CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The following related articles are crucial for our investigation regarding with the
causes and effects of procrastination on the student’s performances in school. This section
will also serve as a guideline in constructing a careful analysis, development of methods
and tools , and conclusion on the gathered result of the study. Those that were included in
this chapter will help in familiarizing information that are relevant to the present issue.

Mutual phenomena in academic perspectives

particularly in atmospheres where students have to meet targets for project

accomplishment, which needs student’s concentration and time (Geri, & Gafn 2010). This
condition needs learners to manage their time regularly through the course. Insufficient
self-regulation, which exhibits itself as procrastination, is associated to a diversity of
negative study performances (Stott, Stewart, & Nuttall, 2016). Nevertheless, since
procrastinators have comparatively short periods of time for accomplishing academic tasks,
they hurry to accomplish their task (You, 2015). In another procrastination study, Steel
(2007) states that resilient, reliable predictors of procrastination seemed in the forms of
task delay and task aversion. In similar line, Buluş, Duru, & Balkıs, (2006) revealed that
negative time management is among the important predictors of academic procrastination
behavior. In another way, procrastination does not merely result from an ineffective study
habits, insufficiency time management or involves a complex interaction among affective,
cognitive, and behavioral, elements (Rothblum, 1994 as quoted in Rakes & Dunn, 2010).
From a theoretical viewpoint, self-regulation and procrastination and are diligently related
concepts (Tuckman, 2005). The tendency to procrastinate is very commonly recognized to
an inadequacy in self-regulation processes (Yamada et al, 2016; Michinov et al., 2011). In
another way
Tuckman (2002) examined a negative correlation between procrastination and self-
regulation. It concluded that the students who are self-regulated, they are very less
procrastinated. Further another study by Rakes & Dunn (2010) concluded that when
students have less self-regulation and intrinsic motivation, there is an increase in
procrastination Previous studies have paid major attention to the nature, etiology,
consequences and antecedents, of academic procrastination. Hence only few investigators
emphasis on coping strategies to help students decrease procrastination (Wang &
Englander, 2010). These approaches contain cognitive-oriented approaches like as
prioritizing and identifying goals, assigning suitable resources and time to each goal and
cognitive reframing in which individuals fabricated clarifications for their activities that
outlined those activities in an optimistic light” (Schraw et al., 2007). Affective approaches
intended at boosting the cognitive approaches include sustaining a positive attitude,
relating the personal meaning of the overall goal to the academic activities at hand as the
result of higher-level hope, helping as a stress reduction mechanism, and even building
confidence. Other approaches to help decrease the effects of academic procrastination
involve the instructors using measured methods to class projects. Onwuegbuzie (2004)
recommended that teachers might rely on more commonly graded projects, with each based
on a minor increment in cognitive material so that less time is obtainable for students to
procrastinate during assignments, thereby reducing the chances for academic
procrastination. On one hand, because the relationship between academic procrastination
and poor academic outcomes likely is casual, it is important to determine factors that may
increase undergraduate students’ likelihood of procrastination on academic tasks.
Academic procrastination can be related to a wide range of contributory causes including
environment, family and individual personal factors, with parenting styles being a prime
family factor. Scherr and Ferrari (2017) suggested that family dynamics play an important
or essential role in academic procrastination.
Students have a hard time in budgeting their time and also by a reason that they are
not disciplined

One of the major antagonist to a student’s performance when studying is procrastination

as they would invest their quality time in which particular interest they thrive for rather
than the best of their lives, Plaxton (2017)reported. Some students have priorities that they
follow, including errands, social interaction, and/or other hobbies. In the result of this
schoolwork is undervalued because they refused to stress themselves over strict tasks to
have extra freedom with the rest of their schedule. On Swanson’s (2016) research however,
stated accounts of articles that considered procrastination as a byproduct of failed self-
regulation ; like awful behaviors that have to do with a lack of self-control, such as
overspending, gambling, or unhealthy eating .

Mental conditions as a factor

In the experience of shatz (2018) working with cases of psychological behaviors of teens
and children with special needs, offers a different or perhaps an in depth perspective to the
patients motive of procrastination . Not all students that are getting bad remarks are just
simply throwing away their roles in academics , those who have problems focusing due to
inherited behaviors such as ADHD tends to fail at organizing the works meant to be
finished in a short period of time that for other students have little problem . Another factor
which is included in his vitae are anxiety, abstract goals, perfectionism, fear of failure , and
lack of motivation. These are signs of overwhelming stress that hinders them in their study
. They practise procrastination as a coping mechanism in which when the conditions at
times become too much to bear.

Younger people procrastinate more than their adult counter parts

Age also links apropose to procrastination . A local study conducted by Urbiztondo (2018)
from surigao del sur, a range of 329 college students were a subject of test using a likert
scale out of all the respondents , 181 (50 percent)admitted that they procrastinate in some
form or out of habit which is significantly bigger than the study excerpt from Galvez (2019)
- an age bracket of 35 - 39 years old working from municipal government of catubig, the
findings were based on the expectations for employee performance, of the 77 employees
44 are selected for random sampling , the data implies that 34 percent of the workers
scoring 225 points of excellent satisfactory and only 12 percent with having low
performance - indicating that there is a small number of workers that are chronic
procrastinators. The health service mclean (2020) explained that conscientious awareness
develop as we age . Older people tend to be able to control their behaviors very well and
have a clearer perspective of the importance of time.

Role of gender in excellency

A handful of research shows that procrastination is associated with neural variance and
behavioral genetics. According to the study fulfilled by Mandap(2016), pointing out that
men have a higher chance to procrastinate than female classmates. From 200 college
students of Bulacan State University, 84 achieve a high academic self-efficacy and 116 are
said to attain low rating with a mean of 41.36 of boys and 39.39 are girls. The science
behind it due to boys in their youths lack goal directed processing ability and an inability
to supress tempting stimuli.

Culture shaped the population

Traces of procrastination among students come through the backbone of society from
which they grew up based on many sources .Career insight (2023) shared , in japan they
emphasizes extreme dedication to one's work - They are notable for working pass the shift,
publicly apologizes when they are late, and having a collectivist mindset - for the sake of
their fellow japanese people and they do this on their own accord. Meanwhile, filipinos are
revered as cheerful staffs based on jobstreet ph (2022) employment satisfaction rating
index. The background from this is that there are laws and policies protecting the workers
rights having working schedule not rendering more than 8 hours and they are mandated to
have 60 minutes of meal prep , further more, both company and government workers are
compensated even on holidays . While this may sound as an encouragement for anyone to
pursue even better specially for students with higher education on set to their careers, this
may came a surprise that the word “masipag” has a double ganger called “Mañana habit” ,
a filipino word for procrastination. Marissa (2021) informs that having an excessive free
time will give people lower subjective well-being, an example for this is attending to a
meeting late and/or letting tomorrow decide to make up for today.

Dangers of procrastination on the students performance

Julie (2022) states that irregular and frequent postponement of important activities makes
long lasting and negative effect on the performance of students. Putting off of assignments
and projects instead of doing it before deadline results to expected lower grades, students
will be caught in cramming for their reports due to bad preparation until it develops into a
routine, moreover , lessons will be vagued and easily forgetable for them .Effects aside
from the external struggles they are also targetted by higher levels of frustration, guilt,
stress, and anxiety - or leading to serious issues like low self steem and depression.

Individuals' propensities for academic procrastination

The variables that were studied for their associations with academic procrastinating
behavior were frequently encountered. Studies on university students show a substantial
and positive correlation between Academic achievement; Relationship between academic
procrastinating behavior and anxiety (Aitken, 1982);and academic procrastination is
significantly predicted by perfectionism (AKC, 2003); There is a detrimental relationship
between

Procrastination involves unnecessary and unwanted delay, be it decisional, implemental,

or lack of timeliness (Lay, 1986; McCown et al., 1989; Mann et al., 1997; Steel, 2010).
Furthermore, Steel (2007) emphasized that a core characteristic of procrastination is the
realization by the actor that one will be worse off because of the delay. Hence,
procrastination can be seen as irrational behavior—delaying some intended course of
action, realizing that it is disadvantageous (Kling Sieck, 2013). Behavioral delay in
procrastination is observed in at least two ways. First, during action implementation, the
person may divert to an alternative and more tempting course of action (Tice et al., 2001),
indirectly delaying the original plan. Second, in a longer time perspective, the negative
consequences of such diversions become visible, as for example when people postpone
seeing their doctors until treatment is no longer an option (Worthley et al., 2006), or
postpone the initiation of personal retirement plans (Byrne et al., 2006). In a longitudinal
study, Tice and Baumeister (1997) demonstrated both forms of delay in a student sample.
Students procrastinating early in the semester created a stress-free and pleasant situation.

Nature of the relationship between procrastination and academic performance

The inconsistent results may be due to the use of small samples; if this is the case a meta-
analysis which integrates the results of multiple studies statistically might determine the
nature and magnitude of any association between procrastination and academic
performance.

The conflicting results of previous studies are also likely to be due to the influence of
factors such as use of different measures, use of contaminated self-report data and
differences in the demographic characteristics of samples. Van Eerde (2003) insisted that
although many of the effect size categories were heterogeneous among studies about
procrastination, indicating that moderators may play a role, the majority of studies did not
account for moderators. We therefore hypothesized the relationship between
procrastination and academic performance would be subject to influence by one or more
variables. More specifically we predicted that the observed association would be
influenced by (a) the choice of procrastination measure; (b) the choice of performance
indicator; (c) use of self-report data and (d) the demographic profile of the sample. The
choice of procrastination measure is affected by one’s theoretical perspective on
procrastination, broadly whether it is viewed as (a) a functional or dysfunctional behavior
and (b) a behavior or a trait.sr

Researchers have traditionally regarded procrastination as a maladaptive or dysfunctional

strategy used in an attempt to cope with conflict or choices (Mann, 1982). Lay and
Schouwenburg, 1993, Solomon and Rothblum, 1984 argued that because definitions of
procrastination refer to both behavioral delay and psychological distress one should
consider the magnitude of procrastination in conjunction with the magnitude of its negative
psychological consequences; assumed to be emotional discomfort, including guilt,
depression, anxiety or stress.