SUMMER VOCATIONAL TRAINING

REPORT

Gujarat Refinery, Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.

Duration:15/05/2022-14/06/2022

Submitted by-
Akash Yadav
(JR/TD/2023/0037)

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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 PREFACE
Industrial Training plays a vital role in development of future
engineers. It bridges the gap between the theoretical and practical
aspects of the study. I was fortunate enough to get an opportunity to
get industrial training at GUJARAT REFINERY, INDIAN OIL
CORPORATION LTD. VADODRA. The experience that I gained here
was very fascinating and I believe it would be very useful in my
coming life as an engineer. It was very exciting and interesting to visit
different plants at the refinery and to observe and understand the
functioning of the plants and get to know about the fundamentals of
the important mechanical equipment like Pumps, Compressors,
Turbines etc. Its very remarkable that how such a big refinery is
being monitored with such a fluent coordination. During my training I
realized to be a successful mechanical engineer, one needs to have a
sound theoretical knowledge as well as should possess sound
practical knowledge to apply the theoretical knowledge. Thus, I hope
by doing this Industrial training, it would serve as a stepping stone
for me in future and would help me get myself ready for this field.

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 ACKNOWLDEGMENT
In successfully completing this project, many people have helped me.
I would like to that all of those who are related to this project.
Primarily, I would like to thank God for being able to complete this
project with success, Then I will thank Mr. MGavande (DGM, MS
L&D) for giving me this opportunity to take this project. I would also
like to thank Mr. AbhinavGarg(AMML, LAB ), Mr. Deepak Patel(MNM,
GRSPF) and Mr. Rahul Doshi(AMML, TPS) for their guidance and I
learned a lot from them. Their suggestions and directions have
helped in the completion of this project.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents and friends who have helped
me with their valuable suggestions, guidance, support and have been
very helpful in various stages of project completion.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

1. Preface 2
2. Acknowledgment 3
3. Introduction 5-10
4. Centrifugal Pumps11-14
5. NPSH 15-16
6. Cavitation 17-25
7. Screw Pumps 26-29
8. Vibrations 30-40
9. Valves 41-46
10. Findings 47
11. Bibliography 48

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 INTRODUCTION
Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil, is a naturally
occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of mainly hydrocarbons, and
is found in geological formations. The name petroleum covers both
naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum
products that consist of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is
formed when large quantities of dead organisms,
mostly zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary
rock and subjected to both prolonged heat and pressure.

IndianOil leverages high-calibre people and state-of-the-art

technologies to tap all forms of energy most responsibly and
delivering them to the consumers most affordably. India's highest
rank Energy PSU in Fortune-500 list (Rank 212), IndianOil recorded
Revenue from Operations of ₹7,28,460 crores and a net profit of
₹24,184 crores for the financial year 2021-22.

As a Brand with one of the largest customer interface in India,

IndianOil reaches precious petroleum fuels to every nook and corner
of the country through its network of over 56,000 plus customer
touch-points, surmounting the challenges of tough terrain, climate
and accessibility. The marketing network is bolstered by 80.55
MMTPA of Group Refining Capacity and more than 15,000 KM of
cross country pipelines. Moreover, IndianOil's R&D Centre at
Faridabad, one of Asia's finest in downstream petroleum R&D, offers
a competitive advantage to the Corporation through world-class
technology and process solutions and innovative products. IndianOil
R&D has also been instrumental in pioneering path-breaking
research to leverage the potential of Hydrogen and other cleaner
fuels for the sustainable progress of the nation.

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The first crude distillation unit with a capacity of 1 million tonnes per
year was commissioned for trial production on 11 October 1965 and
achieved its rated capacity on 6 December 1965. Throughput
reached 20% beyond its designed capacity in January 1966.The third
1 million tonnes per year distillation unit was commissioned in
September 1967 to process Ankleshwar and North Gujarat crudes. In
December 1968, Udex plant was commissioned for production
of benzene and toluene using feedstock from CRU. By 1974-75 with
in-house modifications, the capacity of the refinery increased by 40%
to a level of 4.2 million tonnes per year. To process imported crude
the refinery was expanded during 1978-79 by adding another
3 million tonnes per year crude distillation unit along with
downstream processing units including vacuum
distillation, visbreaker and bitumen blowing units. By 1980-81 this
unit started processing Bombay High crude in addition to imported
crudes. It was the first time that Indian engineers independently
handled a project of that scale.[citation needed]
To recover products from the residue, secondary processing facilities
consisting of fluidized catalytic cracking unit of 1 million tonnes per
year capacity along with a feed preparation unit of 1 million tonnes
per year capacities, were commissioned in December 1982. To
enable absorption of increased indigenous crudes the refinery's
capacity was further increased to 9.5 million tonnes per year.
In 1993-1994, Gujarat commissioned the country's first hydrocracker
unit of 1.2 million tonnes per year along with feed preparation unit-2
and hydrogen generation unit-1 (GHC Complex), for conversion of
heavier ends of crude oil to high value superior products.[citation
needed]

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India's first diesel hydrodesulfurisation unit to reduce sulfur content
in diesel was commissioned in June 1999. A methyl tertiary butyl
ether unit was commissioned in September 1999 to eliminate lead
from motor fuels. The facility conceptualised and commissioned
South Asia's largest centralised effluent treatment plant by
dismantling the four old ETP's (Effluent Treatment Plant) in June
1999. By September 1999 with the commissioning of an atmospheric
distillation unit, Gujarat Refinery further augmented its capacity to
13.7 million tonnes per year making it the largest public sector
undertaking refinery of the country.
Project for production of linear alkylbenzene from kerosene streams
was implemented in August 2004.

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I visited the following plants and focused on the Basic Mechanical
Components and Mechanical Maintenance.
1. Planning Department
2. Mechanical workshop
3. GRSPF
4. LAB (Linear Alkyl Benzene)
5. TPS
6. CGP-2(cogeneration plant)

In the above plants, we observed different machines like pumps,

valves, safety equipment, boiler, jet engine, compressor, bearings,
pipelines, mechanical seal etc.

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DIFFERENT PRODUCTS OF
REFINERY

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 PUMPS
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or
sometimes slurries, by mechanical action, typically converted from
electrical energy into hydraulic energy. Pumps can be classified into
three major groups according to the method they use to move the
fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps.[2]
Pumps operate by some mechanism
(typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to
perform mechanical work moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many
energy sources, including manual operation, electricity, engines,
or wind power, and come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in
medical applications, to large industrial pumps.
Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement
into positive-displacement pumps, impulse pumps, velocity
pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps and valveless pumps. There are
three basic types of pumps: positive-
displacement, centrifugal and axial-flow pumps. In centrifugal pumps
the direction of flow of the fluid changes by ninety degrees as it
flows over an impeller, while in axial flow pumps the direction of
flow is unchanged.
Most commonly used pump at IOCL are centrifugal pumps and screw
pumps and rotary positive-displacement pumps like screw pumps.
Firstly we’ll get into details of centrifugal pumps.

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Common Pumps used in IOCL:
Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid

by means of the transfer of rotational energy from one or more
driven rotors, called impellers.  Fluid enters the rapidly rotating
impeller along its axis and is cast out by centrifugal force along its
circumference through the impeller’s vane tips.  The action of the
impeller increases the fluid’s velocity and pressure and also directs it
towards the pump outlet.  The pump casing is specially designed to
constrict the fluid from the pump inlet, direct it into the impeller and
then slow and control the fluid before discharge.
Working Of Centrifugal Pumps:

The impeller is the key component of a centrifugal pump.  It consists

of a series of curved vanes.  These are normally sandwiched between
two discs (an enclosed impeller).  For fluids with entrained solids, an
open or semi-open impeller (backed by a single disc) is preferred.
Fluid enters the impeller at its axis (the ‘eye’) and exits along the
circumference between the vanes.  The impeller, on the opposite
side to the eye, is connected through a drive shaft to a motor and
rotated at high speed (typically 500-5000rpm).  The rotational
motion of the impeller accelerates the fluid out through the impeller
vanes into the pump casing.

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There are two basic designs of pump casing: volute and diffuser.  The
purpose in both designs is to translate the fluid flow into a controlled
discharge at pressure.
In a volute casing, the impeller is offset, effectively creating a curved
funnel with an increasing cross-sectional area towards the pump
outlet.  This design causes the fluid pressure to increase towards the
outlet
The same basic principle applies to diffuser designs.  In this case, the
fluid pressure increases as fluid is expelled between a set of
stationary vanes surrounding the impeller.  Diffuser designs can be
tailored for specific applications and can therefore be more efficient. 
Volute cases are better suited to applications involving entrained
solids or high viscosity fluids when it is advantageous to avoid the
added constrictions of diffuser vanes.  The asymmetry of the volute
design can result in greater wear on the impeller and drive shaft.
Advantages Of Using Centrifugal Pumps:
There are two main families of pumps: centrifugal and positive
displacement pumps.  In comparison to the latter, centrifugal pumps
are usually specified for higher flows and for pumping lower viscosity
liquids, down to 0.1 cP.  In some chemical plants, 90% of the pumps
in use will be centrifugal pumps.  However, there are a number of
applications for which positive displacement pumps are preferred.
Disadvantages Of Using Centrifugal Pumps:
The efficient operation of a centrifugal pump relies on the constant,
high speed rotation of its impeller.  With high viscosity feeds,
centrifugal pumps become increasingly inefficient: there is greater
resistance and a higher pressure is needed to maintain a specific flow
rate.  In general, centrifugal pumps are therefore suited to low
pressure, high capacity, pumping applications of liquids with
viscosities between 0.1 and 200 cP.
Slurries such as mud, or high viscosity oils can cause excessive wear
and overheating leading to damage and premature failure.

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Positivedisplacement pumps often operate at considerably lower
speeds and are less prone to these problems.
Any pumped medium that is sensitive to shearing (the separation of
emulsions, slurries or biological liquids) can also be damaged by the
high speed of a centrifugal pump’s impeller.  In such cases, the lower
speed of a positive displacement pump is preferred.
A further limitation is that, unlike a positive displacement pump, a
centrifugal pump cannot provide suction when dry: it must initially
be primed with the pumped fluid.  Centrifugal pumps are therefore
not suited to any application where the supply is intermittent. 
Additionally, if the feed pressure is variable, a centrifugal pump
produces a variable flow; a positive displacement pump is insensitive
to changing pressures and will provide a constant output.  So, in
applications where accurate dosing is required, a positive
displacement pump is preferred.

Application of Centrifugal Pumps in IOCL

Refinery:

1. For circulation of cooling water.

2. For pumping (crude oil, vgo,rcu, diesel, gasoline, naptha etc.) in
reactors, coulombs, storage tanks with high pressure.
3. In liquid storage tanks

Specifications Of A Centrifugal Pump in Refinery

Capacity: 300 LPM

RPM: 2990

Efficiency: 90%

Sealing: Mechanical Seal Power: 12 KW

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 NET POSITIVE SUCTION
HEAD(NPSH) OVERVIEW
The Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Available is a function of the
system in which the pump operates.

The Hydraulic Institute defines NPSH as the total suction head in

feet absolute, determined at the suction nozzle and corrected to
datum, less the vapour pressure of the liquid in feet absolute.
Simply stated, it is an analysis of energy conditions on the suction
side of a pump to determine if the liquid will vaporize at the
lowest pressure point in the pump.

The pressure which a liquid exerts on its surrounding is dependent

upon its temperature. This pressure, called vapor pressure, is a
unique characteristic of every fluid and increased with increasing
temperature. When the vapor pressure within the fluid with
increasing temperature at which this vaporization will decrease as
the pressure of the surrounding medium decreases.

A liquid increase greatly in volume when it vaporizes. One Cubic

Foot of water at room temperature become 1700 cu. Ft of vapor
at the same temperature.

It is obvious from the above that if we are to pump a fluid

effectively, we must keep it in liquid form. NPSH is simply a
measure of the amount of suction head present to prevent
vaporization at the lowest pressure point in the pump.

NPSH can be defined as two parts:

NPSH Available(ANPSHA): The absolute pressure at the suction

port of the pump.

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NPSH Required (NPSHR): The minimum pressure required at the
suction port of the pump to keep pump from cavitating.

NPSHA is a function of your system and must be calculated,

whereas NPSHR is a function of the pump and must be provided
by the pump manufacturer. NPSHA must be greater than NPSHR
for the pump system to operate without cavitating. Thus, we must
have more suction side pressure available than the pump
requires.

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 CAVITATION
WHAT IS PUMP CAVITATION?

Cavitation in pumps is the rapid creation and subsequent collapse

of air bubbles in a fluid.
Bubbles might not seem very powerful, but the types of bubbles in
pumping systems are nothing like the ones you make by waving a
wand around with little kids. Tiny bubbles created by changes in
pressure inside pumps collapse and create shock waves that occur
over and over and the repeated shocks erode the components.When
the Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHa) is lower than the
Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHr), cavitation will begin to
occur.

When cavitation takes place, air bubbles are created at low pressure.
As the liquid passes from the suction side of the impeller to the
delivery side, the bubbles implode.

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This creates a shockwave that hits the impeller and creates pump
vibration and mechanical damage, possibly leading to complete
failure of the pump at some stage.

WHYDOESPUMPCAVITATIONOCCUR?

Pumps are designed to work with a full flowing water supply, but
in some cases a flooded inlet is not enough to maintain pressure
required to prevent cavitation. The inlet, or suction side of ssa
pump is the point of lowest pressure in a given
pump. For positive displacement pumps, the lowest pressure
occurs just prior to rotor meshing; for centrifugal pumps, lowest
pressure is near the eye of the impeller.

Cavitation is possible in all pump types and since its principles are
essentially the same, we will focus on centrifugal pumps. The eye
is where fluid is drawn into the impeller and where the rotation of
the impeller begins to act on the fluid. When pressure acting on
the liquid (Net Positive Suction Head Available) is too low,
bubbles form, and as the liquid accelerates because of impeller
rotation, pressure increases and the bubbles collapse.

POOR PUMP INLET CONDITION

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Disruptions to flow may have several causes, from system design
to component degradation. Common causes of flow disruption
that result in cavitation:

1. Excessively long inlet piping

2. Higher than expected fluid viscosity
3. Clogged inlet
4. Clogged filters and strainers
5. Restricted or collapsed inlet hoses
6. Poorly specified pump

DISCHARGE CAVITATION
At extremely high discharge pressure, some fluid circulates inside
the pump instead of discharging. Fluid trapped between impeller
and housing at very high velocity cause a drop in pressure,
creating the same conditions as for suction cavitation.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE PUMP CAVITATION

Cavitation sounds like marbles or gravel circulating through the
pump, pipes, or hoses. The effects of prolonged cavitation are
visible on the pump impeller and other components.

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Typical indications of cavitation:

 Noise
 Vibration
 Seal/bearing failure
 Impeller erosion
 Higher than usual power consumption

HOW TO PREVENT PUMP CAVITATION

Start by identifying the cause of the pressure drop. In many cases
moving the pump closer to the fluid source and removing as many
bends and valves as possible corrects the problem because each
component causes additional pressure drop. When suction lift is
too high to maintain pressure, move the pump closer to the fluid
source or move the fluid source closer to the pump. 

Enlarging suction lines can also be effective. In some obvious

cases, a blockage occurs in piping or hoses near the pump. Clear
those blockages to resolve the issue. Clean suction lines by
clearing debris. Avoid blowing the debris back toward the fluid

source because it’s likely to create a blockage again.

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Don’t exceed your pump manufacturer’s performance
guidelines. Pump curves tell you how much net positive suction
head the pump requires, so check your pump’s performance curve
to ensure it has the right specifications for your application.

HOW TO INCREASE SUCTION HEAD

AVAILABLE

 Raise and maintain tank liquid level

 Elevate supply tank
 Reduce piping losses from too many fittings or too small
diameter
 Replace collapsed or
compromised
components
 Clear solids from
inside of pipes
 Clear suction strainer
 Replace corroded pipe
 Check for
a gasket protruding
into piping

COMMON CAUSES OF DISCHARGE

CAVITATION
 Clogged filters
 Pipe blockages

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  Poor piping design

PREVENTING DISCHARGE CAVITATION

 Keep reducers as close to the pump as possible.
 Install control valve, if needed, on the discharge side--never
on the suction side.
 Avoid pockets where air or vapors can accumulate.

Cause Effect

Effect Cavitation due to decreased

pressure

Restricted discharge flow Cavitation due to low flow

condition

Leaks in packing, piping, o- Cavitation due to air

rings, seals aspiration

Restricted suction flow: sharp Cavitation due to turbulence

elbows, clogged filters or
strainers

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 ROUTINE PUMP MAINTENANCE

After proper pump selection, regular maintenance is the best way

to avoid cavitation.

Routine maintenance extends pump life and consistent

performance.

Check filters and strainers. Dirty or blocked filters and strainers

generate pressure buildup inside the pump. Setting a maintenance
schedule ensures that systems are in place to keep the pump
system flowing at capacity.

Assess the entire pump system design: ensure that the optimum
flow rate is available through pump elevation and downward flow
when possible.

Evaluate the curve. Consider the job pressure demands and then

consider the pump data to see if it fits the application. From there
you determine if the pump fits the needed flow rate.

Monitor pressure sensing equipment.

Look for cracks or collapsed piping/hoses that will disrupt the

system.

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 PROPER INSTALLATION

The best ounce of cavitation prevention is pump selection and

system design for maintaining pressure and flow. The goal of
installation is therefore to maintain net positive suction head
available (NPSHa) at greater than net positive suction head
required (NPSHr) by considering four key variables:

PUMP LOCATION
 Suction pipe length and diameter
 Suction lift, or the vertical distance from water source to
pump inlet
 Friction loss
 PUMP LOCATION

Physically install the pump so the water flows into the pump
suction inlet smoothly. Make sure that the suction lines leading to
the inlet of the pump are adequately sloped to ensure that the
pump housing is flooded.

Placing the pump at a point that is lower than the water level in
the tank from which it pumps, for example, uses the force of
gravity to maintain flooded suction, which in many cases prevents
cavitation.

Pumps, and especially centrifugal pumps, work most efficiently

when the fluid travels in a smooth, laminar flow, and turbulence
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of any kind reduces pump efficiency, so positioning the pump as
close as possible to the fluid source makes sense.

SUCTION PIPE LENGTH AND DIAMETER

In general, you want 12 cm of straight pipe for every centimeters
of pump suction diameter. To maintain laminar flow, connect 5-
10 pipe diameters of straight piping to the pump inlet. Do not
include elbows, reducers, valves, or strainers within the final
length of pipework. Connecting an elbow directly to the pump
flange, for example, draws fluid towards the outer curve of the
elbow instead of directly into the eye of the impeller.

Also, the piping arrangement must not cause strain on the pump
casing, so pumps can never support the piping for suction or
discharge. Use hangers and supports instead.

Suction-side piping is commonly one or two sizes larger than the

pump inlet — never smaller than the pump’s inlet.

Larger pipework requires a reducer before the pump inlet and

must be designed carefully to avoid turbulence and creation of air
pockets at the inlet.

In general, keep suction pipe velocities below 2 m/s. Higher

velocities can create more friction and more noise.SUCTION-LIFT,
OR THE VERTICAL DISTANCE FROM WATER SOURCE TO PUMP
INLET

Suction lift can place higher than necessary energy demands on

pumps, increase turbulence, and decrease NPSHa.The solution is
to install the pump below the water level of the supply tank and
meet standards for piping design.

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 SCREW PUMPS
Screw pumps belong to the family of dry compressing gas transfer
pumps. (Learn more about the origins of dry pumps here) They
are positive-displacement pumps that use two screw shaped
intermeshing rotors to move gas along the screw’s axis. They are
frequently used in industrial vacuum applications, often in
combination with roots blowers and as oil-free roughing pumps in
high and ultrahigh vacuum systems.

WORKING PRINCIPLE: HOW DO SCREW PUMPS WORK?

Screw pumps operate using two counter-rotating screw rotors

which are engineered so that they rotate “towards each other”.
This traps the gas in the space between the “screws” of their
rotors. As the screws rotate, this trapped volume decreases which
not only compresses the gas but moves it towards the exhaust.

In the first cases (Fig 2, 3), mechanical bearings support the rotors
at both ends. The cantilever design (Fig.4) solution supports the
rotors at the high-pressure end and the rotors can be cooled
internally.  A motor drives the two rotors via a gear. Gear and the
bearings are lubricated but separated from the pumping
mechanism ('vacuum generator') via shaft seals or labyrinth seals,
thus the compression is oil-free. The rotors have no mechanical
contact between each other and the pump housing, resulting in
zero mechanical wear. To keep the installed electrical power low,
modern pumps are driven by an electronic frequency converter
and rotate slower at pressures ranges near atmospheric pressure.
Some versions use so-called blow-off valves instead to keep the
rotating speed constant also at high pressures.  Cooling is
normally done by water.

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THE PERFORMANCE OF SCREW PUMPS

Screw pumps can reach ultimate pressures of ~ 1e-3 mbar. The

operating pressure range is 103 to10-2 mbar. Various sizes with
pumping speed ~ 60 - 1200 m³/h are available. The pumping
speed in the vacuum range < 10 - 50 mbar can be enhanced by
placing a roots blower on top. These combinations, often in one
single pump housing, are available up to 9000 m³/h

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ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SCREW PUMPS

Advantages

 high robustness
 high tolerance against water vapour and particles/dust
 scales to customer requirements
 very high pumping speeds
 no contamination of the medium being pumped
 frictionless rotation - rotor wear is eliminated
 highly efficient due to internal compression
 operational costs and maintenance requirements are
relatively low
 frequency converter operation – easily optimised for process
requirements – leads to high energy efficiency

 Disadvantages

 a gas ballast needed to pump light gasses

 worse ultimate pressure and lower pumping speed for light
gasses (Helium and Hydrogen) if without gas ballast
 cannot be scaled down to small pumping speeds below 50
m³/h; below approx. 100 m³/h multistage roots or scroll
pumps are used

APPLICATION 

Screw pumps have become the standard solution in almost every

industrial vacuum process. Vacuum furnaces for brazing or
sintering, metallurgical systems, even steel degassing plants use
the advantage of dust resistance and long service intervals. In
food processing, food drying, food packaging and even freeze
dryers tend to use oil free screw pumps to avoid the

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contamination of pump oil by water or debris from the process.
Large scale coating like architectural glass coaters use screw
pumps as roughing pumps for the high vacuum pumps. Screw
pumps also are the ideal choice for regeneration of larger
cyropump. 

VIBRATIONS
FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION

Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur

about equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic, such as
the motion of a pendulum—or random, such as the movement of
a tire on a gravel road. Vibration can be desirable: for example,
the motion of a turning fork, a mobile phone, or the cone of
a loudspeaker.

In many cases, however, vibration is undesirable,

wasting energy and creating unwanted sound. For example, the
vibrational motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical
device in operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations could

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be caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, or
the meshing of gear teeth. Careful designs usually minimize
unwanted vibrations. In industrial plants there is the kind of
vibration we are concerned about – machine vibration.

MACHINE VIBRATION

In simplest terms, vibration in motorized equipment is the back-

and-forth movement, or oscillation, of machines and components,
such as drive motors, driven devices (pumps, compressors and so
on), and the bearings, shafts, gears, belts and other elements that
make up mechanical systems.

Vibration analysis, when properly done, allows you to evaluate the

health of equipment. Vibration in industrial equipment can be
both a sign and a source of trouble.  By finding inherent failures
before they become catastrophic, maintenance personnel can
minimize unplanned downtime. Most industrial devices are
engineered to operate smoothly and avoid vibration, not produce
it. In these machines, vibration can indicate problems or
deterioration in the equipment. If the underlying causes are not
corrected, the unwanted vibration itself can cause additional
damage.

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 Most Common Causes of Machine Vibration

Vibration can result from a number of conditions, acting alone or

in combination. Keep in mind that vibration problems may be
caused by auxiliary equipment, not just the primary equipment.
The following are some of the major causes of vibration.

(a)Imbalance

(b)Miaalignment

(c) Wear

(d) Looseness

Imbalance:

 A “heavy spot” in a rotating component will cause vibration when

the unbalanced weight rotates around the machine’s axis,
creating a centrifugal force. Imbalance could be caused by
manufacturing defects (machining errors, casting flaws) or
maintenance issues (deformed or dirty fan blades, missing balance
weights). As machine speed increases, the effects of imbalance
become greater. Imbalance can severely reduce bearing life as
well as cause undue machine vibration.

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 Misalignment: 

Vibration can result when machine shafts are out of line. Angular
misalignment occurs when, for example, the axes of a motor and
pump are not parallel. When the axes are parallel but not exactly
aligned, the condition is known as parallel misalignment.
Misalignment may be caused during assembly or develop over
time, due to thermal expansion, components shifting or improper
reassembly after maintenance. The resulting vibration may be
radial or axial (in line with the axis of the machine) or both.

Wear:

As components such as ball or roller bearings, drive belts or gears

become worn, they may cause vibration. When a roller bearing
race becomes pitted, for instance, the bearing rollers will cause a
vibration each time they travel over the damaged area. A gear
tooth that is heavily chipped or worn, or a drive belt that is
breaking down, also can produce vibration.

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Looseness: 

Vibration that might otherwise go unnoticed may become obvious

and destructive if the component that is vibrating has loose
bearings or is loosely attached to its mounts. Such looseness may
or may not be caused by the underlying vibration. Whatever its
cause, looseness can allow any vibration present to cause
damage, such as further bearing wear, wear and fatigue in
equipment mounts and other components.

Effects of Vibration

The effects of vibration can be severe. Unchecked machine

vibration can accelerate rates of wear (i.e. reduce bearing life) and
damage equipment. Vibrating machinery can create noise, cause
safety problems and lead to degradation in plant working
conditions. Vibration can cause machinery to consume excessive
power and may damage product quality. In the worst cases,
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vibration can damage equipment so severely as to knock it out of
service and halt plant production.

Yet there is a positive aspect to machine vibration. Measured and

analyzed correctly, vibration can be used in a preventive
maintenance program as an indicator of machine condition and
help guide the plant maintenance professional to take remedial
action before disaster strikes.

Why Monitor Machine Vibration?

Monitoring the vibration characteristics of a machine gives us an

understanding of the 'health' condition of the machine. We can
use this information to detect problems that might be developing.

If we regularly monitor the conditions of machines we will find any

problems that might be developing, therefore we can correct the
problems even as they arise.In contrast, if we do not monitor
machines to detect unwanted vibration the machines are more
likely to be operated until they break down.

Below we discuss some common problems that can be avoided by

monitoring machine vibration

 Severe Machine Damage

 High Power Consumption
 Machine Unavailability
 Delayed Shipments
 Accumulation of Unfinished Goods
 Unnecessary Maintenance
 Quality Problems
 Bad Company Image
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  Occupational Hazards

Types of Vibration Monitoring Parameters

PRINCIPLE

Vibration amplitude may be measured as a displacement, a

velocity or acceleration. Vibration amplitude measurements may
either be relative, or absolute. An absolute vibration
measurements is one that is relative to free space. Absolute
vibration measurements are made with seismic vibration
transdusers.

Displacement

Displacement measurement is the distance or amplitude displaced

from a resting position. The SI unit for distance is the meter(m),
although common industrial standards include mm and mils.
Displacement vibration measurements are generally made using
displacement eddy current transdusers.

Velocity

Velocity is rate of change of displacement with respect to change

in time.The SI unit for velocity is meters per second (m/s),
although common industrial standards include mm/s and
inches/s. Velocity vibration measurements are generally made
using either swing coil velocity transducers or acceleration
transducers with either an internal or external integration circuit.

Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to

change in time. The SI unit for acceleration is meters per second2

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(m/s2), although the common industrial standard is the g.
Acceleration vibration measurements are generally made using
accelerometes.

Vibration Monitoring Sensors & Selections

A vibration sensor either connects directly to an asset or monitors

it wirelessly. Once placed, it will detect vibrations from the asset
through various means, depending on the type of sensor.

Types of Vibration Sensors

1. Strain Gauges

One type of vibration sensor is the strain gauge, which is a foil

that’s applied directly to the surface of the machine being
monitored. The foil contains an electrically conductive grid. As the
grid is stretched or compressed—such as when that piece of
equipment is vibrating—it changes the electrical resistance of the
grid. By reading changes in the grid’s resistance, an electric
current passing through it will take more or less time to get
through.

Use: Strain gauges are inexpensive on their own and they are best
used on uneven or curved surfaces. However, you do need special
equipment to amplifly and read the signals produced by the
gauge, which can get expensive.

2. Accelerometers

By far the most common types of vibration sensors,

accelerometers measure the changes of velocity of a given
component. When attached to a piece of equipment, any
vibration will reflect a change in velocity, which will cause the
accelerometer to produce an electrical signal. That signal is then
interpreted to produce vibration data.
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The most commonly used type of accelerometer is a piezoelectric
accelerometer, which produces a strong, clear signal at most
frequencies. However, piezoresistive accelerometers are
becoming more popular due to the fact that they are better at
high and low frequencies. The drawback is they cost up to five
times as much as piezoelectric sensors.

Use: Accelerometers are commonly used for general vibration

analysis. However, thay do require supporting electronics in order
to be useful.

3. Eddy-Currents

An Eddy-Current sensor is a non-contact sensor that produces

magnetic fields which are used to measure the relative movement
of a given object. If the sensor is fixed in place and the object is
vibrating, that movement will register in the magnetic field.
Capacitive displacement sensors work in a similar way, but with
strong electric fields instead of magnetic fields.

Since Eddy-Current sensors measure relative movement (i.e.

movement relative to the sensor’s position), they must be fixed in
place. The fact that they don’t need to make contact with the
asset makes them ideal for delicate assets or setups.

Use: Eddy-Current Sensors are frequently used in laboratories

where fragile equipment is used and measurements need to be
precise. Outside the lab, they don’t see much use.

4. Laser displacement

Like Eddy-Current sensors, laser displacement sensors are non-

contact sensors, except instead of using magnetic fields and
electric currents, they use a laser beam with triangulation. The
beam is aimed at the asset and reflects back through a receiving
lens into a receiving element. Any changes in the object’s position
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will cause the beam to hit a different part of the receiving
element.

Use: Laser displacement sensors tend to work best with stationary

objects in clean settings, and they won’t interfere with delicate
instrumentation. Howevefr, they don’t tend to fare well in rugged
environment, and they are very expensive.

5. Gyroscopes

A gyroscope is a contact sensor that measures angular velocity,

which is how quickly something turns or rotates. They do this by
using MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) technology, which
provides accurate measurements of how many degrees an object
rotates per second.

In vibration monitoring, gyroscopes aren’t typically used on their

own. Instead, they’re used to supplement the data you’d get from
an accelerometer with orientation data.

Use: Gyroscope can be used together with accelerometers on

rotating equipment, filling in gaps in the data provided. With
MEMS technology, they’re fairly inexpensive, making them great
for low-budget applications.

6. Microphone sensors

Vibrations create sound, and that sound is often beyond the range
of human hearing. Microphone sensors—also called acoustic
pressure sensors—can provide some basic information on changes
that might occur in high-frequency vibrations that equipment
operators wouldn’t normally be able to detect.

Microphone sensors have the benefit of being highly cost

effective, though the information they provide is fairly limited.

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Use: Microscope sensors can accurately detect changes in
vibration frequency, but not absolute values. In addition, they are
not very effective at pinpointing the exact source of vibration,
which means they are typically used in conjunction with
accelerometers.

7. Vibration Meters

A vibration meter is a handheld device used to analyze vibration

data and put it into a readable format. They often include
accelerometers, but models that do not can be connected to an
installed accelerometer to give you a quick look at the current
health of the asset.

Use: Vibration meters are used to perform quick checkups on

assets, but are not good for continuous long-term data.

APPLICATIONS

Application of these vibration sesnsors, with their associated

equipment, provides effective reduction in overall operating costs
of many industrial plants. The damage to machinery the vibration
analysis equipment prevents is much more costly than the
equipment and lost production costs can greatly overshadow the
cost of equipment and testing.

Predicting problems and serious damage before they occur offers

a tremendous advantage over not having or not using vibration
analysis

Specific areas of application include any rotating machinery such

as motors, pumps, turbines, bearings, fans and gears along with
their balancing, broken or bent parts and shaft alignment.

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The vibration systems find application now in large systems such
as aircraft, automobiles and locomotives while they are in
operation.

Dynamic fluid flow systems such as pipelines, boilers, heat

exchangers and even nuclear reactors use vibration analysis to
find and interpret internal problems.

VALVES
A valve is a component that controls and regulates the fluid or
directs the flow of a fluid by various kinds of closing, opening, or
by partially cutting off fluid flow.

So to controls the flow and pressure of fluid within a system, we

use valves.

Types of valves

 Gate valve
 Butterfly valve
 Globe valve
 Non return valve

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  Relief valve

Gate Valves

Gate Valves are used mainly for blocking fluid flow and are less
likely to be employed for flow regulation. A gate valve uses a
plate-like barrier that can be lowered into the flow stream to stop
the flow. Its operation is similar to that of a globe valve except the
gate provides less flow restriction than with a globe-valve plug
when the valve is in the fully opened position. Key specifications
include port configuration, port connections, valve size, and the
materials that make up the valve body, its seat, seal, lining, and
stem packing. Gate valves can use wedge-shaped plugs or parallel
plates. Plugs usually seal both the up and downstream sides of the
valve while plates usually only seal on the upstream face. Wedges
can take on a variety of design alternatives that reduce or
accommodate wear of the sealing surfaces. Although the
advantage of gate valves is their reduced head loss when open
compared to globe valves, they are not useful for throttling and
may not produce the positive shut-off that globe valves provide.
Gate valves are used in wastewater plants, power plants, and
process plants for shut-off and for isolating service.

Gate valves are usually designated as rising-stem and non-rising

stem designs. The advantage of rising-stem valves is that they
permit easy visualization as to whether a valve is open or closed.
The advantage of the Non-Rising Stem, or NRS valves, is that the
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stem is protected from exposure to corrosive or other
environmental conditions by the valve bonnet. Neither design has
much impact on the actual valve function.

Non return valves

Nonreturn valves use the mechanism to allow the medium only in

the right direction. It has two openings; one inlet and the other
outlet. A closing member separates the inlet and outlet staying in
between. When the fluid enters the non-return valve through the
valve inlet, the fluid pressure keeps the closing member open. On
the other hand, when the fluid attempts to flow in the backward
direction from the outlet side to the inlet side, the closing
member closes the entrance which prevents the flow. Non-return
valves work automatically without the need for control of any
external element.

Relief valves

Relief Valves protect pressurized systems such as boilers or piping

from over-pressure conditions, usually by way of a spring-loaded
diaphragm. They can relieve internal pressure as well as external
pressure caused by vacuum formation within a tank, for example.
Key specifications include valve type, port connections, valve size,
pressure rating, intended application, and the materials of
construction.

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Relief valves are used on pneumatic compressors, on gas lines,
and in cryogenic systems — in short, anyplace where over-or
under-pressure conditions can occur. Pressure and vacuum relief
valves operate automatically but can have a manual means of
actuation for testing. Atmospheric relief valves are used on
condensers. A surge control valve is a kind of relief valve intended
to reduce damage to hydraulic systems from a phenomenon
known as a hydraulic surge.

Butterfly Valves

Butterfly Valves are quarter-turn valves which employ center-

mounted circular flaps that swing into, and out of, the flow
stream. Key specifications include port connection, valve size, and
the materials that make up the valve body, its seat, seal, disc, and
stem packing. Butterfly valves are used in wastewater plants,
power plants, and process plants for shut-off and for regulating
and isolating service and are especially popular in very large
diameter pipelines. Generally smaller and cheaper than a ball

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valve of the same capacity, butterfly valves can be difficult to
operate against high pressure and flow. They are also more leak-
prone than ball valves and subject to higher head losses.

Globe Valves

Globe Valves, named for their spherically shaped valve bodies that
were at one time common, are also named for their use of a
globe-shaped disc that constricts flow by closing against a
restricting orifice. The disc is opened and closed with a handwheel
on manually operated valves and with an actuator and sliding
shaft on automatic valves. Key specifications include valve type,
port configuration, port connections, valve size, and the materials
that make up the valve body, such as its seat, seal, lining, and
stem packing. Globe valves are used for shut-off and regulating,
and are used in wastewater plants, food processing facilities, and
process plants, for example. The most common variety is the Z-
style valve, so-called because of the path which the fluid follows
through the valve body. These two right-angle turns that the fluid
must make through the valve account for the design’s relatively
high head losses. A less restrictive design is the Y-style valve,
which orients the valve stem at 45° to the valve body. Another
style is the angle valve, which turns the flow 90°.

The shape of the disc can be varied to produce a valve that goes
to full-flow quickly, or, by using a more tapered plug design,
produce a valve that can precisely regulate flow.

Globe valves can seal against the fluid flow or with it, depending
on the requirements of the installation (i.e. fail closed vs. fail
opened) and the choice plays a major role is sizing an actuator.
Like gate valves, globe valves can be rising-stem or NRS varieties.

Gate valve Applications:

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•    Gate valves are suitable to use in high temperature and
pressure conditions.

•    They are used for on-off applications

Globe valvesApplications:

Global valves are used primarily for throttling purposes. They may
be considered as general-purpose flow control valves that are
used for high-temperature applications

Butterfly valvesApplications:

• Butterfly valves can be used in pharmaceutical, chemical, and

food processing services.

• They are used for corrosive liquids at low temp and pressure.

Pressure relief valves Applications:

The purpose of a pressure relief valve is to control or limit surges

of pressure within pipelines, acting as protection for the system,
and defending against instrument or equipment failure

Non return valves Applications

 At discharge of pumps
 To avoid back flow of fluid

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 FINDINGS
Any academic subject, particularly practical fields such as
engineering, should combine theoretical and practical
understanding. Our need for knowledge is theoretically fulfilled in
university classrooms. During such vocational training, students
are exposed to real-world expertise. We learned a lot about
pumps, safety valves, flow control valves, compressors, machine
vibrations and their analysis, and many other aspects of industry
activity. We may have completely learned the theory behind
things, but our practical expertise was primarily restricted to
laboratory samples. We observed the equipment utilised in
industry at IOCL. Though the essential idea stays the same, there
are variances in terms of practical designs.

We also learned about other aspects that were not previously

taught or known to us. This has greatly aided in the clarification of
our theoretical understanding. Apart from learning about topics
specific to our subject, we also learned about the processing of
crude oil and the manufacture of numerous petrochemical goods
and fuels that we would not have learned in school. Apart from
enhancing our education, such vocational trainings provide us
with some practical insight into the business sector as well as a

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sense of the industry environment. Close contacts with guides,
many of whom are only a few years our senior, have also been
really beneficial.It is they who, apart from throwing light on
equipment, have also shown the different aspects and constraints
of corporate life. Discussions with them have not only satisfied our
enquiries about machines and processes but also enlightened
about many other extracurricular concepts which are also
important. Thusour training in IOCL has been a truly enlightening
learning experience.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 IOCL PUMP DATASHEET

 https://www.michael-smith-engineers.co.uk/resources/useful-
info/centrifugal-pumps
 https://www.michael-smith-engineers.co.uk/resources/useful-
info/centrifugal-pumps
 https://www.vacuumscienceworld.com/blog/working-with-
screw-pumps
 https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/pumps-valves-
accessories/types-of-valves/
 https://www.signasis.com/events
 https://www.csidesigns.com/blog/articles/what-is-pump-
cavitation-and-how-to-prevent-it
 Fluid Mechanics _ Hydraulic Machines By R K Bansal
 Fluid-Mechanics-Cengel

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