Python

Python History
Python was invented by Guido van Rossum in 1991 at CWI in Netherland. The idea of Python
programming language has taken from the ABC programming language or we can say that
ABC is a predecessor of Python language.

There is also a fact behind the choosing name Python. Guido van Rossum was a fan of the
popular BBC comedy show of that time, "Monty Python's Flying Circus". So he decided to
pick the name Python for his newly created programming language.

Why we learn python?

Python provides many useful features to the programmer. These features make it most popular
and widely used language. We have listed below few-essential feature of Python.

o Interpreted Language
o Object-Oriented Language
o Open Source Language
o Extensible
o Learn Standard Library
o GUI Programming Support
o Integrated
o Embeddable
o Dynamic Memory Allocation
o Wide Range of Libraries and Frameworks

Characteristics of python
Following are important characteristics of Python Programming −
 It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.
 It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building
large applications.
 It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.
 It supports automatic garbage collection.
 It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.
Applications of Python
As mentioned before, Python is one of the most widely used language over the web. I'm going
to list few of them here:
 Easy-to-learn − Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined
syntax. This allows the student to pick up the language quickly.
 Easy-to-read − Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.
 Easy-to-maintain − Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.
 A broad standard library − Python's bulk of the library is very portable and cross-
platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.
 Interactive Mode − Python has support for an interactive mode which allows
interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.
 Portable − Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same
interface on all platforms.
 Extendable − You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These modules
enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more efficient.
 Databases − Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.
 GUI Programming − Python supports GUI applications that can be created and ported
to many system calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows MFC,
Macintosh, and the X Window system of Unix.
 Scalable − Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than shell
scripting.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the English
language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other programming
languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as the scope of
loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets
for this purpose.

Installing Python
Python distribution is available for a wide variety of platforms. You need to download only
the binary code applicable for your platform and install Python.
If the binary code for your platform is not available, you need a C compiler to compile the
source code manually. Compiling the source code offers more flexibility in terms of choice of
features that you require in your installation.
Windows Installation
Here are the steps to install Python on Windows machine.
 Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.
 Follow the link for the Windows installer python-XYZ.msi file where XYZ is the
version you need to install.
 To use this installer python-XYZ.msi, the Windows system must support Microsoft
Installer 2.0. Save the installer file to your local machine and then run it to find out if
your machine supports MSI.
 Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is really easy
to use. Just accept the default settings, wait until the install is finished, and you are
done.

Top Python Frameworks for Gaming

There are many popular games available in the gaming world which was developed using the
Python frameworks and its libraries, for example, Battlefield 2, Pirates of the Caribbean and
many more. Most of the developers use python language over other programming languages
because of its functionalities and add-ons. With the progress in gaming development industries,
Python programming is an exceptional choice of the developers for rapid prototyping of video
games.

we will discuss the top 10 frameworks of Python which used for game development:

o Pygame
o PyKyra
o Pyglet
o PyOpenGL
o Kivy
o Panda3D
o Python - Ogre
o Ren'Py
o Cocos2d
o Soya3D

Use print statement with parenthesis as in print ("Hello, Python!")

output:
Hello, Python!
Creating a Comment

Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example
#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")

Variables

Variables are containers for storing data values.

Python - Variable Names

Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-
9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)

Example

Legal variable names:

myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"

Creating Variables

Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example

x=5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)
Get the Type

You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.

Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))

Single or Double Quotes?

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:

Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'

Many Values to Multiple Variables

Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Output Variables

The Python print statement is often used to output variables.

To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the + character:

Example
x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)

You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:

Example
x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z= x+y
print(z)

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x=5
y = 10
print(x + y)

If you try to combine a string and a number, Python will give you an error:

Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

Example
print(10 + 5)

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common mathematical
operations:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
 not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Operator Description Example
in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Operator Description Example
in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Operator Description Example
in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Operator Description Example
in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Operator Description Example
in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
Python Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Operator Description Example
in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Operator Description Example

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Operator Description Example

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if they are
actually the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object
Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is not
present in the object

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits
are 1
| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two
bits is 1
^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of
two bits is 1
~ NOT Inverts all the bits
<< Zero fill left shift Shift left by pushing zeros in
from the right and let the
leftmost bits fall off
>> Signed right shift Shift right by pushing copies of
the leftmost bit in from the
left, and let the rightmost bits
fall off
Python Data Types

Strings

Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an equal sign and
the string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

Multiline Strings

You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example

You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Python Numbers

There are three numeric types in Python:

 int
 float
 complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int

Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of unlimited length.

Example

Integers:

x=1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float

Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or more
decimals.

Example

Floats:

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Complex

Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example

Complex:

x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Python Tuples

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

Tuple

Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.

Tuples are written with round brackets.

Example

Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)
Tuple Items

Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.

Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered

When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that
order will not change.

Unchangeable

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items after the tuple
has been created.

Allow Duplicates

Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:

Example

Tuples allow duplicate values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")
print(thistuple)
Python Lists

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List

Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

Example

Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)
List Items

List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered

When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that
order will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.

Changeable

The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after it
has been created.

Allow Duplicates

Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example

Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)
Python Dictionaries

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

Dictionary

Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow duplicates.

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.

Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:

Example

Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Items

Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow duplicates.

Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by using the key
name.

Example

Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])
Python Lists

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List

Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

Example

Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)
List Items

List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered

When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that
order will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.

Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of the
items will not change.

Changeable

The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after it
has been created.

Allow Duplicates

Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example

Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)
Python Sets

myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

Set

Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.

* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

Example

Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)
Set Items

Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered

Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.

Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot be referred to
by index or key.

Unchangeable

Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the set has been
created.

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items and add new
items.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.

Example

Duplicate values will be ignored:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)
Python If ... Else
Python Conditions and If statements

Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Equals: a == b
  Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements" and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

Example

If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if statement to
test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that 200 is greater than 33,
and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation

Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define scope in the
code. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example

If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error
Elif

The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true, then try
this condition".

Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but the elif condition is true,
so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else

The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions.

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also the elif condition is
not true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen that "a is greater than b".

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")
And

The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:

Example

Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")
Or

The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:

Example

Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")
Nested If

You can have if statements inside if statements, this is called nested if statements.

Example
x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")
The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have an if statement with no
content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example
a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass
Python While Loops
Python Loops

Python has two primitive loop commands:

 while loops
 for loops
The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is true.

Example

Print i as long as i is less than 6:

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need to define an
indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is true:

Example

Exit the loop when i is 3:

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1
The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue with the next:

Example

Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:

i=0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)
The else Statement

With the else statement we can run a block of code once when the condition no longer is true:
Example

Print a message once the condition is false:

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")
Python For Loops
Python For Loops

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a dictionary, a set,
or a string).

This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works more like an
iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a list, tuple, set
etc.

Example

Print each fruit in a fruit list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)

The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.

Looping Through a String

Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:

Example

Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)
The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the items:
Example

Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break
Example

Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the print:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)
The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and continue with
the next:

Example

Do not print banana:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)
The range() Function
To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use the range() function,

The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by default, and
increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.

Example

Using the range() function:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to specify the
starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means values from 2 to 6 (but not
including 6):

Example

Using the start parameter:

for x in range(2, 6):

print(x)

The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is possible to

specify the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2, 30, 3):

Example

Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):

for x in range(2, 30, 3):

print(x)
Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when the loop is
finished:

Example

Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
Example

Break the loop when x is 3, and see what happens with the else block:

for x in range(6):
if x == 3: break
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
Nested Loops

A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":
Example

Print each adjective for every fruit:

adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)
The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no content, put in
the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example
for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass
Python Functions

A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function

In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")
Calling a Function

To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()
Arguments
Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can add as
many arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the function is
called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function to print the full name:

Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus"
Number of Arguments

By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments. Meaning that if
your function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function with 2 arguments, not more,
and not less.

Example

This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")
If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:
Example

This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil")
Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.

If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:

Example
def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")
Passing a List as an Argument

You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list, dictionary etc.),
and it will be treated as the same data type inside the function.

E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches the function:

Example
def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

my_function(fruits)
Return Values

To let a function return a value, use the return statement:

Example
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))
The pass Statement

function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a function definition
with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example
def myfunction():
pass
Python Classes and Objects

Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class

To create a class, use the keyword class:

Example

Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

class MyClass:
x=5
Create Object

Now we can use the class named MyClass to create objects:

Example

Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:

p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)
The __init__() Function

The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are not really useful in
real life applications.

To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in __init__() function.

All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when the class is
being initiated.

Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other operations that are
necessary to do when the object is being created:

Example

Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for name and age:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
 self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1.name)
print(p1.age)
Object Methods

Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that belong to the object.

Let us create a method in the Person class:

Example

Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()
The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is used to access
variables that belongs to the class.

It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it has to be the first
parameter of any function in the class:

Example

Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:

class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
mysillyobject.name = name
mysillyobject.age = age

def myfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + abc.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()
Python Inheritance
Python Inheritance

Inheritance allows us to define a class that inherits all the methods and properties from
another class.

Parent class is the class being inherited from, also called base class.

Child class is the class that inherits from another class, also called derived class.

Create a Parent Class

Any class can be a parent class, so the syntax is the same as creating any other class:

Example

Create a class named Person, with firstname and lastname properties, and
a printname method:

class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)
#Use the Person class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Person("John", "Doe")
x.printname()
Create a Child Class

To create a class that inherits the functionality from another class, send the parent class as a
parameter when creating the child class:

Example

Create a class named Student, which will inherit the properties and methods from
the Person class:

class Student(Person):
pass

Now the Student class has the same properties and methods as the Person class.
Example

Use the Student class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
x.printname()

Python Modules
What is a Module?

Consider a module to be the same as a code library.

A file containing a set of functions you want to include in your application.

Create a Module

To create a module just save the code you want in a file with the file extension .py:

Example

Save this code in a file named mymodule.py

def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)
Use a Module

Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:

Example

Import the module named mymodule, and call the greeting function:

import mymodule

mymodule.greeting("Jonathan")
Variables in Module

The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of all types
(arrays, dictionaries, objects etc):

Example

Save this code in the file mymodule.py

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
 "country": "Norway"
}
Example

Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:

import mymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)
Naming a Module

You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file extension .py

Re-naming a Module

You can create an alias when you import a module, by using the as keyword:

Example

Create an alias for mymodule called mx:

import mymodule as mx

a = mx.person1["age"]
print(a)
Built-in Modules

There are several built-in modules in Python, which you can import whenever you like.

Example

Import and use the platform module:

import platform

x = platform.system()
print(x)
Python File Open

File handling is an important part of any web application.

Python has several functions for creating, reading, updating, and deleting files.
File Handling

The key function for working with files in Python is the open() function.

The open() function takes two parameters; filename, and mode.

There are four different methods (modes) for opening a file:

"r" - Read - Default value. Opens a file for reading, error if the file does not exist

"a" - Append - Opens a file for appending, creates the file if it does not exist

"w" - Write - Opens a file for writing, creates the file if it does not exist

"x" - Create - Creates the specified file, returns an error if the file exists

In addition you can specify if the file should be handled as binary or text mode

"t" - Text - Default value. Text mode

"b" - Binary - Binary mode (e.g. images)

Syntax

To open a file for reading it is enough to specify the name of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt")

The code above is the same as:

f = open("demofile.txt", "rt")
Because "r" for read, and "t" for text are the default values, you do not need to specify them.
Read Only Parts of the File

By default the read() method returns the whole text, but you can also specify how many
characters you want to return:

Example

Return the 5 first characters of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read(5))
Read Lines

You can return one line by using the readline() method:

Example

Read one line of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())

By calling readline() two times, you can read the two first lines:

Example

Read two lines of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())
print(f.readline())

By looping through the lines of the file, you can read the whole file, line by line:

Example

Loop through the file line by line:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
for x in f:
print(x)
Close Files

It is a good practice to always close the file when you are done with it.

Example

Close the file when you are finish with it:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())
f.close()
Python File Write
Write to an Existing File

To write to an existing file, you must add a parameter to the open() function:

"a" - Append - will append to the end of the file

"w" - Write - will overwrite any existing content

Example

Open the file "demofile2.txt" and append content to the file:

f = open("demofile2.txt", "a")
f.write("Now the file has more content!")
f.close()
#open and read the file after the appending:
f = open("demofile2.txt", "r")
print(f.read())
Example

Open the file "demofile3.txt" and overwrite the content:

f = open("demofile3.txt", "w")
f.write("Woops! I have deleted the content!")
f.close()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("demofile3.txt", "r")
print(f.read()
Create a New File

To create a new file in Python, use the open() method, with one of the following parameters:

"x" - Create - will create a file, returns an error if the file exist

"a" - Append - will create a file if the specified file does not exist

"w" - Write - will create a file if the specified file does not exist

Example

Create a file called "myfile.txt":

f = open("myfile.txt", "x")

Result: a new empty file is created!

Example

Create a new file if it does not exist:

f = open("myfile.txt", "w")
Python Delete File
Delete a File
To delete a file, you must import the OS module, and run its os.remove() function:

Example

Remove the file "demofile.txt":

import os
os.remove("demofile.txt")