ABE 53 –

HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Chapter 2 –
C. Temperature,
Humidity and Wind
BY:

ENGR. ROWENA R. CANGAS

Temperature
is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of all particles within an object.

indicates how warm or cold an object is

with regards to the standard.
 Temperature Scales
• Fahrenheit is a temperature scale used mostly in
the United States.

• Celsius is the temperature scale used mostly in

other countries and in science. Based on 0 C
being freezing point and 100 C being boiling
point, the difference between those two points is
divided up into 100 equal parts.

• Kelvin scale is the temperature scale used by

scientists, where all of the numbers are positive.
It is based off the idea of absolute zero.
Absolute zero
is the lowest possible temperature .
An object’s energy is zero. There is
no possible transfer of energy.
Variation in temperature with height

Lapse rate Radiation Temperature

Inversion
 LAPSE RATE

the decrease in air temperature with height

T (T2 T1 )
 
z (z2  z1 )
process lapse rate gives temperature change
associated with some action or process (e.g.
rising air parcels)

temperature can be changed during vertical motion of

air parcel without receiving heat from or losing no
heat to surrounding air (i.e. adiabatic process)
Hydrostatic equation

• pressure in the lower atmosphere decreases with

height
• valid only when atmosphere is at rest (hydrostatic
equilibrium)

dP
dP vertical pressure gradient

 g
dz
ρ
dz g
air density

gravitational acceleration
First Law of Thermodynamics
(Conservation of energy)

• increase in the internal energy (dU) of an air

parcel can occur only through addition of
heat (dH) to the parcel and/or by performing
work (dW)on the parcel

dU = dH + dW
First Law of Thermodynamics
(Conservation of energy)
• For a constant pressure process, dU = ρcp dT
• Work done on air parcel is expressed in change
pressure, dP

ρcp dT = dH + dP
ρcp dT = dH - ρgdz
• Air parcel temperature changes due to addition or
removal heat and change in pressure
First Law of Thermodynamics
(Conservation of energy)
• For adiabatic condition, dH = 0

ρcp dT = -ρgdz
Adiabatic lapse rate – rate
dT g
  of change in temperature of
air parcel with height in an
dz cp adiabatic atmosphere
 ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES
An air parcel lifted adiabatically will cool at a rate of:

UNSATURATED OR DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

(DALR) Γd = 9.8 K/ m (constant)

SATURATED OR MOIST ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (MALR)

– not constant and smaller than DALR (why?)
 s
Saturated adiabatic lapse rate
Le Latent heat of vaporization
dQ Slope of saturation-specific
s

dT humidity versus temperature

curve
ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES FOR UNSATURATED
AND SATURATED AIR PARCEL

4000 MALR
ALTITUDE (m)

3000

2000 Lifting condensation level

DALR
1000

-10 0 10 20 30 40
TEMPERATURE, °C
 SAMPLE PROBLEM

DALR = 1°C / 100 m

MALR = 0.4°C /100m
Moist Air Temperature at pt. A = 30°C
Level of Condensation = 1.5 km

Find air parcel temperature at B

pt. B, pt. C, and pt. D 2.0km

1.5km

A D
 POISSON’S EQUATION
• describes the relationship between temperature and pressure
of atmosphere during adiabatic expansion and compression

T  P
R1
Cp

 
T P 
o o

T0 air temperature at higher pressure

T air temperature at lower pressure
P0 higher pressure
P lower pressure
R1 specific gas constant
Cp specific heat of air at constant pressure
R1 / Cp 0.286
 Sample Problem

The temperature of air parcel at 110 kPa is

25°C. What is the final temperature of air
parcel if lifted adiabatically at a pressure of
80 kPa?
POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE (Θ)
• temperature of an air parcel if brought adiabatically from
its actual pressure (P) to a standard pressure (100 kPa)
0.286

  T
100 

 P 
Θ potential temperature, K
T initial air temperature, K
P initial air pressure, KPa
POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE (Θ)
• removes the effects of dry adiabatic temperature changes
experienced by air parcels during vertical motion
• remains constant in height for adiabatic atmosphere
• for non-adiabatic atmosphere, potential temperature is
determined as a function of height (z)

d dT
 
dz dz
Θ potential temperature, K or C
T air temperature at height z, K or C
Γ adiabatic lapse rate (K/m or C/m)
z height, m
Virtual Temperature(Tv)
• temperature at which the dry air
would have if its pressure and
density were equal to those of moist
air
Tv  T(1 0.61Q)
T actual air temperature, K
Q specific humidity, g/g
Specific Humidity (Q)
• ratio of mass of water vapor to mass
of air containing the water vapor

Mw e
Q Q  0.622
Mw  Md P
Mw mass of water vapor e water vapor pressure
Md mass of dry air P total pressure of moist air
(P = e+Pd)
Virtual Potential Temperature(Θv)

 100 
0.286
dv dTv
v  Tv    
 P dz dz

Θv virtual potential temperature, K

Tv virtual temperature, K
P initial air pressure, KPa
 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
• comparison between temperature change of
ascending or descending air parcel with vertical
surrounding air temperature profile (adiabatic
lapse rate of parcel vs. actual lapse rate or
inversion of atmosphere)
• in the presence of gravity, bouyancy force (due
to density difference) accelerates or decelerates
the vertical movement of parcel
 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

CATEGORIES OF STATIC STABILITY

1. Unstable atmosphere – vertical motion of
air parcel is enhanced (parcel is accelerated
away from equilibrium position)
2. Stable atmosphere – vertical motion of
parcel is suppressed (parcel is decelerated
and returns to equilibrium position
3. Neutral atmosphere – no bouyancy force
exerted on parcel at all
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
Stable or unstable?
Stable or unstable?
 Local Static Stability Parameter (s)

 g  d
s  v

 v   dz 
T
g gravitational acceleration
Tv virtual temperature
dΘv/dz virtual potential temperature gradient
Categories of Local Static Stability
STABILITY AFFECTS MIXING OF POLLUTED AIR
Unstable air enhances convection and
turbulence

Heated air expands and rises,

carrying pollutants higher into the
troposphere
Stable air inhibits mixing and
dispersion of pollutants

Stable layer acts as a lid in the

troposphere that prevents
upward flowing of air currents

Pollutants at ground level tends to

build up at harmful levels
IMPORTANCE OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

• stability of atmosphere influences weather by

affecting vertical motion of air
• stable air suppresses vertical motion
• Unstable air enhances vertical motion,
convection, expansional cooling, and cloud
development
• Stability is important in assessing air pollution
potential (rate of polluted air mixing with clean
air)
 Instrumentation for Air
Temperature Measurement
Instrumentation for Air Temperature
Measurement
Methods of temperature measurement
a.Expansion effect
• depends on thermal expansion of gases,
liquids and solids

LIQUID-IN-GLASS
THERMOMETER BIMETALLICTHERMOGRAPH
 Instrumentation for Air Temperature
Measurement
b. Electrical resistance effect
• change in temperature results in
change in electrical resistance of
conducting materials
• increase in temperature increases
electrical resistance (platinum
resistance thermometers)
• increase in temperature decreases
electrical resistance (semiconductors-
thermistors, transistors, diodes)
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
RESISTANCE AND TEMPERATURE
FOR MOST METALS

RT = RTo [ 1+ α (T-To) + β (T-To)2]

where
RT resistance at temp T
Ro resistance at temp To usually 0o C
α first order temperature coefficient
β second order temperature coefficient
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
RESISTANCE AND TEMPERATURE

FOR THERMISTORS

R(T) = R(To) e B( 1/T - 1/To)

where
R(T) resistance at absolute temp T
R(To) resistance at temp To usually 0o C
B constant
 Instrumentation for Air Temperature
Measurement
c. Thermoelectric effect
• current will flow in a circuit composed of two
dissimilar metals when two junctions were at
different temperatures (Seebeck effect)

Thermocouple
• consists of two wires soldered together to form
junctions
ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY
 Humidity
• refers to the amount of moisture
(water vapor) in the air
• water vapor exerts weight and
pressure in air parcel
• air can hold up certain amount of
water vapor depending on the
temperature
Role of Humidity in Plants and Animals

• influences the drying capacity of air

• influences rate of transpiration in plants

• affects phyto-pathogen growth and
development
• influences thermal comfort (evaporative
cooling)
• primary source of water (dew formation)
Atmospheric moisture content can be
expressed in several ways:
1. Absolute humidity
2. Mixing Ratio
3. Specific Humidity
4. Vapor Pressure
5. Relative Humidity
6. Dew-Point Temperature
7. Wet-bulb Temperature
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY

• mass of water vapor per volume of moist

air (g/m3)

MIXING RATIO
• mass of water vapor per mass of dry air (g/kg)

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY
• mass of water vapor per mass of moist air (almost
identical to mixing ratio at low moisture contents),
g/kg
VAPOR PRESSURE
• partial pressure exerted by water vapor in the
atmosphere (Pa or mb)
• moist air behaves like an ideal gas and obeys
Dalton’s Law

P = Pd + ea
P pressure of mixture of gases
Pd partial pressure of dry air
ea partial pressure of water vapor in mixture

• amount of water in air is directly related to the

partial pressure of water vapor
SATURATION VAPOR PRESSURE (es)

• upper limit of vapor pressure at a particular

temperature

• atmosphere can hold

large mass of vapor
(higher es) at warmer
temperature

SVP as a function of temperature or the

dew-point curve (Stull, 2000)
Saturation vapour pressure can be calculated from
the air temperature:

 17.27T 
T 237.3 
es  0.6108 e 

where
es saturation vapour pressure [kPa],
T air temperature [°C],
SLOPE OF SATURATION VAPOR PRESSURE
CURVE

 17.27T
237.3

4098 0.610eT

 
T  237.3 2

Δ slope of saturation vapor

pressure curve at air
T temperature T, kPa °C-1
air temperature, °C
• an important parameter in describing vaporization and
is required in evapotranspiration calculations
 ACTUAL VAPOR PRESSURE (ea)
• actual vapor pressure exerted by water in an
unsaturated air
• directly measures the actual amount of moisture in
air
• ea < es (unsaturated air) and ea = es (saturated air)
• difference between saturation vapor pressure (es)
and actual vapor pressure (ea) is called the vapor
pressure deficit
• vapor pressure deficit accurately measures the
evaporative capacity of air
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)
• does not indicate the actual amount of moisture
in the air
• ratio of the actual vapor pressure (ea) to the
saturation vapor pressure (es), %

 ea 
RH    x100
e
• RH is affected by changing water vapor content
of air and changing air temperature
 DEW POINT TEMPERATURE (Tdp)
•temperature to which air must be cooled at
constant pressure to become saturated at its current
vapor content
•air temperature (T dry bulb) and dew point
temperature (Tdp) are equal at 100% RH (saturated
air) – condensation occurs
•dew point is also a good indicator of dryness of air
•the drier the air, the larger the difference between
the air temperature and dew point temperature
 WET - BULB TEMPERATURE (Twb)

• temperature to which the latent heat of vaporization

will cool the ambient air
• measured simultaneously with dry-bulb
temperature (air temperature) and use
psychrometric table to convert to relative humidity
• when air temperature (dry bulb) equals wet-bulb
temperature, the relative humidity is 100%
• Twb is not necessarily equal to Tdp
Psychrometric table for conversion of
wet-bulb and dry-bulb into relative
humidity
Daily variation in RH, es, and air temperature

Relative Humidity

4 12 22
Time, hours
Typical midday profile of vapor pressure and
relative humidity over an irrigated crop
Elevation, m

Vapor pressure, kpa Relative humidity, %

 PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS OF VAPOR
PRESSURE
• nearly isohumic (no change in vapor pressure
with height) in early morning
• steep lapse profile during midday due to higher
evapotranspiration and increase in turbulence
• humidity gradients become moderate in the early
evening due to decrease in evapotranspiration
and turbulence
• inverted profile at night due to dew formation
Mean daily pattern of vapor pressure over and
within a dry bean crop

above canopy
within canopy
Vapor pressure, kPa

4 12 22

Time, hrs
 MEASUREMENT OF
ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY
Unit of Measurement

Parameter Unit
Vapor Pressure Pa
Vapor Concentration kg/m3
Moisture Content g/kg
Mixing ratio g/kg
Relative Humidity percent
Methods of Measuring Air Humidity

1. Thermodynamic method (e.g. psychrometer)

2. Mechanical method - change in physical
dimensions of hygroscopic substances (e.g. Hair
hygrometer)
3. Change in chemical and electrical properties of
material due to absorption or adsorption
4. Condensation method (e.g. dew hygrometer)
5. Spectral absorption of water vapor
PSYCHROMETER
Measures relative humidity
by getting the wet bulb and
dry bulb temperature and

Wet Bulb Depression: The

difference between the dry
bulb and wet bulb temperature

Relative Humidity can be

determined from the wet bulb
depression using a
psychrometric table
HAIR HYGROMETER
measures relative humidity by means of the variation in
length of a strand of human hair

Elongation of hair as a function of

moisture condition of air is non
linear. This non-linearity is
corrected by mechanical linkage
between hair and the recorder
pen in the hygrograph
DEW POINT HYGROMETER

The dew point hygrometer

uses a cooled mirror as a
sensor; in this case, the
temperature of the mirror is
monitored to determine the
temperature at which dew
first appears
 Capacitance and Resistance Hygrometers

A thin film capacitor

hygrometer measures
humidity by detecting the
change in capacitance of a
thin polymer film (linear
response)

Resistance hygrometer works on

the principle that electrical
resistance varies in a material that
absorbs moisture (logarithmic
response)
Spectral absorption of water vapor

a.Infrared gas analyzer (IRGA)

• higher absorption of IR at higher water
vapor concentration of air
b. Lyman – alpha hygrometer
• far violet (121.56 nm) is strongly
absorbed by water vapor
WIND
Wind is defined as:
• Air in motion

• Known as the equalizer of the earth’s

atmosphere

• Exerts considerable influence in the

evaporative and snowmelt processes

• Important in the production of precipitation

(since it is through sustained inflow of moist
air into storm that precipitation can be
maintained) 65
Types of air in motion
◦ Horizontal motion – measured in regular basis
◦ Vertical motion - up and down motion; quite
small but it is very important, principally
responsible for the formation and distribution of
clouds in the atmosphere.

Flow Patterns
◦ Laminar – smooth or sheet
◦ Turbulent- erratic pattern; results in gusts/ lulls
Forces Affecting Horizontal Wind

• Pressure Gradient Force

• Coriolis Force
• Centripetal Force
• Friction
Pressure Gradient Force

• force that causes the wind to blow from higher to lower

pressure
• higher pressure gradient (ΔP/ΔX) creates stronger PGF and
greater wind speed
Coriolis Force

• causes the wind to deflect to the

right of its intended path in the N
hemisphere and to the left of its
intended path in the S
Hemisphere
• Coriolis force increases as wind
speed increases
• deflection is greatest at the poles
and decreases to zero at the
equator
Geostrophic Winds

• winds which would occur

as a result of balance
between PGF and Coriolis
Force

• wind blows in a straight

path, parallel to isobars at
constant speed
Centripetal Force
• inward-directed force resulting
from the imbalance between
PGF and coriolis force
• net force causes the wind to
move in a counterclockwise ,
circular path
• wind moving at constant speed
parallel to curved isobars above
the level of frictional influence is
called gradient wind
Friction

• friction decreases wind

speed near the ground,
which in turn reduces
Coriolis force

• weak Coriolis force causes

surface winds to cross
isobars at average angle
of 30 degrees and blow
toward low pressure
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND
• Highly variable (time and space) in direction and
velocity
• Effective in transporting heat
• Effective in mixing of the atmospheric boundary
layer of the earth
• Wind speed decreases rapidly as it approaches the surface
• Shape of wind speed profile (WS vs height) is logarithmic
• Mechanical turbulence – small fluctuations w/ high
frequencies
• Thermal turbulence – large fluctuation w/ low frequencies
 Wind Speed Profile

Source: Jones, 2014

 Diurnal Variation in Wind Speed

2.0
Wind Speed,

1.5

1.0

0.5
m/s

0.0

18
6
0
3

21
12
15

24
Time of day,hrs
Source: Nuwam (June 19, 2015 AWSdata)
 INFLUENCE OF THE SURFACE ON THE
ATMOSPHERE

PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER

• depth of influence of the surface on the atmosphere ( 1
km above surface)

a.LAMINAR SUBLAYER
• Non-turbulent thin layer above the surface
• Few millimeters (1 to 2 mm) thick and even
thinner under windy conditions
• Transport process in governed mainly by
molecular diffusion
b. TURBULENT SUBLAYER (SURFACE LAYER)
• Above the laminar layer and extends up to 50-100 m
• Air motion is irregular (direction and speed) and
characterized by fluctuations or eddies
• Surface frictional influence dominates and Coriolis
effect (earth’s rotation) is negligible
• Region of most interest ( flux of momentum, heat,
and mass are constant with height)
• Profiles of wind speed, temperature, and
concentration are logarithmic

• Transport is governed by turbulent mixing

 CHARACTERISTIC OF ATMOSPHERIC
TURBULENCE
random fluctuations in wind speed and direction caused
by a swirling or eddy motion of the air

Eddies are generated in two ways:

Mechanical turbulence Thermal turbulence

The fluctuations from mechanical
turbulence tend to be smaller and more
rapid than combined thermal and
mechanical fluctuations
WIND AS A VECTOR
Wind is a vector quantity involving both magnitude and
direction, while the other environmental variables are
scalars, where only magnitude is specified

Wind Velocity
Components
w

u
Mean value
Deviation
v from mean
w = w + w’
MODELLING VARIATION IN WINDSPEED
WIND SPEED PROFILE
• variation of wind speed with height

IMPORTANCE OF WIND PROFILING

• estimate the effectiveness of vertical
exchange processes
• estimate wind speed at other levels given a
fixed or reference level
 MODELLING VARIATION IN WINDSPEED

TYPICAL SHAPE OF WIND PROFILE

• under neutral atmospheric stability, mean
wind speed can be described as logarithmic
function of elevation
• applicable only for the lowest 50 to 100
m of the atmosphere (turbulent surface
layer)
LOGARITHMIC LAW OF WINDSPEED PROFILE

For open, level, and relatively smooth site:

U*  z 
U z   ln  
k  z0 
U(z) mean wind speed at height z
U* friction velocity
k Von Karman’s constant (0.4)
zo roughness parameter
z height
LOGARITHMIC LAW OF WINDSPEED
PROFILE

Wind speed (u) plotted linearly against height

(z) over smooth surface
LOGARITHMIC LAW OF WINDSPEED
PROFILE

U*
ln z slope 
k
ln zo

Plot of wind speed (U) versus logarithm of

elevation (z)
LOGARITHMIC LAW OF WINDSPEED PROFILE

Wind speed profile above rough surfaces (e.g. crop

canopies) is described as:

U*  z d 
U z   ln  
k  z0 
d zero plane displacement
 LOGARITHMIC LAW OF WINDSPEED PROFILE ABOVE
A CROP

h (crop
d + zo
height)
d (zero plane
displacement)

U
Typical wind profile over a uniform level of vegetation
of height h plotted linearly against height z
Determining roughness parameter (zo) and
zero
plane displacement
d too small
(d)
correct d
d too
ln z-d large

U*
slope 
ln z o k

U
Plot of wind speed (U) versus logarithm of (z-d)
 FRICTION VELOCITY, U*
• characteristic velocity of flow
U* = (τ/ρa)1/2
τ shearing stress
ρa air density
ROUGHNESS PARAMETER, Zo

• measures the aerodynamic roughness of

the surface over which wind speed profile
is measured
• extrapolation of plot of U and ln z (for
smooth surface) and ln z-d (rough surface )
to the point where U = 0
ROUGHNESS PARAMETER,
Z o
Empirically determined values of roughness parameterfor
various surfaces (from Hansen, 1993)

Zo Zo
ZERO PLANE DISPLACEMENT, d

• Mean level at which momentum is absorbed by individual

elements of plant community
• d/h ranges from 0.5 to 0.8
• d is best determined by trial and error (plot of U and ln
(z-d) must be straight line)
• Stanhill (1969)
log10 d = 0.979log10h – 0.154
• Affected by adjustment of plants to mechanical forces,
bending, streamlining by force of wind
• h (crop height)
ESTIMATION OF WIND SPEED AT DIFFERENT
HEIGHTS
• from a value U at a reference height

U 2 ln z2  d  ln zo

U1 ln z1  d  ln zo
U1 mean wind speed at elevation z1
U2 mean wind speed at elevation z2
z1 reference height
 Sample Problem

Estimate the wind speed at a height of

15 m above an open terrain with
smooth surface if the wind speed at 5 m
height is 2 m/s.
 Wind Speed Measurement
Wind Speed:
• Standard height of measurement – 10meters
• Agromet sites – 2 meters
• Rotating cup anemometer- meteorological use
• Sonic Anemometer – for smaller time scale
(seconds) and more rapid fluctuations in WS
e.g. Eddy covariance studies
 Types of Anemometers
• Pressure – relates differential pressure
to wind speed
• Mechanical – relates rotation of
mechanical parts to wind speed
• Thermoelectric – relates convective cooling
of heated sensor is a function of fluid flow
• Acoustical – relates speed of sound
asit travels in the direction ofwind
 Wind Speed Instruments

3-cup Propeller
vane Hot wire
anemometer
anemometer

Sonic
anemometer
WIND DIRECTION
• direction from which wind is blowing (e.g.
N means wind is blowing from north
towards south)
• expressed as degrees (e.g. 360o north
wind, 90 o east wind, 0o calm ) or compass
points (e.g. N, NE, NW, etc)

PREVAILINGWIND
• wind direction most oftenobserved
during a given time period
• represented by a wind rose (percentage
of time the wind blows from different
directions as indicated by length of line)