University of the Free State

PHYS 2614 Semester test 25 marks 50 min

Prof R. E. Kroon 20 April 2021

Answer all the questions.

Question 1
The gravitational force of the earth (mass 𝑀) on an object having mass 𝑚, which
is above the earth's surface and a distance 𝑥 from its centre, is given by
𝑚𝑀
𝐹 = −𝐺 .
𝑥2
𝑚𝑀
(a) What is the parity of the function 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = −𝐺 ? [1]
𝑥2

(b) Use Newton’s second law to give an expression for the resulting acceleration
of the object and then use this to calculate the velocity of the object as a function
of its position. Assume it has initial velocity 𝑣0 at initial position 𝑥0 . [3]

Question 2
An object falling and experiencing viscous drag has a velocity given by
𝑔
𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉 + (𝑣0 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −𝑉𝑡 .
(a) Write down a simplified expression for 𝑣(∞). [½]
(b) Write down a simplified expression for 𝑣(0). [½]
(c) Integrate 𝑣 (𝑡) to derive an expression for displacement as a function of time.
[2]
(d) The small value approximation of the exponential function is 𝑒 𝑢 ≈ 1 + 𝑢
𝑔
when 𝑢 is small. Use this and 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉 + (𝑣0 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −𝑉𝑡 to show that very near
𝑔
the beginning of the motion 𝑣 (𝑡) ≈ 𝑣0 − (𝑣0 − 𝑉 ) 𝑡. [2]
𝑉

Page 1 of 8
Question 3
A mass attached to a spring and moving without friction undergoes simple
harmonic motion 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑).
(a) Show that the total energy of the system is constant and given by
1
𝐸𝑇𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝐴2 . [3]
2

(b) The amplitude of a simple harmonic oscillator is given in terms of the initial

𝑣 2
conditions as 𝐴 = √𝑥02 + ( 0 ) . Use the principle of conservation of energy to
𝜔

show that the mass will pass through the equilibrium position with speed
𝑣 = √𝑣02 + (𝜔𝑥0 )2 . [1]
(c) The above results assume the mass of the spring itself is negligible. State what
percentage of the spring’s mass should generally be considered (i.e. added to the
mass) to obtain more accurate results? [1]

Question 4
A mass 𝑚 attached to a spring (with spring constant 𝑘) experiences viscous
friction of the form 𝑅 = −𝛽𝑣 in addition to the spring force 𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥. From
Newton’s second law it can be shown that the motion must satisfy the differential
equation 𝑎 + 2𝛾𝑣 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0.
(a) Find, by substitution, for what value(s) of 𝑟 is 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑟𝑡 a solution for the
motion. [2]
(b) What value for 𝑟 corresponds to critical damping? [1]
(c) Name an every-day example of a system where it is best to be critically
damped. [1]

Page 2 of 8
Question 5
Convert the oscillation 𝑥 = (3 − 4𝑖 )𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 [ignoring the imaginary part] to the
amplitude-phase form 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑). [3]

Question 6

In the figure on the left above a mass is hung from a spring and it oscillates with
angular frequency 𝜔Left = √𝑘/𝑚. The length 𝐿 represents the natural (i.e.
unstretched) length of the spring. This system is then dismantled and the spring
is cut (only once) at a position one third along its length, creating two new pieces.
Then the system is reassembled from the pieces as shown in the figure on the
right above.
(a) Express the spring constant of the shorter cut piece (𝑘1 ) in terms of the spring
constant of the original uncut spring (𝑘). [1]
(b) In the new configuration on the right, are the two springs acting in series, or
in parallel, or neither? [1]
(c) Show that in the new configuration the angular frequency is
3
𝜔Right = 𝜔Left. [2]
√2

_.o0O0o._

Page 3 of 8
 Trigonometry

sin(𝑢 + 𝑣) = sin 𝑢 cos 𝑣 + cos 𝑢 sin 𝑣 cos(𝑢 + 𝑣) = cos 𝑢 cos 𝑣 − sin 𝑢 sin 𝑣

sin(𝑢 − 𝑣) = sin 𝑢 cos 𝑣 − cos 𝑢 sin 𝑣 cos(𝑢 − 𝑣) = cos 𝑢 cos 𝑣 + sin 𝑢 sin 𝑣

cos 2𝑢 = cos 2 𝑢 − sin2 𝑢 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑢

sin 2𝑢 = 2 sin 𝑢 cos 𝑢
= 2 cos 2 𝑢 − 1

1 1
sin 𝑣2 = √2(1 − cos 𝑣) cos 𝑣2 = √2(1 + cos 𝑣)

1 1
sin 𝑢 sin 𝑣 = 2[cos(𝑢 − 𝑣) − cos(𝑢 + 𝑣)] cos 𝑢 cos 𝑣 = 2[cos(𝑢 − 𝑣) + cos(𝑢 + 𝑣)]

1
sin 𝑢 cos 𝑣 = 2[sin(𝑢 − 𝑣) + sin(𝑢 + 𝑣)]

𝑢−𝑣 𝑢−𝑣
sin 𝑢 + sin 𝑣 = 2 sin (𝑢+𝑣
2
) cos (
2
) cos 𝑢 + cos 𝑣 = 2 cos (𝑢+𝑣
2
) cos (
2
)

𝑢+𝑣 𝑢−𝑣
sin 𝑢 − sin 𝑣 = 2 sin (𝑢−𝑣
2
) cos (
2
) cos 𝑢 − cos 𝑣 = 2 sin (𝑢+𝑣
2
) sin (
2
)

𝑁−1 𝑁−1
sin(𝑁𝑣2) 𝑣 sin(𝑁𝑣2) 𝑣
∑ sin(𝑢 + 𝑗𝑣) = sin (𝑢 + [𝑁 − 1]2) ∑ cos(𝑢 + 𝑗𝑣) = cos (𝑢 + [𝑁 − 1]2)
sin(𝑣2) sin(𝑣2)
𝑗=0 𝑗=0

Complex exponential function

𝑒 𝑖𝑢 = cos 𝑢 + 𝑖 sin 𝑢. 𝑒 −𝑖𝑢 = cos 𝑢 − 𝑖 sin 𝑢.

𝑒 𝑖𝑢 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑢 𝑒 𝑖𝑢 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑢
cos 𝑢 = sin 𝑢 =
2 2𝑖

Rectilinear motion

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣= 𝑎= =𝑣 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

Air resistance proportional to speed

𝑚𝑔 𝑔
𝑉= 𝑎= (𝑉 − 𝑣)
𝐾 𝑉
𝑔 𝑉 𝑔
𝑣 = 𝑉 + (𝑣0 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −𝑉𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑉𝑡 + (𝑣0 − 𝑉 ) (1 − 𝑒 −𝑉𝑡 )
𝑔

Page 4 of 8
 Hooke’s law, Simple harmonic motion

𝐹𝑠 = −𝐹0 = −𝑘𝑥

𝑘
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 𝜔=√
𝑚

𝑣0
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑): 𝐴 = √𝑥02 + (𝑣0 /𝜔)2 tan 𝜑 =
𝜔𝑥0

𝑥 = 𝑃 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑄 sin 𝜔𝑡: 𝑃 = 𝑥0 𝑄 = 𝑣0 /𝜔

𝑥 = 𝐶̃ 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 : 𝐶Re = 𝑥0 𝐶Im = −𝑣0 /𝜔

2𝜋 1 𝜔
𝑇= 𝑓= =
𝜔 𝑇 2𝜋
1 2 1 1 2
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑘𝑥 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑘𝐴
2 2 2

Oscillating systems

𝑔 𝑚𝑔𝑑
Simple pendulum 𝜔 = √ ℓ Compound pendulum 𝜔 = √
𝐼

1 1 1
Springs in series 𝑘eff
=𝑘 +𝑘 Springs in parallel 𝑘eff = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
1 2

𝑘1 𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑘 1 1 1
Diatomic molecule 𝜔 = √ , 𝑘1 = 𝑘 OR 𝜔 = √ , = +
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚eff 𝑚eff 𝑚1 𝑚2

𝐴 𝜋𝑑 4
Elongation and twisting of circular rod 𝑘 = 𝐸 ℓ ; 𝜅 = 𝐺 32ℓ

𝑑4
Real spring 𝑘 = 𝐺
8𝑁𝐷 3

Oscillating beams
𝑤𝑡 3 𝜋𝑑 4
Rectangular beam 𝐼 = 12
Circular beam 𝐼 = 64

3𝐸𝐼 33
Cantilever 𝑘 = ℓ3
Add to mass 𝑚
140 𝑏

192𝐸𝐼 13
Beam fixed at both ends 𝑘 = ℓ3
Add to mass 𝑚
35 𝑏

48𝐸𝐼 17
Beam supported at both ends 𝑘 = ℓ3
Add to mass 𝑚
35 𝑏

768𝐸𝐼 764
Beam supported at one end, fixed at other 𝑘 = 7ℓ3
Add to mass 𝑚
1715 𝑏

Page 5 of 8
 Damped harmonic motion

𝑎 + 2𝛾𝑣 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0

𝛽 (−𝛾+√𝛾 2 −𝜔2 )𝑡 (−𝛾−√𝛾2 −𝜔2 )𝑡

2𝛾 = 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐷𝑒
𝑚

Undercritical: 𝛾 < 𝜔, 𝜔0 = √𝜔 2 − 𝛾 2

𝑣0 + 𝛾𝑥0 2 𝑣0 + 𝛾𝑥0
𝑥 = (𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 ) cos(𝜔0 𝑡 − 𝜑) = 𝐴env cos(𝜔0 𝑡 − 𝜑): 𝐴 = √𝑥02 + ( ) tan 𝜑 =
𝜔0 𝜔0 𝑥0

𝑣0 + 𝛾𝑥0
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 (𝑃 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑄 sin 𝜔0 𝑡): 𝑃 = 𝑥0 𝑄=
𝜔0
𝑣0 + 𝛾𝑥0
𝑥 = 𝐶̃ 𝑒 (−𝛾+𝑖𝜔0 )𝑡 : 𝐶Re = 𝑥0 𝐶Im = −
𝜔0

1 1
𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝛾𝑡 + 𝑚𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝛾𝑡 [𝛾 2 cos(2(𝜔0 𝑡 − 𝜑)) + 𝜔0 𝛾 sin(2(𝜔0 𝑡 − 𝜑))]
2 2
1 𝐴env (𝑡) 𝑇0 𝜋
𝜏= 𝛿 = ln = 𝑄=
𝛾 𝐴env (𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) 𝜏 𝛿

Critical: 𝛾=𝜔

𝑥 = (𝐶 + 𝐷𝑡)𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 : 𝐶 = 𝑥0 𝐷 = 𝑣0 + 𝛾𝑥0

Overcritical: 𝛾 > 𝜔, 𝛼 = √𝛾 2 − 𝜔 2 ,

𝑣0 + (𝛼 + 𝛾)𝑥0 −𝑣0 + (𝛼 − 𝛾)𝑥0

𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 (−𝛾+𝛼)𝑡 + 𝐷𝑒 (−𝛾−𝛼)𝑡 : 𝐶= 𝐷=
2𝛼 2𝛼

Driven harmonic motion

𝑎 + 2𝛾𝑣 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 𝜔2 𝑟 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝜑𝑑 )

𝜔2 𝑟
𝐴= 2𝛾𝜔𝑑
𝑥𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝜑𝑑 − 𝜑): tan 𝜑 =
√(𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑑2 )2 + (2𝛾𝜔𝑑 )2 𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑑2

𝜔2 𝑟 𝜔𝑅
𝜔𝑅 = √𝜔 2 − 2𝛾 2 = √𝜔02 − 𝛾 2 𝐴𝑅 = tan 𝜑𝑅 =
2𝛾𝜔0 𝛾

Page 6 of 8
 Fourier analysis
∞ ∞

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐 + ∑ 𝑎𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑡) + ∑ 𝑏𝑘 sin(𝑘𝑡)

𝑘=1 𝑘=1

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1
𝑐= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑎𝑘 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) cos(𝑘𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑏𝑘 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) sin(𝑘𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 .
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋

Waves

𝑚 𝜕2𝑌 𝜕2𝑌
𝜇= = 𝑣 2 𝑣 = √𝑇/𝜇
ℓ 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝐹𝑦 𝑇
𝑌(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡) 𝑍= = = √𝑇𝜇 = 𝜇𝑣
𝑣𝑦 𝑣

2𝑍1 𝑣1 𝑍1 − 𝑍2
𝐽(𝑥 − 𝑣2 𝑡) = 𝐼 ( 𝑥 − 𝑣1 𝑡) 𝑅(𝑥 + 𝑣1 𝑡) = 𝐼(– 𝑥 − 𝑣1 𝑡)
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑣2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2

1 𝜕𝑌 2 𝜕𝑌 2
𝐸 = ∫ 𝜇 ( ) + 𝑇 ( ) 𝑑𝑥.
2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝑌(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜑)
𝜔 2𝜋 2𝜋 1 𝜔
𝑣= = 𝑓𝜆 𝜆= 𝑇= 𝑓= =
𝑘 𝑘 𝜔 𝑇 2𝜋
1 1
𝑃 = 𝜇𝐴2 𝜔2 𝑣 = 𝑍𝐴2 𝜔2
2 2
𝑗𝜋 𝑗
𝑌(𝑥, 𝑡) = −2𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) sin(𝑘𝑥) 𝑘𝑗 = 𝑓𝑗 = √𝑇/𝜇
ℓ 2ℓ
𝐺
Transverse wave, bulk: 𝑣 = √𝐺/𝜌 𝑍 =𝐴𝑣

(1−𝜈) 𝐸
Longitudinal wave, bulk: 𝑣 = √(1+𝜈)(1−2𝜈) 𝜌

𝐸
Longitudinal wave, thin rod: 𝑣 = √𝐸/𝜌 𝑍 =𝐴𝑣

𝐺 𝜋𝑑 4
Torsion wave, circular rod: 𝑣 = √𝐺/𝜌 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑝 𝑣 𝐼𝑝 = 32

𝐾
Longitudinal wave in a fluid: 𝑣 = √𝐾/𝜌 𝑍 =𝐴𝑣

𝛾𝑃 𝑅𝑇
For a gas: 𝐾 = 𝛾𝑃: 𝑣 = √ 𝜌 = √𝛾 𝑀

sin 𝜃1 𝑣1
=
sin 𝜃2 𝑣2

Page 7 of 8
 Interference
2𝐿𝑛2 cos 𝜃′ 𝑐 𝜆2ave
Thin film: Δ𝜑 = 𝑛 1 𝜆1
(2𝜋) 𝐿𝑐 = ∆𝑓 = Δ𝜆

Michelson interferometer

2𝐿 cos 𝜃 1 2𝑑 𝑛mat
Δ𝜑tot = [ + ] (2𝜋) Δ𝑁 = ( − 1)
𝜆air 2 𝜆air 𝑛air

2-Point interference:

𝜋𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝐼 = 4𝐼0 cos2 𝛽 𝛽=
𝜆
1
Maxima: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 Minima: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 2) 𝜆

N-Point interference:

sin2(𝑁𝛽) 𝜋𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝛽=
sin2 𝛽 𝜆
𝑚
Maxima: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 Minima: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑁
𝜆

𝑑𝜃 𝑚 𝑚
Dispersion: 𝐷 = 𝑑𝜆 = = 𝑑 cos 𝜃
𝑚𝜆 2
𝑑 √1−( )
𝑑

𝜆
Resolving power: 𝑅 = (Δ𝜆)ave = 𝑁𝑚
min

Diffraction

Single slit diffraction:

sin2 𝛼 𝜋𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝛼=
𝛼2 𝜆

Minima: 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆

Circular aperture:
2
2𝐽1 (𝛾) 𝜋𝐷 sin 𝜃
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( ) 𝛾=
𝛾 𝜆

Minima: 𝐷 sin 𝜃 = 1.22𝜆, 2.23𝜆, 3.24𝜆, …

_.o0O0o._

Page 8 of 8