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Fungus

A fungus (pl: fungi[2] or funguses[3]) is any member of the


group of eukaryotic organisms that includes
microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the
more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified
as a kingdom,[4] separately from the other eukaryotic
kingdoms, which by one traditional classification include
Plantae, Animalia, Protozoa, and Chromista.
Fungi

Temporal range: Early Devonian – Present (but see text)

Clockwise from top left:


Amanita muscaria, a basidiomycete;
Sarcoscypha coccinea, an ascomycete;
bread covered in mold;
a chytrid;
an Aspergillus conidiophore.

Scientific classification

Clade: Obazoa

(unranked): Opisthokonta

Clade: Holomycota

Kingdom: Fungi

(L.) R.T.Moore[1]

Subkingdoms/Phyla

Rozellomyceta
Rozellomycota
Rozellomycota
Microsporidia
Aphelidiomyceta
Aphelidiomycota
Eumycota
Chytridiomyceta
Neocallimastigomycota
Chytridiomycota
Blastocladiomyceta
Blastocladiomycota
Zoopagomyceta
Basidiobolomycota
Entomophthoromycota
Kickxellomycota
Mortierellomycota
Mucoromyceta
Calcarisporiellomycota
Mucoromycota
Symbiomycota
Glomeromycota
Entorrhizomycota
Dikarya
Dikarya
Basidiomycota
Ascomycota

A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom


from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their
cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they
acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules,
typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their
environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their
means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are
flagellated), which may travel through the air or water.
Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological
systems. These and other differences place fungi in a
single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota
(true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor
(i.e. they form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that
is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics.
This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar
myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water
molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of
fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes,
mushroom). In the past, mycology was regarded as a
branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are
genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.

Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous


because of the small size of their structures, and their
cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include
symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also
parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting,
either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an
essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and
have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in
the environment. They have long been used as a direct
source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and
truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the
fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer,
and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for
the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various
enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in
detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to
control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many
species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins,
such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals,
including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species
contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed
recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi
can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and
become significant pathogens of humans and other
animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice
blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on
human food supplies and local economies.

The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity


of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and
morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to
large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true
biodiversity of the fungus kingdom, which has been
estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species.[5] Of these,
only about 148,000 have been described,[6] with over 8,000
species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300
that can be pathogenic to humans.[7] Ever since the
pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of
Carl Linnaeus, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, and Elias
Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their
morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or
microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in
molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis
to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes
challenged the historical groupings based on morphology
and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first
decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the
classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided
into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla.

Etymology
The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin
fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and
Pliny.[8] This in turn is derived from the Greek word
sphongos (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the
macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms
and molds;[9] the root is also used in other languages, such
as the German Schwamm ('sponge') and Schimmel
('mold').[10]

The word mycology is derived from the Greek mykes


(μύκης 'mushroom') and logos (λόγος 'discourse').[11] It
denotes the scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival
form of "mycology" (mycologicæ) appeared as early as
1796 in a book on the subject by Christiaan Hendrik
Persoon.[12] The word appeared in English as early as 1824
in a book by Robert Kaye Greville.[13] In 1836 the English
naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley's publication The English
Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. also refers to
mycology as the study of fungi.[9][14]

A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is


known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular).[15] The term
mycota is often used for this purpose, but many authors
use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word funga has been
proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically
similar to fauna and flora.[16] The Species Survival
Commission (SSC) of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that
the phrase fauna and flora be replaced by fauna, flora, and
funga.[17]

Characteristics

Fungal hyphae cells


1. Hyphal wall 6. Ribosome

2. Septum 7. Nucleus

3. Mitochondrion 8. Endoplasmic reticulum

4. Vacuole 9. Lipid body

5. Ergosterol crystal 10. Plasma membrane


11. Spitzenkörper 12. Golgi apparatus

Fungal cell cycle showing Dikaryons typical of Higher Fungi

Before the introduction of molecular methods for


phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be
members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in
lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and
have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat.
Although inaccurate, the common misconception that
fungi are plants persists among the general public due to
their historical classification, as well as several
similarities.[18][19] Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and,
in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies,
which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The
fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct
from both plants and animals, from which they appear to
have diverged around one billion years ago (around the
start of the Neoproterozoic Era).[20][21] Some
morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are
shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the
fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms:

Shared features:

With other eukaryotes: Fungal cells contain membrane-


bound nuclei with chromosomes that contain DNA with
noncoding regions called introns and coding regions
called exons. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic
organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing
membranes, and ribosomes of the 80S type.[22] They
have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and
storage compounds, including sugar alcohols (e.g.,
mannitol), disaccharides, (e.g., trehalose), and
polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen, which is also found in
animals[23]).
With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are
heterotrophic organisms and so require preformed
organic compounds as energy sources.[24]
With plants: Fungi have a cell wall[25] and vacuoles.[26]
They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and
like basal plant groups (such as ferns and mosses)
produce spores. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi
typically have haploid nuclei.[27]
With euglenoids and bacteria: Higher fungi, euglenoids,
and some bacteria produce the amino acid L-lysine in
specific biosynthesis steps, called the α-aminoadipate
pathway.[28][29]
The cells of most fungi grow as tubular, elongated, and
thread-like (filamentous) structures called hyphae, which
may contain multiple nuclei and extend by growing at
their tips. Each tip contains a set of aggregated vesicles
—cellular structures consisting of proteins, lipids, and
other organic molecules—called the Spitzenkörper.[30]
Both fungi and oomycetes grow as filamentous hyphal
cells.[31] In contrast, similar-looking organisms, such as
filamentous green algae, grow by repeated cell division
within a chain of cells.[23] There are also single-celled
fungi (yeasts) that do not form hyphae, and some fungi
have both hyphal and yeast forms.[32]
In common with some plant and animal species, more
than one hundred fungal species display
bioluminescence.[33]

Unique features:
Some species grow as unicellular yeasts that reproduce
by budding or fission. Dimorphic fungi can switch
between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in response
to environmental conditions.[32]
The fungal cell wall is made of a chitin-glucan complex;
while glucans are also found in plants and chitin in the
exoskeleton of arthropods,[34] fungi are the only
organisms that combine these two structural molecules
in their cell wall. Unlike those of plants and oomycetes,
fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose.[35][36]

Omphalotus nidiformis, a bioluminescent mushroom

Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance


transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and
phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some
fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs,[37] which
resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of
plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic
pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid
and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks.[38] Plants
and some other organisms have an additional terpene
biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that
fungi and animals do not have.[39] Fungi produce several
secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in
structure to those made by plants.[38] Many of the plant
and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ
from each other in sequence and other characteristics,
which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution
of these enzymes in the fungi and plants.[38][40]

Diversity

Bracket fungi on a tree stump

Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide


range of habitats, including extreme environments such as
deserts or areas with high salt concentrations[41] or
ionizing radiation,[42] as well as in deep sea sediments.[43]
Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation
encountered during space travel.[44] Most grow in
terrestrial environments, though several species live partly
or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungi
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans,
parasites that have been responsible for a worldwide
decline in amphibian populations. These organisms spend
part of their life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling them
to propel itself through water and enter their amphibian
host.[45] Other examples of aquatic fungi include those
living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean.[46]

Widespread white fungus in wood chip mulch in an Oklahoma garden[47]

As of 2020, around 148,000 species of fungi have been


described by taxonomists,[6] but the global biodiversity of
the fungus kingdom is not fully understood.[48] A 2017
estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and
3.8 million species.[5] The number of new fungi species
discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per
year about 10 years ago, to about 2000 with a peak of
more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1882
new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated
that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown.[6] The
following year, 2905 new species were described—the
highest annual record of new fungus names.[49] In
mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a
variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on
morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape
of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated
fungal taxonomy.[50] Species may also be distinguished by
their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such
as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their
reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept
discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The
application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing
and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly
enhanced the resolution and added robustness to
estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic
groups.[51]

Mycology
In 1729, Pier Antonio Micheli first published descriptions of fungi.

Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the


systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and
biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to
humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic
substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as
their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of
phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely
related because many plant pathogens are fungi.[52]

The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi


the Iceman, a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old
Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried
two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been
used as tinder (Fomes fomentarius), or for medicinal
purposes (Piptoporus betulinus).[53] Ancient peoples have
used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for
millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and
fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records
contain references to the destruction of crops that were
probably caused by pathogenic fungi.[54]

History

Mycology became a systematic science after the


development of the microscope in the 17th century.
Although fungal spores were first observed by
Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the
development of mycology is considered to be the
publication of Pier Antonio Micheli's 1729 work Nova
plantarum genera.[55] Micheli not only observed spores but
also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could
be induced into growing into the same species of fungi
from which they originated.[56] Extending the use of the
binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl
Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753), the Dutch
Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the
first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be
considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias
Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the
classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic
characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today.
Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–
19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph
Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the
brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H. R.
Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. In the
20th and 21st centuries, advances in biochemistry,
genetics, molecular biology, biotechnology, DNA
sequencing and phylogenetic analysis has provided new
insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has
challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in
fungal taxonomy.[57]

Morphology

Microscopic structures

An environmental isolate of Penicillium


1. Hypha 3. Phialide

2. Conidiophore 4. Conidia
5. Septa

Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-


like structures 2–10 µm in diameter and up to several
centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices);
new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips
along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or
occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two
parallel-growing hyphae.[58] Hyphae also sometimes fuse
when they come into contact, a process called hyphal
fusion (or anastomosis). These growth processes lead to
the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network
of hyphae.[32] Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic.
Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated
by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are
formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its
shape), with each compartment containing one or more
nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized.[59]
Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and
sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the
dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota.[60]
Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate
supercells.[61]
Many species have developed specialized hyphal
structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples
include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal
phyla,[62] and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi,
which penetrate into the host cells to consume
nutrients.[63]

Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of


evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a
single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids
have lost their posterior flagella.[64] Fungi are unusual
among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition
to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan) and other typical
components, also contains the biopolymer chitin.[36]

Macroscopic structures

Armillaria solidipes
Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for
example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as
damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly
called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in
laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies.
These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due
to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic
features in the identification of species or groups.[65] Some
individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary
dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of
Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of more
than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of
nearly 9,000 years.[66]

The apothecium—a specialized structure important in


sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped
fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the
hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing
cells.[67] The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes
(basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes
grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms.

Growth and physiology


Mold growth covering a decaying peach. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days.

The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or


as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the
efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth
forms have high surface area to volume ratios.[68] Hyphae
are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and
to invade substrates and tissues.[69] They can exert large
penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant
pathogens, including Magnaporthe grisea, form a structure
called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant
tissues.[70] The pressure generated by the appressorium,
directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8
megapascals (1,200 psi).[70] The filamentous fungus
Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate
the eggs of nematodes.[71]

The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is


generated from physiological processes that increase
intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as
glycerol.[72] Adaptations such as these are complemented
by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to
digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides,
proteins, and lipids—into smaller molecules that may then
be absorbed as nutrients.[73][74][75] The vast majority of
filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one
direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha.[76]
Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension
(longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are
below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic
fungi,[77] or growth by volume expansion during the
development of mushroom stipes and other large
organs.[78] Growth of fungi as multicellular structures
consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature
independently evolved in animals and plants[79]—has
several functions, including the development of fruit bodies
for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and
biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular
communication.[80]

The fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs,


organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other
organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high
degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a
diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including
simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or
ethanol.[81][82] In some species the pigment melanin may
play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation,
such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic"
growth has been described for only a few species, the
effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying
biophysical and biochemical processes are not well
known.[42] This process might bear similarity to CO2
fixation via visible light, but instead uses ionizing radiation
as a source of energy.[83]

Reproduction

Polyporus squamosus

Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences


in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse
kingdom of organisms.[84] It is estimated that a third of all
fungi reproduce using more than one method of
propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two
well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species,
the teleomorph (sexual reproduction) and the anamorph
(asexual reproduction).[85] Environmental conditions trigger
genetically determined developmental states that lead to
the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual
reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by
efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing
propagules.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores


(conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial
fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates
into pieces, and each component grows into a separate
mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores
maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche,
and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual
reproduction.[86] The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the
perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the
species that lack an observable sexual cycle.[87]
Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes,
conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi) is not an accepted
taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi
that lack a known sexual stage.[88]

Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly


observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota[89]
(genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as
well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction
in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal
groups and can be used to discriminate species by
morphological differences in sexual structures and
reproductive strategies.[90][91] Mating experiments between
fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of
biological species concepts.[91] The major fungal
groupings have initially been delineated based on the
morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for
example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia,
can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating
systems: heterothallic species allow mating only between
individuals of the opposite mating type, whereas
homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce,
with any other individual or itself.[92]

Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their


life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible
individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together
into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis,
is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many
ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic
stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do
not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain
separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis).[93]

The 8-spore asci of Morchella elata, viewed with phase contrast microscopy

In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the


spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook
(crozier) at the hyphal septum. During cell division, the
formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the
newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal
compartments. An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in
which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are
embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in
the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the
production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores
may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.[94]

Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of


the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to
produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic
phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also
present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A
specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp
connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the
structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp
connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled
transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the
dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in
each hyphal compartment.[95] A basidiocarp is formed in
which club-like structures known as basidia generate
haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis.[96]
The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms,
but they may also take other forms (see Morphology
section).

In fungi formerly classified as Zygomycota, haploid hyphae


of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a
specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete-
producing cell. The gametangium develops into a
zygospore, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of
gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes
meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then
form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores
allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into
new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.[97]

Spore dispersal

The spores of most of the researched species of fungi are


transported by wind.[98][99] Such species often produce dry
or hydrophobic spores that do not absorb water and are
readily scattered by raindrops, for example.[98][100][101] In
other species, both asexual and sexual spores or
sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible
ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection
ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures
as well as traveling through the air over long distances.

The bird's nest fungus Cyathus stercoreus

Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as


well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins),
enable efficient spore ejection.[102] For example, the
structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete
species is such that the buildup of substances affecting
cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive
discharge of spores into the air.[103] The forcible discharge
of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation
of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact
with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial
acceleration of more than 10,000 g;[104] the net result is
that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance
for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below.[105]
Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative
mechanisms for spore release, such as external
mechanical forces. The hydnoid fungi (tooth fungi)
produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like
projections.[106] The bird's nest fungi use the force of
falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped
fruiting bodies.[107] Another strategy is seen in the
stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid
odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.[108]

Homothallism

In homothallic sexual reproduction, two haploid nuclei


derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote that
can then undergo meiosis. Homothallic fungi include
species with an Aspergillus-like asexual stage (anamorphs)
occurring in numerous different genera,[109] several species
of the ascomycete genus Cochliobolus,[110] and the
ascomycete Pneumocystis jirovecii.[111] The earliest mode
of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely
homothallism, that is, self-fertile unisexual
reproduction.[112]
Other sexual processes

Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain


fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and
Aspergillus, may exchange genetic material via parasexual
processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and
plasmogamy of fungal cells.[113] The frequency and relative
importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be
lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a
role in intraspecific hybridization[114] and is likely required
for hybridization between species, which has been
associated with major events in fungal evolution.[115]

Evolution
In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of
the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the
under-representation of fungal species among fossils
include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft,
fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic
dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are
not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to
distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most
easily identified when they resemble extant fungi.[116] Often
recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host,
these samples are typically studied by making thin-section
preparations that can be examined with light microscopy
or transmission electron microscopy.[117] Researchers
study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding
matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron
microscopy to examine surface details.[118]

Prototaxites milwaukeensis (Penhallow, 1908)—a Middle Devonian fungus from Wisconsin

The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi


date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some
2,400 (https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2,400)  million years ago
(Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had
filamentous structures capable of anastomosis.[119] Other
studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at
about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the
rate of evolution in closely related groups.[120] For much of
the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have
been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the
extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores.[121] The
evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial
lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological
strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism,
saprobism, and the development of mutualistic
relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization.[122]
Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the
Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent
lichenization events have occurred multiple times.[123]

In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a


fossilized fungus, named Ourasphaira giraldae, in the
Canadian Arctic, that may have grown on land a billion
years ago, well before plants were living on
land.[124][125][126] Pyritized fungus-like microfossils
preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation
(~635 Ma) have been reported in South China.[127] Earlier, it
had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land
during the Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), also long before
land plants.[128] Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered
from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble
modern-day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the
land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte-
like plants.[129] Prototaxites, which was probably a fungus
or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late
Silurian and early Devonian. Fungal fossils do not become
common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian
(416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie
chert, mostly as Zygomycota and
Chytridiomycota.[128][130][131] At about this same time,
approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and
Basidiomycota diverged,[132] and all modern classes of
fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous
(Pennsylvanian, 318.1–299 Ma).[133]

Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial


ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial
lichen fossil is 415 Ma;[134] this date roughly corresponds
to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a
Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert.[135]
The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling
modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found
permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian.[136]
Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a
taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing
species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved
specimens provide evidence that the earliest known
mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species
Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late
Cretaceous, 90 Ma.[137][138]

Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event


(251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an
extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments)
formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form
at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available
fossil record for this period.[139] However, the relative
proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by
algal species is difficult to assess,[140] the spike did not
appear worldwide,[141][142] and in many places it did not fall
on the Permian–Triassic boundary.[143]

Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the


Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that famously
killed off most dinosaurs, there was a dramatic increase in
evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and
animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive
compost heap".[144]

Taxonomy
Although commonly included in botany curricula and
textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to
plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic
group of opisthokonts.[145] Analyses using molecular
phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of
fungi.[51][146] The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of
constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA
comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often
overturn classifications based on older and sometimes
less discriminative methods based on morphological
features and biological species concepts obtained from
experimental matings.[147]

There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher


taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at
every level, from species upwards. Efforts among
researchers are now underway to establish and encourage
usage of a unified and more consistent
nomenclature.[51][148] Until relatively recent (2012) changes
to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi
and plants, fungal species could also have multiple
scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode
(sexual or asexual) of reproduction.[149] Web sites such as
Index Fungorum and MycoBank are officially recognized
nomenclatural repositories and list current names of
fungal species (with cross-references to older
synonyms).[150]

The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a


large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens
of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal
taxonomy.[51] It recognizes seven phyla, two of which—the
Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within
a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most
species rich and familiar group, including all the
mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant
pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The
accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa
and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont
organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar,[151] "The
Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as
Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research"[152]
and Tedersoo et al. 2018.[153] The lengths of the branches
are not proportional to evolutionary distances.
⁠Zoosporia ⁠Rozellomycota Rozellomy

⁠Mitospor

⁠Paramic
⁠ ⁠Rozellomyceta
⁠Microsporidiomycota ⁠Nucleo

⁠ ⁠Metc

⁠ Micro

⁠ ⁠Aphelidiomyceta A
⁠ phelidiomycota Aphelidiomy
⁠Eumycota ⁠ hytridiomyceta ⁠Neocallima
C
⁠ ⁠
⁠Chytridi


⁠Blastocladiomyceta ⁠Blastoc

⁠Amastigomycota ⁠ ⁠Zoopa

⁠ ⁠Morti
⁠Muco

⁠Symb
⁠Basidiomycota ⁠Tritirachiomycetes

⁠ ⁠Mixiomycetes
⁠ Agaricostilbomycetes

⁠Cystobasidiomycetes

⁠Pucciniomycotina ⁠Classiculaceae

Microbotryomycetes

⁠ ⁠Cryptomycocolacom

⁠Atractiellomycetes

⁠ Pucciniomycetes

⁠Mo

Ma

⁠Ustilaginomycotina
⁠Us


⁠Exo

⁠?Ge
⁠Orthomycotina

?Wa

Bart
⁠Agaricomycotina
⁠ ⁠Tre

⁠D

⁠ A

⁠Ascomycota ⁠Ne
⁠ Ta

⁠Taphrinomycotina ⁠Ar

⁠Schizosaccharomyceta ⁠P
⁠ S

Saccharomyceta ⁠Saccharomycotina Sacchar

⁠Pezizomycotina ⁠?Thelo

?Vezda

?Lahm

?Triblid

Orbilio


⁠Leotio
Taxonomic groups

Main groups of fungi

The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have


been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of
their sexual reproductive structures. As of 2019, nine major
lineages have been identified: Opisthosporidia,
Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota,
Blastocladiomycota, Zoopagomycota, Mucoromycota,
Glomeromycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.[154]

Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the


Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists,
are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living
within the tissue of another species).[121] Previously
considered to be "primitive" protozoa, they are now thought
to be either a basal branch of the Fungi, or a sister group–
each other's closest evolutionary relative.[155]

The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids.


These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their
close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and
Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active
motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active
movement through aqueous phases with a single
flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as
protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA
sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a
basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla,
consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence
for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly.[156]

The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a


taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Molecular
data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the
Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota,
Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and
Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs,
feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are
parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close
relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic
meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic
meiosis.[121]

The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the


phylum Chytridiomycota. Members of this small phylum
are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of
larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and
aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic
waste landfill sites).[157] They lack mitochondria but
contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the
related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores
that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate.[51]
Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.

Diagram of an apothecium (the typical cup-like reproductive structure of Ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci.

Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular


mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal
hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit
from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known
Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually.[89] The
symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and
plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years
ago.[158] Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly
known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds), the Glomeromycota were
elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the
older phylum Zygomycota.[159] Fungi that were placed in
the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the
Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis
Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina
and the Entomophthoromycotina.[51] Some well-known
examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include
black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), and Pilobolus
species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through
the air.[160] Medically relevant genera include Mucor,
Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.[161]

The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or


ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group
within the Eumycota.[50] These fungi form meiotic spores
called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like
structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a
few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the
genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and
Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as
saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g.
lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous
ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium,
and Claviceps. Many ascomycete species have only been
observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called
anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has
often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the
Ascomycota.[162] Because the products of meiosis are
retained within the sac-like ascus, ascomycetes have been
used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity
(e.g., Neurospora crassa).[163]

Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the


club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called
basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most
common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust
and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains.
Other important basidiomycetes include the maize
pathogen Ustilago maydis,[164] human commensal species
of the genus Malassezia,[165] and the opportunistic human
pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans.[166]

Fungus-like organisms

Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the


slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids,
Fonticula and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria,
Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively),
water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both
Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom
Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and
Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as
protozoans, leading to an ambiregnal, duplicated
taxonomy.[167]

Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain


cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin
and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the
assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall
of scales), and take in nutrients by ingestion (phagocytosis,
except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy,
as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids).
Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to
the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group
them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the
oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in
mycology textbooks and primary research literature.[168]

The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists,


previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups
now in Opisthokonta (e.g., Corallochytrium, Ichthyosporea)
were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus
Blastocystis, now in Stramenopiles, was originally
classified as a yeast. Ellobiopsis, now in Alveolata, was
considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in
fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes.

The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid" Rozella, is a


genetically disparate group known mostly from
environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to
fungi.[154] Members of the group that have been isolated
lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi.
Alternatively, Rozella can be classified as a basal fungal
group.[146]

The nucleariids may be the next sister group to the


eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an
expanded fungal kingdom.[145]
Many Actinomycetales
(Actinomycetota), a group with many filamentous bacteria,
were also long believed to be fungi.[169][170]

Ecology
A pin mold decomposing a peach

Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every


environment on Earth and play very important roles in most
ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major
decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic)
ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in
biogeochemical cycles[171] and in many food webs. As
decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient
cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts,
degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which
can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or
other organisms.[172][173]

Symbiosis

Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with


organisms from most if not all kingdoms.[174][175][176]
These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in
nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no
apparent benefit or detriment to the host.[177][178][179]

With plants
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of
the most well-known plant–fungus associations and is of
significant importance for plant growth and persistence in
many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in
mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent
upon this relationship for survival.[180]

The dark filaments are hyphae of the endophytic fungus Epichloë coenophiala in the intercellular spaces of tall fescue leaf sheath tissue

The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating back to at


least 400 million years.[158] It often increases the plant's
uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and
phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these
key plant nutrients.[172][181] The fungal partners may also
mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other
nutrients.[182] Such mycorrhizal communities are called
"common mycorrhizal networks".[183][184] A special case of
mycorrhiza is myco-heterotrophy, whereby the plant
parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its
fungal symbiont.[185] Some fungal species inhabit the
tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they
are called endophytes.[186] Similar to mycorrhiza,
endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both
symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to
their host increased resistance to herbivores and other
environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from
the plant in return.[187]

With algae and cyanobacteria

The lichen Lobaria pulmonaria, a symbiosis of fungal, algal, and cyanobacterial species

Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and


photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic
partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen
terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the
relationship is composed mostly of various species of
ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes.[188] Lichens occur
in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil
formation and the initiation of biological succession,[189]
and are prominent in some extreme environments,
including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions.[190]
They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including
bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and
leaves.[191] As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides
sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the
fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to
the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms
are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a
single organism; in most cases the resulting organism
differs greatly from the individual components.[192]
Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi;
around 27% of known fungi—more than 19,400 species—
are lichenized.[193] Characteristics common to most
lichens include obtaining organic carbon by
photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-
lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures,
mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources,
and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other
photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.[194]
With insects

Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with


fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order
Chaetothyriales for several purposes: as a food source, as
a structural component of their nests, and as a part of an
ant/plant symbiosis in the domatia (tiny chambers in
plants that house arthropods).[195] Ambrosia beetles
cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that
they infest.[196] Likewise, females of several wood wasp
species (genus Sirex) inject their eggs together with spores
of the wood-rotting fungus Amylostereum areolatum into
the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus
provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of
the wasp larvae.[197] At least one species of stingless bee
has a relationship with a fungus in the genus Monascus,
where the larvae consume and depend on fungus
transferred from old to new nests.[198] Termites on the
African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi,[174] and
yeasts of the genera Candida and Lachancea inhabit the
gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans,
beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these
fungi benefit their hosts.[199] Fungi growing in dead wood
are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring
beetles).[200][201][202] They deliver nutrients needed by
xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood.[203][201][202]
Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of the
woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to
adulthood.[200] The larvae of many families of fungicolous
flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea
such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on
fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae.[204]

As pathogens and parasites

The plant pathogen Puccinia magellanicum (calafate rust) causes the defect known as witch's broom, seen here on a barberry shrub in Chile.

Gram stain of Candida albicans from a vaginal swab from a woman with candidiasis, showing hyphae, and chlamydospores, which are 2–4 µm in diameter.
Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including
humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many
cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to
agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus
Magnaporthe oryzae,[205] tree pathogens such as
Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi causing Dutch
elm disease,[206] Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for
chestnut blight,[207] and Phymatotrichopsis omnivora
causing Texas Root Rot, and plant pathogens in the genera
Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus.[178] Some
carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are predators
of nematodes, which they capture using an array of
specialized structures such as constricting rings or
adhesive nets.[208] Many fungi that are plant pathogens,
such as Magnaporthe oryzae, can switch from being
biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic
(feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed).[209]
This same principle is applied to fungi-feeding parasites,
including Asterotremella albida, which feeds on the fruit
bodies of other fungi both while they are living and after
they are dead.[210]
Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several
of which may be fatal if untreated. These include
aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis,
cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and
paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with
immuno-deficiencies are particularly susceptible to
disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida,
Cryptoccocus,[179][211][212] Histoplasma,[213] and
Pneumocystis.[214] Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair,
and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and
keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as
ringworm and athlete's foot.[215] Fungal spores are also a
cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic
groups can evoke allergic reactions.[216]

As targets of mycoparasites

Organisms that parasitize fungi are known as


mycoparasitic organisms. About 300 species of fungi and
fungus-like organisms, belonging to 13 classes and 113
genera, are used as biocontrol agents against plant fungal
diseases.[217] Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or
antagonists of other fungi, such as Hypomyces
chrysospermus, which grows on bolete mushrooms.
Fungi
can also become the target of infection by
mycoviruses.[218][219]

Communication

There appears to be electrical communication between


fungi in word-like components according to spiking
characteristics.[220]

Mycotoxins

Ergotamine, a major mycotoxin produced by Claviceps species, which if ingested can cause gangrene, convulsions, and hallucinations

Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several


of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore
called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are
mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and
poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous
are the lethal amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms, and
ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing
serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people
consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with
sclerotia of the ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea.[221] Other
notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are
insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites
produced by certain Aspergillus species often growing in or
on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins,
patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and
fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food
supplies or animal livestock.[222]

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural


products), and research has established the existence of
biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing
mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi.[38]
Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of
physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes
and fungi, and protection from consumption
(fungivory).[223][224] Many fungal secondary metabolites (or
derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human
use below.

Pathogenic mechanisms
Ustilago maydis is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes
smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved
efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes
such as U. maydis. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen
attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces
reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted
invasion. U. maydis can respond to the oxidative burst with
an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene YAP1.
The response protects U. maydis from the host defense,
and is necessary for the pathogen's virulence.[225]
Furthermore, U. maydis has a well-established
recombinational DNA repair system which acts during
mitosis and meiosis.[226] The system may assist the
pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host
plant's oxidative defensive response to infection.[227]

Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that


can live in both plants and animals. C. neoformans usually
infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar
macrophages.[228] Some C. neoformans can survive inside
macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency,
disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents.
One mechanism by which C. neoformans survives the
hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the
expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress
response.[228] Another mechanism involves meiosis. The
majority of C. neoformans are mating "type a". Filaments of
mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can
become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by
stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The
diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis,
including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores
that can be dispersed.[229] This process is referred to as
monokaryotic fruiting. This process requires a gene called
DMC1, which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in
bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes, that mediates
homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and
repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, C. neoformans
can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that
promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA
damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the
repair capability may contribute to its virulence.[227][229]

Human use
Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells shown with DIC microscopy

The human use of fungi for food preparation or


preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a
long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering
are large industries in many countries. The study of the
historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known
as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group
to produce an enormous range of natural products with
antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species
have long been used or are being developed for industrial
production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and
cholesterol-lowering drugs. Methods have been developed
for genetic engineering of fungi,[230] enabling metabolic
engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic
modification of yeast species[231]—which are easy to grow
at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up
ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially
more efficient than production by the original source
organisms.[232] Fungi-based industries are sometimes
considered to be a major part of a growing bioeconomy,
with applications under research and development
including use for textiles, meat substitution and general
fungal biotechnology.[233][234][235][236][237]

Therapeutic uses

Modern chemotherapeutics

The mold Penicillium rubens was the source of penicillin G.[238]

Many species produce metabolites that are major sources


of pharmacologically active drugs.

Antibiotics

Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the


penicillins, a structurally related group of β-lactam
antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides.
Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G
(produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a relatively
narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of
other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification
of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are
semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from
fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for
specific desirable properties.[239] Other antibiotics
produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as
an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and
fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.[240] Widespread
use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases,
such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in
the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature,
antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a
dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical
defense against competition with other microorganisms in
species-rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at
low concentrations as quorum-sensing molecules for intra-
or interspecies signaling.[241]

Other
Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated
from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal
infections,[242] and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors),
used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins
found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum
and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster
mushroom.[243] Psilocybin from fungi is investigated for
therapeutic use and appears to cause global increases in
brain network integration.[244] Fungi produce compounds
that inhibit viruses[245][246] and cancer cells.[247] Specific
metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-
lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine.
The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical
drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several
countries, including Japan.[248][249] In Europe and Japan,
polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived
from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for
cancer therapy.[250]

Traditional medicine
The fungi Ganoderma lucidum (left) and Ophiocordyceps sinensis (right) are used in traditional medicine practices

Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in


folk medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese
medicine. Mushrooms with a history of such use include
Agaricus subrufescens,[247][251] Ganoderma lucidum,[252]
and Ophiocordyceps sinensis.[253]

Cultured foods

Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular


fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat-based
products, such as pizza dough and dumplings.[254] Yeast
species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to
produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation.[255]
Shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) is an essential
ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the
preparation of miso,[256] while Rhizopus species are used
for making tempeh.[257] Several of these fungi are
domesticated species that were bred or selected according
to their capacity to ferment food without producing
harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by
very closely related Aspergilli.[258] Quorn, a meat substitute,
is made from Fusarium venenatum.[259]

In food

A selection of edible mushrooms eaten in Asia

Edible mushrooms include commercially raised and wild-


harvested fungi. Agaricus bisporus, sold as button
mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when
larger, is the most widely cultivated species in the West,
used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian
fungi are commercially grown and have increased in
popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in
grocery stores and markets, including straw mushrooms
(Volvariella volvacea), oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus
ostreatus), shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), and enokitake
(Flammulina spp.).[260]
Stilton cheese veined with Penicillium roqueforti

Many other mushroom species are harvested from the wild


for personal consumption or commercial sale. Milk
mushrooms, morels, chanterelles, truffles, black trumpets,
and porcini mushrooms (Boletus edulis) (also known as
king boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are
often used in gourmet dishes.[261]

Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds


with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture
to the cheese. Examples include the blue color in cheeses
such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by
inoculation with Penicillium roqueforti.[262] Molds used in
cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for
human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins,
roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because
of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or
storage.[263]
Poisonous fungi

Amanita phalloides accounts for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings worldwide. It sometimes lacks the greenish color seen here.

Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans and


cause a range of reactions including slight digestive
problems, allergic reactions, hallucinations, severe organ
failure, and death. Genera with mushrooms containing
deadly toxins include Conocybe, Galerina, Lepiota and the
most infamous, Amanita.[264] The latter genus includes the
destroying angel (A. virosa) and the death cap
(A. phalloides), the most common cause of deadly
mushroom poisoning.[265] The false morel (Gyromitra
esculenta) is occasionally considered a delicacy when
cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw.[266]
Tricholoma equestre was considered edible until it was
implicated in serious poisonings causing
rhabdomyolysis.[267] Fly agaric mushrooms (Amanita
muscaria) also cause occasional non-fatal poisonings,
mostly as a result of ingestion for its hallucinogenic
properties. Historically, fly agaric was used by different
peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for
religious or shamanic purposes is reported from some
ethnic groups such as the Koryak people of northeastern
Siberia.[268]

As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom


without proper training and knowledge, it is often advised
to assume that a wild mushroom is poisonous and not to
consume it.[269][270]

Pest control

Grasshoppers killed by Beauveria bassiana

In agriculture, fungi may be useful if they actively compete


for nutrients and space with pathogenic microorganisms
such as bacteria or other fungi via the competitive
exclusion principle,[271] or if they are parasites of these
pathogens. For example, certain species eliminate or
suppress the growth of harmful plant pathogens, such as
insects, mites, weeds, nematodes, and other fungi that
cause diseases of important crop plants.[272] This has
generated strong interest in practical applications that use
these fungi in the biological control of these agricultural
pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as
biopesticides, as they actively kill insects.[273] Examples
that have been used as biological insecticides are
Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium spp., Hirsutella spp.,
Paecilomyces (Isaria) spp., and Lecanicillium
lecanii.[274][275] Endophytic fungi of grasses of the genus
Epichloë, such as E. coenophiala, produce alkaloids that are
toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores.
These alkaloids protect grass plants from herbivory, but
several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals,
such as cattle and sheep.[276] Infecting cultivars of pasture
or forage grasses with Epichloë endophytes is one
approach being used in grass breeding programs; the
fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids
that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects,
while being non-toxic to livestock.[277][278]

Bioremediation

Certain fungi, in particular white-rot fungi, can degrade


insecticides, herbicides, pentachlorophenol, creosote, coal
tars, and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon dioxide,
water, and basic elements.[279] Fungi have been shown to
biomineralize uranium oxides, suggesting they may have
application in the bioremediation of radioactively polluted
sites.[280][281][282]

Model organisms

Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by


researchers using fungi as model organisms, that is, fungi
that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory.
For example, the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis was
formulated by scientists using the bread mold Neurospora
crassa to test their biochemical theories.[283] Other
important model fungi are Aspergillus nidulans and the
yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe, each of which with a long
history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell
biology and genetics, such as cell cycle regulation,
chromatin structure, and gene regulation. Other fungal
models have emerged that address specific biological
questions relevant to medicine, plant pathology, and
industrial uses; examples include Candida albicans, a
dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen,[284]
Magnaporthe grisea, a plant pathogen,[285] and Pichia
pastoris, a yeast widely used for eukaryotic protein
production.[286]

Others

Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals


like citric, gluconic, lactic, and malic acids,[287] and
industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in biological
detergents,[288] cellulases used in making cellulosic
ethanol[289] and stonewashed jeans,[290] and amylases,[291]
invertases, proteases and xylanases.[292]
See also
Fungi
portal

Conservation of fungi
Fantastic Fungi
Glossary of mycology
Marine fungi
Fungal infection
Outline of fungi
Fungi in art

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Cited literature

Ainsworth GC (1976). Introduction to the History of Mycology.


Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
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Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M (1996). Introductory
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Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary
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External links
Fungus
at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions
from
Wiktionary
Media from
Commons
Taxa from
Wikispecies

Tree of Life web project: Fungi (http://tolweb.org/fungi)


Encyclopedia of Life: Fungus (https://www.eol.org/page
s/5559)
Mushroom Observer (mushroomobserver.org (https://m
ushroomobserver.org) ), a collaborative fungus
recording and identification project
FUNGI (http://www.botanical-dermatology-database.inf
o/BotDermFolder/FUNGI.html) in BoDD – Botanical
Dermatology Database (http://www.botanical-dermatolo
gy-database.info/index.html)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?


title=Fungus&oldid=1146202396"

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