Proceedings of the Institution of

Civil Engineers
Engineering Sustainability 158
September 2005 Issue ES3
Pages 119–125

Paper 14143
Received 10/03/2005
Accepted 14/06/2005

Keywords: Christopher Boyko Rachel Cooper Caroline Davey

design methods & aids/reviews/ Research Fellow, VivaCity2020 Director, The Adelphi Research Head of Design and Innovation
town & city planning Project, School of Art and Design, Institute for Creative Arts and Research Group, University of
University of Salford, UK Sciences, University of Salford, UK Salford, UK

Sustainability and the urban design process

C. T. Boyko PhD, R. Cooper PhD and C. Davey PhD

The urban design process must be transformed and embedded. VivaCity2020 is an Engineering and Physical
improved if various stakeholders wish to create sustainable Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)-funded research project
urban environments. Although the UK Government and that aims to analyse urban planning, design and consultation
other influential bodies have written many reports processes to identify how and when key decisions related to
recently about the intimate relationship between urban urban sustainability are made. Case studies in three cities in
design and sustainability, much more needs to be done to the UK—London, Manchester and Sheffield—will form the basis
demonstrate how, when and where sustainability is for an understanding of the urban design decision-making
embedded in the urban design process. There is also a process and its relation to sustainability. The next section
need to understand who the decision makers are within gives a description of urban design and the urban design
this process and what influences their decisions. A clear process as synthesised from the relevant literature.
picture of how the urban design decision-making process
works from start to finish, and how sustainability is
embedded within this process, can help to achieve the 2. WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT URBAN DESIGN
goals and objectives of urban sustainability in the 24-hour AND THE URBAN DESIGN PROCESS?
city. This paper begins by defining urban design and 2.1. Defining urban design
describing the urban design process, highlighting the
Because of the multidimensional nature of urban design, the
major stages and the general tasks involved at each stage.
concept is open to much interpretation. Different groups of
Sustainability and urban sustainable development are
people—professionals, educators, researchers, the private sector,
briefly discussed next. The final section indicates, through
the lay public—think about urban design in their own terms,
case study research comprising the VivaCity2020 project,
bringing their own experiences to the concept of urban design.
where sustainability may be embedded within the urban
No matter how varied the definitions are, there is some consensus
design process.
about some of the basic components of urban design.

1. INTRODUCTION Urban design may be viewed as a multifaceted approach and

Increasingly, urban designers, planners, developers, financiers response to urban change and development.7,8 Principles,
and other stakeholders in the UK are expected to address guidelines and considerations are constantly being formulated and
sustainability issues in building and urban design projects. To evolve in relation to social, functional, aesthetic and emotional
achieve the aims of creating sustainable urban environments, needs. Emphasis is placed on our use, perception and experiences
however, urban design must transform and improve the processes with places over time.8 With this knowledge, it is possible to
by which it normally operates. Too often, activities are attempt to define urban design as the art and process of designing,
undertaken with inadequate involvement of relevant creating, making and managing spaces and places for people.8,9
stakeholders, discussion of sustainability issues are muted in
favour of short-term gain and decision makers are not held From this definition, two things become apparent. First, urban
accountable for their choices. design is creative and unique to each situation in which it is
implemented. That is, it cannot be employed as part of a blanket
In order to help combat these problems, the national government policy at a national level to be used in all places. Rather, urban
has written reports in recent years that espouse the benefits of design must be fostered at a more local level, through local
involving the community, talking about sustainable authorities, the community and local businesses, where people
communities and keeping processes transparent.1–6 More have more experience with the specific urban design issues that
needs to be done, however, to demonstrate how and where need to be addressed.9 Commensurate with recent government
sustainability is embedded within urban design and how reports, involving local stakeholders in urban design projects is
decisions being made and the influences on those decisions key to creating places in which people want to live, work and
impact the creation of sustainable urban environments. Through recreate.1–6,10 Urban design is thus a fundamental part of
the VivaCity2020 project, knowledge will be disseminated to creating sustainable communities that are lively places with
stakeholders of urban design projects that demonstrates a distinctive character, safe, accessible, pleasant to use, human in
well-defined urban design process in which sustainability is scale and that are inspirational.9

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 The second thing that is apparent from the definition of urban analyses, a risk assessment, and cost and time planning.31 These
design is that it is a process. This process is complex, involving evaluations are principally based on quantitative information
various stakeholders, tasks, issues and feedback loops that form gathered from objective sources. What distinguishes some of
and influence urban design projects over time (see section 2.2 the processes, particularly the more recent urban design and
for more information). Sustainability is also part of the planning process, however, is the incorporation of more
urban design process, firmly and intimately embedded within subjective information—including discussion of sustainability—
design.3,5,6 It is therefore fundamental that the urban design into the different phases of the process. Integrating this type of
process is understood at a higher conceptual level because then information, such as interviewing community members to
the basic ‘rules’ will be known in order to discuss how and understand the local issues in a neighbourhood, may help to
where the urban design process is influenced by sustainability. give a more complete picture of the context than if
Moreover, it is possible to begin to comprehend how the quantitative and rational decision-making alone were used.
particulars of various situations shape and are shaped by urban
design and sustainability.11 The local context, which involves the The amalgamated urban design process involves four stages
community and local businesses, must be understood. There must
also be an understanding of how that context influences the (a) creating teams, appraising the situation and forming goals
relationships between stakeholders, including dealing with (b) designing and developing
aspects of conflict, (dis)trust, and (mis)understanding.12 With this (c) evaluating, selecting and creating a plan
(d) implementing, monitoring and following up.
knowledge, existing urban design processes can be improved,
which will help ultimately to improve a wide spectrum of
urban design projects. In between each stage are transition stages that may help
stakeholders to redefine the goals of previous stages and move
forward to subsequent stages
2.2. The urban design process
(a) continuing to understand the context
To understand how urban design ‘works’, there must be an (b) continuing to think about alternatives
appreciation of the underlying mechanisms and process that (c) re-creating a plan
stakeholders experience when undertaking and being involved in (d) continuing the process.
urban design projects. It is not enough to examine the products of
urban design; the process must also be understood.8,13 These transition stages may be seen as ‘soft gates’ in which
stakeholders review their actions and make decisions about how
The urban design process first developed as an alternative to the to proceed.13 The transition stages also allow the process to be
more traditional planning approach.14 A traditional approach iterative, ensuring the project does not end when the
considers planning as more of a passive exercise, in which development is built, but continues to be monitored and assessed
urban design has little part to play. For example, throughout the life cycle of the development.
rational–comprehensive planning,15 incremental planning16,17
and decision-centred planning18 see planners as rational decision 2.2.1. The higher-level urban design process. The higher-
makers, making planning choices based principally on level urban design process of stages and transition stages is
quantitative data collection and analyses. Some stakeholders, outlined in this section (see Fig. 1). The higher level urban
such as local residents and small business owners, may be design process provides a set of tasks for key stakeholders
apportioned less significance within traditional planning engaging in urban design projects. There are many issues that
approaches because the information they provide about a project need resolving, however, including who the stakeholders are in
may be considered too subjective or qualitative. This information this process, what influences their decisions throughout the
may not be entered easily into the rational decision-making process, and where and how sustainability is embedded within
process and is often discarded in favour of more quantitative this process. Moreover, the amalgamated urban design process as
data (i.e. ‘hard’ facts and numbers). set out here is incomplete. For example, there is no information
before the final stage about refining the selected option,
An alternative way of thinking about urban design highlights setting a final budget and timetable, developing a detailed
qualitative information, emphasising the characteristics of plan and including other processes (e.g. the project management
elements in a proposed development site and the relationships and construction processes). Once case studies have been
between the elements. The higher conceptual urban design conducted in the VivaCity2020 Project and key decision makers
process presented in this paper is based on an amalgamation and stakeholders have given input from their own experiences
of different design processes from the fields of urban with the urban design process, the process will be mapped
design;14,19,20 planning;21–26 architecture;27 the manufacturing, from beginning to end, providing more detail at each stage
construction and engineering industries28–30; business;31 and than the literature currently indicates. The next section will
non-governmental organisations32,33 (see similar research of discuss sustainability and where sustainability issues may be
process maps in engineering and architecture34). These different embedded in the urban design decision-making process.
design processes were chosen because there is considerable
overlap in the stages and phases experienced in the general field
3. WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT SUSTAINABILITY?
of design. What is interesting to note is that many of these design
processes contain elements of rational decision-making, much 3.1. Defining sustainability
like the traditional approaches to planning. For example, in the Over 70 different definitions exist for sustainability in a variety
business process, which examines the initiation phases of a of academic fields and disciplines.35,36 What seems to
project, the evaluation phase consists of economic and financial characterise many of these definitions of sustainability is the

120 Engineering Sustainability 158 Issue ES3 Sustainability and the urban design process Boyko et al.
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 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Creating teams, appraising the Designing Evaluating, selecting Implementing, monitoring
situation and forming goals and developing and creating a plan and following up

Create teams, including a Start development of a project Options and alternatives are Implement the selected option
steering committee with an brief that includes plans for evaluated against mission and alternative.
appointed leader, and a core design. statement, goals, objectives
multidisciplinary team, involve and/or vision.
as many stakeholders as Identify any problems, review
possible. Provide feasibility, cost, social, performance and monitor
legal and political asessment, Selection of options and progress.
and testing of ideas in project alternatives.
Appraise the project site and brief.
surrounding area via an Communicate with stakeholders
identification of needs, issues, Assessment of options and about benefits via reports (e.g.
problems and opportunities. Think about, use and involve alternatives (e.g. financial through the use of the media).
stakeholders. analysis).

Identify stakeholder Settle accounts and finances.

requirements through various Complete a list of options and Consult all stakeholders about
methods (e.g. attending town alternatives; refine the content selection and assessment of
hall meetings, surveys). of options and alternatives options and alternatives. Establish a group to take over
through the use of workshops, once the project has been
community participation, maps, completed.
Develop a mission statement, computer modelling, etc. Consult relevant stakeholders
goals, objectives and/or vision about decisions made up to this
for the project. point and what needs to be Revisit the project site after
Finish writing a report with done in the future. project completion to see
recommendations about progress and use patterns.
Acquire funding and set up
options and alternatives.
budget and timetable for
project.

Communicate aims and the

process at this stage to all
stakeholders.

Transition stage Transition stage Transition stage Transition stage

Continuing to understand Continuing to think about Re-creating Continuing
the context alternatives a plan the process

Might require revision of goals and Might require revision of report Might require selection of new Should require going back to
communicating further with from Stage 2 to think more about options and alternatives based on Stage 1 with re-evaluation of context,
stakeholders. alternatives. new information from the context, reassigning and reassessment
stakeholders, assessment of of goals, etc. upon considering
project brief, etc. use and users of project.

Fig. 1. The higher-level urban design process

recognition that the future is important to consider, that there are Developing urban areas that are more sustainable by
limits to our growth as a planet, and that there are ways for maximising interactions and feedback between the three
humans to protect and enhance the earth while satisfying various dimensions of sustainability can help to combat the problems
needs. Perhaps the most common and well-used definition comes (e.g. sprawl, commuting, crime, alienation, loss of
from the Brundtland Commission, which defines sustainability as agro-economies) and enhance the advantages (e.g. proximity
‘development that meets the needs of the present without and accessibility to a range of amenities, diversity of social
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own interaction and agglomeration economies) of cities.42,43
needs.’37 This strong, people-centred stance on sustainability Supporting urban sustainability means understanding the
stresses three main quality-of-life objectives symbiotic and synergistic relationships among the elements of
the city, meeting the needs of all citizens in urban areas,
(a) social progress that addresses the needs of all people enhancing well-being without damaging the natural world and
(b) the effective protection of the environment and prudent use guaranteeing that the development options of surrounding
of natural resources environments are not jeopardised, now or in the future.43–45
(c) the maintenance of stable levels of high economic growth
and development.38 The drive to promote urban sustainability is growing.
These three objectives are not qualitatively equal or mutually Governments in Europe and the UK adopted sustainable
interacting. The social, economic and environmental dimensions development agendas in the 1990s and continue to ensure that
occupy different positions in a hierarchy depending on the the sustainability of urban areas is promoted via policy. In the
specific sustainability issue undertaken. The interactions between UK, urban policy has focused on the notion of creating
these dimensions are also dynamic, with changes in one sustainable communities.1–6,38 Through excellence in design,
dimension impacting the other dimensions.39,40 environmental and social responsibility and economic
investment and legislative change, the Government believes that
urban centres can thrive.46 However, the entire process of
3.2. Urban sustainable development creating urban sustainable environments must be transparent,
Following the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, increasing giving stakeholders full information, participation, and
attention is being paid to the sustainable development of ownership in sustainable development.3 Decision makers and
urban areas. With over 47% of the world’s population currently stakeholders must also consider the needs and broader interests
living in urban areas and about 60% of the population becoming of the community to secure a better quality of life for the
urban by 2030, it is becoming increasingly important to community. Finally, short-term and long-term effects of urban
recognise the role of sustainability in urban areas.41 sustainable development, including any costs to the

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 environment, the community, and the economy must be plus stage 0, which includes activities most likely involving
identified and assessed. idea formation). The sustainability issues investigated by
VivaCity2020 are shown in column two of the figure.
3.3. Where sustainability may be embedded within the (b) The arrows pointing up toward the design decision-making
urban design process: the VivaCity2020 project process represent where the sustainability issues facilitate
It is clear that sustainability is an important aspect of the key decisions to be made by various stakeholders.
urban design process. Planners, urban designers, developers, (c) Some sustainability issues facilitate key decisions early on
government and other important decision makers and in the process (e.g. IT support), whereas other sustainability
stakeholders have indicated that sustainability must be issues facilitate key decisions later on in the process (e.g.
thought about early and often within the process. However, social inclusion).
answers to the following questions are still unclear. (d) Some sustainability issues facilitate key decisions at more
than one stage in the process (e.g. crime may need to be
(a) When exactly should stakeholders think about considered at stage 2 and stage 4).
sustainability issues within the urban design process? (e) Some key decisions need to be facilitated by more than
(b) In what detail are sustainability issues discussed? one sustainability issue (e.g. a key decision at stage 2
(c) Who makes decisions regarding sustainability and design? may require information about diversity and land use).
(d) What influences those decisions within urban design ( f) The issue-focused sustainability issues facilitate
projects? decision-making in the process and the generation of
tailored tools and resources. Key decisions will not be made,
The VivaCity2020 project seeks to give clarity to these
however, given the specific nature of the issue-focused
questions and in so doing will try to understand the important
sustainability issue (e.g. public conveniences).
and complex connection between sustainability and urban
(g) The figure illustrates that future sustainability issues may be
design in relation to the 24-hour city (see Fig. 2).
mapped on to the process (e.g. transport, accessibility) and
facilitate key decisions to be made by stakeholders.
Figure 2 is a representation of the urban design decision-making
process with sustainability issues embedded in the process. From
Within the VivaCity2020 project, the urban design process will be
this representation, some things are evident.
mapped and information regarding various sustainability issues
(a) A depiction of the design decision-making process is seen will be embedded within the process. Through the case study
across the top of the figure, showing five stages (the four work in London, Manchester and Sheffield, there will be an
stages of the higher level urban design process from Fig. 1 examination of when and where sustainability issues involving

VivaCity 2020: Where sustainability may be embedded into the process

§ Supporting key decisions (KD) in the design decision-making process
§ Producing issue-focused tools (T) and tailored decision-support tools (d) and resources

STAGE 0 STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 STAGE 4

Design
Knowledge unit decision-making
KD KD d KD d KD d
process

Knowledge unit IT support CLASH IDENTIFICATION SUPPORT

Knowledge unit Diversity

Knowledge unit Crime Case studies

Guidance
Knowledge unit Environment Standards
Resources
Knowledge unit Land use Databases
Techniques
Knowledge unit Social inclusion
Tools

Knowledge unit Issue-focused

T T T
tools
FUTURE Sustainability Case studies - Guidance - Standards
Knowledge unit issue Resources - Databases - Techniques - Tools
FUTURE Sustainability Case studies - Guidance - Standards
Knowledge unit issue Resources - Databases - Techniques - Tools

Fig. 2. VivaCity2020: where sustainability may be embedded into the urban design process (modified from VivaCity2020 main
PowerPoint presentation, 2003)

122 Engineering Sustainability 158 Issue ES3 Sustainability and the urban design process Boyko et al.
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crime, environment quality, land use and the provision of urban design process, some initial attempts can be made
housing and public conveniences are introduced—and should be based on discussions of case study research with VivaCity2020
introduced—within the urban design process. There will also be members. As stated earlier, with continued research into the
an opportunity to learn who makes design and sustainability urban design process and the various sustainability issues
decisions and what influences these stakeholders. For example, that are being examined, the higher-level urban design
when different stakeholders (e.g. developer, architect, planner, process will be better defined.
city council and residents’ group) are thinking about erecting a
new hotel and conference centre in an urban area, do they think In order properly to understand sustainability within the urban
about how the building design will impact crime and pollution in design process, it seems as though sustainable issues need to be
the area? Consequently, do they think about how crime and prioritised into different kinds of detail at different stages. When
pollution will impact the design of the hotel and conference teams are first learning about the context for an urban design
centre? When will/should they think about crime and pollution project in stage 1 (see Fig. 1), they likely will encounter
within the process of designing the hotel and conference centre? preliminary information that can be linked with sustainability
To what extent/in what detail will they discuss crime and (e.g. the project clients want to develop social housing in a
pollution issues surrounding the new development? Who will blighted area of the city centre, but are concerned about the
make decisions about whether/when these issues should be lack of public conveniences in the area). This information will
addressed? What will influence their decisions (e.g. financial be important because it will help structure what sustainability
resources, ‘not in my back yard’ attitudes from local residents, issues need to be introduced later on in the process.
proclivity towards private-sector involvement)?
When options and alternatives are assessed in stage 3 of the
Following mapping of the urban design decision-making process urban design process (see Fig. 1), it seems plausible that
from the case studies, VivaCity2020 will invite planners, urban sustainability issues should be discussed here at a higher
designers, architects, developers, local authorities and other conceptual level (e.g. the site will need to have a mixture of uses
stakeholders to come together by way of a variety of expert panel to be successfully used by the social housing tenants. What does
workshops to discuss the process (both the one found in the that entail? How much will that cost? Who will be involved?
literature and the process uncovered through the case studies). What decisions need to be taken to ensure an adequate mix of
These workshops will be an opportunity for stakeholders directly uses?). The idea of mixed use or introducing a building with
involved in decision making and urban design projects to have new uses in an existing urban environment seems central to
their say regarding deciding what other sustainability issues should be discussed.
As the basic structure and use for an urban area is decided at a
(a) whether the process is correct higher level, consideration of other sustainability issues such as
(b) what needs to be added or changed in the process crime, environmental quality and transport becomes important.
(c) what tools and resources stakeholders would like to use to The basic structure both shapes and is shaped by these issues.
facilitate decision making
(d) where stakeholders feel issues such as sustainability need In stage 4, more detailed discussion of sustainability issues
to be addressed within the urban design decision-making becomes apparent. Here, stakeholders may consider the
process. fine-grained detail of sustainability and design, such as the
design of spaces (e.g. housing exteriors and interiors to suit
From these workshops and information from the case study and different cultural and ethnic groups), or the exact placement
literature processes, a support specification will be formulated for of things in an urban environment (e.g. public conveniences),
the generation of tools and resources to enable the development and how these details may impact sustainability (e.g. will city
of more urban sustainable environments. Consultation with centre housing designed with large, easily accessible balconies
various stakeholders about the support specification will also increase crime in a blighted area?).
help to assimilate the needs of those most likely to use the tools
and resources with the aims of understanding the urban design
decision-making process (for a discussion about assimilating 4. CONCLUSIONS
sustainable development policy within the culture most likely to As national, regional, and local governments continue to stress
manage the policy see reference 47). In this case, the stakeholders the importance of sustainability in urban design, key decision
most likely to use the tools and resources will be the people makers and stakeholders need to become more responsible about
making or helping to facilitate decisions in urban design projects understanding how the urban design process works and where
(i.e. planners, urban designers, architects, developers, financiers, sustainability is embedded in that process. The existing literature
engineers, local authority, surveyors). These tools and resources is vague about how the urban design process should be mapped
are an integral part of the urban design process, helping to in detail from beginning to end. The VivaCity2020 project is
interpret issues of sustainability. The issues will not be considered defining that process through a combination of case study
separate entities from the process, nor will they imply a linear research and key stakeholder and decision-maker consultation,
relationship between process and outcome.48,49 Together, the working groups and other feedback exercises. From this
support specification and the tools and resources will be the information, there will be more detail in the process about
mechanisms by which best practice for urban design projects will where key decisions are made relating to urban design and
be shared in wider practice. sustainability. This higher-level, or generic, process may then
be adopted by organisations, companies and other professionals
Although it is too early in the VivaCity2020 project to pinpoint and modified to their specific needs, much like the process
exactly where sustainability issues may be embedded within the protocol has helped organisations understand the design and

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