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hectares Glossary of Terms
hr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hour
K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . potassium Cut foliage - Crops and the industry that supply
kg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram harvested plant materials to be used as decora-
K2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . potassium oxide tive "greenery" in floral arrangements.
lb(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound(s) Fertigation - The use of an irrigation system to
MCL . . maximum contamination level apply fertilizer.
mg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milligram
Mg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . magnesium Florists' greens - Plant parts (other than flowers)
Mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . manganese used in florists’ arrangements.
Mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . molybdenum Frond - The leaf of a fern.
N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nitrogen
Na . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sodium Leaching - The movement (percolation) of liquid
(water) and included dissolved compounds
oz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce
through the soil past the crop root zone.
% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . percent
P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . phosphorus Leatherleaf fern - An herbaceous perennial
P2O5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . phosphoric acid tropical plant [Rumohra adiantiformis (G. Forst.)
ppm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . parts per million Ching] grown for use as a cut green by florists
rpm . . . . . . . . . . revolutions per minute and as a groundcover in landscapes.
S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sulfur Perennial - Continuing to live from year to year.
wt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . weight
yr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . year Permeability - Soil qualities that enable water to
Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zinc move through the soil. Permeability is measured
as the flow of water (inch(es)/hr [cm@hr–1])
through saturated soil.
Permeability terminology:
Description . . . . . . . . inch(es)/hr [cm hr–1]
Very slow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 [< 0.15]
Slow . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 to 0.2 [0.15 to 0.51]

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 23

 Moderately slow . . . . 0.2 to 0.6 [0.51–1.52] 5. Dickey, R. D. 1977. Nutritional Deficiencies of
Moderate . . . . . . . . . 0.6 to 2.0 [1.52 to 5.1] Woody Ornamental Plants Used in Florida
Moderately rapid . . 2.0 to 6.0 [5.1 to 15.2] Landscapes. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of Food and
Rapid . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 to 20 [15.2 to 50.8] Agr. Sci., Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 791.
Very rapid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >20 [>50.8] 6. Furman, A. L., H. O. White, O. E. Cruz, W.
Postharvest longevity (vase life) - The period of E. Russell, and B. P. Thomas. 1975. Soil
time over which fresh plant materials in florists’ Survey of Lake County, Florida. United States
arrangements maintain an attractive appearance. Dept. of Agr., Soil Cons. Serv.
7. Hanlon, E. A., G. Kidder, and B. L. McNeal.
Rumohra adiantiformis - The current scientific
1990. Soil, Container Media, and Water Testing
name for leatherleaf fern.
— Interpretations of IFAS Standardized Fertil-
Root - The organ that develops from the rhizome ization Recommendations. Univ. of Fla., Inst.
of leatherleaf fern and serves to absorb nutrients of Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv.
and water. Cir. 817.
Root zone - Volume of soil from which the roots 8. Henley, R. W., B. Tjia, and L. L. Loadholtz.
of a plant extract water and nutrients. 1980. Commercial Leatherleaf Fern Production
in Florida. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of Food and
Surficial aquifer - Water table near the surface Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv. Bul. 191.
of the land (shallow aquifer).
9. Kidder, G., and E. A. Hanlon, Jr. 1985. Neu-
Tensiometer - An instrument consisting of a tralizing excess bicarbonates from irrigation
porous ceramic tip, a fluid-filled plastic tube and water. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of Food and Agr.
a vacuum gauge used to measure the water po- Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv. Notes in Soil Science
tential (moisture content) of soils. No. 18.
Transpiration - Water loss through plants. 10. Kidder, G., and R. D. Rhue. 1983. Interpre-
Movement of water vapor from the interior of tation of IFAS water tests. Univ. of Fla., Inst.
the plant to the surrounding air. of Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv.
Notes in Soil Science No. 10.
Vase life (postharvest longevity) - The period of
time over which fresh plant materials in florists’ 11. Meister Publishing. 1994. Farm Chemical
arrangements maintain an attractive appearance. Handbook. Meister Publishing, Willoughby,
OH.
12. Pitts, D. J., and A. G. Smajstrla. 1989. Irriga-
References and Further Reading tion Systems for Crop Production in Florida:
Descriptions and Costs. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of
1. Allen, R. G., L. S. Pereira, D. Raes, M. Smith. Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv.
1998. Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Circ. 821.
computing crop water requirements. Irr. &
13. Readle, E. L., R. Baldwin, J. E. Leppo, A. O.
Drain. Paper 56. UN-FAO, Rome, Italy.
Jones, C. J. Heidt, B. F. Grissi, and D. T.
2. Anderson, D. L. 1991. Fertilizer and Liming Simonson. 1990. Soil Survey of Putnam
Sources Used in the U.S. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of County Area, Florida. United States Dept. of
Food and Agr. Sci., Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. S-383. Agr., Soil Cons. Serv.
3. Baldwin, R., C. L. Bush, R. B. Hinton, H. F. 14. Smajstrla, A. G., and R. H. Stamps. 1993.
Huckle, P. Nichols, F. C. Watts, and J. A. Simulating irrigation requirements of an
Wolfe. 1980. Soil Survey of Volusia County, ornamental fern. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc
Florida. United States Dept. of Agr., Soil 106:270–273.
Cons. Serv.
15. Smajstrla, A. G., B. J. Boman, G. A. Clark, D.
4. Chen, J., R. D. Caldwell, C. A. Robinson, and Z. Haman, D. J. Pitts, and F. S. Zazueta.
R. Steinkamp. 2000. Silicon: The estranged 1990. Field Evaluations of Irrigation Systems:
medium element. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of Food Solid Set or Portable Sprinkler Systems. Univ.
and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv. Bul. 341.

24 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

 of Fla., Inst. of Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. 25. Stamps, R. H., W. G. Boggess, and A. G.
Ext. Serv. Bul. 266. Smajstrla. 1991. Irrigation management
16. Smajstrla, A. G., B. J. Boman, G. A. Clark, D. practices in the leatherleaf fern industry.
Z. Haman, F. T. Izuno, and F. S. Zazueta. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 104:328–330.
1988. Basic Irrigation Scheduling in Florida. 26. Street, J. J., and G. Kidder. 1990. Soils and
Univ. of Fla., Inst. of Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Plant Nutrition. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of Food
Coop. Ext. Serv. Bul. 249. and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv., Soil Sci.
17. Smajstrla, A. G., D. S. Harrison, and F. X. Fact Sheet SL–8.
Duran. 1984. Tensiometers for Soil Moisture 27. Tisdale, S. L., and W. L. Nelson. 1975. Soil
Measurement and Irrigation Scheduling. Univ. Fertility and Fertilizers. MacMillan Publish-
of Fla., Inst. of Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. ing, New York, NY.
Ext. Serv. Cir. 487. 28. USDA/NASS. 2006. Floriculture Crops: 2005
18. Smajstrla, A. G., F. S. Zazueta, G. A. Clark, Summary. U.S. Dept. of Agr., Natl. Agr. Stat.
and D. J. Pitts. 1989. Irrigation Scheduling Serv. Sp Cr 6-1 (06).
with Evaporation Pans. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of 29. Volk, G. M., and J. B. Sartain. 1977. Fertiliz-
Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv. Bul. ers and Fertilization. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of
254. Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv., Bul.
19. Stamps, R. H. 1989. Icing shadehouses dur- 183–C.
ing radiation freezes. Univ. of Fla., Inst. of
Food and Agr. Sci., Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv. Cut
Foliage Grower 4(11/12):1–5.
20. Stamps, R. H. 1992. Commercial leatherleaf
fern culture in the United States of America.
pp. 243–249. In: Fern Horticulture: Past,
Present and Future Perspectives. The Proceed-
ings of the International Symposium on the
Cultivation and Propagation of Pterido-
phytes, London, England. Intercept Ltd.,
Andover, UK.
21. Stamps, R. H. 1994. Evapotranspiration and
nitrogen leaching during leatherleaf fern
production in shadehouses. Spec. Pub.
SJ 94-SP10. St. Johns River Water Manage.
Distr., Palatka, FL.
22. Stamps, R. H., and C. C. Boone. 1996. Deter-
mining Irrigation Water Application Rates.
Univ. of Fla., Inst. of Food and Agr. Sci.,
Central Fla. Res. and Ed. Cntr.-Apopka Cut
Fol. Res. Note RH–96–C.
23. Stamps, R. H., and D. D. Mathur. 1982.
Reduced water application rates and cold
protection of leatherleaf fern. Proc. Fla. State
Hort. Soc. 95:153–155.
24. Stamps, R. H., and D. Z. Haman. 1991. Cold
Protection of Leatherleaf Fern in Lake, Putnam,
and Volusia Counties, Florida. Spec. Pub.
SJ 91-SP15. St. Johns River Water Manage.
Distr., Palatka, FL.

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 25

Table 9. Example worksheet for scheduling irrigation of leatherleaf fern growing in a shadehouse using the soil water budget (balance) method. Allowable soil water
depletion, evaporation pan readings, calculated crop evapotranspiration, rain, and irrigation values are in inches.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Pan evaporation (Epan) Crop coefficient (Kcrop) Calculated crop evapotranspira-
Allowable soil or reference evapo- × – Tables 1 (p. 9) or 2 (p. = tion, ETcrop, (col. 3 × col. 4) or gener-
Date water depletionZ transpiration (ETo) 10) alized ETcrop – Table 3 (p. 10) Rain Irrigation

04/28/06 0.21Y 0.26X × 0.23W = 0.06

04/29/06 0.15 0.32 × 0.23 = 0.07

04/30/06 0.08 0.30 × 0.23 = 0.07

05/01/06 0.01 0.24 × 0.31 = 0.07 0.25V

05/02/06 0.14 0.27 × 0.31 = 0.08 0.03U

05/03/06 0.08 0.17 × 0.31 = 0.05 0.48U,T

05/04/06 0.21 0.19 × 0.31 = 0.06

05/05/06 0.15 0.32 × 0.31 = 0.10

05/06/06 0.05 0.22 × 0.31 = 0.07 0.09V,S

05/07/06 0.05 0.24 × 0.31 = 0.07

05/08/06 –0.02 0.28 × 0.31 = 0.09 0.29V

05/09/06 0.12 0.28 × 0.31 = 0.09

05/10/06 0.03 0.16 × 0.31 = 0.05 0.17U,T

05/11/06 0.14 0.18 × 0.31 = 0.06

Z
Rain or irrigation should have been sufficient to bring soil moisture levels up to field capacity.
Y
Starting value is ½ of total available water for an Astatula fine sand soil (see page 11). Values are those at the beginning of the day. When the designated amount of
available water is used up (value nears 0), water is applied to replenish the soil reservoir.
X
Daily changes in water level (corrected for rainfall) in an evaporation pan located in a mowed field outside the fernery.
W
Crop coefficients used are for spring (April) and summer (May), and are from Table 1.
V
Irrigation system efficiency is 80% (0.25 inch of irrigation water × 0.80 = 0.20 inch of soil water, 0.09 inch of irrigation water × 0.80 = 0.07 inch of soil water, 0.29 inch of
irrigation water × 0.8 = 0.23 inch of soil water). Water applied in the morning.
U
The shade fabric roof intercepts about 0.01 inch per rain event (0.17 inch of rainfall outside the shadehouse . 0.16 inch of rain inside).
T
Rainfall in excess of the soil water deficiency drains past the root zone and is not available to the leatherleaf fern.
S
Pesticide applied using the irrigation system (chemigation).
Table 10. Sample worksheet for scheduling irrigation using the soil water budget (balance) method.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Pan evaporation (Epan)Y Crop coefficient Calculated crop evapotranspiration
Allowable soil or reference evapotran- × (Kcrop) – Tables 1 (p. = (ETcrop) [col. 3 × col. 4] or generalized
Date water depletionZ spiration (ETo)X 9) or 2 (p. 10) ETcrop – Table 3 (p. 10) RainW,V IrrigationU

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =

× =
Z
Rain or irrigation should have been sufficient to bring soil moisture levels up to field capacity. Starting value is often 1/2 of total available water for the soil (see page 11).
Values entered in this column are those at the beginning of the day. When this available water is used up (value nears 0), water is applied to replenish this available
water in the soil reservoir.
Y
Daily changes in water level (corrected for rainfall) in an evaporation pan.
X
Reference evapotranspiration calculated using the Penman equation (see Predictive Evapotranspiration Models, page 10).
W
Shade fabric roofs of shadehouses intercept about 0.01 inch per rain event so reduce rain values determined outside the fernery by that amount (0.17 inch of rainfall
outside the shadehouse . 0.16 inch of rain inside).
V
Rainfall in excess of the soil water deficiency drains past the root zone and is not available to the leatherleaf fern.
U
Irrigation amounts should be adjusted for irrigation system efficiency. For example, if the system efficiency is 80% then the amount of water required to replenish the
available soil moisture should be divided by 0.8 to determine the amount of irrigation water to apply (0.21 inch of water needed to replenish soil reservoir ÷ 0.80 = 0.26
inch of irrigation water should be applied).
Appendix A: Characteristics of Florida Soils Used for Leatherleaf Fern Production

AWHCy
of 15-centime- AWHCY
ter root zone of 6-inch
Hydrologic (in centime- root zone Permeabilityx Production area
Soil type groupz ters) (in inches) (inch/hr [cm/hr]) (acres [ha])

Adamsville sand-PW A 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.6 6–20 [15–51] 62 [25]

Apopka sand-P A 0.5–0.8 0.18–0.3 6–20 [15–51] 1.8 [0.7]
Apopka fine sand-V D 0.5–0.8 0.18–0.3 6–20 [15–51] 271 [110]
Astatula fine sand-P A 0.5–1.3 0.2–0.5 20+ [51+] 35 [14]
Astatula fine sand-V A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 1,263 [511]
Basinger fine sand-V D 0.5–1.1 0.18–0.42 20+ [51+] 5.2 [2.1]
Candler sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 98 [40]
Candler fine sand-P A 0.5–1.1 0.2–0.44 6–20 [15–51] 115 [46]
Cassia sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 5.7 [2.3]
Cassia fine sand-P A 0.5–1.1 0.18–0.42 6–20 [15–51] 12 [5]
Cassia fine sand-V A 0.5–1.1 0.18–0.42 6–20 [15–51] 49 [20]
Centenary fine sand-P A 0.5–1.2 0.18–0.48 6–20 [15–51] 124 [50]
Daytona sand-V A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 175 [71]
Deland fine sand-V A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 671 [271]
Deland fine sand-P A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6+ [15+] 32 [13]
Electra fine sand-V D 0.5–1.2 0.18–0.48 6–20 [15–51] 17 [7]
Electra fine sand-P D 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.6 6–20 [15–51] 18 [7]
Eureka loamy fine A 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.6 6.3–20 [15–51] 2.1 [0.8]
Hobe fine sand-P D 0.5–1 0.18–0.39 20+ [51+] 26 [10]
Hontoon muck-V A 3–3.8 1.2–1.5 6–20 [15–51] 25 [10]
Hontoon muck-P A 4.6–7.6 1.8–3 6–20 [15–51] 4.7 [1.9]
Immokalee sand-L D 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6.3–20 [16–51] 9.3 [3.8]
Immokalee fine sand- C 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.6 6–20 [15–51] 34 [14]
Immokalee sand-V D 0.8–1.2 0.3–0.48 6–20 [15–51] 27 [11]
Kendrick sand-L D 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.6 6.3–20 [16–51] 12 [5]
Lake sand-L A 0.5–0.8 0.18–0.3 20+ [51+] 24 [10]
Lochloosa sand-P A 0.8–3 0.3–1.2 2–20 [5–51] 1.3 [0.5]
Lochloosa sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6.3–20 [16–51] 16 [6]
Millhopper sand-P D 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.6 6–20 [15–51] 109 [44]
Myakka fine sand-P C 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6–20 [15–51] 17 [7]
Myakka fine sand-V C 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6–20 [15–51] 68 [28]
Myakka sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6.3–20 [16–51] 4.7 [1.9]
Narcoossee fine sand- A 0.4–1.1 0.16–0.42 6–20 [15–51] 4.9 [2.0]
Ona fine sand-L B 1.5–2.3 0.6–0.9 6.3–20 [16–51] 1.6 [0.7]
Orlando fine sand-L A 1.5–2.3 0.6–0.9 6.3–20 [16–51] 32 [13]

28 Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern

 AWHCy
of 15-centime- AWHCY
ter root zone of 6-inch
Hydrologic (in centime- root zone Permeabilityx Production area
Soil type groupz ters) (in inches) (inch/hr [cm/hr]) (acres [ha])

Orsino fine sand-V A 0.3–1.2 0.12–0.48 20+ [51+] 140 [56]

Orsino sand-P A 0.3–1.2 0.12–0.48 20+ [51+] 24 [10]
Orsino sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 1.1 [0.5]
Palmetto fine sand-P B/D 0.8–1.6 0.3–0.6 6–20 [15–51] 7.2 [2.9]
Paola fine sand-V A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 193 [78]
Paola fine sand-P A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 1.1 [0.4]
Paola sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 75 [31]
Placid fine sand-P A 2.3–3 0.9–1.2 6–20 [15–51] 1.6 [0.6]
Placid sand-L A 1.5–2.3 0.6–0.9 6.3–20 [16–51] 3.2 [1.3]
Placid fine sand-V A 2.3–3 0.9–1.2 6–20 [15–51] 7.1 [2.9]
Pomello sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 17 [7]
Pomona fine sand-V D 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.6 6–20 [15–51] 14 [6]
Pomona fine sand-P D 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.6 6–20+ [15–51+] 8.2 [3.1]
Pompano sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6.3–20 [16–51] 3.5 [1.4]
Pompano fine sand-P A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6–20 [15–51] 3.5 [1.4]
Riviera sand-P D 0.8–1.2 0.3–0.48 6–20 [15–51] 1.8 [0.7]
Samsula muck-P B 3–3.8 1.2–1.5 6–20 [15–51] 1.5 [0.6]
Samsula muck-V B 3–3.8 1.2–1.5 6–20 [15–51] 7.4 [3.0]
Satellite sand-V A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 12 [5]
Smyrna fine sand-V B 0.5–1.1 0.18–0.42 6–20 [15–51] 3.3 [1.3]
Sparr sand-P C 1.2–1.8 0.48–0.72 6–20 [15–51] 12 [5]
Sparr sand-L C <0.8 <0.3 6–20 [15–51] 5.2 [2.1]
St. Johns fine sand-V B 1.5–2.3 0.6–0.9 6–20 [15–51] 6.1 [2.5]
St. Lucie sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 22 [9]
St. Lucie fine sand-V A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 12 [5]
Tavares sand-L A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 35 [14]
Tavares sand-P A 0.7–1.4 0.27–0.55 6+ [15+] 129 [52]
Tavares fine sand-V A 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 20+ [51+] 1285 [520]
Tomoka muck-V A 4.6–7.6 1.8–3 6–20 [15–51] 1.2 [0.5]
Wauchula sand-L D 0.3–0.8 0.12–0.3 6.3–20 [16–51] 22 [9]
Zolfo fine sand-P A 1.5–2.3 0.6–0.9 6–20 [15–51] 39 [16]
Z
Groups relate to soil runoff-producing characteristics; group A soils have low runoff potentials, group D soils have high runoff
potentials.
Y
Available Water Holding Capacity, the amount of water held in the soil that is available for use by plants (from county soil surveys). For
root zone depths less than 6 inches [15 centimeters], decrease amounts proportionately. For root zone depths greater than 6
inches, see county soil surveys. Site specific AWHC values should be determined whenever possible — contact local Natural
Resources Conservation Service personnel for further information.
X
Permeablility ratings are for the root zone (from county soil surveys).
W
L = Lake County, P = Putnam County, V = Volusia County

Irrigation and Nutrient Management Practices for Leatherleaf Fern 29

 COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA, INSTITUTE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL
SCIENCES, Larry Arrington, Dean, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture, publishes this information
to further the purpose of the May 8 and June 30, 1914 Acts of Congress; and is authorized to provide research, educational
information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race, color, age, sex,
handicap or national origin. The information in this publication is available in alternate formats. Single copies of extension
publications (excluding 4-H and youth publications) are available free to Florida residents from county extension offices.
Information on bulk rates, copies for out-of-state purchasers, and alternate formats is available from IFAS Communication
Services, University of Florida, PO Box 110810, Gainesville, FL 32611–0810. This information was initially published
February 1995 as Bulletin 300, Florida Cooperative Extension Service. Revised July 2006.