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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 1

CHAPTER 1: SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES

1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations

1. (a) This is a linear equation in , , and .

(b) This is not a linear equation in , , and because of the term .
(c) We can rewrite this equation in the form therefore it is a linear equation in
, , and .
(d) This is not a linear equation in , , and because of the term .

(e) This is not a linear equation in , , and because of the term .

(f) This is a linear equation in , , and .

2. (a) This is a linear equation in and .

(b) This is not a linear equation in and because of the terms and .

(c) This is a linear equation in and .

(d) This is not a linear equation in and because of the term .

(e) This is not a linear equation in and because of the term .

(f) We can rewrite this equation in the form thus it is a linear equation in and .
3. (a)

(b)

(c)

4. (a) (b) (c)

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2 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

5. (a) (b)

6. (a) (b)

7. (a) (b) (c)

8. (a) (b) (c)

9. The values in (a), (d), and (e) satisfy all three equations – these 3-tuples are solutions of the system.
The 3-tuples in (b) and (c) are not solutions of the system.
10. The values in (b), (d), and (e) satisfy all three equations – these 3-tuples are solutions of the system.
The 3-tuples in (a) and (c) are not solutions of the system.
11. (a) We can eliminate from the second equation by adding times the first equation to the
second. This yields the system

The second equation is contradictory, so the original system has no solutions. The lines
represented by the equations in that system have no points of intersection (the lines are
parallel and distinct).
(b) We can eliminate from the second equation by adding times the first equation to the
second. This yields the system

The second equation does not impose any restriction on and therefore we can omit it. The
lines represented by the original system have infinitely many points of intersection. Solving the
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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 3

first equation for we obtain . This allows us to represent the solution using
parametric equations

where the parameter is an arbitrary real number.

(c) We can eliminate from the second equation by adding times the first equation to the
second. This yields the system

From the second equation we obtain . Substituting for into the first equation
results in . Therefore, the original system has the unique solution

The represented by the equations in that system have one point of intersection: .
12. We can eliminate from the second equation by adding times the first equation to the second.
This yields the system

If (i.e., ) then the second equation imposes no restriction on and ;

consequently, the system has infinitely many solutions.
If (i.e., ) then the second equation becomes contradictory thus the system has no
solutions.
There are no values of and for which the system has one solution.

13. (a) Solving the equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of the original
equation can be described by the parametric equations

where the parameter is an arbitrary real number.

(b) Solving the equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of the
original equation can be described by the parametric equations

where the parameters and are arbitrary real numbers.

(c) Solving the equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of
the original equation can be described by the parametric equations
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4 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

where the parameters , , and are arbitrary real numbers.

(d) Solving the equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of the
original equation can be described by the parametric equations

where the parameters , , , and are arbitrary real numbers.

14. (a) Solving the equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of the original
equation can be described by the parametric equations

where the parameter is an arbitrary real number.

(b) Solving the equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of the
original equation can be described by the parametric equations

where the parameters and are arbitrary real numbers.

(c) Solving the equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of
the original equation can be described by the parametric equations

where the parameters , , and are arbitrary real numbers.

(d) Solving the equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of the
original equation can be described by the parametric equations

where the parameters , , , and are arbitrary real numbers.

15. (a) We can eliminate from the second equation by adding times the first equation to the
second. This yields the system

The second equation does not impose any restriction on and therefore we can omit it.
Solving the first equation for we obtain . This allows us to represent the solution
using parametric equations

where the parameter is an arbitrary real number.

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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 5

(b) We can see that the second and the third equation are multiples of the first: adding times the
first equation to the second, then adding the first equation to the third yields the system

The last two equations do not impose any restriction on the unknowns therefore we can omit
them. Solving the first equation for we obtain . This allows us to
represent the solution using parametric equations

where the parameters and are arbitrary real numbers.

16. (a) We can eliminate from the first equation by adding times the second equation to the
first. This yields the system

The first equation does not impose any restriction on and therefore we can omit it. Solving
the second equation for we obtain . This allows us to represent the solution
using parametric equations

where the parameter is an arbitrary real number.

(b) We can see that the second and the third equation are multiples of the first: adding times the
first equation to the second, then adding times the first equation to the third yields the system

The last two equations do not impose any restriction on the unknowns therefore we can omit
them. Solving the first equation for we obtain . This allows us to represent
the solution using parametric equations

where the parameters and are arbitrary real numbers.

17. (a) Add times the second row to the first to obtain .

(b) Add the third row to the first to obtain

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6 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

(another solution: interchange the first row and the third row to obtain ).

18. (a) Multiply the first row by to obtain .

(b) Add the third row to the first to obtain

(another solution: add times the second row to the first to obtain ).

19. (a) Add times the first row to the second to obtain which corresponds to the
system

If then the second equation becomes , which is contradictory thus the system
becomes inconsistent.
If then we can solve the second equation for and proceed to substitute this value into
the first equation and solve for .
Consequently, for all values of the given augmented matrix corresponds to a consistent
linear system.

(b) Add times the first row to the second to obtain which corresponds to the
system

If then the second equation becomes , which does not impose any restriction on
and therefore we can omit it and proceed to determine the solution set using the first
equation. There are infinitely many solutions in this set.
If then the second equation yields and the first equation becomes .
Consequently, for all values of the given augmented matrix corresponds to a consistent linear
system.

20. (a) Add times the first row to the second to obtain which corresponds to the
system
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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 7

If then the second equation becomes , which does not impose any restriction on
and therefore we can omit it and proceed to determine the solution set using the first
equation. There are infinitely many solutions in this set.

If then the second equation is contradictory thus the system becomes inconsistent.

Consequently, the given augmented matrix corresponds to a consistent linear system only when
.

(b) Add the first row to the second to obtain which corresponds to the system

If then the second equation becomes , which does not impose any restriction on
and therefore we can omit it and proceed to determine the solution set using the first
equation. There are infinitely many solutions in this set.
If then the second equation yields and the first equation becomes .
Consequently, for all values of the given augmented matrix corresponds to a consistent linear
system.
21. Substituting the coordinates of the first point into the equation of the curve we obtain

Repeating this for the other two points and rearranging the three equations yields

This is a linear system in the unknowns , , and . Its augmented matrix is .

23. Solving the first equation for we obtain therefore the solution set of the original
equation can be described by the parametric equations

where the parameter is an arbitrary real number.

Substituting these into the second equation yields

which can be rewritten as

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8 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

This equation must hold true for all real values , which requires that the coefficients associated with
the same power of on both sides must be equal. Consequently, and .
24. (a) The system has no solutions if either

 at least two of the three lines are parallel and distinct or

 each pair of lines intersects at a different point (without any lines being parallel)
(b) The system has exactly one solution if either

 two lines coincide and the third one intersects them or

 all three lines intersect at a single point (without any lines being parallel)
(c) The system has infinitely many solutions if all three lines coincide.
25.

26. We set up the linear system as discussed in Exercise 21:

i.e.

One solution is expected, since exactly one parabola passes through any three given points ,
, if , , and are distinct.
27.

True-False Exercises
(a) True. is a solution.
(b) False. Only multiplication by a nonzero constant is a valid elementary row operation.
(c) True. If then the system has infinitely many solutions; otherwise the system is inconsistent.
(d) True. According to the definition, is a linear equation if the 's are not
all zero. Let us assume . The values of all 's except for can be set to be arbitrary parameters,
and the equation can be used to express in terms of those parameters.

(e) False. E.g. if the equations are all homogeneous then the system must be consistent. (See True-False
Exercise (a) above.)
(f) False. If then the new system has the same solution set as the original one.
(g) True. Adding times one row to another amounts to the same thing as subtracting one row from
another.
(h) False. The second row corresponds to the equation , which is contradictory.
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1.2 Gaussian Elimination 9

1.2 Gaussian Elimination

1. (a) This matrix has properties 1-4. It is in reduced row echelon form, therefore it is also in row
echelon form.
(b) This matrix has properties 1-4. It is in reduced row echelon form, therefore it is also in row
echelon form.
(c) This matrix has properties 1-4. It is in reduced row echelon form, therefore it is also in row
echelon form.
(d) This matrix has properties 1-4. It is in reduced row echelon form, therefore it is also in row
echelon form.
(e) This matrix has properties 1-4. It is in reduced row echelon form, therefore it is also in row
echelon form.
(f) This matrix has properties 1-4. It is in reduced row echelon form, therefore it is also in row
echelon form.
(g) This matrix has properties 1-3 but does not have property 4: the second column contains a
leading 1 and a nonzero number ( ) above it. The matrix is in row echelon form but not
reduced row echelon form.
2. (a) This matrix has properties 1-3 but does not have property 4: the second column contains a
leading 1 and a nonzero number (2) above it. The matrix is in row echelon form but not reduced
row echelon form.
(b) This matrix does not have property 1 since its first nonzero number in the third row (2) is not a
1. The matrix is not in row echelon form, therefore it is not in reduced row echelon form either.
(c) This matrix has properties 1-3 but does not have property 4: the third column contains a
leading 1 and a nonzero number (4) above it. The matrix is in row echelon form but not reduced
row echelon form.
(d) This matrix has properties 1-3 but does not have property 4: the second column contains a
leading 1 and a nonzero number (5) above it. The matrix is in row echelon form but not reduced
row echelon form.
(e) This matrix does not have property 2 since the row that consists entirely of zeros is not at the
bottom of the matrix. The matrix is not in row echelon form, therefore it is not in reduced row
echelon form either.
(f) This matrix does not have property 3 since the leading 1 in the second row is directly below the
leading 1 in the first (instead of being farther to the right). The matrix is not in row echelon
form, therefore it is not in reduced row echelon form either.
(g) This matrix has properties 1-4. It is in reduced row echelon form, therefore it is also in row
echelon form.
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10 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

3. (a) The linear system

can be rewritten as

and solved by back-substitution:

therefore the original linear system has a unique solution: , , .

(b) The linear system

can be rewritten as

Let . Then

therefore the original linear system has infinitely many solutions:

, , ,
where is an arbitrary value.
(c) The linear system

can be rewritten: , , .
Let and . Then

therefore the original linear system has infinitely many solutions:

where and are arbitrary values.

(d) The system is inconsistent since the third row of the augmented matrix corresponds to the
equation

4. (a) A unique solution: , , .

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1.2 Gaussian Elimination 11

(b) Infinitely many solutions: , , , where is an arbitrary

value.
(c) Infinitely many solutions: , , , , where
and are arbitrary values.
(d) The system is inconsistent since the third row of the augmented matrix corresponds to the
equation

5. The augmented matrix for the system.

The first row was added to the second row.

times the first row was added to the third row.

The second row was multiplied by .

10 times the second row was added to the third row.

The third row was multiplied by .

The system of equations corresponding to this augmented matrix in row echelon form is

and can be rewritten as

Back-substitution yields

The linear system has a unique solution: , , .

6. The augmented matrix for the system.

The first row was multiplied by .

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12 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

times the first row was added to the second row.

times the first row was added to the third row.

The second row was multiplied by .

7 times the second row was added to the third row.

The system of equations corresponding to this augmented matrix in row echelon form is

Solve the equations for the leading variables

then substitute the second equation into the first

If we assign an arbitrary value , the general solution is given by the formulas

7. The augmented matrix for the system.

times the first row was added to the second row.

The first row was added to the third row.

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1.2 Gaussian Elimination 13

times the first row was added to the fourth row.

The second row was multiplied by .

times the second row was added to the third row.

times the second row was added to the fourth row.

The system of equations corresponding to this augmented matrix in row echelon form is

Solve the equations for the leading variables

then substitute the second equation into the first

If we assign and the arbitrary values and , respectively, the general solution is given by the
formulas

8. The augmented matrix for the system.

The first and second rows were interchanged.

The first row was multiplied by .

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14 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

times the first row was added to the third row.

The second row was multiplied by .

times the second row was added to the third row.

The third row was multiplied by .

The system of equations corresponding to this augmented matrix in row echelon form

is clearly inconsistent.

9. The augmented matrix for the system.

The first row was added to the second row.

times the first row was added to the third row.

The second row was multiplied by .

10 times the second row was added to the third row.

The third row was multiplied by .

5 times the third row was added to the second row.

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1.2 Gaussian Elimination 15

times the third row was added to the first row.

times the second row was added to the first row.

The linear system has a unique solution: , , .

10. The augmented matrix for the system.

The first row was multiplied by .

times the first row was added to the second row.

times the first row was added to the third row.

The second row was multiplied by .

7 times the second row was added to the third row.

times the second row was added to the first row.

Infinitely many solutions: , , where is an arbitrary value.

11. The augmented matrix for the system.

times the first row was added to the second row.

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16 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

the first row was added to the third row.

times the first row was added to the fourth row.

The second row was multiplied by .

times the second row was added to the third row.

times the second row was added to the fourth row.

the second row was added to the first row.

The system of equations corresponding to this augmented matrix in row echelon form is

Solve the equations for the leading variables

If we assign and the arbitrary values and , respectively, the general solution is given by the
formulas

12. The augmented matrix for the system.

The first and second rows were interchanged.

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1.2 Gaussian Elimination 17

The first row was multiplied by .

times the first row was added to the third row.

The second row was multiplied by .

times the second row was added to the third row.

The third row was multiplied by .

times the third row was added to the second row.

times the third row was added to the first row.

times the second row was added to the first row.

The last row corresponds to the equation

therefore the system is inconsistent.

(Note: this was already evident after the fifth elementary row operation.)
13. Since the number of unknowns (4) exceeds the number of equations (3), it follows from Theorem
1.2.2 that this system has infinitely many solutions. Those include the trivial solution and infinitely
many nontrivial solutions.
14. The system does not have nontrivial solutions.
(The third equation requires , which substituted into the second equation yields Both
of these substituted into the first equation result in .)
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18 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

15. We present two different solutions.

Solution I uses Gauss-Jordan elimination

The augmented matrix for the system.

The first row was multiplied by .

times the first row was added to the second row.

The second row was multiplied by .

times the second row was added to the third row.

The third row was multiplied by .

The third row was added to the second row

and times the third row was added to the first row

times the second row was added to the first row.

Unique solution: , , .
Solution II. This time, we shall choose the order of the elementary row operations differently in order
to avoid introducing fractions into the computation. (Since every matrix has a unique reduced row
echelon form, the exact sequence of elementary row operations being used does not matter – see part
1 of the discussion “Some Facts About Echelon Forms” on p. 21)

The augmented matrix for the system.

The first and second rows were interchanged

(to avoid introducing fractions into the first row).
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1.2 Gaussian Elimination 19

times the first row was added to the second row.

The second row was multiplied by .

times the second row was added to the third row.

The third row was multiplied by .

The third row was added to the second row.

times the second row was added to the first row.

Unique solution: , , .
16. We present two different solutions.
Solution I uses Gauss-Jordan elimination

The augmented matrix for the system.

The first row was multiplied by .

The first row was added to the second row.

times the first row was added to the third row.

The second row was multiplied by .

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20 Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

times the second row was added to the third row.

The third row was multiplied by .

times the third row was added to the second row

and times the third row was added to the first row

times the second row was added to the first row.

Unique solution: , , .
Solution II. This time, we shall choose the order of the elementary row operations differently in order
to avoid introducing fractions into the computation. (Since every matrix has a unique reduced row
echelon form, the exact sequence of elementary row operations being used does not matter – see part
1 of the discussion “Some Facts About Echelon Forms” on p. 21)

The augmented matrix for the system.

The first and third rows were interchanged

(to avoid introducing fractions into the first row).

The first row was added to the second row.

times the first row was added to the third row.

The second row was added to the third row.

The third row was multiplied by .

times the third row was added to the second row.