Lesson 4:

Information Processing

M Objectives:
O 

Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving knowledge.
Cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.

D
CONCEPT NOTES:

Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge

enters and is stored and retrieved from our memory. It was one of the most significant cognitive

U theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process.

Information Processing Theory

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in

L the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and
design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the
human mind. Read on to know more about IPT.

E Cognitive psychologist believed that cognitive processes influenced the nature of what is
learned. They considered learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change
(as behaviorist theorists thought). They looked into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve

9 information. They believed that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives
shapes what s/he will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information processing
theory.

IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment
through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will
continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short term memory and the long term
memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or
“remembered” when the learner needs it. Let us go into details.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

“Types of Knowledge”
 General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge useful in many tasks, or only
in one.
 Declarative – This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things
are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a
nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
 Procedural – This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a
lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
 Episodic – This includes memories of life events, like high school graduation.
  Conditional – This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

Stages in the information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involves the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short term
memory and the long term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the
progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure
of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.)

These three primary stages in IPT are:

 Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.
 Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
 Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time, and reactivated for
use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

What made IPT plausible was the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-
like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the
memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information
processing revolve around three main stages in the memory process:

Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model, holds all sensory information for a very brief time.
 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our
minds can hold or perceive.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief- in the
order of 1 to 3 seconds.
 There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent
than visual.

The Role of Attention

 To bring of information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it.
Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through our
attention “gate”.
 Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the
material; when there is conscious over attention, or when information involves novelty,
surprise, salience, and distinctiveness.
 Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information. This means
that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical
membership of the information. To this point, the information is coming in as
uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret,
and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no means by which to
recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.
Short Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)
 Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information, sometimes described
as 7 + /-2/. It is called working memory because it is where new information is
temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM maintain information for a
limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to process the information, or until
the information is forgotten.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
 To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It
is using repetition to keep the information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone
number just given over and over.

Long Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final and permanent storing house of memory information. It holds the
stored information until needed again.
 Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
 Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite.

Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to as
metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system, helps
the learner make informed decisions about how to categorize, organize, or interpret information.
Example of processes are attention, rehearsals and organization.

Forgetting is the ability to retrieve or access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:
 DECAY – information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very prevalent in
Working Memory.
 INTERFERENCE- new or old information ‘blocks’ access to the information in
question.

Methods of Increasing Retrieval of Information

 Rehearsal – This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
 Meaningful Learning – This is making connections between new information and prior
knowledge.
 Organization – It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that
is organized efficiently should be recalled.
 Elaboration – This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one
already knows. It is connecting new information with old, to gain meaning.
 Visual Imagery – This means forming a “picture” of the information
 Generation – Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear’.
 Context – Remembering the situation helps recover information.
  Personalization – It is making the information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods

 Serial position Effect (recency and primacy) – you will remember the beginning and
end of ‘list’ most readily
 Part Learning- Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk” information to increase memorization.
 Distributed Practice – Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in
at once (Massed Practice)
 Mnemonic Aids – These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them
retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci technique,
acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques, among others.

Executive Control Processes (including Metacognition)

Rehearsal, Elaboration,
Maintenance Rehearsal Meaningful Learning
Organization, Visual Imagery,
Generalization

Senses Sensor Perception Short LongTer

Term m
y memory memory
memor
Decay Forgetting
Retrieval

The Information Processing Model

Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a
very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and
if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not properly
encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes, applied to the information will then
determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.
 Worksheet No. 9: Information Processing\

Directions: As a small group, cite a teaching implication of the information process given in the
table below. One is done for you.
Process Teaching Implication/s
1. Information is received through the 1.1 be sure that the learners’ senses are
senses. functioning well.
1.2
2. If information is not relevant, it 2.1
decays. 2.2
4. If information goes to the short term 23.1
memory and if given attention and is 3.2
found to be relevant, it is sent to the
Long term memory.
6. If information is not properly encoded, 4.1
forgetting occurs. 4.2
8. There are methods to increase 5.1
retrieval of information when needed 5.2
 Lesson 5: Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

M Objectives:
 Describe the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge.

O  Explain how the spiral curriculum works.

Demonstrate appreciation of discovery learning as a teaching strategy.

D CONCEPT NOTES

Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major theme in the

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theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or
concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.

Have you ever realized that a single topic can be taught in preschool/elementary, then again in

L high school, and still again in college? Take for instance, in learning about Jose Rizal, in
elementary we may have his picture in a postcard, know that he is our national hero, born on
June 19, 1861 in Calamba, Laguna, and maybe even have a field trip there. In high school, we

E may study his two novels in more detail. In college, we would go deeper into analyzing Rizal’s
works and may look into the personal and social factors that influenced him in his life and work
and write a term paper on it. This repeated topic on Rizal is a way of applying the principles in

1
Bruner’s Theory. He gave us important concepts in development of representations, the spiral
curriculum and discovery learning. These concepts are all in line with the constructivist
approach.

0 Bruner’s Main Concepts

Representation

Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge three develops in 3 stages. These
stages also become the 3 ways to represent knowledge

1. Enactive representation – At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through
actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions. Children represent objects
in terms of their immediate sensation of them. They are represented in the muscles and
involve motor responses, or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e. riding a bicycle and
tying a knot, tasting the apple).
2. Iconic representation – This second stage is when learning can be obtained through
using models and pictures. The learner can now use mental images to stand for certain
objects when they are changed in minor ways (e.g. mountains with and without snow at
the top).
 3. Symbolic representation – In this third stage, the learner has developed the ability to
think in abstract terms. This uses symbol system to encode knowledge. The most
common symbol systems are language and mathematical notation.
Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, pictorial then symbolic
activities to facilitate learning. Before children can comprehend abstract mathematical
operations, teachers can first have the numbers represented enactively (with blocks) and
then, iconically (in pictures). Children can later on handle number concepts without
concrete objects and only with numbers and number signs (symbolic).

Spiral curriculum

Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive development.
Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher’s level
of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the learner’s cognitive capabilities. The
task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the
learner’s current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so
that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content
in different ways depending on students’ developmental levels. This is why certain topics are
initially presented in grade school in a manner appropriate for grade schoolers, and then the same
topic is tackled in high school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a topic can be revisited
within the same semester or school year.

Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student
willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).
Discovering Learning

Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. Teacher plans and arranges
activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore, and investigate. Students learn
new knowledge relevant to the domain and such general problem-solving skills as formulating
rules, testing and gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students
 require background preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge, careful
structuring of material allows them to discover important principles.

Classroom Example:
Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore their learning environment rather than listen
passively to teachers.
 In elementary school- Teachers might use guided discovery to help children learn animal groups (ex. Mammals,
birds, etc.). Rather than provide students with the basic animals groups and examples for each, the teacher
could also ask students to provide the names of types of animals. Then the students and teacher could classify
the animals by examining their similarities and differences. Category labels can be assigned once classifications
are made. This approach is guided by the teacher to ensure that classifications are proper, but students are
active contributors as they discover the similarities and differences among animals.
 In high school- A chemistry teacher might use “mystery” liquids and have students discover the elements in
each. The students could proceed through a series of experiments designed to determine if certain substances
are present in a sample. By using the experimental process, students learn about the reactions of various
substances to certain chemicals and also how to determine the contents of their mystery substance.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:

1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning”. Bruner

believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits
the child’s cognitive abilities. This feature specifically states the experiences which move
the learner toward a love of learning in general, or of learning something in particular.
Motivational, cultural and personal factors contribute to this. He believed that learning
and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of the teacher is to
maintain and direct a child’s spontaneous explorations.

2. Structure of Knowledge. The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so

that it can most readily grasped by the learner. Bruner emphasized the role of structure in
learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships
among factual elements and techniques. This will depend on different factors, and there
will be many ways to structure a body of knowledge and many preferences among
learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring knowledge.
a. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more
comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization as a fundamental process in the
structuring of knowledge. Details are better retained when placed within the
context of an ordered and structured pattern.
b. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts, fundamental
principles or patterns are best suited.
c. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject area is
diminished when instruction centers on a structure and principles of orientation.
 This means that a body of knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the
learner to understand and it must be in a form recognizable to the student’s
experience.
3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson
can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning
easier or more difficult. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over
and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and
mastery.
4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced appropriately.
He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter
is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as
grades or class ranking.
Categorization

Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of

internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision
making, and making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are “rules” that specify
four thing about objects. The four things are given below:

1. Criterial attributes – required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category.

(Example, for an object to be included in the category “car” it must have an engine, 4
wheels, and be a possible means of transportation)
2. The second rule prescribes how the criterial attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Ex. It could be a car even if a tire
was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a different
category of “truck” or perhaps “van”.)
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can vary widely, such
as color. Others are fixed. For example a vehicle without an engine is not a car. Likewise,
a vehicle with only two wheels would not be included in “car”.
There are several kinds of categories:

1. Identity categories – categories include objects based on their attributes or features.

2. Equivalent categories – provide rules for combining categories. Equivalence can be
determined by affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions,
functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, “car”, “truck”, “van” could
all be combined in an inclusive category called “motor vehicle”), or by formal criteria,
for example by science, law or cultural agreement. For example, an apple is still an apple
whether it is green, ripe , dried etc. (identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of
botanical classification group (formal).
3. Coding system – are categories that serve to recognize sensory input. They are major
organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate
sensory data involves making inferences on the basis or related categories. Related
 categories form a “coding system”. These are hierarchical arrangements of related
categories.

The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world mostly in
terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to how individuals construct
their own models or view of the world.

Worksheet No. 10: Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Directions: Answer the following:

1. Choose a topic related to your field of specialization.

2. Write a simple plan on how to teach this topic using Bruner’s principles.

Topic:
_____________________________________________________________________
_
Grade/year Level of Learner:
____________________________________________________
How will you present the topic on the Enactive level?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
Iconic level?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
Symbolic level?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
How will you apply the spiral curriculum approach in this topic?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Describe how you can used discovery learning for this topic.
Lesson 6:
Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory

M Objectives:
 Explain Ausubel’s Subsumpttion theory.

O  Determine the uses of graphic organizers.

Use advance graphic organizers for a topic presentation.

D CONCEPT NOTES

Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or presentational

U
manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major role in learning as providers of
information, while students remain passive receivers of information. David Ausubel, instead of
criticizing this manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of
advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning.
L The main theme of Ausubel’s theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized;
that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already known.
It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual

E presentations in a school setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for
learning.

1 Focus of Ausubel’s Theory

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of
the learner’s present knowledge. This present knowledge consist of facts, concepts,

1 propositions, theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to him/her at
any point in time. This comprises his/her cognitive structure.
2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible
way to ideas that the learner already possesses. Ausubel believed that before new material
can be presented effectively, the students’ cognitive structure should be strengthened.
When this is done, acquisition and retention of new information is facilitated. The way to
strengthen the student’s cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow
students to already have a bird’s eye view or to see the “big picture” of the topic to be
learned even before going to the details.
Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of
subsumption. He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process by
which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Likewise,
Ausubel pointed out, that what is learned is based on what is already known. This signifies that
one’s own prior knowledge and biases limit and affect what is learned. Also, retention of new
knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts.

Meaningful learning can take place through 4 processes:

1. Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you
learn is an example of a concept that you have already learned. For example, let’s say you
have acquired a basic concept such as “bird”. You know that a bird has feathers, a beak,
lays egg. Now you learn about a kind of bird that you have never seen before, let say a
blue jay that conforms to your previous understanding of bird. Your new knowledge of
blue jays is attached to your concept of bird, without substantially altering that concept in
any way. So, an in Ausubel’s theory, you had learned about blue jays through the process
of derivative subsumption.
2. Correlative subsumption. Examine this example. Now, let’s say you see a new kind of
bird that has a really big body and long strong legs. It doesn’t fly but it can run fast. In
order to accommodate this new information, you have to change or expand your concept
of bird to include the possibility of being big and having long legs. You now include your
concept of an ostrich to your previous concept of what a bird is. You have learned about
this new kind of bird through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense, you
might say that this is more “ valuable” learning than that of derivative subsumption, since
it enriches the higher-level concept.
3. Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango,
dalandan, etc., but the child did not know, until she was taught, that these were all
examples of fruits. In this case, the child already knew a lot of examples of the concept,
but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to her. This is superordinate
learning.
4. Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior
knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts. The first three learning
processes all included new information that relates to a hierarchy at a level that is either
below or above previously acquired knowledge. It is different; it describes a process by
which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the
hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related, “branch”). It is a lot like as
learning by analogy. For example, to teach someone about how plants “breathe” you
might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of human respiration where man inhales
oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide.
Advance Organizers

The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. The advance
organizer, gives you two benefits:

(1) You will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about the
topic, and
 (2) You can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other. As you
go about learning about the topic and go through the four learning processes, the advance
organizer helps you link the new learning to your existing scheme. As such, advance
organizers facilitate learning by helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive
structure.
Ausubel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with
overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the
same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as
subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Types of advance organizers

1. Expository – describes the new content.
2. Narrative – presents the new information in the form of a story to students.
3. Skimming – is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview.
4. Graphic organizer – visuals to set up or outline the new information. This may
include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns and concept maps.
Application of Principles

1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first then progressively
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. He called this progressive
differentiation. According to Ausubel, the purpose of progressive differentiation
is to increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is
that, if you’re teaching three related topics A, B, and C, rather than teaching all of
topic A, then going on to B, etc., you would take a spiral approach. That is, in
your first pass through the material, you would teach the “big” ideas (those
highest in the hierarchy) in all three topics, then on successive passes you would
begin to elaborate the details. Along the way you would point out principles that
the 3 topics had in common, and things that differentiated them”.
2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously
presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old
ideas.

Worksheet No. 11: Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory

Directions: Answer the following.

Choose a topic from your field of specialization. Obtain a material such as a book chapter about
this topic and prepare an advance organizer about it.
 Lesson 7: Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

M Objectives:
 Explain Gagne’s conditions of learning.

O  Make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s instruction events.
Articulate the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in teaching.

D CONCEPT NOTES

In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning. He stressed

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that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his
theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instructions events that served as
basis for the sequencing of instruction.

L
Let us see Gagne’s principles.
Gagne’s theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the theory is on
intellectual skills. The theory has been utilizes to design instruction in all domains. In the earlier
version of the theory, special attention was given to military training settings. Later, Gagne also

E looked into the role of instructional technology in learning.

Gagne’s Principles

1
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne’s theory
asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning. Furthermore, the theory
implies that each different type of learning calls for different types of instruction. Gagne

2
named five categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions are required
for each type of learning. For instance, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must
be an opportunity for problem solving; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to
credible role model or arguments that are convincing and moving. Below are the
categories of learning with corresponding learning outcomes and conditions of learning.

Category of Learning Example of Learning Conditions of Learning

Outcome
Verbal information Stating previously learned 1. Draw attention to distinctive
materials such as facts, features by variations in
concepts, principles, and print or speech.
procedures, e.g., listing the 2. Present information so that it
Gestalt principles can be made into chunks.
3. Provide a meaningful
 context for effective
encoding of information.
4. Provide cues for effective
recall and generalization of
information
Intellectual Skills: Discriminations: 1. Call attention to distinctive
Discriminations, Distinguishing objects, features.
Concrete Concepts, features, or symbols. Example 2. Stay within the limits of
Defined Concepts, distinguishing an even and odd working memory.
Rules, Higher Order number 3. Stimulate the recall of
Rules Concrete Concepts: previously learned
Identifying classes of concrete component skills.
object, features, or events. 4. Present verbal cues to the
Example picking out all the red ordering or combination of
beads from a bowl of beads. component skills.
Define: classifying new 5. Schedule occasions for
examples of events or ideas by practice and spaced review.
there definition, noting “she 6. Use a variety of contexts to
sells sea shells” as alliteration promote transfer.
Rules:
Applying a single relationship
to solve a class of problems.
Example, computing average
monthly of a company
Order Rules:
Applying a new combination of
rules to solve a complex
problem. Example, generating
a balanced budget for a school
organization
Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways to 1. Describe or demonstrate the
guide learning, thinking, acting, strategy.
and feeling. Example 2. Provide a variety of
constructing concept maps of occasions for practice using
topics being studied. the strategy.
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the creativity
or originality of the strategy
or outcome.
Attitudes Choosing personal actions 1. Establish an expectancy of
based on internal states of success associated with the
understanding and feeling. desired attitude.
Example deciding avoid soft 2. Assure student identification
drinks and drinking a least 8 with an admired human
glasses of water every day. model.
3. Arrange for communication
 or demonstration of choice
of personal action.
4. Give feedback for successful
performance; or allow
observation of feedback in
the human model.
Motor Skills Executing performances 1. Present verbal or other
involving the use of muscles. guidance to cue the
Example, doing the steps of the executive subroutine.
singkil dance 2. Arrange repeated
practice.
3. Furnish immediate
feedback as to the
accuracy of
performance.
4. Encourage the use of
mental practice.
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence
of instruction. Gagne suggest that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized
in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation,
procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule
application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify
prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites
are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies
provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of
learning. These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning
and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media. The
theory includes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) Gaining attention (reception)
(2) Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) Eliciting performance (responding)
(7) Providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) Assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

Study the example of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events of instruction
Example:
Lesson: Equilateral Triangles
Objective: For students to create equilateral triangles
 Target group: Grade 4 pupils
(1) Gain attention – show variety of computer generated triangles
(2) Identify objective- pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”
(3) Recall prior learning – review definition of triangles
(4) Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle
(5) Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
(6) Elicit performance – ask students to create 5 different examples
(7) Provide feedback- check all examples as correct/incorrect
(8) Assess performance – provide scores and remediation
(9) Enhancing retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify
equilaterals

Event of Instruction Lesson Example/Conditions of Rationale

Learning
(1) Gaining attention Teachers tells learners how she Giving background information
has used powerpoint in the creates validity.
classroom.
Shows an example of a
powerpoint.
Asks learners questions about
using powerpoint.
(2) Informing learners Teacher says, “Today we are Make learners aware of what to
of the objective foing to work on using a expect so that they are aware
multimedia presentation and prepared to receive
software, Microsoft powerpoint. information.
(3) Stimulating recall For this particular group of When learning something
of prior learning learners, they have learned new, accessing prior
previously about Microsoft knowledge is a major factor in
Window, particularly Microsoft the process of acquiring new
Word. Teacher associates this information.
knowledge with lesson at hand.
(4) Presenting the Teacher gives students hands- The goal is information
stimulus on step-by-step tutorial on acquisition, therefore, the
using Microsoft Powerpoint stimulus employed is written
content and the actual
software program.
(5) Providing learning Teacher demonstrates how to Teacher uses “discovery
guidance create a presentation. Teacher learning” because learners are
moves around and shows adults and it gives them the
students how to use the tools to freedom to explore. Teacher
type in text, add links, add facilitates the learning process
symbols and clip art, insert by giving hints and cues when
videos and diagrams, use needed. Since the audience
sounds, etc. Learners are are pre-service with some
allowed to try the tools basic level of technology
 demonstrated in partners on skills and the software
their computers. program is easy to follow and
understand, guidance is
minimal.
(6) Eliciting Teacher asks students to Requiring the learner to
performance demonstrate Powerpoint tools. produce based on what has
been taught enables the
learner to confirm their
learning.
(7) Giving feedback Teacher gives immediate Regular feedback enhances
feedback to learners after learning.
eliciting responses.
(8) Assessing Assign a practice activity- Independent practice forces
performance Create an electronic story book students to use what they
using Microsoft powerpoint learned and apply it.
Teacher checks work. Assessing such gives
instructors a means of testing
student learning outcomes.
(9) Enhancing retention Teacher asks learners to create Applying learning in real-life
and transfer activities using Powerpoint situations is a step towards
presentation for 6th grade Mastery Learning.
pupils. Teacher also assigns
learner to teach another learner
how to make powerpoint
presentations.
Worksheet No. 12: Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

Directions: choose a topic with a particular lesson objective in any grade or year level. Make
a teaching sequence applying Gagne’s nine instructional events. Use the table provided
below.

Topic:
________________________________________________________________________

Objective:
_____________________________________________________________________
Grade/Year Level:
_______________________________________________________________

Event of Instruction Lesson Example/Conditions of Learning

(1) Gaining Attention
(2) Informing Learners of
the Objective

(3) Stimulating Recall of

Prior Learning

(4) Presenting the

Stimulus

(5) Providing Learner

Guidance

(6) Eliciting Performance

(7) Giving Feedback

(8) Assessing
Performance

(9) Enhancing Retention

and Transfer