Propellers

& Propeller Systems

for aviation maintenance technology

Complies with
EASA Part 66
Module 17
through level 3

Hellenic Aviation Training Academy propeller fundamentals, construction,

installation, pitch control,
synchronizing, ice protection,
maintenance, preservation
Propellers
& Propeller Systems
for aviation maintenance technology

EASA Part 147 Approved Course

EL 147.0007

Part 66 Syllabus
Module 17
through level 3

developed by:

Hellenic Aviation
Training Academy
 original publication date: April 2010

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Table of Contents
1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Propulsive Force ................................................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Propeller Terms .................................................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Effective Pitch, Geometric Pitch and Slip ........................................................................................... 6
1.5 Angle of Attack ................................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Propeller Configuration ...................................................................................................................... 9
1.6.1 Pusher ............................................................................................................................................ 9
1.6.2 Tractor ............................................................................................................................................ 9
1.6.3 Contra-Rotating ............................................................................................................................ 10
1.6.4 Counter-Rotating .......................................................................................................................... 10
1.7 Propeller Solidity .............................................................................................................................. 11
1.8 Propeller Clearances ........................................................................................................................ 12
1.9 Right and Left Handed Propellers .................................................................................................... 13
1.10 The Blade Element ........................................................................................................................... 13
1.11 Blade Angle and Blade Pitch............................................................................................................ 15
1.12 Blade Twist ....................................................................................................................................... 16
1.13 Forces on a Blade Element .............................................................................................................. 17
1.14 Variation of Propeller Efficiency With Speed ................................................................................... 18
1.15 Wind milling ...................................................................................................................................... 19
1.16 Feathering ........................................................................................................................................ 20
1.17 Reverse Thrust ................................................................................................................................. 21
1.18 Forces Acting on the Propeller ......................................................................................................... 22
1.18.1 Centrifugal Force ...................................................................................................................... 22
1.18.2 Thrust Bending Force ............................................................................................................... 22
1.18.3 Torque Bending Force ............................................................................................................. 23
1.18.4 Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) ..................................................................................... 24
1.18.5 Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) ........................................................................................ 24
1.18.6 Turning Moments in the Windmill Condition ............................................................................ 26
1.19 Pitch Range ...................................................................................................................................... 27
1.20 Handling Effects - Single Engine Aircraft ......................................................................................... 27
1.20.1 Asymmetric Effect (P-Factor) ................................................................................................... 28
1.20.2 Slipstream Effect ...................................................................................................................... 28
1.20.3 Torque Reaction ....................................................................................................................... 29
1.20.4 Gyroscopic Effect ..................................................................................................................... 29
1.21 Thrust and Power Development....................................................................................................... 31
1.21.1 Power Development in Piston Engines .................................................................................... 31
1.21.2 Power Development in Turboprop Engines ............................................................................. 31
1.22 Turboprop Configurations ................................................................................................................ 33
1.23 Vibrational Forces and Resonance .................................................................................................. 33
1.24 Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 35
2 Propeller Construction .............................................................................................................................. 37
2.1 Nomenclature ................................................................................................................................... 37
2.1.1 Blades .......................................................................................................................................... 37
2.1.2 Blade Stations .............................................................................................................................. 38
2.2 Wood Propellers ............................................................................................................................... 39
2.3 Metal Propellers ............................................................................................................................... 42
2.3.1 Aluminum Alloy Propellers ........................................................................................................... 42
2.3.2 Steel Propellers ............................................................................................................................ 42
2.4 Composite Propeller Blades............................................................................................................. 43
2.5 Wood / Composite Propellers .......................................................................................................... 45
2.6 Types of Propellers .......................................................................................................................... 47
2.6.1 Fixed-Pitch Propeller .................................................................................................................... 47
2.6.2 Ground-Adjustable Propeller ........................................................................................................ 47
2.6.3 Variable-Pitch Propellers .............................................................................................................. 47
Single Acting Propeller ............................................................................................................................. 48
2.6.4 Constant Speed Propellers .......................................................................................................... 52

1
 2.7 Propeller Installation .........................................................................................................................55
2.7.1 Flanged Shaft Installations ...........................................................................................................56
2.7.2 Tapered Shaft Installations ...........................................................................................................56
2.7.3 Splined Shaft Installations ............................................................................................................57
2.7.4 Front and Rear Cones ..................................................................................................................57
2.7.5 Safe tying a Propeller ...................................................................................................................58
2.7.6 Spinner Installation .......................................................................................................................59
2.8 Installation Procedures .....................................................................................................................60
2.8.1 Fixed Pitch Wooden Propellers ....................................................................................................60
2.8.2 Fixed-pitch Metal Propellers .........................................................................................................60
2.8.3 Variable Pitch Propellers ..............................................................................................................60
2.8.4 CSU/PCU Installation ...................................................................................................................61
3 Propeller Pitch Control ..............................................................................................................................62
3.1 The Variable-Pitch Propeller.............................................................................................................62
3.1.1 Propeller Blade Pitch Positions ....................................................................................................62
3.1.2 Use of Variable Pitch Propeller .....................................................................................................62
3.1.3 General Operation ........................................................................................................................63
3.1.4 Constant-Speed Propeller System ...............................................................................................64
3.2 Types of Hydraulic Pitch-Change Mechanisms................................................................................64
3.2.1 Counterweighted and Non-counterweighted ................................................................................64
3.2.2 Example: The Dowty Rotol Composite Propeller .........................................................................66
3.3 Full-Feathering and Constant-Speed Governing Systems ...............................................................68
3.3.1 Principle ........................................................................................................................................68
3.3.2 The Governor ................................................................................................................................70
3.3.3 Governor Operation ......................................................................................................................71
3.3.4 Cockpit Control .............................................................................................................................73
3.3.5 Over speed Protection ..................................................................................................................75
3.3.6 Feathering .....................................................................................................................................76
3.3.7 Centrifugal Latch...........................................................................................................................76
3.4 Double-Acting Propeller ....................................................................................................................77
3.5 Fine Pitch Stops................................................................................................................................79
3.5.1 Purpose and Operation ................................................................................................................79
3.5.2 Auto Coarsening ...........................................................................................................................80
3.6 The Hamilton Standard Hydromatic Propeller ..................................................................................80
3.6.1 Principle ........................................................................................................................................80
3.6.2 Mechanism ...................................................................................................................................81
3.6.3 Operation ......................................................................................................................................82
FEATHERING ...............................................................................................................................................85
3.7 Feathering .........................................................................................................................................87
3.7.1 Manual Feathering ........................................................................................................................87
3.7.2 Auto-feathering .............................................................................................................................87
3.7.3 Unfeathering .................................................................................................................................87
3.8 Reverse Thrust .................................................................................................................................88
3.9 Beta Control ......................................................................................................................................88
3.10 Electrically Operated Propellers .......................................................................................................89
3.10.1 FADEC Controlled Propellers ...................................................................................................90
3.10.2 Digital Speed Control ................................................................................................................90
4 Propeller Synchronizing ............................................................................................................................93
4.1 Synchronizing ...................................................................................................................................93
4.1.1 Purpose ........................................................................................................................................93
4.1.2 A Typical Twin-Engine Turboprop Aero plane Synchronizer System ..........................................93
4.1.3 One-Engine Master System .........................................................................................................94
4.1.4 System Components ....................................................................................................................94
4.1.5 System Operation .........................................................................................................................95
4.1.6 Inspection, Maintenance and Repair ............................................................................................96
4.1.7 FADEC Controlled Engines ..........................................................................................................96

2
 4.2 Synchrophasing ............................................................................................................................... 98
4.2.1 System Components .................................................................................................................... 99
4.2.2 System Operation....................................................................................................................... 100
5 Propeller Ice Protection .......................................................................................................................... 101
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 101
5.2 Fluid Anti-Icing................................................................................................................................ 101
5.2.1 System Components .................................................................................................................. 101
5.2.2 System Operation....................................................................................................................... 102
5.2.3 Testing ........................................................................................................................................ 102
5.2.4 Cleaning ..................................................................................................................................... 103
5.2.5 Inhibiting ..................................................................................................................................... 103
5.2.6 Periodic Inspection ..................................................................................................................... 103
5.3 Electrical De-lcing/Anti Icing........................................................................................................... 103
5.3.1 Installation and Maintenance ..................................................................................................... 109
5.3.2 Electrical Checks and Tests ....................................................................................................... 110
5.3.3 Function Tests ............................................................................................................................ 110
5.3.4 Repairs ....................................................................................................................................... 111
6 Propeller Maintenance ............................................................................................................................ 113
6.1 Blade Repairs ................................................................................................................................. 113
6.1.1 General Procedures ................................................................................................................... 113
6.1.2 Aluminum Blade Repair Procedure ............................................................................................ 113
6.2 Propeller Vibration and Balance..................................................................................................... 118
6.2.1 Propeller Vibration ...................................................................................................................... 118
6.2.2 Propeller Track ........................................................................................................................... 118
6.2.3 Propeller Balance ....................................................................................................................... 119
6.2.4 Static Balance ............................................................................................................................ 119
6.2.5 Dynamic Balance ....................................................................................................................... 119
6.3 Maintenance Practices, Testing and General Repair Information ................................................. 123
6.3.1 Wooden Fixed-Pitch Propellers .................................................................................................. 123
6.3.2 Metal Fixed-Pitch Propellers ...................................................................................................... 123
6.3.3 Variable-Pitch Propellers ............................................................................................................ 124
6.3.4 Additional Inspections - All Types .............................................................................................. 125
6.4 Engine Control................................................................................................................................ 126
6.4.1 Alpha Range............................................................................................................................... 126
6.4.2 Beta Range ................................................................................................................................ 126
6.5 Engine Operation ........................................................................................................................... 126
6.5.1 Hydro Mechanical Fuel Control System ..................................................................................... 127
6.5.2 FADEC Control System ............................................................................................................. 134
6.6 Instrumentation............................................................................................................................... 135
6.6.1 Turboprop Engines ..................................................................................................................... 135
6.6.2 Piston Engines ........................................................................................................................... 136
6.7 Running Procedures ...................................................................................................................... 138
6.7.1 Starting ....................................................................................................................................... 138
6.7.2 Running ...................................................................................................................................... 138
6.7.3 Stopping ..................................................................................................................................... 139
7 Propeller Storage and Preservation........................................................................................................ 140
7.1 CAA CAIPs Recommendations...................................................................................................... 140
7.2 Propeller Preservation (In-situ) ...................................................................................................... 140
7.3 Long Term Storage of Governors and Accumulators .................................................................... 140
7.4 Wood Propellers ............................................................................................................................. 141
7.5 Propeller Depreservation ............................................................................................................... 141

3
1 Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
Throughout the development of controlled flight as we know it, every aircraft required some kind of device to
convert engine power to some form of thrust. Nearly all of the early practical aircraft designs used propellers to
create this thrust.

As the science of aeronautics progressed, propeller designs improved from flat boards, which merely pushed
the air backwards, to aero foil shapes. These aero foils produced lift to pull the aircraft forward through
aerodynamic action.

As aircraft designs improved, propellers were developed which used thinner aero foil sections and had greater
strength. Because of its structural strength, these improvements brought the aluminum alloy propeller into wide
usage. The advantage of being able to change the propeller blade angle in flight led to wide acceptance of the
two-position propeller and, later, the constant speed propeller system.

Today, propeller designs continue to be improved by the use of new composite materials, new aero foil shapes
and multi blade configurations.

1.2 Propulsive Force

A propeller is a means of converting engine power into propulsive force.

A rotating propeller imparts rearward motion to a mass of air and the reaction to this is a forward force on the
propeller blades.

A propeller moves a large mass of air rearward, at a relatively slow speed, as opposed to a gas turbine engine,
which moves a small mass of air rearward at a high speed.

Thrust = Mass (Vo-Vi)

Figure 1.1: Thrust from a propeller

4
1.3 Propeller Terms
Before starting any discussion about propellers, it is necessary to define some basic terms to avoid confusion
and misunderstanding.

A propeller is a rotating aero foil that consists of two or more blades attached to a central hub which is mounted
on the engine crankshaft. The function of the propeller is to convert engine power to useful thrust. Propeller
blades have a leading edge, trailing edge, a tip, a shank, a face, and a back.

Figure 1.2: Blade Terms

5
Blade angle is the angle between the propeller's plane of rotation, and the chord line of the propeller aero foil.

Blade station is a reference position on a blade that is a specified distance from the center of the hub.

Pitch is the distance (in inches or millimeters) that a propeller section will move forward in one revolution.

Pitch distribution is the gradual twist in the propeller blade from shank to tip.

Figure 1.3: Blade Terms

1.4 Effective Pitch, Geometric Pitch and Slip

Since the angle of a propeller blade varies along its length, a particular blade station must be chosen to specify
the pitch of a blade.

Rather than using blade angles at a reference station, some propeller manufacturers express pitch in inches at
75% of the radius.

6
This is the geometric pitch, or the distance this particular element would move forward in one revolution along
a helix, or spiral, determined by its blade angle.

Figure 1.4: Effective pitch, Geometric pitch and Slip (measured at Master Station)

The effective pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances through the air in one revolution. This cannot be
determined by the pitch angle alone because it is affected by the forward velocity of the aero plane and air
density.

The difference between geometric and effective pitch is called propeller slip.

If a propeller has a pitch of 50 inches, in theory it should move forward 50 inches in one revolution. But if the
aircraft actually moves forward only 35 inches in one revolution the effective pitch is 35 inches and the propeller
efficiency is 70%.

1.5 Angle of Attack

Thrust produced by a propeller, in the same way as lift produced by a wing, is determined by the blade's angle
of attack. It is the acute angle between the chord line of a propeller blade and the relative wind.

Angle of attack relates to the blade pitch angle, but it is not a fixed angle. It varies with the forward speed of the
aero plane and the RPM of the propeller.

As an example, when there is no forward speed, angle of attack (a) and blade pitch angle are the same, 20°.

When the aero plane is moving forward at 60 knots, angle of attack becomes much less than the blade pitch
angle (see figure 1.5).

7
 Figure 1.5: Angle of Attack at different forward speeds

8
1.6 Propeller Configuration
There are four main propeller configurations:
 Pusher
 Tractor
 Contra-Rotating
 Counter-Rotating

All the above types can be between two and five bladed propellers, but usually small two blade propellers are
used on small piston engines and three, four or five bladed propellers are used for high powered piston or gas
turbine engines.

1.6.1 Pusher
A little confusing, as it is sometimes known as the 'Propeller'. This type, as the name implies, pushes the
airframe through the air and is usually fitted behind the main plane.

Figure 1.6: Pusher propellers on the Piaggio P. 180 Avanti

1.6.2 Tractor
This type pulls the airframe through the air and is usually fitted forward of the main plane.

Figure 1.7: The Cessna 337 Sky master has a pusher AND a tractor propeller

9
1.6.3 Contra-Rotating
This configuration is where there are two propeller units on one shaft, driven by the same engine, but rotating in
opposite directions. This gives the advantage of reducing the disc area, but maintaining the thrust to enable
lower undercarriage configurations to be used or higher RPM's from the engine due to reduced tip speed. When
a propeller has more than six blades, it becomes inefficient; a contra-rotating propeller is also a method of
overcoming this problem.

Figure 1.8: The Contra-rotating propeller of the P51 Unlimited Racer

The rear propeller is usually of a smaller diameter than the front propeller, so the blade tips will not be affected
by air vortices from the front propeller tips.

1.6.4 Counter-Rotating
With a large rotating mass such as a propeller, it will produce a significant turning moment or torque on the
airframe. To overcome this problem on multi-engine aircraft, counter rotating propellers are often used. In this
system you would have, for example, the port engine propeller rotating clockwise and the starboard engine
propeller rotating anti-clockwise, thus balancing the torque effects.

Figure 1.9: Counter-rotating propellers

10
1.7 Propeller Solidity
Solidity is the term used to describe the ability of the propeller to absorb power from the engine. For example a
C130 propeller will require high solidity, whilst a Cessna 150 will be somewhat less.

Solidity is defined as the surface area of the propeller divided by the surface area of the propeller disc'

Number of blades x Chord at the Master Station

Solidity = Circumference at the Master Station

Solidity may be increased by:

 Increasing number of blades (limited by hub strength so contra-rotating is an option)
 Increasing the chord of the blades (C130 uses 'paddle' type blades)
 Increasing the length of the blades (Limited by tips going sonic and ground clearance).

Figure 1.10: Solidity

11
1.8 Propeller Clearances
Ground Clearance
The clearance that exists between the propeller tip and the ground when the aircraft is in the normal flying
attitude is termed ground clearance. On an aircraft with a tail wheel configuration, it would have to be in the
takeoff position to measure the ground clearance.

Fuselage Clearance
With a multi-engine aircraft, this is the clearance between the side of fuselage and the propeller tip.

Figure 1.11: Propeller clearance

12
1.9 Right and Left Handed Propellers
A right handed propeller is one which rotates in a clockwise direction when viewed from aft -looking forward.

A left handed propeller is one which rotates in an anti-clockwise direction when viewed from aft - looking
forward.

1.10 The Blade Element

The aerodynamics of the propeller can most easily be understood by considering the motion of an element, or
section of the propeller blade. Because the blade section of a propeller is an aerofoil section its aerodynamics
can be studied in the same way, using the same terms.

Figure 1.12: Aero foil Terms

Rotational Velocity
When the aircraft is stationary the motion of the element is purely rotational. At a given RPM the velocity of the
blade element increases as it moves towards the blade tip. Shock wave effects as the tip speed approaches
Mach 1 limit the length of blade. In addition there is the obvious limitation of tip to ground clearance.

13
Forward Velocity
When the propeller is stationary the forward velocity is entirely the due to the forward speed of the aircraft
(TAS). However when the propeller is rotating and therefore drawing air through the blade disc then there is an
additional induced airflow.

Figure 1.13: Airflow Components

14
1.11 Blade Angle and Blade Pitch
In order to develop the required aerodynamic force on the blade element it must be set at a small positive angle
of attack to the resultant relative airflow. The Helix Angle plus the angle of attack equals the blade angle, which
is more usually known as blade pitch.

A blade element advances through space as though it was prescribing a helix. If it were 100% efficient then the
distance it moves in 1-revolution is called the Geometric Pitch. However all blades have tip losses that cause
Slip, resulting in a forward distance moved per revolution called Effective Pitch.

Figure 1.14: Blade Angle pitch relationships

15
1.12 Blade Twist
Earlier it was stated that the rotational velocity increases with distance towards the blade tip. It is necessary
therefore to reduce the blade angle towards the tip in order to maintain an efficient angle of attack (4°- 6° is the
norm). This is the reason for the twist on a blade as shown in figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15: Blade Twist

16
1.13 Forces on a Blade Element
The aerodynamic force produced by setting the blade element at a small positive angle of attack - i.e. the total
reaction - may be resolved with respect to the direction of motion of the aircraft. The component thus obtained
which is parallel to the flight path is the thrust force, and that which remains is the propeller torque force. Notice
that the propeller torque force is the resistance to motion in the plane of rotation.

Figure 1.16: Blade Twist

17
1.14 Variation of Propeller Efficiency With Speed

Thrust x TAS Thrust Horsepower

Propeller Efficiency = Torque x 2πN = Shaft Horsepower

Figure 1.17 illustrates a fixed pitch propeller traveling at different speeds at a constant RPM. If the blade angle is
fixed, the angle of attack will change with variations of forward speed. In particular, as speed increases, the
angle of attack decreases and with it the thrust. The effect on propeller efficiency is as follows:
a) At some high forward speed the angle of attack of the blade will be close to the zero lift incidences and
thrust will reduce to zero.
b) There will only be one speed at which the blade is operating at its most efficient angle of attack (4°-6°)
and where the propeller efficiency will be a maximum.
c) At low speeds, the thrust will increase as the angle of attack is increased. Provided that the blade is not
stalled, the thrust is very large, but the speed is low and the propeller efficiency is low. Therefore at zero
forward speed no useful work is being done and efficiency is zero.

Figure 1.17: Effect of speed on a fixed pitch propeller

18
These limitations to efficiency of a fixed pitch propeller led to the development of the two pitch propeller and
later to the variable pitch propeller that enables the optimum angle of attack to be maintained throughout the
flight range.

Figure 1.18: Efficiency Curves

1.15 Wind milling

Variable pitch propellers are prone to a condition known as wind milling. If the propeller suffers a loss of positive
torque, the pitch will fine off in an attempt to maintain the governed RPM selected at the time. The relative
airflow will impinge on the front surface of the blade section and cause drag and negative torque that will drive
the engine rather than resist rotation.

Figure 1.19: Wind Milling Propeller

19
Figure 1.20 shows that in the wind milling condition there is a small negative angle of attack, causing the total
reaction to act as shown. Resolving the Total Reaction into the two forces of thrust and torque results in the
thrust acting in the reverse direction (however the magnitude is not very great) and the torque is acting with, and
is assisting, rotation. It is this force that causes the propeller to speed up and cause a potentially damaging over
speed of the power plant.

In addition the reverse thrust and extra form drag caused by the flat face of the propeller causes large drag
forces to occur and hence cause considerable asymmetric forces on a twin or multiple engine aircraft.

The aerodynamics is exactly the same as that which drives a ground based windmill, hence the name of this
condition.
Note: that the windmill position is defined as having a small positive blade angle.
However this will also mean it has a small negative angle of attack.

1.16 Feathering
Following engine failure the wind milling propeller would cause drag and possibly cause engine damage due to
over speeding leading to seizure or possibly engine fire. By turning the blades so that the aggregate effect of the
blade section produces zero torque, the propeller is stopped and drag reduces to a minimum. The feathered
position is therefore at approximately 90° to the plane of rotation.

Figure 1.20: Feathered Blade Section

20
1.17 Reverse Thrust
If the propeller is turned through the fine pitch stop to around minus 20° and power applied, reverse thrust is
obtained. The blade section is working inefficiently, with the total reaction being produced in the reverse
direction to normal. Mechanical devices are used to prevent application of power as the propeller passes
through the windmill position, until safely in the braking range.

Figure 1.21: Reverse Thrust

This blade position is used on some enabled propellers to provide rapid braking after landing, and sometimes to
reverse the aero plane out from its parked position. A mechanical lock is often incorporated to prevent the pilot
selecting reverse pitch whilst airborne.

21
1.18 Forces Acting on the Propeller
When a propeller rotates, many forces interact and cause tension, twisting, and bending stresses within the
propeller.

These forces are:

 Centrifugal Force
 Bending Force Torque
 Bending Force
 Aerodynamic Twisting
 Moment (ATM)
 Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM)

1.18.1 Centrifugal Force

Centrifugal force puts the greatest stress on a propeller as it tries to pull the blades out of the hub. It is not
uncommon for the centrifugal force to be several thousand times the weight of the blade. For example, a 10 kg
propeller blade turning at 2,700 RPM may exert a force of 50 tons on the blade root.

Figure 1.22: Propeller Centrifugal Force

1.18.2 Thrust Bending Force

Thrust bending force attempts to bend the propeller blades forward at the tips, because the lift toward the tip of
the blade flexes the thin blade sections forward. Thrust bending force opposes centrifugal force to some degree.

22
 Figure 1.23: Thrust Bending Force

1.18.3 Torque Bending Force

Torque bending forces try to bend the propeller blade back in the direction opposite the direction of rotation.

Figure 1.24: Propeller Torque Bending Force

23
1.18.4 Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM)
Aerodynamic twisting (or turning) moment tries to twist a blade to a higher angle. This force is produced
because the axis of rotation of the blade is at the midpoint of the chord line, while the centre of the lift of the
blade is forward of this axis. This force tries to increase the blade angle. Aerodynamic twisting moment is used
in some designs to help feather the propeller.

Figure 1.25 illustrates how ATM is produced. If the pitch change mechanism is behind the centre of pressure
(the normal situation) the Total Reaction will tend to try to turn the blade towards a coarse pitch.

Figure 1.25: Propeller Aerodynamic Twisting Moment

It should be noted that in the normal forward thrust situation the CTM and ATM oppose each other, but be
aware that CTM is a much greater force than ATM and hence CTM will always prevail and try to turn the
propeller towards the windmill condition.

1.18.5 Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM)

Centrifugal twisting (or turning) moment tries to decrease the blade angle, and opposes aerodynamic twisting
moment. This tendency to decrease the blade angle is produced since all the parts of a rotating propeller try to
move in the same plane of rotation as the blade centerline. This force is greater than the aerodynamic twisting
moment at operational RPM and is used in some designs to decrease the blade angle.

Figure 1.26: Propeller Centrifugal Twisting Moment

24
Figure 1.27 illustrates how the centrifugal force on the blade produces tensile stress at the blade root and a
torque about the pitch change axis. The CTM tends to 'fine' the pitch and therefore the effort required by the
pitch change mechanism to increase the blade angle towards 'coarse pitch' is increased.

Figure 1.27: Centrifugal Twisting Moment

CTM is greater at higher RPM, and with lower aspect ratio blades

25
1.18.6 Turning Moments in the Windmill Condition
When the propeller is windmilling the total reaction works in the opposite direction. As a result ATM will also
work in the opposite direction and add to the CTM force.

Figure 1.28: Pitch Range for Variable Pitch propellers with Reverse Thrust capability

Thus, when the power is lost to the propeller, the tendency of the blade to turn to low pitch (windmill position) is
very large indeed.

26
1.19 Pitch Range
The total pitch range extends from feathered to reverse

Figure 1.29: Pitch positions

Summary of typical blade angle settings indicating the large pitch range required to meet all requirements of a
high performance engine

Note: Pitch stops are fitted at each of the limits to prevent inadvertent operation outside of desired range.

1.20 Handling Effects - Single Engine Aircraft

There are various handling effects on single engine aircraft in particular due to the rotating propeller.
 Asymmetric Effect (P-Factor)
 Slipstream Effect
 Torque Reaction
 Gyroscopic Effect

27
1.20.1 Asymmetric Effect (P-Factor)
In general, the axis of the propeller will be inclined upwards to the direction of flight due to the angle of attack of
the aircraft.

Figure 1.30: P-Factor

This causes the downward moving blade to have a greater effective angle of attack than the upward moving
blade and therefore to develop a greater thrust

The difference in thrust on the two sides of the propeller disc causes a yawing moment. For a right-handed
propeller in a nose-up attitude, the yaw will be to the left.

1.20.2 Slipstream Effect

In passing through the propeller, the air is accelerated and given velocity.

The parts of the aircraft that are in the propeller slipstream will therefore have higher speed air passing over
them than the parts outside the slipstream. The drag of the parts will therefore be higher and the effectiveness
of any control surface in the slipstream will be greater.

The rotation given to the slipstream will cause it to meet the fin at an angle and so cause a yawing moment.

Figure 1.31: Slipstream Effect

28
This effect may be corrected by offsetting the fin or trimming the rudder. The amount of rotation given to the air
will depend on the torque of the propeller and so the yawing moment will depend on the power setting.

1.20.3 Torque Reaction

In rotating the propeller against the resistance of the air, reaction is produced which tries to rotate the aircraft in
the opposite direction. For example, with a right hand propeller, the aircraft will tend to roll to the left.

This is described by Newton's Third Law of Motion: "For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction".

This tendency may be corrected by 'wash in' on the down going wing and 'wash out' on the up going wing. This
method is not used on modern high performance aircraft.

Figure 1.32: Torque Reaction causing the aircraft to roll to the left

1.20.4 Gyroscopic Effect

A rotating propeller has the properties of a gyro. If the plane of rotation is changed, a moment will be produced
at right angles to the applied moment.

For example, if an aircraft with a right handed propeller is yawed to the right it will experience a nose down
pitching moment due to the gyroscopic effect of the propeller. Similarly, if the aircraft is pitched nose up, it will
experience a yaw to the right. On most aircraft, the gyroscopic effects are small and easily controlled.

The property of a gyroscope that is discussed above is known as precession. See figure 1.33.

If a torque is applied as shown then precession will occur as shown. Direction of precession can be determined
by taking the force causing the torque and rotating it through 90° in the direction of rotation.

29
 Figure 1.33: Gyroscopic Effect

A 'tail dragger' single engine aircraft with a right-handed propeller will experience a yaw to the left as the tail
lifts on its takeoff run.

Figure 1.34: A tail-wheeled aero plane experiences a yaw to left when the tail lifts off the ground

30
1.21 Thrust and Power Development
1.21.1 Power Development in Piston Engines
The power output of a piston engine depends on the density of the combustible mixture of fuel and air
introduced into its cylinders at that part of the operating cycle known as the induction stroke. On this stroke, the
piston moves down the cylinder, an inlet valve opens, and the fuel/air mixture, or charge prepared by the
carburetor, enters the cylinder as a result of a pressure difference acting across it during the stroke. If for
example an engine is running in atmospheric conditions corresponding to the standard sea level pressure of
2 2 2
14.7 Ibf/in , and the cylinder pressure is reduced to, say 2lbf/in , then the pressure difference is 12.7 Ibf/in , and
it is this pressure difference that pushes the charge into the cylinder.

An engine in which the charge is induced in this manner is said to be normally aspirated. Its outstanding
characteristic is that the power it develops steadily falls off with decrease in atmospheric pressure.

Supercharging
The limitation on the high altitude performance of a normally aspirated engine can be overcome by artificially
increasing the available pressure so as to maintain as far as possible a sea-level value in the induction system.
The process of increasing pressure and charge density is known as supercharging or boosting, and the device
employed is, in effect, a centrifugal compressor fitted between the carburetor and cylinders and driven from the
engine crankshaft through step-up gearing. Power may be measured in inches of mercury or Ibf/in and is known
as manifold pressure.

An alternative higher power supercharging system uses a turbine driven centrifugal compressor powered by
exhaust waste gases. This later form is often known as a turbo-charged or ground boosting turbo-charged and
is capable of increasing boost pressure above atmospheric for take-off purposes. This system is fitted at the
inlet to the induction system and uses a fuel injection system at the induction valve inlet to mix the fuel and air.
2
Power is normally measured in Ibf/in and is often called boost pressure.

1.21.2 Power Development in Turboprop Engines

A turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine configured to transmit the majority of the jet exhaust to power a free
or power turbine assembly connected directly to a reduction gear that drives a propeller. The propeller always
runs slower than the engine and must be large enough to absorb the power developed by the engine.

To increase power in a gas turbine engine whether turboprop or pure jet one must increase fuel flow, thus
increasing the energy available to drive the compressor and to turn the propeller/reduction gear assembly or to
produce thrust. Fuel flow is increased by opening a throttle valve in a Fuel Flow Governor. These vary in
complexity but the principle of more fuel for more power is always true.

Power output in a turbo shaft engine is measured either by Shaft or Brake Horsepower. For a turboprop engine
power is measured in terms of Torque.

Torque is a function of the resistance to rotation. Therefore for a greater torque, greater power is required to turn
the propeller. Resistance to motion can be varied by using a variable pitch propeller. In a coarse pitch setting
the propeller is gathering more air and thus is harder to turn. Torque meters can be in the form of a mechanical
system utilizing oil pressure, or digital strain gauge systems. Total loss of torque will indicate engine failure and
can be used to initiate an auto feather sequence.

The fuel control lever in a turboprop engine is often known as the Power Lever. In a pure jet engine it is usually
called the Throttle Lever, however both levers do exactly the same thing, they regulate the fuel supply to the
combustion chambers.

Whereas in a piston engine there are two levers to control power - Throttle lever and Propeller Condition
Lever - it is more normal in a turboprop engine to have a combined power lever, that through a cam
arrangement presets the variable pitch system to the power required.

31
 Figure 1.35: Turboprop engine power development

32
1.22 Turboprop Configurations
Note all the below configurations all incorporate a reduction gear prior to connecting to the propeller shaft. This
is because whilst the turboprop engine is required to rotate at speeds up to 100,000 RPM to maintain its
efficiency, the propeller must rotate at just a fraction of that speed, in order to prevent its tips exceeding sonic
speed.

Figure 1.36: Turboprop engines configurations

1.23 Vibrational Forces and Resonance

When a propeller is producing thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical forces are present which cause the blades
of the propeller to vibrate (see figure 1.37). A person designing a propeller must take this into consideration. If
this is not done, these vibrations may cause excessive flexing, hardening of the metal and could result in
sections of the propeller breaking off during operation.

Aerodynamic forces have a great vibration effect at the tip of the blade where the effects of transonic speeds
cause buffeting and vibrations.

Mechanical vibrations are caused by power pulses in a piston engine and are more destructive then
aerodynamic vibrations. The most critical location when looking for the stresses is about 2.5 cm from the
propeller tip.

33
Most airframe-engine-propeller combinations have no problem in eliminating the effects of vibrational stresses.
However some combinations are sensitive to certain RPM ranges and they have a critical range indicated on the
tachometer by a red arc. The engine should not be operated in this range. If it is operated in the critical range
over a period of time, there is a strong possibility that the propeller will suffer from structural failure due to the
vibrational stresses.

Figure 1.37: Propeller Vibration

34
1.24 Glossary
Accumulator - A device to aid in unfeathering a propeller.
Aerodynamic twisting moment - An operational force on a propeller which tends to increase the propeller
blade angle.
Angle of attack - The angle between the chord line of a propeller blade section and the relative wind.
Anti-icing system - A system which prevents the formation of ice on propeller blades.
Automatic propeller - A propeller which changes blade angles in response to operational forces and is not
controlled from the cockpit. Trade name: Aromatic®.
Back - The curved side of a propeller airfoil section that can be seen while standing in front of the aero plane.
Blade - One arm of a propeller from the hub to the tip.
Blade angle - The angle between the blade section chord line and the plane of rotation of the propeller.
Blade index number - The maximum blade angle on a Hamilton-Standard counterweight propeller.
Blade paddle.- A tool used to turn the blades in the hub.
Blade root - The portion of a blade which is nearest the hub.
Blade station - A distance from the centre of the propeller hub measured in inches.
Boots - Ice elimination components which are attached to the leading edge of propeller blades.
Boss - The centre portion of a fixed-pitch propeller.
Brush block - The component of a de-icing and/or reversing system which is mounted on the engine nose case
and holds the brushes which transfer electrical power to the slip ring.
Centrifugal force - The force on a propeller which tends to throw the blades out from the propeller centre.
Centrifugal twisting moment - The force on a propeller which tends to decrease the propeller blade angle.
Chord line - The imaginary line which extends from the leading to the trailing edge of a blade airfoil section.
Comparison unit - The unit in a synchronization or synchrophasing system which compares the signals of the
master engine and the slave engine and sends a signal to correct the slave engine RPM or blade phase angle.
Cone - The component used in a splined-shaft installation which centers the propeller on the crankshaft.
Constant-speed system - A system which uses a governor to adjust the propeller blade angle to maintain a
selected RPM.
Controllable-pitch propeller - A propeller whose pitch can be changed in flight by the pilot's lever or switch.
Critical range - The RPM range at which destructive harmonic vibrations exist.
De-icing system - An ice elimination system which allows ice to form and then breaks it loose in cycles.
Dome assembly - The pitch-changing mechanism of a Hydromantic® propeller.
Effective pitch - The distance forward that an aircraft actually moves in one revolution of the propeller.
Face - The flat or thrust side of a propeller blade.
Feather - The rotation of the propeller blades to an angle of about 90 degrees which will eliminate the drag of a
wind milling propeller.
Fixed-pitch propeller - A propeller, used on light aircraft, whose blade angles cannot be changed.
Flanged shaft - A crankshaft whose prop mounting surface forms a flat plate 90 degrees to the shaft centerline.
Frequency generator - The engine RPM signal generator for some synchronization systems.
Geometric pitch - The theoretical distance that an aircraft will move forward in one revolution of the propeller.
Governor - The propeller control device in a constant- speed system

35
Go no-go gauge - A gauge used to measure wear between the splines of a splined crankshaft.
Ground-adjustable propeller - A propeller which can be adjusted on the ground to change the blade angles.
Hub - The central portion of a propeller which is fitted to the engine crankshaft and carries the blades.
Hydromantic® - A trade name for one type of Hamilton-Standard hydraulically operated propellers.
Integral oil control assembly - A self-contained propeller control unit used on some transport aircraft.
Leading edge - The forward edge of a propeller blade.
Overhaul facility - An FAA approved facility for major overhauls and repairs.
Pitch - The same as geometric pitch. Often used interchangeably with blade angle.
Pitch distribution - The twist in a propeller blade along its length.
Pitch lock - A mechanism used to prevent excessive over speeding of the propeller if the governor fails.
Plane of rotation - The plane in which the propeller rotates, 90 degrees to the crankshaft centerline.
Propeller - A device for converting engine horsepower into usable thrust.
Propeller disc - The disc-shaped area in which the propeller rotates.
Propeller repair station - See overhaul facility.
Propeller track - The arc described by a propeller blade as the propeller rotates.
Pulse generator - The unit which generates an RPM and blade position signal in a synchrophasing system.
Radial clearance - The distance from the edge of the propeller disc to an object near the edge of the disc,
perpendicular to the crankshaft centerline.
Reversing - Rotation of the propeller blades to a negative angle to produce a braking or reversing thrust.
Safe tying - The installation of a safety device such as safety wire or a cotter pin.
Selector valve – Propeller control unit in a two-position propeller system.
Shank - The thickened portion of the blade near the centre of the propeller.
Shoulder - The flanged area on the butt of a propeller blade used to retain the propeller blades in the hub.
Slinger ring • The fluid distribution unit on the rear of a propeller hub using an anti-icing system.
Slip - The difference between geometric pitch and effective pitch.
Snap ring - A component of a splined or tapered shaft installation used to aid in removal of the propeller.
Spider - The central component on many controllable- pitch propellers which mounts on the crankshaft and has
arms on which the blades are installed.
Splined shaft - A cylindrical-shaped crankshaft extension which has splines on its surface to prevent propeller
rotation on the shaft.
Static RPM - The maximum RPM that can be obtained at full throttle on the ground in a no-wind condition.
Synchronization system A system which keeps all engines at the same RPM.
Synchrophasing system -A refined synchronization system which allows the pilot to adjust the blade relative
position as they rotate.
Tachometer-generator - The RPM-sensing unit of some synchronization systems.
Tapered shaft - A crankshaft design whose propeller- mounting surface tapers to a smaller diameter and acts
like a cone seating surface.
Thrust bending force -An operational force which tends to bend the propeller blades forward. Tip - The portion
of the blade farthest from the hub.
Torque bending force - An operational force which tends to bend the propeller blades in the direction opposite
to the direction of rotation.
Two-position propeller - A propeller which can be changed between two blade angles in flight.

36
2 Propeller Construction
2.1 Nomenclature
2.1.1 Blades
Propeller blades have a shank, butt, hub, tip, trailing edge, leading edge, face and a back. The blade shank is
the thick, rounded portion of the propeller blade near the hub, which is designed to give strength to the blade.
The blade butt, also called the blade base or root, is that end of the blade, which fits in the propeller hub. The
blade tip is that part of the propeller blade farthest from the hub, generally defined as the last 6 inches of the
blade. The cambered side of a blade is called the blade back. The flat side of the blade is called the blade face
(see figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: Propeller nomenclature

Adjustable propellers have at least two blades clamped into a steel hub assembly. The hub is the supporting
unit for the blades and it provides the mounting structure for the propeller to be attached to the engine. The
propeller hub is split on a plane parallel to the plane of rotation to allow for the installation of the blades. The
blade root consists of machined ridges, which fit into grooves inside the hub.

When the propeller is assembled, the sections of the hub are held in place by means of clamping rings. The
blade shank is that portion of the blade near the butt. It is usually made thick, to provide strength, and it is
cylindrical. This area of the propeller does not produce any lift.

37
A blade cuff is a metal, wood, or plastic structure designed for attachment to the shank end of the blade, with an
outer surface that will transform the round shank into an aerofoil section. The cuff is designed primarily to
increase the flow of cooling air to the engine nacelle.

The cuffs are attached to the blades by mechanical clamping devices or by using bonding materials.

Figure 2.2: Propeller blade cuffs

Note: Blade Cuffs are aerodynamically shaped shrouds fitted around blade shanks to enable airflow to
be ducted into turboprop intakes.

2.1.2 Blade Stations

The typical propeller blade can be described as a twisted aero foil of irregular platform. Two views of a propeller
blade are shown in figure 2.3. For purposes of analysis, a blade can be divided into segments, which are
located by station numbers in inches from the centre of the blade hub.

The blade hub assembly is the supporting unit for the blades. Blade Stations are used from maintenance
personnel for damage assessment, blade angle checks, etc.

The cross sections of each 6-in. blade segment are shown as aero foils in the right-hand side of figure. Also
identified are the blade shank and the blade butt.

38
 Figure 2.3: Propeller blade stations

2.2 Wood Propellers

Wood propellers have been used since the Wright Flyer's first flight in 1903 and are still popular on many
amateur-built aero planes.

The wooden fixed-pitch propeller, because of its light weight, rigidity, economy of production, simplicity of
construction, and ease of replacement, is well suited for such small aircraft.

A wooden propeller is not constructed from a solid block, but is built up of a number of separate layers of
carefully selected and well-seasoned hardwoods. Many woods, such as mahogany, cherry, black walnut and
oak, are used to some extent, but birch is the most widely used.

Many separate layers are used, each up-to 3/4-inch thick. The several layers are glued together with waterproof,
resinous glue and allowed to set.

39
 Figure 2.4: Wooden propeller construction

After the propeller blades are finished, a fabric covering is cemented to the outer 12 or 15 in. of each finished
blade, and a metal tipping (figure 2.4 and 2.5) is fastened to most of the leading edge and tip of each blade to
protect the propeller from damage caused by flying particles in the air during landing, taxiing, or takeoff.

Metal tipping may be of tern plate, Monel metal, or brass. Stainless steel has been used to some extent. It is
secured to the leading edge of the blade by countersunk wood screws and rivets. The heads of the screws are
soldered to the tipping to prevent loosening, and the solder is filed to make a smooth surface.

Since moisture condenses on the tipping between the metal and the wood, the tipping is provided with small
holes near the blade tip to allow this moisture to drain away or be thrown out by centrifugal force. It is important
that these drain holes be kept open at all times.

40
 Figure 2.5: Propeller blade tipping types

The center hole in the hub and the mounting bolt holes are carefully bored, and the propeller is varnished. When
the varnish is fully cured, the propeller is balanced, both horizontally and vertically. Three small holes are drilled
with a number 60 drill (0.0400-inch diameter) about 3/16 inches deep into each blade tip to release moisture and
allow the wood to breathe.

Figure 2.6: Wooden propeller showing laminated construction and metal tipping

41
2.3 Metal Propellers
Improvements in metallurgy and manufacturing techniques have enabled metal propellers to replace wood
propellers for modem commercially manufactured aero planes.

Figure 2.7: Metal propeller

Metal propellers are forged from high-strength aluminum alloy, and after being ground to their finished
dimensions and pitch, are anodized to protect them from corrosion. Metal propellers cost more than wood for
the same engine and aero plane, but their increased durability, resistance to weathering, and ability to be
straightened after minor damage have made them more cost effective in the long run.

2.3.1 Aluminum Alloy Propellers

Aluminum propellers are the most widely used types of propeller in aviation. They provide better engine cooling
by carrying the aerofoil sections closer to the hub and directing more air over the engine.

Aluminum propellers are made from aluminum alloy and are finished to the desired aerofoil shape by machining
and manual grinding. Twisting the blades to the desired angles sets the pitch.

Once the propeller is ground to the desired contour, it must then be balanced. This is done by removing some
metal from the tip of the blade (see Chapter 17.6 - Propeller Maintenance).

After the propeller is balanced the surfaces are finished by plating, chemical etching and or painting. Anodizing s
the most commonly used finishing process.

2.3.2 Steel Propellers

Steel propellers are found primarily on transport aircraft. They are normally of hollow construction, which helps
to reduce weight.

Solid steel propellers are forged and machined to the desired contours and the proper twist is achieved by
twisting the blades.

Hollow steel blades are constructed by assembling a rib structure, attaching steel sheets to the structure, and
filling the outer section of the blade with a foam material to absorb vibration and maintain a rigid structure.

42
2.4 Composite Propeller Blades
Laminated wood, forged aluminum alloy, and brazed sheet steel propellers have been the standard for decades.
But the powerful turbo-propeller engines and the demands for higher-speed flight and quieter operation have
caused propeller manufacturers to exploit the advantages of modem advanced composite materials.

Figure 2.8: Dowty composite propeller

Composite materials used in propeller manufacturing consist of two constituents: the fibers and the matrix. The
fibers most generally used are glass, graphite, and aramid (Kevlar), and the matrix is a thermosetting resin such
as epoxy.

The strength and stiffness of the blades are determined by the material, diameter, and orientation of the fibers.
The matrix material supports the fibers, holds them in place, and completely encapsulates them to protect them
from the environment.

Because the fibers have strength only parallel to their length, they are laid up in such a way that they are placed
under tensile loads.

The typical Hartsell composite propeller, like that shown figure 2.9, has a machined aluminum alloy shank, and
molded into this shank is a low-density foam core. Slots are cut into the foam core and unidirectional Kevlar
shear webs are inserted. The leading and trailing edges are made of solid sections of unidirectional Kevlar, and
laminations of prepare material are cut and laid up over the core foundation to provide the correct blade
thickness, aerofoil shape, pitch distribution, plan form, and ply orientation.

The outer shell is held in place on the aluminum alloy shank by Kevlar filaments impregnated with epoxy resin
wound around the portion of the shell that grips the shank.

Some Hartselle blades have a stainless steel mesh under the final layer of Kevlar to protect against abrasion,
and a nickel leading edge erosion shield is bonded in place.

The entire blade is put into a blade press and cured under computer-controlled heat and pressure.

A composite propeller designed by Hamilton Standard consists of a solid aluminum-alloy spar around which a
fiberglass shell with the correct aerofoil shape is placed. The space between the spar and the shell is filled with
plastic foam that provides a firm support for the shell. The outer surface of the shell is given a coating of
polyurethane.

43
 Figure 2.9: A typical composite blade cross section

Figure 2.10: Hamilton Standard and Hartsell Propellers

44
 Figure 2.11: Dowty-Rotol Propeller

2.5 Wood / Composite Propellers

Some wood propeller do not use tip fabric, but are coated with plastic or FRP (fiber reinforced plastic) before the
metal tipping is applied. This coating provides protection and added strength to the propeller.

The HOFFMANN composite blade is a joint construction. The blade root is made of highly compressed
hardwood and the blade part is made of lightwood (spruce). Special lag screws connect the compressed wood
of the blade with a metal ferrule. An aluminum alloy or a polyurethane (PU) strip protects the leading edge from
erosion.

45
To increase torsional stiffness the blade is covered with fiber reinforced plastic (FRP). Fatigue failures due to
vibrations are unlikely because the internal damping of wood is considerably higher than that of duralumin.

Several layers of polyurethane lacquer are sprayed onto the fiber reinforced epoxy covering which assure high
resistance against moisture, erosion and other mechanical effects without loss of necessary elasticity.
Additionally, the lacquer protects against UV-rays. The thrust side is painted black to avoid reflections of
sunlight.

For safety reasons the tips are painted with a different color to make the transparent disc visible when the
propeller is running.

Figure 2.12: Hoffman wood / composite propeller

Figure 2.13: Nickel leading-edged propeller

46
2.6 Types of Propellers
There are various types or classes of propellers, the simplest of which are the fixed-pitch and ground-adjustable
propellers. The complexity of propeller systems increases from these simpler forms to controllable-pitch and
complex automatic systems. Various characteristics of several propeller types are discussed in the following
paragraphs, but no attempt is made to cover all types of propellers.

2.6.1 Fixed-Pitch Propeller

As the name implies, a fixed-pitch propeller has the blade pitch, or blade angle, built into the propeller. The
blade angle cannot be changed after the propeller is built. Generally, this type of propeller is one piece and is
constructed of laminated wood or aluminum alloy.

Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one rotational and forward speed, usually cruise speed.
They are rather inefficient at take-off and landing speeds.

They are designed to fit a set of conditions of both aircraft and engine speeds, and any change in these
conditions reduces the efficiency of both the propeller and the engine. The fixed-pitch propeller is used on
aircraft of low power, speed, range, or altitude.

2.6.2 Ground-Adjustable Propeller

The ground-adjustable propeller operates as a fixed-pitch propeller. The pitch or blade angle can only be
changed when the propeller is not turning. It is done by loosening the clamping mechanism, which holds the
blades in place. After the clamping mechanism has been tightened, the pitch of the blades cannot be changed in
flight to meet variable flight requirements. Like the fixed-pitch propeller, the ground-adjustable propeller is used
on aircraft of low power, speed, range, or altitude.

A ground adjustable propeller may have blades made of wood or metal. The hub is usually of two piece steel
construction with clamps or large nuts used to hold the blade securely in place. When the angle of the blade is
to be changed, the clamp or blade nuts are loosened and the blades rotated to the desired angle as indicated by
a propeller protractor. The angle markings on the hub are not considered accurate enough to provide a good
reference for blade adjustment, so they are only used for reference.

Figure 2.14: Ground-adjustable propellers - disassembles and partially assembled

2.6.3 Variable-Pitch Propellers

Ground-adjustable propellers were a step in the right direction, but with only minor added weight and
complexity, the propeller could be made far more efficient by allowing the pilot to change the pitch of the blades
in flight.

The first popular controllable-pitch propellers were hydraulically actuated by engine lubricating oil supplied
through a hollow crankshaft. A counterweight on an arm is attached to each blade root so that centrifugal force
rotates the blade into a high pitch angle. A fixed piston in the end of the propeller shaft is covered by a movable
cylinder attached through bearings to the counterweight arms

47
For takeoff, the two-position propeller control is placed in the low pitch position that directs engine oil into the
cylinder and moves it forward over the piston. This pulls the counterweights in and rotates the blades into their
low pitch position.

When the aero plane is set up for cruise flight, the pitch control is moved to the high pitch position. This opens
an oil passage, allowing the oil in the propeller cylinder to drain back into the engine sump. Centrifugal force on
the counterweights moves them outward into the plane of rotation, and rotates the blades into their high pitch
position.

This same configuration of propeller, when equipped with a flyweight governor to control the oil into and out of
the cylinder, is the popular constant-speed propeller.

Single Acting Propeller

This is the type of propeller that is normally fitted to a light piston engine aircraft and consists of a piston housed
in a cylinder. The piston is connected to the propeller blade via an operating link. One side of the piston is
subjected to boosted engine oil pressure whilst the other side is subjected to spring force. On a constant speed
feathering propeller that is fitted to light twin piston engine aircraft the boosted oil pressure plus blade
Centrifugal Turning Moment (CTM) turns the propeller to fine pitch. Movement to coarse pitch and feather is
achieved by the spring and Counterweights attached to the blades once the oil pressure has been relieved
through the CSU.

A single-acting propeller is illustrated in figure 2.15; it is a constant-speed, feathering type, and is typical of the
propellers fitted to light and medium sized twin-engines aircraft. A cylinder is bolted to the front of the hub, and
contains a piston and piston rod which move axially to alter blade angle. On some propellers, oil under pressure,
fed through the hollow piston rod to the front of the piston, moves the piston to the rear to turn the blades to a
finer pitch; on other propellers the reverse applies. When oil pressure is relieved, the counterweights and
feathering spring move the piston forward to turn the blades to a coarser pitch.

Counterweights produce a centrifugal twisting moment but, because they are located at 90o to the chord line,
they tend to move the blades to a coarser pitch. Counterweights must be located far enough from the blade
axis, and must be heavy enough to overcome the natural twisting moment of the blade, but since weight and
space are factors, they are generally only used with blades of narrow chord.

Figure 2.15: Single acting propeller mechanism

48
Counter-weighted Propellers
One popular type of modem constant-speed propeller is the Hartselle steel hub propeller, which has a
counterweight clamped tightly around each blade root, positioned so that as centrifugal force tries to move it into
the plane of rotation, it increases the blade pitch angle. These are available as both non-feathering and full-
feathering propellers.

Figure 2.16: Propeller counterweights - positioned (phased) to oppose the blade's natural CTM

When the governor senses that the RPM is lower than that selected, engine oil, boosted in pressure by a pump
inside the governor, is sent through the hollow propeller shaft into the propeller cylinder, forcing the piston
forward. Pitch-change push rods connecting the piston to a pitch-change block on the counterweight clamp,
rotate the blades to a lower-pitch angle, and the engine speeds up to the desired RPM.

Note: In this propeller, the fixed component is called the cylinder, and the movable
component which fits around the outside of the cylinder is called the piston.

When the engine is operating at exactly the RPM called for by the pilot, the governor closes the passage
between the engine and the propeller. This prevents oil from going to or draining from the propeller.

If the nose of the aero plane momentarily drops, the air-load decreases and the RPM increase. The governor
opens a passage between the propeller shaft and the engine sump, and oil drains from the propeller. Centrifugal
force acting on the counterweights moves the blades into a higher pitch and the engine slows down.

Figure 2.17: Counterweight propeller principle

Double Acting Propellers

49
Figure 2.18 a and b shows the two different methods of hub construction for double acting propellers.

Figure 2.18a: Double-acting - moving-piston principle

Figure 2.18b: Double-acting - moving-cylinder principle

50
 Figure 2.19: Double acting propeller mechanism, with fine-pitch lock

Hydromantic Propeller (Hamilton Standard)

The Hydromantic was designed to accommodate larger blades for increased thrust, and provide a faster rate of
pitch change and a wider range of pitch control. This propeller utilized high-pressure oil, applied to both sides of
the actuating piston, for pitch control as well as feathering.

Figure 2.20: Hydromantic propeller principle

51
Angular blade movement is achieved by converting the straight line motion of the piston to circular movement by
the cams. The piston is driven forward or backward by the introduction or release of governor oil pressure to (2).
Release of governor oil pressure permits the ever-present engine oil pressure in (1), plus centrifugal twisting
moment, to move the piston inboard, thereby decreasing the blade angle.

Introduction of governor oil pressure to (2) moves the piston outboard, forces the oil at (1) back through the
engine pressure system, and increases the blade angle.

The oil forces which act upon the piston are controlled by the governor.

Automatic Propellers
At the end of World War II there was a tremendous boom in private aero plane, engine, and propeller
development and manufacture. One interesting development of that era that became popular but faded away,
because its complexities were greater than its advantages, was the Koppers Aeromatic propeller. This propeller
was fully automatic and used the balance between the aerodynamic twisting force and the centrifugal twisting
force to maintain a relatively constant speed for any given throttle setting.

The two forces were amplified by offsetting the blades from the hub with a pronounced lag angle to increase the
effect of the centrifugal turning moment (CTM).

Figure 2.21: The blade angle offset (lag) of the Aeromatic Propeller

2.6.4 Constant Speed Propellers

A constant speed propeller system is a system in which the propeller blade angle is varied by the action of a
governor to maintain a constant speed. The pitch changing devices for constant speed propellers include
electric motors, hydraulic cylinders, and devices in which centrifugal forces act on flyweights and combinations
of these methods.

The tremendous advantage of being able to change pitch in flight opened new possibilities for increased
efficiency. Replacing the two-position valve with a flyweight-controlled valve in a governor allows the blade pitch
angle to be continuously and automatically adjusted in flight to maintain a constant and efficient engine speed.

Throughout and immediately after World War II an electrically controlled constant-speed propeller was used with
some degree of success. A small reversible DC motor mounted in the centre of the propeller hub drove a speed
reducer with an attached bevel gear. This gear meshed with bevel gears on the root of each blade to change the
pitch so the propeller could maintain an air load on the engine that produced the RPM called for by the
governor. The large amount of maintenance required for electric propellers caused their demise.

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 Figure 2.22: Constant-speed propeller

In modern aircraft, the pitch is controlled automatically, and the propellers are referred to as constant-speed
propellers. As power requirements vary, the pitch automatically changes, keeping the engine and the propeller
operating at a constant RPM. If the RPM rate increases, as in a dive, a governor on the hydraulic system
changes the blade pitch to a higher angle. This acts as a brake on the crankshaft. If the RPM rate decreases, as
in a climb, the blade pitch is lowered and the crankshaft RPM can increase. The constant-speed propeller thus
ensures that the pitch is always set at the most efficient angle so that the engine can run at a desired constant
RPM regardless of altitude or forward speed.

Figure 2.23: Fine and course propeller pitch control

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Constant-speed propellers may have a full-feathering capability. "Feathering" means to turn the blade
approximately parallel with the line of flight, thus equalizing the pressure on the face and back of the blade and
stopping the rotation of the propeller. Feathering is necessary if for some reason the propeller is not being
driven by the engine and is wind-milling, a situation that can damage the engine and increase drag on the
aircraft.

Over speed Condition: When the engine speed increases above the RPM for which the governor is set.

Oil supply is boosted in pressure by the engine-driven propeller governor, and is directed against the inboard
side of the propeller piston. The piston and the attached rollers move outboard. As the piston moves outboard,
cam and rollers move the propeller blades toward a higher angle, which in turn, decreases the engine RPM.

Under speed Condition: When the engine speed drops below the RPM for which the governor is set.

Force at flyweight is decreased which permits the speeder spring to lower pilot valve, thereby opening the oil
passage to allow the oil from the inboard side of piston to drain through the governor. As the oil from inboard
side is drained, engine oil from the engine flows through the propeller shaft into the outboard piston end. With
the aid of the blade's centrifugal twisting moment, the engine oil moves the piston inboard.

The piston motion is transmitted through the cam and rollers. Thus, the blades move toward a lower angle,
which in turn, increases the engine RPM. Governor. As the oil from inboard side is drained, engine oil from the
engine flows through the propeller shaft into the outboard piston end.

With the aid of the blade's centrifugal twisting moment, the engine oil moves the piston inboard.
The piston motion is transmitted through the cam and rollers. Thus, the blades move toward a lower angle,
which in turn, increases the engine RPM.

The Hartselle constant-speed propeller uses a hydraulic piston-cylinder element, as shown in figure 2.24, to
control the pitch of the blades. When the engine speed is below that selected by the pilot, the governor pilot
valve directs governor oil pressure to the propeller.

This pressure forces the cylinder forward, compressing the feathering spring, and reducing the propeller pitch.
When the engine speed is above that selected by the pilot, the governor opens the oil passage to allow the oil in
the propeller cylinder to return to the engine.

The feathering spring and the counterweight force causes the blades to rotate to a higher pitch position.

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 Figure 2.24: The Hartsell Constant Speed Propeller

2.7 Propeller Installation

The method used to attach the propeller to the engine crankshaft will vary with the design of the crankshaft.
Basically there are three types of crankshafts used on aircraft engines:
 The Flanged Propeller Shaft.
 The Tapered Propeller Shaft.
 The Splined Propeller Shaft.

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2.7.1 Flanged Shaft Installations
Flanged propeller shafts are used on most flat/horizontally opposed and some turboprop engines. The front of
the crankshaft is formed into a flange four-to-eight inches across and perpendicular to the crankshaft centre line.
Mounting bolt holes and dowel pin holes are machined into the flange and, on some flanges, threaded inserts
are pressed into the bolt holes.

Figure 2.25: Flanged propeller shaft

2.7.2 Tapered Shaft Installations

Tapered crankshafts are usually found on older type horizontally opposed engines of low horsepower. This type
of crankshaft requires the use of a hub to adapt the propeller for mounting on the shaft.

Figure 2.26: Tapered propeller shaft

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2.7.3 Splined Shaft Installations
Splined crankshafts are found on most radial engines and some flat/ horizontally opposed, inline, and even
turboprop engines. The splined shaft has grooves and splines of equal dimensions, and a master, or double-
width, spline so that a hub will fit on the shaft in only one position.

Figure 2.27: Splined propeller shaft

2.7.4 Front and Rear Cones

Cones are used to centralize a hub on the crankshaft. The rear cone is made of bronze and is cut at one point to
allow flexibility during installation and to ensure a tight fit when installed. The front cone is made of steel and is
in two split halves that must be used together. To identify matched sets, each pair is marked with an identical
serial number.

Figure 2.28: Front and rear cones

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If the front cone is new, the halves will not have been totally separated at manufacture and will have to be
separated with a hacksaw. After the halves are separated, the cut surfaces will have to be filed and polished
smooth. In addition, they may have to be marked with an arbitrary serial number by the use of an engraving tool.

2.7.5 Safe tying a Propeller

There is no one correct way to safety a propeller installation because of the many different types of installations,
and for this reason only the more commonly used safeties will be discussed.

A flanged shaft installation has the largest variety of safety methods because of its many variations. If the flange
has threaded inserts installed, bolts screwed into the inserts hold on the propeller. The bolt heads are drilled and
safeties with 1mm stainless steel safety wire, using standard safety wire procedures.

If threaded inserts are not pressed into the flange, bolts and nuts are used. Some installations use fiber lock
nuts, which require no safe tying, but the nuts should be replaced each time the propeller is removed. Other
installations use castellated nuts and drilled bolts and the nuts are safeties to the bolts with cotter pins.

Figure 2.29: Safe tying a flange mounted propeller

Propellers on splined and tapered shafts are safe tied by passing a clevis pin through matching holes in the
end of the crankshaft and the propeller retaining nut. The clevis pin is safe tied with a washer and a safety
cotter pin.

Figure 2.30: Safetying a tapered or splined shaft mounted propeller

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2.7.6 Spinner Installation
All modern propeller-driven aero planes have spinners over their propeller hubs. These spinners have the dual
aerodynamic function of streamlining the engine installation and directing cool air into the openings in the
cowling. Figure 2.31 shows a typical spinner installation over a constant-speed propeller. The spinner bulkhead
is installed on the propeller shaft flange and held in place by six spinner attaching bolts. The propeller is then
installed so that the dowel pins in the propeller hub align with the holes in the flange. The propeller attaching
nuts are installed and tightened to the torque value specified in the airframe maintenance manual.

If a spinner support is required, it is installed and the spinner is secured to the bulkhead with the proper machine
screws.

The propeller spinner and bulkhead are critical components, and cracks in either one can be repaired only if
they do not exceed the allowable limits. Repair them using the procedures specified in the airframe maintenance
manual and take special care not to add weight where it could cause vibration.

Figure 2.31: Spinner installation

When a heated spinner is removed, it should be examined for damage and security of the electrical contacts
and heating elements, together with areas of local overheating and non-adhesion to ensure that the latter do not
exceed the permissible limits specified in the Maintenance and Overhaul Manuals. On metal spinners, shallow
and uniform dents are permissible provided the elements are secure in the region of any such indentations but
may be blended out with the elements intact, provided every care is taken to avoid damage to the elements, and
the rework is in accordance with specified procedures. After such rework the elements must be thoroughly
examined for "lifting" and other damage, and checks should be made on the resistance values of the elements,
and on the continuity and insulation resistance of complete overshoes. Fiberglass spinner shells should be
examined for signs of delamination resulting from local overheating or damage.

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2.8 Installation Procedures
2.8.1 Fixed Pitch Wooden Propellers
Installation
Before installing a propeller, the propeller shaft and threads should be checked for damage. The fit of the hub on
the shaft should be checked using engineers' blue, and any high spots should be removed with a fine oil stone.
Boss and hub flange faces should be checked for cleanliness, to ensure that maximum friction will be obtained.
a) When assembling the hub to the shaft, it is usually recommended that an anti-seize compound
should be applied to the threads, and engine oil to the shaft. Where cones are fitted, these should
be clean and dry.
b) The angular position of the propeller on the hub is not important, unless the engine is likely to be
started by hand swinging. In this case it should be mounted in a convenient position in relation to
aircraft height and engine compression. The attachment bolts should be tightened evenly, and in
proper sequence, to the specified torque.
c) After installation, the track of the propeller must be checked. This is normally measured on a trestle
or platform vertically below the boss; when the propeller is rotated the blades should track within
1/8 inch of each other, but a wider tolerance may be permitted on repaired propellers, provided
that no vibration is evident during engine runs.
d) After engine runs to check the reference RPM, the propeller attachment bolts and the hub retaining
nut should be checked for tightness, and re-locked. It is recommended that the bolts should also be
checked after each of the first few flights.

Shrinkage washers are sometimes fitted to the attachment bolts of wooden propellers, to take up any shrinkage
which may occur after installation. These washers must be fitted strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions.

2.8.2 Fixed-pitch Metal Propellers

Installation
Fixed-pitch metal propellers are normally installed on a flanged propeller shaft, and a spacer is often used to
give clearance between the propeller and the engine cowling. Dowels are used to locate the propeller on the
spacer or propeller shaft flange, and these should be a tight press fit in the holes. The dowels, spacer and
flange should be inspected before assembly to ensure that they are undamaged, and the propeller and spacer
should be assembled together before installation on the engine.
• If the engine is likely to be hand-swung, the propeller should be fitted to the engine in a convenient position.
The attachment bolts should be tightened evenly, and in proper sequence, to the specified torque.
• It is not usually necessary to check the track of a metal propeller after initial installation, but it may be
necessary if vibration is evident during operation.
• The engine should be ground run after installing the propeller, to check for vibration and determine the
engine speed obtained at full throttle. This reference rev/mm should be corrected for ambient conditions, and
recorded in the engine log book.
• The propeller attachment bolts should be checked for tightness after the engine run.

2.8.3 Variable Pitch Propellers

Installation
The method of installation will depend on the type of propeller, and all instructions detailed in the appropriate
Maintenance Manual should be carefully followed; these will include any special checks to be carried out, and
details concerning lubrication, torque loading and locking of retaining parts. The following procedures are
applicable to most propellers.

a) Remove all protective covers and plugs, and clean parts which have been treated with a protective
coating. Lubricate specified parts with the recommended grease or oil before installation.

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 b) Fit the electrical brush gear housing to the engine reduction gear casing, and check that it is square
with the engine shaft, using a dial test indicator clamped to the shaft.

c) Fit the sling to the propeller, lightly smear the front and rear cone seating with engineers' blue, and
temporarily fit the propeller to check the contact area of the cones. Tighten the hub retaining nut by
hand, rotate the propeller at least one revolution, then remove the propeller and check the extent of
bluing of the cones. If the contact area is less than 80%, high spots may be removed by light stoning,
or, where permitted, by lapping on a suitable mandrel. Clean the cones and cone seatings.

d) With hydraulically operated propellers, fit and lock the oil tubes in the engine shaft.

e) Refit the propeller, lightly lubricating the splines, cone bore and threads with the specified lubricants.
Cone faces should not normally be lubricated, as this may result in looseness of the propeller when
the oil film is lost. Lubricating the propeller bore, rather than the shaft, will prevent any lubricant from
being displaced on to the cone face when the propeller is installed.

f) Turn the blades to the feathered angle, and fit the pitch-change mechanism

e) Install the brush gear, and check for correct contact between the brushes and the slip rings.

f) Fit the spinner, and turn the blades through their full pitch range, to check for fouling.

2.8.4 CSU/PCU Installation

Installation of the CSU/PCU is normally straightforward. A new gasket should be fitted to the mounting flange,
and the unit should be installed carefully, ensuring that the driven gear meshes with the driving gear or quill
shaft, and that any dowels are correctly located. Mechanical linkage on a piston engine should be adjusted, so
that the CSU control is on the maximum rev per minute stop when there is a slight clearance between the pilot's
control lever and the forward end of the gate in which it operates. The controls to the PCU of a turbine engine
are interconnected with the high pressure fuel cock, and with one or more of the electrical contacts associated
with the operation of the various propeller functions; they may also be electrically or mechanically connected to
the controls on the flight deck. Mechanical linkage is normally adjusted by locking the pulleys and levers in set
positions, using rigging pins or similar equipment as necessary, and adjusting the connecting rods or cables to
suit. Details of the procedures for setting up the propeller controls on any particular aircraft must be obtained
from the appropriate Maintenance Manual.

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3 Propeller Pitch Control
Ground-adjustable propellers are designed so that their blade angles can be adjusted on the ground to give the
desired performance characteristics for various operational procedures.
If it is desired that the aero plane have a maximum rate of climb, the propeller blades are set at a low angle so
that the engine can rotate at maximum speed to produce the greatest power. In any case, the propeller blade
may not be set at an angle which will permit the engine to over speed. When it is desired that the engine
operate efficiently at cruising speed and at a high altitude, the blade angle is increased.

3.1 The Variable-Pitch Propeller

3.1.1 Propeller Blade Pitch Positions
The variable-pitch propeller permits a change of blade pitch, or angle, while the propeller is rotating. This allows
the propeller to assume a blade angle that will give the best performance for particular flight conditions. The
number of pitch positions may be limited, as with a two position controllable propeller; or the pitch may be
adjusted to any angle between the minimum and maximum pitch settings of a given propeller.

3.1.2 Use of Variable Pitch Propeller

The use of variable-pitch propellers also makes it possible to attain the desired engine RPM for a particular flight
condition. As an aerofoil is moved through the air, it produces two forces, lift and drag. Increasing propeller
blade angle increases the angle of attack and produces more lift and drag; this action increases the horsepower
required to turn the propeller at a given RPM. Since the engine is still producing the same horsepower, the
propeller slows down.

If the blade angle is decreased, the propeller speeds up. Thus, the engine RPM can be controlled by increasing
or decreasing the blade angle.

The use of propeller governors to increase or decrease propeller pitch is common practice. When the aircraft
goes into a climb, the blade angle of the propeller decreases just enough to prevent the engine speed from
decreasing. Therefore, the engine can maintain its power output, provided the throttle setting is not changed.
When the aircraft goes into a dive, the blade angle increases sufficiently to prevent over-speeding and, with the
same throttle setting, the power output remains unchanged. If the throttle setting is changed, instead of
changing the speed of the aircraft by climbing or diving, the blade angle will increase or decrease as required to
maintain a constant engine RPM. The power output (and not RPM) will therefore change in accordance with
changes in the throttle setting. The governor-controlled, constant-speed propeller changes the blade angle
automatically, keeping engine RPM constant.

Figure 3.1: Propeller pitch positions

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3.1.3 General Operation
Most pitch-changing mechanisms are operated by oil pressure; and use some type of piston-and-cylinder
arrangement. The piston may be moved in the cylinder, or the cylinder may be moved over a stationary piston.
The linear motion of the piston is converted by several different types of mechanical linkage into the rotary
motion necessary to change the blade angle. The mechanical connection may be through gears, the pitch
changing mechanism turning a drive gear or power gear that meshes with a gear attached to the butt of each
blade.

In most cases the oil pressure for operating these various types of hydraulic pitch changing mechanisms comes
directly from the engine lubricating system. When the engine lubricating system is used, the engine oil pressure
is usually boosted by a pump that is integral with the governor to operate the propeller - the higher oil pressure
providing a quicker pitch change

Figure 3.2: Engine / Propeller / Governor general arrangement

The governors used to control the hydraulic propeller pitch-changing mechanisms are geared to the engine
crankshaft and, thus, are sensitive to changes in RPM. The governors direct the pressurized oil for operation of
the propeller hydraulic pitch changing mechanisms. When RPM increases above the value for which a governor
is set, the governor causes the propeller pitch-change-mechanism to turn the blades to a higher angle. This
angle increases the load on the engine, and RPM decreases. When RPM decreases below the value for which
a governor is set, the governor causes the pitch-changing mechanism to turn the blades to a lower angle, the
load on the engine is decreased and RPM increases. Thus, a propeller governor tends to keep engine RPM
constant.

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3.1.4 Constant-Speed Propeller System
Many types of light aircraft use governor regulated, constant-speed propellers in two and more-bladed versions.
These propellers may be the non-feathering type, or they may be capable of feathering and reversing. The steel
hub consists of a central spider, which supports aluminum blades with a tube extending inside the blade roots.
Blade clamps connect the blade shanks with blade retention bearings. A hydraulic cylinder is mounted on the
rotational axis connected to the blade clamps for pitch actuation.

Figure 3.3: Constant Speed Propeller System (Rotol)

3.2 Types of Hydraulic Pitch-Change Mechanisms

3.2.1 Counterweighted and Non-counterweighted
There are two basic types of constant-speed propellers:
 Counterweighted
 Non-counterweighted

Counterweight propellers have a weight clamped to the blade root to help move the blades into high pitch. The
centrifugal force, due to rotation of the propeller, tends to move the counterweights into the plane of rotation,
thereby increasing the pitch of the blades. Oil pressure moves the blades, against the force of the
counterweights, into low pitch.

The pitch of a non-counterweight propeller is controlled by a combination of oil pressure and aerodynamic
turning moment to increase the pitch, and centrifugal turning moment and the force of an internal spring to
decrease the pitch.

The basic hub and blade retention system is common to all models described. The blades are mounted on the
hub spider for angular adjustment. The centrifugal force of the blades, is transmitted to the hub spider through
blade clamps and then through ball bearings. The propeller thrust and engine torque is transmitted from the
blades to the hub spider through a bushing inside the blade shank.

64
In order to control the pitch of the blades, a hydraulic piston-cylinder element is mounted on the front of the hub
spider. The piston is attached to the blade clamps by means of a sliding rod and fork system for non-feathering
models and a link system for the feathering models.

Figure 3.4b: Types of propeller pitch change mechanism – Counterweighted

Figure 3.4b: Types of propeller pitch change mechanism - Non-counterweighted

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3.2.2 Example: The Dowty Rotol Composite Propeller
The Saab 2000 commuter airliner is equipped with a newer version of this kind of propeller. It is a Dowty-Rotol
Composite propeller.

The propeller controlling system and the counterweights on the propeller blades, control the pitch of the
propeller blades. The propeller controlling system can set the blades to feathering, forward thrust and reverse
thrust.

The primary parts of the pitch change mechanism are:

 The piston
 The cylinder
 The cross-head yoke assembly

Figure 3.5: Propeller Blade Pitch Changing Mechanism (Dowty-Rotol)

The cylinder is attached to the front of the hub and it does not move. The piston is installed in, and moves along
the length of, the cylinder. The cross-head yoke is installed inside the hub, the front of it is connected to the
piston, thus it moves with it.

When the propeller turns, the counterweights turn the propeller blades towards their feathered position. This
effect makes sure the propeller blades give the minimum drag, if there is a failure of the propeller controlling
system.

In normal conditions of operation, the pitch change mechanism gets a pressurized supply of hydraulic oil from
the propeller controlling system. This supply of hydraulic oil (to each side of the piston in the pitch change
mechanism) has a greater force than the counterweights. Thus, when all the systems are serviceable, the
propeller controlling system sets the pitch of the propeller blades.

66
The piston of the pitch change mechanism moves along the cylinder, in relation to the pressurized supply of
hydraulic oil that it gets. When the piston moves:
 The cross-head yoke assembly moves
 The propeller blades turn in their bearings
 The pitch of the propeller blades changes.

Thus the pitch of the propeller blades is related to the input of the hydraulic oil to the pitch change mechanism.
When the piston is at the forward end of the cylinder, the propeller blades are in their reverse pitch position.
When the piston is at the rear of the cylinder, the propeller blades are in their fully feathered position.

In the usual conditions of operation, when the power plant operates satisfactorily:
 The pressurized hydraulic oil, from the propeller controlling system, flows through the beta tubes into the
pitch change mechanism.

The flow of the hydraulic oil into the pitch change mechanism:
 Moves the piston
 Sets the pitch of the propeller blades at the correct angle, in relation to the operation of the power plant.

While the propeller assembly turns, the counterweights apply a force to the propeller blades. If the flow of the
hydraulic oil to the pitch change mechanism stops, the counterweights control the pitch of the propeller blades.

Because of their position on the propeller blades, the counterweights try to move the propeller blades towards:
 Their coarse pitch (feathered) position, while the aircraft is in flight.
 Their maximum reverse thrust position, when the propeller blades are at an angle less than 4°.

Figure 3.6: Pitch Control Schematic (Dowty-Rotol)

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3.3 Full-Feathering and Constant-Speed Governing Systems
3.3.1 Principle
A constant-speed (RPM) system permits the pilot to select the propeller and engine speed for any situation and
automatically maintain that RPM under varying conditions of aircraft attitude and engine power. Thereby
permitting operation of propeller and engine at most efficient RPMs. RPM is controlled by varying the pitch of
the propeller blades that is, the angle of the blades with relation to the plane of rotation. When the pilot
increases power in flight, the blade angle is increased, the torque required to spin the propeller is increased and,
for any given RPM setting, aircraft speed and torque on the engine will increase. For economy cruising, the pilot
can throttle back to the desired manifold pressure for cruise conditions and decrease the pitch of the propeller,
while maintaining the pilot-selected RPM.

A full-feathering propeller system is normally used only on twin-engine aircraft. If one of the engines fails in
flight, the propeller on the idle engine can rotate or "windmill", causing increased drag. To prevent this, the
propeller can be "feathered" (turned to a very high pitch), with the blades almost parallel to the airstream. This
eliminates asymmetric drag forces caused by wind milling when an engine is shut down. A propeller that can be
pitched to this position is called a full-feathering propeller.

Changing Pitch
Pitch is changed hydraulically in a single-acting system, using engine oil controlled by the propeller governor to
change the pitch of the propeller blades. In constant speed systems, the pitch is increased with oil pressure. In
full-feathering systems, the pitch is decreased with oil pressure. To prevent accidentally moving the propellers to
the feathered position during powered flight, which would overload and damage an engine that is still running,
the controls have detents at the low RPM (high pitch) end.

In a single-acting propeller system, oil pressure supplied by the governor, acting on the piston produces a force
that is opposed by the natural centrifugal twisting moment of the blades in constant speed models or
counterweights and large springs in full-feathering systems. To increase or decrease the pitch, high pressure oil
is directed to the propeller, which moves the piston back. The motion of the piston is transmitted to the blades
through actuating pins and links, moving the blades toward either high pitch for constant-speed systems or low
pitch for full-feathering systems.

Figure 3.7: Supplying oil pressure - Counterweighted and non-counterweighted

(Diagram courtesy of McCauley-Textron)

68
When the opposing forces are equal, oil flow to the propeller stops and the piston also stops. The piston will
remain in this position, maintaining the pitch of the blades until oil flow to or from the propeller is again
established by the governor.

Figure 3.8: Holding oil pressure - Counterweighted and non-counterweighted

(Diagram courtesy of McCauley-Textron)

From this position, pitch is decreased for constant-speed systems or increased for full feathering systems by
allowing oil to flow out of the propeller and return to the engine sump. When the governor initiates this
procedure, hydraulic pressure is decreased and the piston moves forward, changing the pitch of the blades until
oil flow to or from the propeller is again established by the governor.

Figure 3.9: Releasing Oil Pressure - Counter-weighted and non-counterweighted

(Diagram courtesy of McCauley-Textron)

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3.3.2 The Governor
Besides the propeller, the other major component of the system is the governor. Each governor mounts on and
is geared to the engine, which drives the governor gear pump and the flyweight assembly. The gear pump
boosts engine oil pressure to provide quick and positive response by the propeller. The rotational speed of the
flyweight assembly varies directly with engine speed and controls the position of the pilot valve. Depending on
its position, the pilot valve will direct oil flow to the propeller, allow oil flow back from the propeller, or assume a
neutral position with no oil flow. These oil flow conditions correspond to increasing pitch, decreasing pitch or
constant pitch of the propeller blades.

Figure 3.10: Sectioned view of a propeller governor

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 Figure 3.11: PCD/Governor system layout (Diagram courtesy of McCauley-Textron)

The propeller governor maintains a constant engine speed by controlling propeller pitch. Engine speed is
selected by a cockpit control connected to the governor speed control shaft.

The governor consists of a gear-type oil pressure boost pump and a spring-loaded governor, which are driven
through gearing from the engine crankshaft. Several valves control oil flow through the governor.

The boost pump receives oil from the engine pressure oil system and boosts the pressure to the value
necessary for satisfactory propeller operation. The spring-loaded governor operates a pilot valve, which moves
up and down in the drive shaft of the boost pump and controls the delivery of this oil to the propeller by opening
or closing ports in the drive shaft.

The governor mechanism consists of two L-shaped flyweights, the inner ends of which lift under a ball-race
attached to the pilot valve. These flyweights act against a conical spring whose pressure is controlled from the
cockpit through a linkage, control shaft, pinion and rack.

When oil from the governor is not required by the propeller, it is bypassed through a relief valve. A feathering
valve in the base of the governor admits oil from the feathering pump to the propeller. The feathering valve is
spring-loaded and normally supplies oil to the propeller from the governor boost pump.

3.3.3 Governor Operation

Governor flyweights and the attached pilot valve tend to adjust themselves to the ON SPEED (neutral)
condition. The RPM at which the ON SPEED condition is reached depends on governor spring force, which is
controlled from the cockpit. Since the governor is driven through gearing from the crankshaft, governor RPM is
proportional to engine RPM.

When the governor is in the ON SPEED condition centrifugal force generated by the flyweights is balanced by
governor spring force and the pilot valve exactly covers ports in the boost pump drive shaft so that no oil can get
in or out of the propeller; consequently the pitch does not change.

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 Figure 3.12: Governor operation - On Speed and Overspeed

If engine speed starts to increase the governor will react to the OVERSPEED condition. Flyweight force exceeds
governor spring force, lifting the pilot valve and allowing high-pressure oil to enter the propeller. This increases
the propeller pitch and brings the engine RPM back to the selected value. As engine and governor RPM
decrease the governor returns to the ON SPEED condition.

Figure 3.13: Governor operation - Under Speed, Feathering and Unfeathering

If engine speed starts to decrease the governor will react to the UNDERSPEED condition. Governor spring force
exceeds flyweight force, dropping the pilot valve and allowing high-pressure oil to exit the propeller. This

72
decreases the propeller pitch and brings the engine RPM back to the selected value. As engine and governor
RPM decrease the governor returns to the ON SPEED condition.

When the cockpit feathering button is pressed the feathering pump is actuated and supplies high-pressure oil to
the base of the propeller governor. The feathering oil acts on the spring-loaded feathering valve, which routes
feathering oil to the propeller in place of governor oil.

3.3.4 Cockpit Control

The cockpit control lever is connected to the governor control lever which in turn is attached to a threaded shaft.
As the lever is moved, the threaded shaft turns and moves up or down to increase or decrease compression on
the speeder spring. For example, when the cockpit control is moved forward, the governor control shaft is
screwed down, increasing compression on the spring. This increases the speed necessary for the flyweights to
move the pilot valve and produces a higher RPM setting. The cockpit control lever allows the aircraft pilot to shift
the range of governor operation from high RPM to low RPM or any area in between.

Note that the RPM setting is made by varying the amount of compression in the speeder spring. Positioning of
the speeder spring rack is the only action controlled manually. All others are controlled automatically within the
governor.

Figure 3.14: Governor operation - Cockpit control

(Diagram courtesy of McCauley-Textron)

This system results in constant speed by producing what is known as an 'on speed' condition, which exists
when the RPM is constant. Movement of the cockpit controls have set the speeder springs at the desired
RPM. The flyweights have positioned the pilot valves to direct oil to or from the propellers.

This, in turn, has positioned the propeller blades at a pitch that absorbs the engine power or RPM selected.
When the moment of RPM balance occurs, the force of the flyweights equals the speeder spring load. This
positions the pilot valves in the constant RPM position with no oil flowing to or from the propellers.

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 Figure 3.15: Governor/PCU operation - On Speed (counterweighted and non-counterweighted
propellers) (Diagram courtesy of McCauley-Textron)

At constant-speed, an over speed condition results and airspeed increases when the aero plane begins a
descent or engine power is increased. Since the pitch of the propeller blades is too low to absorb engine power,
the engine RPM begins to increase. At the instant this happens, however, the flyweights move out and raise the
pilot valves, causing oil to flow from the propellers in a full-feathering system (Figure 3.16 A) and to the propeller
in a constant-speed system (Figure 3.16 B), increasing the pitch of the blades in both cases. Engine speed then
slows to the original RPM setting.

Figure 3.16: Governor/PCU operation – Overspeed (counterweighted and non-counterweighted

propellers) (Diagram courtesy of McCauley-Textron)

74
If the aero plane begins to climb or engine power is decreased, an under speed condition results. Airspeed is
reduced and, since the pitch of the propeller blades is too high, the engines begin to slow down. At the instant
this happens, the flyweights will droop, causing the pilot valves to move down. Simultaneously, oil flows to the
propellers in a full-feathering system (Figure 3.17 A) and from the propeller in a constant-speed system (Figure
3.17 B), reducing the pitch of the blades in both cases. This automatically increases the speed of the engines to
maintain the original RPM setting.

Figure 3.17: Governor/PCU operation - Under Speed (counterweighted and non-counterweighted

propellers) (Diagram courtesy of McCauley-Textron)

3.3.5 Over Speed Protection

Light aircraft propeller speed control is accomplished by the governor.
Turbo-prop equipped aircraft, like Saab 2000 or Pilatus PC-XII, are provided with back-up propeller over speed
protection.

Hydro Mechanical Controlled Propellers (Pilatus PC-XII)

An over speed governor is a back-up for the propeller governor and is mounted on the reduction gearbox. It has
its own flyweights and pilot valve, and it releases oil from the propeller whenever the propeller RPM exceed a
preset limit. When the propeller speed reaches this limit the flyweights lift the pilot valve and bleed off propeller
servo pressure oil into the reduction gearbox sump, causing the blade angle to increase. A greater pitch puts
more load on the engine and slows down the propeller.

Figure 3.18: Over speed Governor

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3.3.6 Feathering
Feathering is accomplished by moving the pilot's control lever to the appropriate position, which is normally
obtained by moving the lever through a gate in the quadrant. This action raises the governor valve fully, allowing
oil to drain from the propeller, and the blades to turn to the fully coarse (feathered) position under the action of
the counterweights and feathering spring.

Figure 3.19: Governor with Unfeathering Accumulator

In order to unfeather the propeller, a separate source of oil under pressure is required; on light aircraft an
accumulator, which is charged during normal operation, usually provides this. To unfeather, the pilot's control
lever is moved into the constant speed range, thus lowering the governor valve, and the Unfeathering button is
pressed, releasing oil from the accumulator and allow it to flow to the propeller. This action commences
Unfeathering, and once the propeller starts to windmill the normal oil supply completes the operation.

3.3.7 Centrifugal Latch

When the engine is stopped on the ground, oil pressure in the cylinder is gradually relieved by leakage through
the constant-speed unit (CSU), and this would enable the propeller blades to turn to the feathered position
under action of the feathering springs.

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 Figure 3.20: CSU with Centrifugal Latch Stops

This condition would result in unacceptable loads on the engine during starting, and a centrifugal latch is fitted to
prevent forward movement of the propeller piston when the engine is stopped. The centrifugal latch is
disengaged by centrifugal force at all speeds above ground idling, thus enabling the propeller to function
normally during flight, but below this speed centrifugal force is overcome by return springs, and the piston can
only move forward a short distance, equivalent to approximately 50o of blade angle. When the engine is started,
oil pressure builds up to move the blades to fully fine pitch and centrifugal force disengages the latch.

3.4 Double-Acting Propeller

This type of propeller is normally fitted to larger engines and, because of engine requirements, is more
complicated than the propellers fitted to smaller engines. Construction is similar to that of the single-acting
propeller, the hub supporting the blades, and the cylinder housing the operating piston. In this case, however,
the cylinder is closed at both ends, and the piston is moved in both directions by oil pressure.

In one type of mechanism (figure 3.21), links from the annular piston pass through seals in the rear end of the
cylinder, and are connected to a pin at the base of each blade. In another type of mechanism, the piston is
connected by means of pins and rollers to a cam track and bevel gear, the bevel gear meshing with a bevel gear
segment at the base of each blade; axial movement of the piston causes rotation of the bevel gear, and
alteration of blade angle. Operating oil is conveyed to the propeller mechanism through concentric tubes in the
bore of the engine reduction gear shaft.

77
 Figure 3.21: A Double-Acting CSU with Pitch Lock

Normal Operation
In a turbo-propeller installation the power control lever is often connected to both the fuel control unit and
the propeller control unit (PCU), so that fuel flow and engine speed are selected at the same time. The PCU
is basically a CSU, but the PCU includes a number of additional features. Constant speed operation is
controlled in a similar manner to that on the single-acting propeller; the governor weights opposing control
spring force to raise or lower the governor valve, and to supply oil to the appropriate side of the pitch change
piston, whenever engine speed varies from the speed selected. Figure 3.22 illustrates the PCU.

a) In the 'on speed' condition, centrifugal force on the flyweights balances the force of the control
spring, and the governor valve traps oil in both sides of the pitch change cylinder.
b) In the 'under speed' condition, control spring force is greater than the centrifugal force on the
flyweights, and the governor valve is lowered, supplying oil to the rear of the pitch change cylinder,
and providing a drain for oil from the front of the cylinder. Blade angle decreases, and the engine
speeds up until centrifugal force on the flyweights balances the force of the control spring, and the
governor valve is returned to the 'on speed' conditions.
c) In the 'over speed' condition, control spring force is less than the centrifugal force on the flyweights,
and the governor valve is raised, directing oil to the front of the pitch change cylinder, and providing
a drain for oil in the rear of the cylinder. Blade angle increases, and the engine speed decreases
because of the added load, until the flyweights and control spring are once more in balance.

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 Figure 3.22: A Double-Acting PCU

3.5 Fine Pitch Stops

3.5.1 Purpose and Operation
During starting and ground running, a very fine propeller pitch may be required, to minimize propeller load, and
to prevent engine overheating; however, during flight, this very fine pitch would lead to engine over speeding,
and excessive drag if the PCU were to fail. To cater for both these requirements, the pitch change piston on the
type of propeller illustrated in on the previous page, is provided with two fine pitch stops, the flight fine pitch stop
being withdrawn for starting and ground operations.

The flight fine pitch stop is in the form of a spring collet, the prongs of which are designed to spring inwards.
When the collet is operating as a stop, the pitch-lock piston is held in the forward position by a spring, forcing
the spring collet open, and preventing the pitch change piston from moving forward further than the flight fine
pitch position. When ground fine pitch is required, a solenoid in the PCU is energized (normally by operation of
both a stop withdrawal lever and a throttle-operated switch) and oil pressure is ducted through the third oil line to
the front of the pitch lock piston; as the pistol moves rearwards, support for the collet is withdrawn and the
prongs spring inwards, allowing the pitch change piston to move fully forward to the ground fine pitch position.
The pitch lock solenoid is disarmed when the throttles are moved forward for take-off, and, when the propeller
has coarsened into the constant speed range, the pitch lock piston moves forward under spring pressure and
opens the spring collet to form the flight fine pitch stop.

79
 NOTE: The term 'pitch lock' is used, in the above paragraph, to describe a means of holding the fine
pitch stop in a prescribed position. Some manufacturers use the term to describe a device which locks
the blades at whatever angle they happen to be, should failure of the pitch change mechanism occur.

3.5.2 Auto Coarsening

The entire power-unit and the aircraft must be safeguarded in the event of the failure of the pitch-lock unit to
operate, and a safety system is incorporated in the PCU. If, during flight, the propeller blades move to a pitch
finer than flight fine pitch, a switch fitted to one blade closes, and completes the circuit through an isolating
switch a solenoid in the PCU. This solenoid directs oil pressure to a valve-lift piston, which lifts the governor
valve and directs oil to the front of the pitch change piston. This action coarsens the propeller blade angle, and
breaks the circuit to the valve-lift solenoid. If the pitch-change piston does not latch over the spring collet as it
moves rearwards, the sequence will be repeated as the blades fine-off past flight fine pitch again. An isolation
switch prevents operation of this safety system when ground-fine pitch is purposely selected.

3.6 The Hamilton Standard Hydromatic Propeller

3.6.1 Principle
In the late 1930s, the Hamilton Standard hydromatic propeller was developed, which gave multi-engine aero
planes a much needed safety factor. If an engine failed, the pilot could move the blades beyond their normal
high pitch position to the feather position, which was normally between 88° and 92°.

The blade met the oncoming air at an angle that produced no torque and a minimum of resistance. The
propeller stopped turning and the pilot could continue flying on the other engine or engines. The hydromatic
propeller has without a doubt been used more than any other propeller in the history of aviation. It was used on
most of the bombers, fighters, and transports during World War II, and it is still seen on large reciprocating
engines. The entire mechanism is enclosed in a sealed hub and dome with no external arms, linkages, or
counterweights. Figure 3.23 shows the basic operating principle of this propeller.

The blades of a hydromatic propeller are secured in a high-strength steel hub with roller-type thrust bearings.
Torque from the engine is directed into the blades through arms that extend several inches into the blade butt
and are part of a high strength forged steel spider, splined to the engine propeller shaft. Each blade root is fitted
with a segment of a bevel gear.

The dome screws into the propeller hub and houses the piston and two sets of concentric cams. A bevel gear
on the inner cam meshes with the gear segments on the blade roots. A double-acting governor is used with this
propeller. In an under speed condition, it sends oil under engine pump pressure into the dome on the forward
side of the piston, to move the piston aft and rotate the cams so that they move the blades into a low pitch
angle, so the engine can speed up. Oil from the aft side of the piston drains into the sump through the governor.

In an over speed condition, the passages in the governor are reversed, and engine oil, boosted in pressure by
the governor pump, is directed to the aft side of the piston, and the oil from the forward side drains into the
engine sump. The piston moves forward and rotates the cam to move the blades into a high pitch angle.

Figure 3.23: Principle of the Hydromatic Propeller - Increasing pitch and feathering

80
3.6.2 Mechanism

The dome assembly comprises the pitch changing mechanism that translates oil forces on the double-
acting piston to blade twisting action. Two coaxial cams operate within the double-walled piston. The outer cam
is rigidly fixed in the barrel, while the inner rotating cam and gear change the blade angle. Piston motion is
transmitted to the rotating cam via four cam rollers supported between the piston inner and outer walls.

Figure 3.24: Hydromatic Propeller construction (Diagram courtesy of Hamilton Standard) Operation

The hub and blade assembly consist of the spider, the barrel and the blades. The spider´s central
Bore is splined to fit the engine´s propeller shaft. At each end of the spider are accurately ground cone
seats, which in conjunction with the propeller retaining nut, rigidly attach the spider to the Propeller shaft.
The spider arms support the greater part of thrust and torque loads from the blades.

Phenolic blocks located between the spider arms support the barrel. Shoulders machined in the Barrel take
centrifugal loads generated by the blades.

81
3.6.3 Operation

ON SPEED
Centrifugal force generated by the flyweights (3) is balanced by governor spring (2) force.
The pilot valve (4) exactly covers ports in the boost pump drive shaft (11).
No oil enters or leaves the propeller and the blade pitch does not change
Oil from the governor booster pump (8) is bypassed via relief valve (7).

Figure 3.25: Principle of the Hydromatic Propeller - On Speed

(Diagram courtesy of Hamilton Standard)

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OVERSPEED
Centrifugal force generated by the flyweights (3) exceeds governor spring (2) force.
The pilot valve (4) is raised, uncovering passages in the boost pump drive shaft (11).
Governor oil flows to the prop dome inboard end (25), moving the piston (27) outboard.
Oil from the prop dome outboard end (26) returns to the engine oil supply.
Piston linear motion, converted to rotary motion by the cam, increases blade pitch.
Increased blade pitch decreases engine and governor rpm, returning to ON SPEED.

83
 UNDERSPEED
Governor spring (2) force exceeds centrifugal force generated by the flyweights (3).
The pilot valve (4) is lowered, uncovering passages in the boost pump drive shaft (11).
Oil from the prop dome inboard end (25) drains through the governor drain port (10).
Oil from the engine oil pressure system flows to the prop dome outboard end (26).
Piston motion (27) in conjunction with centrifugal twisting moment decreases blade pitch.
Decreased blade pitch increases engine and governor rpm, returning to ON SPEED.

Figure 3.26: Principle of the Hydromatic Propeller - Over Speed and Under speed
(Diagram courtesy of Hamilton Standard)

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FEATHERING
Pressing and releasing the cockpit feathering switch starts the feathering oil pump.
Feathering oil flows to the governor base through the feathering oil line.
Feathering oil opens the transfer port (5), disabling governor action.
Feathering oil flows to the prop dome inboard side (25), moving the piston (27) outboard.
Oil from the prop dome outboard end (26) returns to the engine oil supply.
Piston motion increases blade pitch until the feathering stop is reached.
The feathering pump is automatically shut off via a pressure cut- out switch.

85
UNFEATHERING
Pressing and holding the cockpit feathering switch overrides the pressure cut-out switch.
Feathering oil flows to the governor base through the feathering oil line.
Feathering oil opens the transfer port (5), disabling governor action.
With the blades already at their high-pitch stops, feathering oil pressure increases.
The distributor valve (16) moves outboard against its spring (21), reversing the flow.
Feathering oil flows to the prop dome outboard end (26) moving the piston (27) inboard.
Oil from the prop dome inboard board end (25) returns to the engine oil supply.
Piston motion decreases blade pitch until the low-pitch stop is reached.

Figure 3.27: Principle of the Hydromatic Propeller- Feathering and Unfeathering

(Diagram courtesy of Hamilton Standard)

86
3.7 Feathering
Facilities for the manual feathering of the propeller are provided on all large piston and turbo-propeller engines.
With some turbo-propeller installations, however, the drag from the wind milling propeller in fine pitch could be
very dangerous, particularly with a twin-engines aircraft, and for these aircraft automatic feathering is also
provided.

3.7.1 Manual Feathering

Manual feathering of the propeller
on a piston engine is normally
carried out by movement of the
propeller control lever to the
'feather' position, and operation of
the feathering pump. These
actions raise the governor valve,
and supply oil under pressure to
the appropriate side of the pitch-
change piston. On a turbo-
propeller installation, manual
feathering is carried out by an
interconnection between the PCD
and the high pressure fuel cock.
When the fuel cock is moved to
the 'feather' position, linkage to
the PCD lifts the governor valve
independently of the governor
control, and oil is directed to the
front of the pitch change piston to
turn the blades fully coarse. Since
the oil pump in the PCU is driven
by the engine, the oil supply may
be insufficient to feather the
propeller completely, and
operation of the electrically-driven
feathering pump may be
necessary.

Figure 3.28: A feathered propeller

3.7.2 Auto-feathering
Automatic feathering is initiated by means of a torque switch. Whenever the power levers are positioned above
the idling range, and the engine torque falls below a specified amount, the torque switch closes and completes a
circuit to the feathering pump and the valve-lift solenoid in the PCU. The solenoid directs oil to the valve-lift
piston, which raises the governor valve, and opens the oil ports from the feathering pump to the front of the pitch
change piston, thus feathering the propeller.
Note: A manual feathering procedure must be carried out after an auto feather has occurred, in order to isolate
the engine and shut off the feathering pump.

3.7.3 Unfeathering
On turbo-propeller engines, when the high pressure fuel cock is open and the power levers closed, the governor
valve is in a suitable position to direct oil from the feathering pump to the rear of the pitch change piston.
Selection of the feathering pump switch (which is often incorporated in the fire control handle), supplies oil to the
PCU and thence to the propeller, and activates the engine ignition system. When the propeller blades have
turned from the feather position, the air stream commences to windmill the propeller and rotate the engine, and
normal oil pressure builds up to complete the unfeathering operation.

87
3.8 Reverse Thrust
In a reversing propeller, the propeller mechanism includes a removable ground fine-pitch stop, which enables
the propeller to fine-off to a negative pitch when certain actions have been taken and certain conditions are
fulfilled.
Various safeguards are incorporated to prevent selection during flight. The means of achieving negative pitch
vary considerably, but operation of a typical hydraulically operated propeller is described in the following
paragraphs.
(a) Electrical control is by throttle-mounted switches, weight contact switches on the landing gear, and a
master switch or lever to arm the circuit. With the throttle levers closed beyond normal idling to a datum
position, 'reverse' selected, and the weight of the aircraft on its wheels, electrical power is supplied to a
pitch-stop withdrawal solenoid, and oil pressure is directed to withdraw the fine-pitch stop and move the
pitch-change piston forward to the reverse stop, where it is held by hydraulic pressure. Operation of the
'reverse' lever also changes the sense of operation of the throttle levers, which are pulled further back to
increase power in reverse pitch.
(b) Indication of stop withdrawal, and movement of the blades to negative pitch, is provided by hub-
mounted switches, which illuminate appropriate warning lamps on the flight deck.
(c) Re-selection of positive blade angle is achieved by moving the throttle into the normal idling range, and
by moving the master lever out of the reverse position.. Oil is ducted to the front of the pitch change
piston, and the blades move to a positive angle; the stop returns to normal operation once the blades
have moved past the ground fine pitch angle.

3.9 Beta Control

On some gas turbine engines, a form of control known as 'beta', or blade angle control, is used for ground
operations, and may be applied to either single-acting or double-acting propellers. With this system, the throttles
(usually known as power levers) operate in a gated quadrant.

During flight these levers cannot be closed below the 'flight idle* gate, and the CSU operates normally to
maintain any pre-selected propeller speed. In the ground idling and reversing range, the power levers control
propeller speed, and the governor mechanism is overridden. An over speed sensor, and mechanical pitch stop,
prevent operation in the ground (fine pitch) range during flight.

In the beta range, the pitch stop is withdrawn, and movement of a power lever rotates a setting cam in the
associated CSU, which raises or lowers the governor valve according to whether a coarser or finer pitch is
required. A mechanical feed-back mechanism, operated by linkage from the propeller blades, resets the
governor valve via a follow-up cam, and pitch change ceases when the angle scheduled by the power lever is
achieved.

Figure 3.29 shows a typical power control system and table 3.1 shows flight range control (Alpha mode) or
ground maneuvering range (Beta Mode).

Function
Cockpit Control
Alpha Mode Beta Mode

Power Lever Manual Fuel Valve Propeller Pitch Control

Condition Lever Propeller Governor Under speed Governor

Table 3.1: Alpha and Beta Mode functions

88
 Figure 3.29: Power Management system for a TPE turboprop engine

3.10 Electrically Operated Propellers

As with other types of variable-pitch propellers, a hub is mounted on the engine reduction gear shaft, the
individual blades are fitted into the hub, and the pitch change mechanism is fitted to the front of the hub. In this
type, however, the pitch change mechanism consists of a reversible electric motor, driving a bevel gear segment
attached to the root of each blade, and, when rotated, turns the blades to alter propeller pitch. Electric power to
the motor is provided through a brush and slip ring arrangement at the rear of the hub. A motor brake is
provided to prevent overrun, and normally consists of two friction discs, one fixed to the rotating motor shaft, and
the other keyed to the stationary motor casing. The brake is applied (discs held together) by spring pressure,
and released by means of a solenoid whenever a pitch change is initiated.

Some electrically operated propellers are controlled by an engine-driven CSU, and switches are also provided
which enable propeller pitch to be controlled manually. The CSU is similar to those fitted to hydraulically
operated propellers, but the governor valve supplies oil to the appropriate side of a piston contained in the CSU,
which is connected to the central contact of a switch unit. Movement of this piston in either direction completes a
circuit to the pitch change motor, and alters blade angle as required.

On some multi-engine aircraft an electrical control system is used. A single propeller pitch lever controls the
speed of a master electric motor, which is used as a reference for engine speed, and which drives the stator of a
contactor unit for each engine. Each engine drives an alternator, which supplies three-phase alternating current
to the stator windings of the appropriate contactor, the frequency being proportional to engine speed. During
operation, a magnetic field is built up round the stator with a phase rotation opposite that of the stator. If the
stator speed and alternator speed are the same, the magnetic field will, therefore, be stationary; any variation in
alternator speed will result in rotation of the magnetic field the direction of rotation depending on whether the
alternator is rotating faster or slower than the stator. Rotation of the magnetic field influences a concentric rotor,
which rotates with it, and closes a pair of contacts to complete the circuit to the appropriate windings in the
propeller pitch change motor. Switches are normally provided to enable pitch changes and feathering to be
carried out manually.

89
3.10.1 FADEC Controlled Propellers
The functions to limit the speed of the propeller/power turbine rotor are as follows:
 The FADEC software adjusts the propeller blade angle through the pitch control unit (PCU) to control
the propeller/power turbine rotor speed.
 A hydro mechanical over speed governor supplies the emergency protection if a propeller/power turbine
rotor over speed condition occurs (power changes momentarily or a failure occurs).
 If the propeller/power turbine speed is more than the limit for the propeller governor, the FADEC
software sends signals that decrease the fuel flow, and thus the engine power level.
 The FADEC has microprocessor-independent over speed protection to stop the flow of the fuel. This
prevents an over speed condition that can cause damage to the engine.

3.10.2 Digital Speed Control

Nowadays there are just a few turboprop engines equipped with such a control system. One of them is the Rolls
Royce AE2100 (former Allison) with a DowtyRotol propeller. The following description is a simplification of the
speed control system of this engine.

System Description
The primary components of the system are the pitch control unit (PCU), the feathering pump, the over speed
governor and the beta tubes. The system gets inputs from:
 Cockpit controls
- Condition lever
- Power lever
- Feather / unfeather switches
 Propeller speed probe
 Auto thrust system
 Full-authority digital engine-control (FADEC) system.

During the engine start sequence when the COND lever is set to RUN (and the aircraft is on the ground) the
FADEC sets the system in the beta mode. In the beta mode, the system changes the pitch of the propeller as a
function of the power lever angle. The beta feedback transducer sends data about the position of the beta tubes
(and thus the pitch of the propeller) to the FADEC. When the aircraft is in flight (with the POWER lever between
Fl and MAX) the system controls the propeller in the constant speed mode.
During a landing, the FADEC sets the system in the beta mode when these three conditions are correct:
 The POWER lever is between Fl and Gl
 The FADEC gets an aircraft-on-ground signal.

With the system in the beta mode, the pitch of the propeller is related to the power lever angle. When the power
lever is set to REV, the system sets the propeller in the reverse pitch position. In this configuration, the system
operates in the reverse governing mode and keeps the speed of the propeller between idle and minimum
constant speed range RPM.

System Operation
The system usually operates automatically in one of these three modes:
 The beta control mode
 The constant speed mode
 The reverse governing mode.

Beta Control Mode

The system only uses the beta control mode during operations on the ground. The FADEC controls the propeller
control unit and sets the pitch of the propeller blades in relation to the power lever angle. To set the system in
the beta mode, the FADEC energizes the beta solenoid when:
 The aircraft is on the ground
 The POWER lever is at less than flight idle (Fl)
 The pitch of the propeller blades is less than a set value.
 The energized beta solenoid causes the beta valve to move and isolate:
 The overspeed governor
 The flight fine-pitch stop.

90
In this configuration, the oil supply flows:
 From the pump (not through the over speed governor)
 Through the PCU
 To the pitch-change piston of the propeller.

To keep the relation between the pitch of the propeller blades and the power lever angle correct, the FADEC
continuously:
 Measures the signals from the speed sensor on the engine
 Controls the servo valve (in the propeller control unit) and thus controls the flow of oil to the pitch-
change piston of the propeller.

Because (in the beta mode) the system does not use the over speed governor, the FADEC gives the propeller
the over speed protection. To do this, the FADEC:
 Calculates the speed of the propeller (with the signals from the Np sensor)
 Decreases the supply of fuel to the engine if the speed of the propeller gets to a set limit.

Constant Speed Mode

With the POWER lever between Fl and MAX, the system goes into the constant speed mode. In this mode:
 The system sets the speed of the propeller at constant speed RPM.
 Controls the servo valve in the propeller control unit to change the pitch of the propeller (and thus the
speed of the propeller) as necessary
 Measures the speed of the propeller
 Compares the data it gets and adjusts the servo valve as necessary.

During operations in the constant speed mode (when the speed of the LH and the RH propeller is almost the
same) the system goes into its synchronization mode. If the speed of the propeller gets to more than 104%
RPM, the over speed governor operates. When the over speed governor operates, it disconnects the supply of
oil from the governor assembly to the PCU (and thus to the pitch-change piston of the propeller). With no supply
of oil to the pitch-change piston of the propeller, the counterweights move their propeller blades towards the
coarse pitch position. As the propeller blades move towards the coarse pitch position, the speed of the propeller
decreases.

Reverse Governing Mode

Before the FADEC will set the system in the reverse mode:
 It must get an aircraft-on-ground signal
 The pitch of the propeller must be less than 18°
 The POWER lever must be in the REV range.

First, when the conditions are correct, the FADEC sets the PCU in the beta mode. With the PCD in the beta
mode, the pitch of the propeller is set in relation to the Power Lever Angle (PLA). Second, the FADEC sets the
PCU in the reverse pitch mode. When the reverse pitch mode is set, the pitch-change piston of the propeller
moves quickly to the full reverse-pitch position. In this configuration, the FADEC uses the same procedure to
control the system, as it does in the constant speed mode.

Auto feathering Mode

With the auto feather function armed, the system automatically goes into the auto feather mode immediately the
FADEC gets an engine failure signal.

The FADEC uses two different parameters to find the failure of an engine. When the power plant is at a low
power condition (during the approach to an airfield or when the aircraft makes a landing) the FADEC uses the
signal from the engine speed sensor. When the power plant is at a high power condition (when the aircraft is in
the take-off, the climb or the cruise mode) the FADEC uses the signal from the engine torque meter pick-up.

To complete the auto feather procedure, the FADEC sends an auto feather inhibit signal to the FADEC on the
opposite power plant. The system also automatically sets the propeller in its feathered position when the ENG
fire handle is pulled. The signals from the L ENG fire handle go to the two channels of the PMU and to the two
channels of the FADEC. The signals to the PMU are for the engine shutdown procedure, which includes the
propeller feathering procedure.

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Manual Feather
The manual feather function operates independently of the other functions. Because it operates independently,
it will set the propeller in the feather position if the MAN FEATHER switch is pushed. The following will occur:

The feathering pump operates and gives a pressurized supply of oil to the system. The oil flows:
 through the PCU
 through the coarse pitch connection of the beta tubes
 to the pitch-change piston of the propeller.

The pressurized supply of oil is sufficient (in all conditions) to set the pitch-change piston of the propeller in its
fully coarse (feathered) position.

Figure 3.30: Digital Propeller Control System Layout (Saab 2000)

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4 Propeller Synchronizing
4.1 Synchronizing
4.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this system is to reduce excess noise and vibration, by setting all propellers at the same RPM. It
is not used for takeoff and landing.

A master engine is used to select the RPM to which the other engines (slaves) will follow.

A frequency generator, built into the propeller governor, generates a signal that is proportional to the RPM of the
engine. A comparison circuit in the control box compares the RPM signal from the slave engine to the RPM
signal from the master engine and sends a correcting signal to the slave governor control mechanism.

The comparison unit has a limited range and the slave engine must be within about 100 RPM of the master for
synchronization to occur.

4.1.2 A Typical Twin-Engine Turboprop Aero plane Synchronizer System

As previously mentioned, vibration has always been a problem with aircraft because the lightweight structure
does not have sufficient mass to absorb it. The propellers being slightly out of synchronization cause some
annoying and harmful vibration in multi-engine aircraft; this is due to them not turning exactly at the same speed.
This type of vibration has a low fundamental frequency that is approximately the difference between the speeds
of the engine.

Figure 4.1: Schematic diagram of a propeller synchronizer system

for a twin-engines turboprop aero plane

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One engine is designated as the master engine. When the RPM of this engine is adjusted by the pilot and the
synchronizer system is ON, the RPM of the slave engine will automatically adjust to the same RPM.

Each propeller governor contains a rotating magnet and a magnetic pickup that produces alternating current as
the governor rotates. The frequency of this AC is proportional to the speed of the governor. The outputs from the
two governors are compared in the synchronizer control box, and an output signal is sent to the DC stepping
motor actuator. A flexible steel shaft connects the actuator to the propeller governor bell crank on the fuel
control of the slave engine. If the slave engine is slower than the master engine, the control box will drive the
actuator motor in a direction that will move the bell crank and connection arm on the slave motor fuel control and
the propeller governor, in the correct direction to increase its RPM.

The operation of the synchronizer system is simple. It is left OFF during takeoff and landing. When the aircraft is
trimmed for cruise flight, the condition levers of the engines are manually adjusted to bring their RPM close
enough to the same speed that the engines will be within the synchronizing range. Then the synchronizer is
turned ON. Any difference in RPM is sensed, and the slave engine fuel control and propeller governor are
adjusted so the slave engine RPM matches that of the master engine.

When making power changes in flight, adjust both condition levers together to keep the RPM within
synchronizing range. If the engines get out of synchronization beyond the limits of the system, the actuator will
be driven to the limit of its travel. Turn the system OFF and the actuator will return to its centre position.
Manually synchronize the engines and turn the system ON. It will fine tune the synchronization and hold the
engines together.

4.1.3 One-Engine Master System

Synchronizer systems are also installed in light twin-engines aircraft. Typically, such systems consist of a
special propeller governor on the left-hand engine, a slave governor on the right-hand engine, a synchronizer
control unit and an actuator in the right-hand engine nacelle.

The propeller governors are equipped with magnetic pick-ups that count the propeller revolutions and send a
signal to the synchronizer unit. The synchronizer, which is usually a transistorized unit, compares the signal
from the two propeller governor pick-ups. If the two signals are different, the propellers are out of
synchronization, and the synchronizer control generates a DC pulse which is sent to the slave propeller unit.

The control signal is sent to an actuator, which consists of two rotary solenoids mounted to operate on a
common shaft. A signal to increase the RPM of the slave propeller is sent to one of the solenoids, which rotates
the shaft clockwise. A signal to decrease RPM is sent to the other solenoid, which moves the shaft in the
opposite direction.

Each pulse signal rotates the shaft a fixed amount. This distance is called a "step." A flexible cable is attached
to the shaft, which is connected to a trimming unit on its other end. The vernier action of the trimming unit
regulates the governor arm.

4.1.4 System Components

A tachometer-generator or a frequency generator used with each engine of a synchronization system generates
a signal proportional to the RPM of the engine. The tack-generator is mounted on the rear accessory case of an
engine.

A frequency generator may be included in the governor construction. A comparison unit is used to compare the
RPM signal of the slave engines to the RPM signal of the master engine. If a tack-generator is used, the signal
voltage is directed to a differential motor to compare the master engine RPM and the slave engine RPM. The
engine which generates the higher voltage will determine the direction that the differential motor will rotate and
adjust the governor setting of the slave engine. If a frequency generator is used, the engine signals are sent to
an electronic unit which compares the frequencies and sends a correcting signal to the slave engine governor
control mechanism.

The comparison unit has a limited range of operation and the slave engines must be within about 100 RPM of
the master engine RPM for synchronization to occur.

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A four-engine aircraft synchronization system may include a master engine selector switch which allows the pilot
to select the master engine to be used (normally engine #2 or #3). This provides an alternate master engine if
the engine used as the master should become inoperative.

A twin-engine aircraft uses the left engine as the master engine. A resynchronization button is used in some
systems to interrupt the synchronization system operation and allow the slave governor synchronization drive
mechanisms to center, providing for full travel (100 RPM) toward the master engine RPM. This control is used if
one or more slave engines are more than 100 RPM different from the master engine without the need to operate
individual toggle switches.

Figure 4.2: Installation of a synchronization system in a light twin

4.1.5 System Operation

The synchronization system is used for all phases of flight except takeoff and landing. If the system were used
for takeoff or landing, failure of the master engine would result in all the engines trying to follow the master
engine and would cause a total system loss of power as the RPM of all engines decreased 100 RPM.

During normal operation, the slave engines are near the master engine RPM when the synchronization system
is turned on. The signal comparison of the master engine and the slave engine signals through the comparison
unit causes the slave engines' governors to adjust to the same RPM as the master engine.

If a master control system is incorporated with the synchronization system, the master control can be used at
any time to adjust the RPM of all engines. As the master control lever is moved. The synchronization system is
interrupted and the engines may go out of synchronization for a few seconds. When the lever stops moving, the
system returns to synchronization.

The resynchronization button is used to recenter the synchronization system so that all engines can drive
toward the master engine through their full range of travel (100 RPM).

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 Figure 4.3: Installation of a synchronization system in a light twin

4.1.6 Inspection, Maintenance and Repair

Maintenance of synchronization system involves assuring that the system is clean, lubricated, and electrically
sound.

An operational check should be performed in a manner similar to the following: with the engines operating at a
mid-range RPM, turn the synchronization system on and observe that the engine synchronize.

Reduce the RPM of the master engine with the master engine's cockpit control and note that the slave engines
follow the master engine for about 100 RPM. Resynchronize the system and reduce the RPM of each slave
engine in small increments noting that the slave engine stays at the master engine RPM (or returns to the
master engine RPM when the toggle switch is released) for a control movement equal to about 100 RPM.
Outside of the 100 RPM range, the system should go out of synchronization.

If a resynchronization button is in the system, turn the system off and set the slave engines about 200 RPM
different from the master engine RPM.

Turn on the system and note that the slaves move toward the master RPM. Push the resynchronization button
and the slave engines should move closer to the master engine RPM. Each time the button is pushed, the
slaves should move 100 RPM toward the master engine RPM until all engines are in synchronization.

4.1.7 FADEC Controlled Engines

Propeller synchronization on these engines is calculated from the engine control computer. Like previous
systems, there is a master engine (normally engine #1) which sends signals to the other engine control
computer(s) to adjust propeller speed and phase (see Figure 4.4). FADEC controlled engines operate in
different modes depending on the flight configuration and power lever setting. Propeller synchronization is
normally an automatic function performed during propeller forward thrust, constant speed operation modes,
when all engines work normal.

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The following system is installed on the Saab 2000.

The left-hand (LH) and the right-hand (RH) propeller-control systems automatically go into their synchronization
mode when
 They are in the constant speed mode
 There is less than 1RPM difference between the speed of the two propellers and the speed which the
engine control computers have set.

In the synchronization mode the LH and the RH engine control computers use the signals from the pulse
probes. These pulse signals identify the position of the blades on each propeller.

The RH engine control computer compares the master pulse signals (LH propeller) with its own pulse signals. If
there is a difference in blade phase angle, the RH engine control computer sends adjusting signals to its own
propeller control unit, until the difference in face angle between both propellers is correct.

To keep its pulse signals in the correct relation with the master pulse signals, the RH engine control computer
continuously adjusts its propeller control unit.

The propeller control systems go out of their synchronization mode when the RH engine control computer
cannot maintain the same speed and correct face angle, compared to the master engine. If there is an engine
shut down, the propeller control system will also go out of synchronization mode.

Figure 4.4: FADEC Propeller Synchronizer/Synchrophaser

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4.2 Synchrophasing
Although the beat noise is eliminated by synchronizing the propellers, it does not significantly reduce noise and
vibration. A large amount of noise is caused by the interaction between blades of adjacent propellers. This is a
maximum when the tips are opposite one another.

To overcome this effect, the angular difference between adjacent blades is controlled, which reduces noise level
to a minimum.

Synchrophasing is a refinement of synchronization, which allows the pilot to set the blades of the slave engines
a number of degrees in rotation behind the blades of the master engine. Synchrophasing is used to further
reduce the noise created by the engines. The synchrophase angle can be varied by the pilot to adjust for
different flight conditions and still achieve a minimum noise level.

Figure 4.5: Phase Angle of a twin engines aero plane

Figure 4.6: Synchrophasing sets the propellers of the aircraft at different angles and
keeps them at the same RPM

A pulse generator is keyed to the same blade of each propeller. By comparing signals from the engines, a signal
is sent to the slave governor that causes them to establish the phase angle selected by the pilot.

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4.2.1 System Components
A pulse generator is keyed to the same blade of each propeller (#1 blade for example) and the signal generated
is used to determine if all #1 blades are in the same relative position at the same instant. The pulse generator
serves the same function as a tachogenerator in the synchronization system. By comparing when the signals
from the slave pulse generators occur in relation to the master engine pulse, the mechanism will synchronize
the phase relationship of the slaves to the master engine.

The synchrophaser electronic unit receives the signals from the pulse generators, compares them to the master
engine signal, and sends a correcting signal to the governors. This adjusts the control of the slave engines to
establish the phase angle selected by the pilot.

A propeller manual phase control in the cockpit allows the pilot to select the phase angle, which will give
minimum vibration

Figure 4.7: A comparison of the Hamilton-Standard synchronization system

and synchrophasing system

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 Figure 4.8: Control Panel

4.2.2 System Operation

When the engines are operating at nearly the same RPM, the system is turned on and the slave(s) will
synchronize with the master engine. The electronic unit will adjust the governor(s) to set the propellers at the
phase angle selected on the pilot control panel.

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5 Propeller Ice Protection
5.1 Introduction
Propeller ice elimination systems are used to prevent or remove ice formation on propeller blades during flight. If
ice is allowed to remain on the blades, the efficiency of the aerofoil is reduced, the propeller becomes heavier
and develops an out of balance condition. These conditions can generate vibrations and cause damage to the
engine and airframe.

Two types of ice elimination are used:-

 Anti-icing
 De-icing.

5.2 Fluid Anti-Icing

Anti-icing refers to any system which prevents the formation of ice on the propeller. The most commonly used
type of anti-icing system employs a fluid which mixes with the moisture on the propeller blades and allows the
mixture to flow off the blades before the moisture can create an ice build-up. This system is ineffective once the
ice has formed, so the system must be in operation whenever the aircraft is operating in suspected icing
conditions.

5.2.1 System Components

The fluid used in the anti-icing system must readily combine with water and have a very low freezing point so
that the mixture of fluid and water will not freeze during flight. The most commonly used fluid is 'Isopropyl
Alcohol', because of its low cost and availability. A primary disadvantage is the flammability of the fluid.

A fluid tank used with the system is usually located in the fuselage and may or may not be accessible in flight,
depending on aircraft design.

The tank is vented to atmosphere and contains a quantity indicator. The indicator may be a direct reading or a
remote indicating type as necessary, so that the quantity is indicated in the cockpit.

The tank is positioned so that it will gravity feed to the fluid pump(s). The size of the tank depends on the aircraft
and may have a capacity of a few quarts to several gallons.

A fluid filter is placed in the line between the tank and the fluid pump to prevent contaminants from entering the
system from the tank.

A fluid pump is used to move the fluid from the tank to the propeller feed lines. The pressure developed by the
pump is no more than about 10 PSI, as there is very little resistance to fluid flow other than a check valve that
opens at 3 to 5 PSI. The pump speed is controlled from the cockpit by a rheostat and can be varied from less
than a quart per hour, to more than a gallon per hour of fluid flow. Usually one pump will supply no more than
two engines on an aircraft.

A 'Slinger Ring' feed tube mounted on the nose of the engine case directs the fluid into the slinger ring, which is
mounted on the rear of the propeller and is rotating with the propeller and holds fluid in its curved channel by
centrifugal force. The fluid flows out to the blades through the blade feed tubes, which are outlets welded onto
the blade propeller ring.

A check valve located between the fluid pump and the slinger ring feed tube is used to prevent siphoning of fluid
in flight when the system is not operating and to reduce evaporation of fluid from the system.

Rubber feed shoes (anti-icing boots), which are attached to the leading edge of the propeller blades by an
adhesive, are optional items and are not used on all systems. The shoes direct the fluid flowing along the
leading edge of the blades as it comes out of the feed tubes and provides an even distribution of the fluid. The
shoes often do not extend beyond one third of the blade length.

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5.2.2 System Operation
When the system rheostat is turned on, the fluid pump operates at the rate set on the rheostat by the pilot. Fluid
is drawn from the tank through the filter and is forced out to the slinger feed tube. Fluid flows from the stationary
feed tube to the rotating slinger ring on the rear of the propeller, where it flows through the blade feed tubes to
the leading edge of the blades at the shank. The fluid flows out of the tube onto the blade surface or the boot
and moves along the length of the blade leading edge by centrifugal force. The fluid combines with the moisture
and the mixture flows off the blades as a liquid.

Figure 5.1: A Typical Propeller Fluid Anti-Icing System

5.2.3 Testing
The following tests refer to systems in which the propellers are not fitted with overshoes and where the systems
are operated by electrically driven pumps: the tests may, however, be adapted to other systems. When applying
the tests the system should be filled with the fluid specified in the Maintenance Manual for the aircraft
concerned.

Flow Test
Before commencing the initial flow test, the pump filter should be checked for cleanliness. A check should also
be made to ensure that the tank vent system is unobstructed. An ammeter should be fitted in the electrical
circuit of the system. The voltage of the power supply should also be checked to ensure it is at the correct level.

The delivery pipeline should be disconnected at a convenient point near the slinger ring and a calibrated
container positioned to receive the fluid. The pump should be operated and the fluid delivery rate and ammeter
reading noted. On multi-engines aircraft the test must be applied to all propellers simultaneously in order to
determine the delivery rate to each slinger ring.

The delivery rate of the fluid should be within the limits specified by the manufacturer. Where a rheostat control
is provided for varying the delivery rate, the flow should be checked at the various settings.

If the amperage required to operate the pump exceeds the rated value, or the delivery rate of the fluid is less
than the prescribed minimum, the slinger ring, pipelines and tank vent system should be checked for obstruction
or damage. If these checks are satisfactory, the pump may be defective and should be removed for checking.

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Functioning Test
If there is any doubt as to whether the propeller de-icing system is functioning properly it should be checked
during an engine ground run.

The propellers should be painted with commercial whitewash and allowed to dry. A suitable dye should be
added to the fluid so that when the de-icing system is operated the dyed fluid will stain the whitewash and
indicate the distribution over the blades. Uneven distribution may be caused by the slinger ring being fitted
eccentrically, by the feed pipes from the ring being incorrectly located or by obstructions in supply pipelines.

5.2.4 Cleaning
When the de-icing system is likely to be out of use for long period it is advisable to remove all traces of de-icing
fluid. This may be done by draining the supply tank and re-filling with a mixture of 95% methylated spirits and
5% distilled water; the system should then be operated until the tank is empty. During this operation the
propeller should be turned so that the feed pipes leading from the slinger ring to the blades receive an equal
amount of fluid.

5.2.5 Inhibiting
The fluid used in de-icing system is stable and non-corrosive but leaves a gummy residue on drying out.
Inhibiting the fluid pump and system is at the discretion of the aircraft operator, but if it is not inhibiting it is
advisable that a certain level of de-icing fluid (approx.. 2 gallons) is maintained in the tank and the system
operated at regular intervals.

If the pump and system associated with a propeller utilizing overshoes is to be inhibited, the propeller blades
should be covered before commencing the process, to prevent deterioration of the overshoes that could result
from contact with the inhibiting fluid. Similar precautions must also be taken when draining the system of
inhibiting fluid and preparing it for use.

5.2.6 Periodic Inspection

The following information should be related to the Maintenance Schedule for the particular aircraft.

After each flight when the system has been used, the propeller blades should be cleaned with methylated spirits
or warm soapy water, as recommended by the manufacturer. The supply tank should be replenished with the
fluid specified in the Maintenance Manual.
 Examine overshoes for defects, paying particular attention to the following:-
 Check edges and tips of overshoes for adhesion failures. It should be borne in mind that the shoe tips
and edges may lift in flight and it may not be easy to detect this defect.
 Check for blisters. These should be repaired in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Deformations caused by irregularities in the cement film should not be mistaken for blisters.
 Check for freedom from cuts especially at the leading edge.
 Overshoes may be cut back slightly to remove damage caused by stones or grit; the manufacturer's
instructions on this procedure and also on any necessary checks concerning propeller balance, must be
closely followed.
 The bottom of the trough, the longitudinal grooves, pipes and valves, as applicable to the system,
should be free from gummy deposits.

5.3 Electrical De-lcing/Anti Icing

De-icing refers to a system that allows ice to form and then removes the ice from the propeller blades. This is
achieved electrically, by heating elements buried in a protective coating on the blade shank and also in the
spinner. It is usual to integrate the propeller de-icing system with the air intake.

It is also usual for the propeller overshoe to have two separate heater elements, one for the outer portion of the
blade and the other for the inner portion. The element is protected by glass fiber and covered by oil and
abrasion resistant rubber.

The use of heat at the ice adhesion surface loosens the ice, which is removed by centrifugal force and the blast
of the slipstream. It was known on some aircraft in the past (much to the concern of passengers) for the ice, as it
leaves the propeller by centrifugal force, to bang loudly into the aircraft skin.

103
For this reason it is more normal to use this system in an anti icing mode whereby the electrical system is
switched on when icing conditions are deemed to exist.

The accepted definition of icing conditions is below +10°C with visible moisture is present in the form of fog rain,
snow sleet or hail. Fog is defined as a visibility of less than 1000 meters due to moisture.

To conserve electrical power, electric current is cycled to the heater elements at timed intervals. By heating
inner or outer elements on one propeller at a time, rotational balance is maintained. The timer successively
delivers current to:-
 Outer element, port propeller.
 Inner element, port propeller.
 Outer element, starboard propeller.
 Inner element, starboard propeller.

The timer energizes each of the 4 phases for 30 seconds and the cycle is repeated as long as the control is in
operation. The timer may have facility for a 15 second cycle to accommodate heavy icing conditions.

The use of slip rings, attached to the hub and spring loaded brush packs mounted on the engine, is made to
overcome the problem of transferring electrical power from the stationary engine to the rotating propeller.

Figure 5.2: Electrical De-Icing Propeller Components

104
Figure 5.3: Electrical Deicing Blade Installation

105
 Figure 5.4: Electrical De-Icing system

Figure 5.5: Electrical De-Icing shoe - Inboard and Outboard sections

106
Figure 5.6: Electrical De-Icing system cycle sequence

107
 Figure 5.7: Electrical De-Icing system cycle sequence

108
5.3.1 Installation and Maintenance
Full details of the methods of installation and checks necessary for the inspection and maintenance of electrical
de-icing systems for propellers will be found in the relevant aircraft and propeller maintenance manuals, and
approved schedules. Reference must therefore be made to such documents at all times. The information given
in the following paragraphs is intended only as a general guide to the procedures normally required.

Overshoes
Overshoes, and anti-erosion strips where fitted, should be examined for splits, wrinkling, tears, discoloration as
a result of overheating, security of attachment to blades and general condition. To avoid corrosion, anti-erosion
strips must be renewed as soon as there are signs of splitting or advanced erosion likely to cause failure before
the next scheduled inspection. If a heater element is exposed as a result of damage in the overshoe, or if the
rubber is found to be tacky, swollen or deteriorated (as a result of contact with oils or solvents) the overshoe
should be removed and replaced by a serviceable one.

Cable assemblies should be examined for signs of cracking or fretting, security at the root ends of propeller
blades, at slip rings and brush block housings. When blades have been turned through their operating pitch
range, cables should also be checked for signs of strain.

In the case of an element having burned out, the overshoe must be removed. Before installing a serviceable
overshoe, the metal of the relevant blade should be examined for signs of damage as a result of localized
burning. Where element burn out has resulted in localized areas of damage to the blade, the repair should be
carried out in accordance with the Maintenance and Overhaul Manuals for the propeller concerned before a
serviceable overshoe is installed.

Brushes and Slip Rings

Brushes should be checked for wear, damage, cleanliness and freedom of movement in their respective
holders. Permissible wear limits, which are normally related to the length of brush extending beyond the face of
the brush block housing, are given in the appropriate aircraft and propeller Maintenance Manuals together with
the methods of measurement to be adopted. Special measuring gauges are provided for some brush gear
assemblies and these should always be used. Brushes worn beyond limits must be replaced by new ones
together with new brush springs.

Before fitting a brush, the brush holder must be thoroughly cleaned with a dry cloth or small spiral hairbrush;
solvents must not be used.

Brushes must be free to slide in their respective holders, and particular attention must also be paid to their
precise location with respect to each other. In some installations, a means of position identification is provided.
For example, in one typical system, the brushes have a chamfered corner that must be nearest to the centre of
the brush holder when the brushes are in the correct position.

Brushes are fragile and care must be taken to avoid placing any side loads on them during installation.

When a new brush has been fitted, at least 80 percent of the face must make contact with the slip ring. A typical
method checking this is as follows:-
 Inspect and note the appearance of the brush surface.
 Ensure that the brush is correctly positioned in its holder and that the holder is secure.
 Turn the propeller by hand for several revolutions.
 Remove the brush and examine the contact area which will be apparent from the changed appearance
of the brush face.

Whenever a brush block, or pack assembly, has been fitted, the alignment of the brushes with the slip ring
surfaces, and also the clearance between the main body of the brush block and slip rings, should be checked
through a complete revolution of the propeller. If the clearances are not within the specified limits, the brush
block should be repositioned on its mounting in the manner appropriate to the particular installation. In some
installations, shims are provided for adjustment purposes; when a brush block or pack assembly is removed the
shims must be retained with the assembly.

Following the installation of a new brush, functional testing of the complete de-icing system should be delayed
until other engine ground running checks have been completed. This will allow brush bedding to take place
before heating current is applied.

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Slip rings should be checked for security of attachment, signs of scoring, discoloration as a result of burning and
for deposits of oil, grease or dirt. The insulation filling fitted between the slip rings of certain types of propeller
should also be inspected for separation from the slip rings, flaking and localized damage to the surface of the
filling. If the defect is of a minor nature, a repair should be carried out in the manner prescribed in the relevant
propeller Maintenance Manual.

On completion of a repair to the insulation, an insulation resistance test must be carried out.

Dirty slip rings should be cleaned by wiping with a lint free cloth moistened with white spirit, or by spraying them
with a specified cleaning fluid from an aerosol type container. The surfaces should be dried and cleaning
operations completed using a clean, soft, lint free cloth.

5.3.2 Electrical Checks and Tests

The checks and tests necessary to ensure correct functioning of a complete propeller de-icing system consist of
those mentioned in the following paragraphs. The information given is of a general nature only and should be
read in conjunction with the relevant propeller Maintenance Manual and approved Maintenance Schedule.

Continuity and Heater Resistance Checks

Continuity checks and measurement of the resistance of individual heater elements must be carried out before
installation of a propeller, at the prescribed inspection periods, and following any repairs to overshoes. The
resistance values obtained must be within the limits specified for the type of propeller.

Insulation Resistance Checks

These checks are necessary to determine whether there is any breakdown of the insulation between heater
elements, blades and, where appropriate, the propeller spinner. The insulation resistance between brush gear
and earth must also be checked.

During service, the insulation resistance of heater elements may vary as a result of moisture absorption caused
by atmospheric conditions. Tests must therefore also be carried out at the prescribed inspection periods, to
ensure that the resistances have not fallen below the specified minimum in service values (2 to 4 me ohm are
typical).

When checking the insulation resistance of some types of propeller de-icing system account must also be taken
of the specification of cement used for bonding the elements to the blades since the cement has a direct bearing
on the resistance values obtained. The limits relevant to the cement specifications are usually presented in the
form of graphs, and are contained in the relevant propeller Maintenance Manual.

Voltage Proof Check

This check is required for some types of propeller following repairs to the heater element overshoes. The leads
from all the heater elements are connected together and a high voltage (typical values are 1360 volts DC or 960
volts AC) applied between the leads and the blade. The voltage should be maintained for not less than one
minute and a check made to ensure that there is no breakdown of insulation resistance. The voltage must be
increased and decreased gradually.

5.3.3 Function Tests

Functional testing of a complete de-icing system must be carried out at the check periods specified in the
approved Maintenance Schedules, when a system malfunction occurs, when a new or overhauled propeller has
been installed, after replacement of a component (e.g. a cyclic timer, heater element or brush pack) and also
after repairs to an overshoe.

A functional test consists principally of checking that heating current is applied to the blade elements and
spinner elements, where applicable, at the periods governed by the operation of the cyclic time switch, and as
indicated by an ammeter which forms part of the circuit in the majority of installations.

Particular attention should be paid to any limitations on supply voltages to the propeller heating elements, and
engine air intake elements where appropriate, engine speeds and duration of tests during ground running. If any
protective devices or sections of circuit have been temporarily isolated for testing purposes, the circuit must be
restored to normal operating conditions on completion of tests.

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5.3.4 Repairs
Damage to an overshoe in the form of cuts, nicks, lifting edges, etc., may be rectified as a minor repair, provided
the overshoe is electrically serviceable and the blade metal beneath the overshoe has not suffered damage.
Cutting back or cropping a worn or damaged overshoe tip is not permissible. Damaged, worn or missing anti-
erosion strips fitted along overshoe or blade leading edges, must be renewed as a minor repair. Any damage to
blade leading edges beneath a strip, should be repaired before fitting a new strip. Where a metal guard is fitted
along the leading edges of an overshoe and a blade, only local lifting at the edges of a guard should be re-
bonded as a minor repair.

The repair methods to be adopted and the nature of the work involved; depend largely on the extent of damage
to the overshoes. Repair schemes, the materials required, and procedures to be adopted, are detailed in
Maintenance Manuals and Overhaul Manuals for the relevant type of propeller; reference must therefore be
made to these documents. In some cases, the necessary primers, cements, sealing paints, anti-erosion strips
and general materials for carrying out minor repairs are available in kit form. The following summary serves as a
guide to some important precautions and practical aspects common to repair methods.

It cannot be over-emphasized that chemical cleanliness of surfaces is absolutely essential to obtain good
adhesion. All cleaning should be carried out, particularly in the repair area, with a clean lint-free cloth moistened
in the cleansing agent specified, e.g. methyl ethyl ketone or acetone. Swabbing, or the use of excessive
quantities of cleansing agent, should be avoided, and adequate masking should be employed, where necessary,
to protect adjacent serviceable parts or components.

After surfaces have been cleaned and the specified primer and cement applied, they must not be contaminated
by foreign matter or moisture of any kind. To prevent contamination by handling, gloves made from
polyvinylchloride (PVC) should be worn.

To ensure that moisture is not trapped under repairs, all damaged areas must be completely dried out before
repairing; failure to observe this precaution may lead to the start of corrosion under the repairs.

After cleaning, sufficient time must elapse to ensure that the cleansing agent has evaporated before applying
the bonding medium to the surfaces.

Where anti-erosion components are being initially fitted to leading edges of painted blades, the paint should be
removed from the relevant area with specified paint remover. Similarly, sealing paint must be removed from
overshoes before initially fitting anti-erosion components.

When an overshoe has split, worn or lifted at its edges or tip, it should be carefully peeled back at the damaged
portion and the exposed area of the blade carefully inspected for signs of corrosion.

Any light corrosion within the exposed area should be cleaned out and the reworked area of the blade blended
into the adjacent surface in accordance with the blade repair procedures specified in the propeller Maintenance
Manual. The exposed metal surface and, if necessary, the under surface of the overshoe, should be cleaned
with a cleansing agent and after drying, the overshoe should be rebonded to the blade.

If corrosion is excessive or extends beyond the area exposed by lifting of the overshoe, the latter should be
removed and following reworking and cleaning of the blade surface, a primer should be applied and a new
overshoe bonded to the blade.

The cement specified for the repair of overshoes and their complete bonding to a particular type of propeller,
may vary between a ready-to-use type and a type which firstly requires the mixing of two constituent parts in
definite proportions. Details of the cement specification and the mixing procedure where appropriate, are given
in the relevant propeller Maintenance Manual and reference should therefore be made to this document.

The drying time should be correct in relation to local temperature and humidity conditions.

The bonding efficiency of the cement should be tested before final application. A typical test is carried out by
firstly preparing one surface of a duralumin test plate in a similar manner to the surface of a blade, and also the
surface of a linen wide strip of rubber cut from an old overshoe. Cement is then applied to both surfaces and
allowed to dry for the specified period. The surfaces are then pressed into contact and the test plate firmly
mounted on a bench so that the test strip is in the vertical position. A 10 pound weight is then attached to the

111
upper end of the strip and the rate at which the strip separates from the plate is noted. The rate should not
exceed 1 inch per minute over a distance of 6 inches.

Prepared cements have a certain "life" after mixing (e.g. 2 hours) and they must, therefore, always be used
within the time specified.

Small slits or nicks should be repaired by applying cement to the edges and, after allowing it to become tacky,
the edges should be pressed firmly together. A bandage, made up of thin rubber strip and a soft pliable pad,
may be used to apply pressure to local areas.

Where damage cannot be repaired in the manner described in the paragraph above, or where small portions of
rubber are missing from an overshoe, repairs should be carried out by using a filler paste which is made up by
mixing rubber dust with an epoxy resin adhesive.

After removing all loose and damaged rubber from the area and after thorough cleaning, the paste should be
applied and worked into the area by means of a suitable spatula. The filler should be allowed sufficient time to
cure until hard and its surface should then be blended into that of the overshoe by using a medium grade file.
The repair should be finished off with a fine grade silicon carbide paper.

Before fitting a new overshoe, the bonding area of the blade should be masked off and then all traces of old
cement and primer removed from the area by working over with a stiff brush and the specified cleaning agent.
The bonded area should be finally cleaned with lint free cloth soaked in cleaning agent, and allowed to dry. Any
traces of a solvent film, or of the cleaning agent, must be removed before applying a new coat of primer and
bonding cement.

In cases where an overshoe is to be bonded to a blade without a leading edge rebate, a template of the
overshoe should first be prepared. After cleaning the blade, the template should then be laid over the area to be
occupied by the overshoe with its centre line coincident with that of the blade leading edge, and the border of
the bonding area marked out with a soft crayon.

Prior to applying cement to the bonding surface of an overshoe, the surface should be brushed with a fine steel
wire brush and cleaned with the specified cleaning agent. No significant quantity of rubber should be removed
during brushing as a reduction of rubber thickness may lead to an electrical failure of the heating element. The
bonding surface must be allowed to dry out thoroughly.

A coat of cement should be evenly applied with a clean brush to the prepared bonding surfaces of an overshoe
and blade and then allowed to dry for the period determined for the particular type of cement being used.

An overshoe should be positioned at the correct radial distance, and with its center line coincident with that of
the blade leading edge. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheeting should be interposed between the flanks of the
overshoe and blade to prevent premature adhesion of the bonding surfaces. Working from the leading edge
towards the flanks, a rubber roller should be used to press the overshoe in contact with the blade, progressively
removing the PVC sheeting and taking care to prevent the formation of air pockets between the overshoe and
blades. Any puckering or wrinkling of the edges of an overshoe must be worked out carefully. Excess adhesive,
which may have been rolled out at the overshoe edges, should be removed with a cloth moistened in a solvent.

Metal or wooden rollers should not be used for the purpose of pressing overshoes into contact with blades as
damage could be caused to the wire heating elements.

Cement should be allowed sufficient time to cure (a typical period is 24 hours at a minimum temperature of
200°C). When fully cured, a check should be carried out in the manner prescribed in the relevant Maintenance
Manual, to ensure that the required standard of adhesion has been achieved. Following the satisfactory bonding
of an overshoe, an insulation resistance check should be carried out, the outer surfaces of the overshoe should
be degreased and a coat of sealing paint applied.

Reference should be made to Maintenance Manuals and other relevant documents concerning any
requirements for rebalancing a propeller after a new overshoe has been fitted.

Some types of aircraft have moment-balanced overshoes to obviate rebalance of the hub and blade assembly
after a new overshoe has been fitted.

112
6 Propeller Maintenance
6.1 Blade Repairs
6.1.1 General Procedures
Before any attempt is made to carry out repairs to propeller blades reference must be made to the procedures
and limitations detailed in the appropriate Maintenance Manual. The following procedures and limitations are
given for general guidance only.

Repairable blade damage is divided into the following:

 Superficial Damage
Local indentations, nicks, cracks and scoring on the face or edges of the blade is permissible. The
amount of permissible damage varies according to the station on the blade at which it occurs, the most
crucial area being near the hub where the stress loadings are highest.
 Damage to Blade Tips
Where damage at the tips exceeds the limitations of Superficial Damage, cropping to a maximum of
1" is permissible. If one blade is cropped the remaining blades in the propeller must also be cropped
by the same amount.

Superficial damage is blended out by using a smooth file, scraper or fine abrasive paper. Leading and Trailing
Edges are blended out over at least 10 times the depth of damage subject to a maximum length of 7 inches.
Thrust and camber faces are blended out over at least 30 times the damage depth subject to a limit of 25% of
the chord in any direction, or 4" whichever is the smaller. The protective covering of the blade must be repaired
as soon as possible after completion of blade repair in order to prevent corrosion occurring.

In general, unless stated in the relevant Maintenance/Repair Manual, NO repair is permissible: -

a. on folded steel or composite blades. Only recognized repair centers are permitted to carry out repairs on
these types of blades.
b. on the shank on any propeller.

Wooden propellers use 'Aero glue', and can be fabric covered, varnished or doped. Repairs can be carried out
using Wood filler sawdust and Aero glue.

Any repairs are to be carried out to manufacturer's instructions.

6.1.2 Aluminum Blade Repair Procedure

a) The damage and size of repair must be assessed and compared to laid down limitations.
b) The damaged area must be smoothed and contoured after repairing with riffling files, fine emery
cloth and crocus paper.
c) The area should be examined for cracks using a magnifying glass. It may be necessary to carry out a
dye penetrant check (sometimes referred to as 'color contrast' check).
d) Clean thoroughly and restore surface finish in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions using etch
primer before painting.

Blade Cropping
a) Assess how much metal is to be removed and consult limitations.
b) Check Log Book for previous cropping.
c) Assess if it is necessary to crop other blades to maintain balance (this is quite probable).
d) Draw a station line and centre line on the tip and fabricate an aluminium template of original shape.
e) Cut off damage and restore tip to original shape and thickness.
f) Achieve a fine finish and restore surface.
g) Record amount of metal removed and from which blade(s).

113
 Figure 6.1 a: Minor blade repairs

114
Figure 6.1b: Blade repair tolerances

115
Damage Acceptance Areas
If damage has occurred to a propeller blade, before repairs are carried out it must be established whether the,
location the damage is such that the damage can be repaired in situ.

In Chapter 61-10 of the Maintenance Manual, under the heading of servicing, is a section entitled 'Damaged
Blades'. This section illustrates the repair limits allowed on the blades and also details where such repairs can
be carried out. The blade is divided up into checking stations, which use an alphanumeric coding system to give
a precise location of the damaged area.

Figure 6.2: Blade Station Identification

A reference table (table 6.1) is then referred to. The table will give the minimum blade thickness allowed at
any particular repair location. If repairs will take the blade thickness below that limit then the repair cannot
be carried out.

The reference table, an example of which is shown at table 6.1, is used like a graph. The crossing point
between the alpha and numeric axes is the minimum blade thickness allowed at that point on the blade
station Extra information in the form of notes is also included for exceptions and other limitations that exist at
that station Because of the immense stresses on the blade root, removal of material here is not usually
allowed, as this area of the blade is crucial to its strength.

116
 Gen Minimum Blade Thickness at Checking Stations
Radius
.
Blade from Nomi
Rep 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Secti prop- nal
air
on hub Chord
Wid
centre
th
B-B 12.115 6.990 6.93 1.5 2.2 2. 2.8 2. 2.8 2. 2.0 1.2
2 37 44 51 81 95 70 59 58 25
7 3 1
C-C 15.240 8.130 8.04 1.1 1.5 1. 2.1 2. 2.1 1. 1.5 0.8
5 29 83 86 71 22 63 95 58 95
5 5 8
1.
67
1. 1.
8.85 0.9 1.2 6 1.8 1.8 1.2 0.7
D-D 18.365 8.970 85 63
8 24 98 1. 10 13 99 11
5 3
53
3
1.
32
1. 1.
9.73 0.7 1.0 8 1.4 1.4 1.0 0.6
E-E 24.615 9.900 47 29
5 07 03 1. 35 29 28 15
0 2
18
9
F-F 30.865 10.29 10.0 0.5 0.7 0. 1.1 1. 1.1 1. 0.8 0.5
0 76 54 88 93 62 19 57 04 35 03
7 0 6
0.
86
0. 0.
10.42 10.1 0.4 0.6 3 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.4
G-G 37.115 95 84
0 59 19 09 0. 32 29 72 08
5 0
72
9
0.
68
0. 0.
10.33 10.0 0.3 0.4 3 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.3
H-H 43.365 75 66
0 29 12 60 0. 37 34 32 25
5 5
55
3
J-J 49.615 9.980 9.67 0.3 0.4 0. 0.5 0. 0.5 0. 0.4 0.2
4 50 71 54 90 60 89 53 28 70
7 5 3
0.7 50.400
ref
K-K 55.865 9.210 8.86 0.2 0.3 0. 0.4 0. 0.4 0. 0.3 0.2
5 78 74 43 69 48 67 42 42 16
4 0 4
L-L 62.115 7.870 7.54 0.2 0.2 0. 0.3 0. 0.3 0. 0.2 0.1
2 06 77 32 47 35 47 31 55 63
2 6 5
M-M 68.365 5.850 5.58 0.1 0.2 0. 0.2 0. 0.2 0. 0.1 0.1
2 52 04 23 56 26 56 23 89 22
7 3 3
N-N 72.490 4.530 4.31 0.1 0.1 0. 0.1 0. 0.1 0. 0.1 0.0
3 13 52 17 91 19 91 17 42 94
6 5 3
Table 6.1: Blade Limit Reference Chart (Dimensions in Inches)

117
Example:
Any damage repaired at Station J-J at Longitudinal station 5 must, after repair, have a minimum
blade thickness of 0.605 inches.

6.2 Propeller Vibration and Balance

6.2.1 Propeller Vibration
Vibration has always been a major problem in aircraft operation. The lightweight structure has so little mass that
it cannot dampen or absorb vibrations that disturb the occupants, fatigue the structure, and cause cracks.

There are two sources of propeller-induced vibration: those caused by an out-of-track condition and those
caused by an out-of-balance condition.

6.2.2 Propeller Track

Propeller track is the path followed by a blade segment in one rotation. If one blade does not follow in the same
track as the others, its angle of attack and thus the thrust it produces, is different, and vibration will result.

Propeller track should be checked on every annual and 100-hour inspection and any time vibration is a problem.
To make this check, chock the wheels so the aero plane cannot move and place a board under the propeller so
the blade tip nearly touches it. Put a mark on the board at the tip of the propeller, and rotate the propeller until
the next blade is near the mark.

Figure 6.3: Propeller tracking

The amount that blades can be out of track is specified by the propeller manufacturer, but for a light aero plane,
1/16 inch is normally the maximum allowed for a metal propeller and 1/8 inch for a wood propeller.

A slightly out-of-track condition on a wood or metal fixed-pitch propeller can be corrected by placing thin metal
shims between the propeller and the crankshaft flange. Any out-of-track condition on a constant-speed propeller
should be referred to a certificated propeller repair shop.

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6.2.3 Propeller Balance
There are three types of balance of importance when working with propellers:
 Static balance
 dynamic balance

Dynamic imbalance is further subdivided into:

 Mass Imbalance
 Aerodynamic Imbalance

6.2.4 Static Balance

A body capable of rotating about a fixed point is
said to be in static balance when its centre of
gravity lies on the axis of rotation. If a body is in
static balance if when rotated it stops at a random
position each time.

Static balance is checked and corrected at a

propeller repair shop. The propeller is mounted on
a mandrel and placed across perfectly level knife
edges. The balance is checked in two planes, one
with the blades horizontal and one with them
vertical.

Horizontal imbalance is when a propeller rotates

to a vertical position. Horizontal imbalance of a
wood propeller is corrected by adding solder to the
metal tipping of the light blade.

Vertical imbalance is when a propeller rotates to

a horizontal position. Vertical imbalance of a wood
propeller is corrected by attaching a brass weight
with countersunk screws to the lightweight side of
the hub.

Fixed-pitch metal propellers are balanced in a

propeller repair station by removing some of the
metal from the heavy side and then refinishing the
propeller.

Figure 6.4: Vertical and Horizontal Balance checks

Constant-speed propellers are balanced by placing a lead washer on a balancing stud inside the hollow
blade shank. Small amounts of unbalance are corrected by packing lead wool in the hollow shanks of the
bolts that fasten the halves of the propeller barrels together. This type of balancing can only be done by a
certificated propeller repair station.

6.2.5 Dynamic Balance

A rotating body is said to be in dynamic balance when the couples set up by the centrifugal forces are in
balance, i.e. the algebraic sum of the moments about any plane is zero.
Dynamic balance is the most effective type of balancing as it takes all of the factors into consideration. It is
done with the propeller installed on the engine in the aero plane.

Mass Imbalance
A mass imbalance is nothing more than an imbalance in a rotating component, normally the propeller, that is located
away from centre of the rotating mass. The further from the centre of rotation, the greater the imbalance and its
destructive force.

119
Balance Analyzer
There are several aircraft balancers/analyzers on the market that are essential for helicopter maintenance and
extremely valuable for propeller balancing. The ACES ProBalancer by TEC Aviation Division is a
microprocessor-controlled instrument that measures the amount of vibration and shows the position and amount
of weight needed on the propeller spinner bulkhead to correct the out-of-balance condition.

Figure 6.5: The ACES Probalancer

Correcting Mass Imbalance

Two pieces of information are needed to correct an imbalance: amplitude and phase. Amplitude is the
severity of the vibration. Phase is the location of the heavy spot or imbalance in relation to a timing pulse
that occurs during rotation. Once you have these two pieces of information, then the problem can be easily
solved. To obtain the amplitude, or vibration, you need a vibration transducer. The most commonly used
types are either velocity or acceleration transducers. These sensors have piezoelectric crystals that produce
very small amounts of voltage when subjected to a vibration. The greater the vibration, the greater is the
voltage output.

Digital analyzers convert this voltage to amplitude readings and then calculate solutions that will lower the
vibration level to acceptable limits. To take the reading, the transducers must be mounted to the aircraft.
Using standard "L" brackets, mount one transducer at the front of the engine as close to the propeller as
possible and a second transducer (check transducer) at the rear of the engine.

You must use two sensors to distinguish the propeller from the crankshaft since both of these components
turn at the same RPM and the only way to tell one from the other is to use two sensors. The closer the
sensor is to the source of the imbalance, the greater the amplitude readings will be. If you balanced a
propeller down to a 0.05 IPS using the front transducer and at the rear of the engine, the sensor is reading a
0.6 or 0.7, the culprit is really the crankshaft. This would never be discovered if you used a single sensor.

Once the sensors are installed and the cables routed away from hot and rotating components, a triggering
device must be installed. Most analyzers use a phototach. The phototach is mounted behind the propeller
on a bracket and emits a beam of light towards the rear of the propeller. A piece of reflective tape is installed
on one of the propeller blades, in-line with the phototach. The correlation between the phototach and the
front sensor will be shown as a phase and amplitude on the analyzer and a solution calculated.

Once a solution is obtained, a trial weight is installed. This trial weight is normally several large surface area
washers, which are installed under the spinner retaining screws. When an acceptable vibration level is
achieved, the weights are installed permanently in the starter ring gear or a hole can be drilled in the spinner
bulkhead and the weight moved to this location.

Some turbine-powered aircraft will have spinner bulkheads that are pre-drilled with balance weight holes
facilitating ease of installation. After the weights are installed, the aircraft should be run once more to verify
that the balance readings are still within tolerances.

120
Aerodynamic Balance
This is when all the blades on a propeller are producing equal thrust.

An aerodynamic imbalance, although not common, happens when a blade pitch variance occurs from one blade
to another during the rotational cycle. If one blade is grabbing more air than any of the other blades, a vibration
will be felt. This can and will occur even though any mass imbalance may have already been corrected.

To achieve this it is necessary to adjust the blade angles relative to one another by a few minutes of a degree
when setting the initial blade angle, during assembly.

Due to manufacturing tolerances, it is impossible to produce all blades to give exactly the same thrust or power
absorption. Unless these inequalities are compensated for, an aerodynamic imbalance will occur.

This force is made up of two parts, one acting in the direction of flight (thrust) and the other in the plane of
rotation (torque). The blades are set either coarse or fine from the basic setting to produce more or less thrust
and torque as required. The angle of adjustment needed to produce an equal thrust or torque factor at each
blade is known as the 'Aerodynamic Correction Factor'. (The complete process is sometimes called 'Indexing'.)

Identifying an aerodynamic imbalance

If you have performed a propeller balance and achieved a vibration level below the 0.2 IPS limit, yet, the owner
of the aircraft still complains of a vibration in the airframe or instrument panel, it could be that there is an
aerodynamic imbalance in the propeller. In some cases, you will find that you chase your tail on a propeller with
this problem. You may be able to lower vibration levels to a certain IPS level, but then it seems no further type of
adjustment will give satisfactory results.

The way to detect this type of imbalance is to install reflective tape on each of the propeller blade tips in a
manner that will distinguish one blade from the other. The aircraft is then operated at balancing RPM and you
stand to the side of the propeller during rotation. The propeller tip path is then observed using a light source, if a
difference in tracking of the blades is seen, then an aerodynamic imbalance is present. In a variable pitch
propeller, the problem may be corrected by verifying the blade angles. In a fixed-pitch propeller, the only
alternative may be to replace the propeller.

Vibration Spectrum Survey

Any quality propeller balance job will end with a vibration survey performed on the engine assembly.

You have minimized the one-per-revolution vibration induced by an out-of-balance propeller. You have verified
that the propeller has no aerodynamic imbalance. Now you need to look at the overall integrity of the rotating
component to determine what is generating the vibration. This is done by a Vibration Spectrum Survey.

This spectral survey will show you all of the vibration levels and their frequencies (in RPM, CPM, or hertz) within
the rotating component. Every moving part in an engine produces a vibration level at the frequency at which the
component moves, or if the part is non-moving, it will vibrate by nature of its own natural frequency.
Unfortunately, some of the components share similar or identical frequencies, which makes troubleshooting a bit
more challenging. In the balance case example, you already have two vibration sensors installed on the engine
so you can use these two locations to gather spectral data. Many digital balancers and analyzers have a
"Spectrum" function.

Each engine and propeller combination, when healthy, will produce a normal spectrum display that is
characteristic of that combination. The trick is to determine when this spectral display is not normal. When the
spectral data is gathered, you have a digital display of these vibration readings, sometimes called a "signature,"
which then has to be interpreted. Each one of the spikes or peaks shown in the graph are representative of a
rotating component or a multiple thereof. These multiples of the fundamental RPM are referred to as
"harmonics" or "orders."

Half-Order
A half-order with readings considered to be abnormal may be the result of many different malfunctions. The first
and foremost components to check for malfunction are the engine mounts. By design, the mounts dampen out
lower frequency vibrations such as the half-order. If the integrity of the mounts has diminished, the result may be
an increased level of vibration. If the mounts check out good, then it's time to go a little farther. Some of the
malfunctions that could show a high half-order vibration are:

121
  Compression losses
 Fuel mixture
 Induction losses
 Improper valve lift
 Spark timing
 Plugged injectors
 Broken ring
 Bad magnetos
 Anything else associated with combustion

A normal half-order vibration reading should be in the range of 0.1-0.3. Combustion problems will show an
increase in the half order reading to levels between 0.3 and at times in excess of 1.0 IPS.

First-Order
These vibration readings are normally an indication of a mass imbalance in the propeller, or, as described
earlier, a damaged crankshaft. To reiterate, the only way to make the determination between propeller and
crank is through the use of two vibration sensors. The general rule is that the amplitude from the sensor at the
rear of the engine should not show readings with higher amplitudes than that of the front sensor.

Second-Order
Second-order readings are not so cut and dry. In a two-bladed propeller, you will have an inherent two-per-
revolution vibration level that is characteristic of a two-bladed propeller. This inherent vibration is referred to as
the end-per-rev. The problem could be an internal mass imbalance in the rods and pistons, but it cannot be
seen because of the presence of the end-per-rev. Contact the engine manufacturer or obtain technical support
from the equipment manufacturer. If the aircraft has a three- or four-bladed propeller, then the problem would be
a little easier to identify because the end-per-rev would show up at three or four times the one-per-rev. In this
instance, the problem could be identified as being in the piston and rod area.

The end-per-rev vibration can be so uncomfortable that in some helicopters (which are much more prone to
vibration than fixed-wing aircraft), there will be what is called a vibration absorber to help dampen this vibration.
The absorber is suspended by bushings to allow for movement. Weight is then added or removed until the
absorber bounces at the same frequency as the end-per-rev. This helps to mask to vibration to improve crew
comfort. Unfortunately, in fixed-wing aircraft, we may have to live with the end-per-rev.

Natural Frequencies
To help understand vibration analysis it is important to understand that anything of mass, when struck or excited
by an outside force, will vibrate at a certain frequency based on its material and structural makeup.

For example, a wind chime is made up of cylinders of thin-walled metal. Each of the cylinders is of a different
length. When the length is changed the natural frequency changes. The end result is when the wind blows the
chime, there are numerous different notes and tones excited from the force of the wind. In a reciprocating
engine, each of the components gives off its own note or tone, you just need equipment a little more
sophisticated than your ears to denote and examine the differences.

Predictive Maintenance
The key to accurate vibration analysis is to establish a predictive maintenance program. Once data is collected,
the most effective way to manage the data is to build and maintain a database that allows for future trending of
the engine and propeller combinations of the same type. These types of programs are available commercially
and have features that simplify the data comparison effort.

For example, after completion of each of the 100-hour inspections, a vibration signature is acquired on the
aircraft engine and propeller assembly. Over a period of time, any changes in vibration magnitude in any of the
rotating components can be compared to the vibration levels obtained from previous inspections Findings from
this data can be as dramatic as predicting impending failure of a specific component.

In some databases, numerous vibration signatures can be overlaid in what is referred to as a waterfall plot,
resulting in easily viewed increases or decreases in vibration levels that are displayed over a period of time.
As a component begins to wear, the vibration levels begin to rise in the frequency output of a particular
component.

122
6.3 Maintenance Practices, Testing and General Repair Information
6.3.1 Wooden Fixed-Pitch Propellers
Because of the nature of the material from which they are made, wooden propellers are relatively easily
damaged by stones and other hard objects, and they may also be affected by climatic conditions. These
propellers should frequently be inspected for breaks in the surface finish, scores, nicks, cracks, delamination,
and security of the leading edge sheath. Minor defects in the surface finish may be repaired by touching-up with
varnish or paint as appropriate, but any damage to the wood, other than very minor damage must be assessed
in accordance with the approved repair schemes, and the propeller repaired or returned to the manufacturer as
appropriate.

Periodic Maintenance
The intervals at which the propeller must be removed for inspection are specified in the approved Maintenance
Schedule. With the propeller removed from the aircraft, the blades and boss should be inspected for the sort of
damage described below, paying particular attention to those areas that are not visible when the propeller is
installed. In addition, the following inspections should be carried out:-
(a) Bolt holes should be examined for ovality, rough edges, and cracks radiating into the boss.
(b) Boss faces should be examined for damage where they have been in contact with the hub
flanges, particularly at the circumference of the flanges.
(c) The Centre bore should be examined for cracks and delamination of the plies.
(d) The mounting hub should be examined for corrosion, cracks, correct fit on the crankshaft, and for
condition of the attachment bolts and nuts.
(e) Where mounting cones are fitted, these should be checked for corrosion, and for picking-up of the
surface. Correct fit between the hub and cones may be checked using engineers' blue, an 80% contact
normally being required.

Repairs
The limits of repairable damage are normally laid down in the appropriate aircraft manual, and are related to a
maximum depth and area, expressed as a percentage of the thickness or chord of the blade at that point.
(a) Minor indentations and small longitudinal cracks may usually be repaired by plugging with a mixture of
glue and sawdust, then sanding smooth.
(b) Deep cuts or damage must be removed, and an insertion repair carried out. Identical timber must be
used, and particular attention must be paid to matching the grain direction.
(c) If slight tip or trailing edge damage is repaired by sanding to a new profile, both blades must be similarly
shaped.
(d) If repairs to the metal sheath are permitted, extreme care is necessary to prevent bruising of the wood
when shaping the new metal. The original screw and rivet holes must be used, and the manufacturer's
recommended procedures carefully followed.
(e) In all cases where repairs have been carried out, the propeller must be balanced and re-protected in the
original manner.

6.3.2 Metal Fixed-Pitch Propellers

Aluminum alloy propeller blades are less prone to surface damage than wooden propeller blades, but sharp
indentations and scores will cause stress concentrations which may lead to failure, particularly if a number of
damaged areas form a line across a blade. Such propellers should be inspected frequently for corrosion, dents,
nicks, cuts, and other surface damage.

Blade failures have been known to occur, through corrosion which has started underneath blade decals
attached with a water-soluble adhesive. Particular attention should be paid to any instructions or directives
which have been issued regarding inspection, removal or replacement of these items.

Periodic Maintenance
Metal propellers are not normally overhauled at definite periods, and are only removed for repair or
reconditioning when the condition of the blades makes this necessary. When the propeller is removed, the
mounting bolts should be examined for cracks, using a suitable non-destructive testing method, and the
propeller mounting flange bolt holes should be examined for ovality and cracks. In addition, the faces of the
propeller boss should be checked for fretting, corrosion, and cracks emanating from the bolt holes.

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Repairs
Propellers which are bent or twisted, which have surface cracks in a chord wise direction, or which have
sustained damage in the form of cuts, nicks, or gouges, beyond the limits of depth or area specified by the
manufacturer, must be returned to an approved overhaul organization for repair. Minor repairs may be carried
out by removing metal from the damaged area, so that the final depression is within the specified repair limits for
the particular blade area. Metal should be removed with a smooth idle and emery cloth, and the repair should
progressively be checked by the penetrant dye process, until all damage has been removed and a smooth
shallow depression remains.

After repairs have been satisfactorily carried out, the propeller should be carefully balanced. If repairs have been
made to one blade only, it may be necessary to remove material from the other, heavier blade, at the position
corresponding to that of the repair on the damaged blade. Care must be taken not to reduce blade chord or
thickness below the minimum dimensions specified for the particular propeller.

If only a very small amount of metal was removed during repair, balance may often be restored by applying
additional paint to the lighter blade. After balancing, the propeller should be partly or completely protected,
depending on the extent of the surface damage, using the primer and paint or varnish specified by the
manufacturer.

6.3.3 Variable-Pitch Propellers

In some instances, variable-pitch propellers may be fitted with steel blades, and particular care must be
exercised during inspection, because of the adverse effects of surface damage on the fatigue life of these
blades. Inspection and repair must be carried out strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Maintenance of variable-pitch propellers with aluminum alloy blades is described below.

Periodic Inspection
The following inspections should be carried out at the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule,
or as recommended in CAA CAP 747 GR No. 17 (previously published as Airworthiness Notice No. 75).
(a) All visible parts of the propeller, its components, controls, pipe connections and wiring, should frequently
be inspected for damage and security.
(b) The blades should be inspected for damage in the form of abrasions, cuts, nicks, or corrosion. Minor
erosion or dents may usually be left until the propeller is removed, but cuts or gouges which may lead to
cracks should be blended out immediately, and the area should be repainted.
(c) The spinner, hub and blade roots of hydraulically operated propellers should be examined for traces of
oil leaking from the pitch change mechanism. If the propeller is a 'dry hub' type, oil leaking into the hub
may, through centrifugal force, flow through the blade bearings, remove the grease, and result in
premature failure of the bearings. Some traces of oil may be found after initial installation, but, if the
leakage persists, the propeller must be stripped to the extent necessary to cure the leak, and to clean
and regrease the bearings. This particular problem does not apply to propellers with 'wet' hubs, but any
leakage should, nevertheless, be investigated.
(d) The CSU/PCU, and connecting pipes should be inspected for oil leaks. Tightening the nuts or replacing
the gasket may remedy leakage at the mounting face of the CSU/PCU, but leakage from other parts of
the unit will normally require a replacement of the complete unit.
(e) Whenever the propeller is removed, the slip rings and contact brushes should be examined for damage
and wear. Brush wear over the operating period should be assessed, and the brushes should be
replaced if the rate of wear indicates that they will not remain serviceable until the next overhaul.

Damaged Blades
Blades which are bent, twisted or cracked, or have severe surface damage, must be considered unserviceable,
and the propeller must be returned to the manufacturer or an approved overhaul organization. Minor surface
damage may be blended out in the same way as for fixed-pitch metal propellers, and within the limitations
imposed by the manufacturer.

If vibration is experienced, the blades should be inspected for signs of cracks, dents, or bending. The track of
each blade should be checked, and the blade angles should be measured at the specified station. It is usually
possible to adjust the blade angle of an individual blade by fitting shims to, or by adjusting the length of, the
operating rod from the pitch-change mechanism to the blade. If all these checks are satisfactory, it is unlikely
that the propeller is the cause of the vibration.

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Testing After Installation
After installing a propeller, the engine must be ground run to check propeller operation. Aircraft propeller
installations vary considerably and no set testing procedure would be satisfactory for all aircraft. It is imperative
that any particular installation should be tested in accordance with the approved Maintenance Manual, which will
normally include the following general requirements.

(a) The engine should normally be fully cowed, and the aircraft should be facing into wind before starting an
engine run. It is sometimes recommended that the pitch change cylinder should be primed with oil
before starting, by operation of the feathering pump.
(b) The safety precautions appropriate to engine ground running should be taken, the controls should be
set as required, and the engine should be started.
(c) As soon as the engine is operating satisfactorily, and before using high power, the propeller should be
exercised in the manner specified in the Maintenance Manual, to establish that the pitch change
mechanism is operating.
(d) The checks specified in the Maintenance Manual to confirm satisfactory operation of the propeller
system, including constant speed operation, feathering, operation of the propeller pitch change
throughout its range, synchronization with other propellers on the aircraft, and operation of associated
warning and indicating systems, should be carried out.
(e) Engine running time should be kept to a minimum consistent with satisfactory completion of the checks,
and a careful watch should be kept on engine temperatures to avoid overheating. With turbine engines,
changes to operating conditions should be carried out slowly, to avoid rapid engine temperature
changes, and to conserve engine life.
(f) When all checks have been successfully carried out, the engine should be stopped, and a thorough
inspection of all propeller system components should be carried out, checking for security, chain of
pipes and cables, and signs of oil leaks.

NOTE: If vibration was experienced during the engine run, the hub-retaining nut should be retightened after the
engine shaft has cooled down.

6.3.4 Additional Inspections - All Types

In addition to the normal inspections carried out on a routine basis, certain occurrences will require special
checks to be carried out, and these checks are briefly described in the following paragraphs.

Lightning Damage
If a metal propeller is struck by lightning, burn damage to the blades is likely to occur. In removing this damage
the normal repair limits apply, but after cleaning out all physical damage, a further specified thickness of metal
must be removed, and the depression blended to a smooth contour. The damaged area should then be
chemically etched, and inspected with a magnifying glass to ensure that there are no signs of material
abnormalities. Any electrical circuits in the propeller should be checked for continuity and insulation resistance.

Over-Speeding
Propellers may occasionally exceed their normal maximum rotational speed, and be subjected to centrifugal
forces in excess of those for which they were designed. With variable-pitch propellers, over speeding will
normally only occur following failure of the control system, but with fixed-pitch propellers the maximum engine
speed may easily be exceeded during man oeuvres if the engine speed indicator is not carefully monitored. The
extent of the checks which must be carried out following over-speeding, will depend on the margin by which the
normal maximum rev/mm have been exceeded, and on any particular instructions contained in the approved
Maintenance Manual. The figures quoted here are typical values.
(a) No special checks are normally required following over speeding up to 115% of normal maximum
rev/mm, but it may be recommended that the track of the propeller is checked.
(b) If the propeller has been over speeding between 115% and 130% of normal maximum rev/mm, for a
period in excess of any specified time limit, it should be removed for inspection. All blades should be
carefully inspected for material failure, using a penetrant dye process. Blade bearings should be crack
tested, and the rolling elements and raceways should be inspected for Brine ling (i.e. indentation). The
hub and counter weights should be inspected for cracks and distortion, and particular attention should
be paid to the blade mounting threads and spigots.
(c) If the over-speeding has been in excess of 130% of normal maximum rev/mm, the propeller should be
returned to the manufacturer for investigation.

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6.4 Engine Control
Because the engine and propeller must work together to produce the required thrust for a turboprop installation,
There are a few unique relationship. The turboprop fuel control and the propeller governor are connected and
operate in coordination with each other. The power lever directs a signal from the cockpit to the fuel control for a
specific amount of power from the engine.

The fuel control and the propeller governor together establish the correct combination of RPM, fuel flow, and
Propeller blade angle to provide the desired power.

Propeller control levers in the cockpit must be arranged to allow easy operation of all controls at the same time,
But not to restrict the movement of individual controls.

The propeller controls must be rigged so that an increase in RPM is achieved by moving the controls forward
and a decrease in RPM is caused by moving the controls aft. The throttles must be arranged so that forward
thrust is increased by forward movement of the control and reverse thrust is increased by aft movement of the
throttle. (When operating in reverse, the throttles are used to place the propeller blades at a negative angle.)

Figure 6.6: Propeller/Engine control lever shapes and colors

Cockpit power plant controls must be arranged to prevent confusion as to which engine they control. Recent
regulation changes require that control knobs be distinguished by shape and color as shown in Figure 6.6.

Cockpit instruments such as tachometers and manifold pressure gauges must be marked with a green arc to
indicate the normal operating range, a yellow arc for takeoff and precautionary range, a red arc for critical
vibration range, and a red radial line for maximum operating limit.

6.4.1 Alpha Range

The propeller control system is divided into two types of control: one for flight and one for ground operation. For
flight, the propeller blade angle and fuel flow for any given power setting are governed automatically according
to the predetermined schedule. This is known as the alpha range.

6.4.2 Beta Range

Below the “flight idle” power lever position, the coordinated RPM blade angle schedule becomes incapable of
handling the engine efficiently. Here the ground handling range, referred to as the beta range, is encountered. In
the beta range of the throttle quadrant, the propeller blade angle is not governed by the propeller governor, but
is controlled by the power lever position. When the power lever is moved below the start position, the propeller
pitch is reversed to provide reverse thrust for rapid deceleration of the aircraft after landing.

6.5 Engine Operation

Turboprops are constant-speed engines, because they operate throughout the operational cycle at near 100%
RPM. To hold the RPM constant, the fuel control adjusts the fuel flow in relation to the engine load.

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When idling, the RPM remains high, but the propeller pitch is reduced until almost flat, so it produces very little
thrust and requires a minimum fuel flow.

Considering the engine type there will be two groups of engines:

 Hydro-Mechanical Fuel Control (older generation)
 FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control)

6.5.1 Hydro Mechanical Fuel Control System

Power Lever
The power lever operates in a quadrant slot labeled “POWER” with positions (from rear to front) labeled “MAX
REV”, “DISC”, “FLT IDLE” and “MAX”. The power lever is connected by cables, pushrods and bell cranks to the
control system and PCU of the associated power plant. The power lever quadrant slot has a lockout gate at the
FLT IDLE position, which is controlled by a finger latch below the power lever knob. Raising the latch permits aft
movement into the ground range.

The power lever controls power in the forward thrust range and blade angle in the flight Beta and ground Beta
ranges. The flight Beta range extends for blade angle of 26° to 19° (minimum in-flight blade angle). The power
lever controls blade angle from aft of FLT IDLE to MAX REV.

The spring-loaded, detected DISC position produces at 0° blade angle or flat dicing; further aft movement
increases blade angle in a negative direction until at MAX REV the blade angle is 11.5°. Both of these positions
will assist in slowing the aircraft during landing.

While operating in the Beta range, the HP fuel control regulates engine power, providing Np under speed
governing between FLT IDLE and DISC and both engine power and blade angle control in the reverse thrust
range.

When the flight control gust lock lever, labeled “CONT LOCK” is at the position, the power lever cannot be
moved to the MAX position. This lever will also lock the aircraft flight controls.

Figure 6.7: Turbo-prop engine controls

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 Figure 6.8: VP-prop engine controls (Cessna 310)

Figure 6.9: Power and Condition levers

Condition Lever (RPM Control)

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The condition lever is connected to the PCU and HP fuel control by cables, pushrods and bell cranks and
operates in a quadrant slot labeled "PROP" on the Centre console. The condition lever positions are labeled
(rear to front) "FUEL OFF", "START & FEATHER", "MIN" and "MAX". The range between START & FEATHER
and MIN is labeled "UN-FEATHER". Inadvertent selections below MIN and START & FEATHER are prevented
by detents. The lever must be pulled out for aft movement past these positions.

Moving the condition lever from MIN to START & FEATHER feathers the propeller through the PCU and signals
the HP fuel system to establish a fuel flow to sustain ground idle RPM. Moving the lever forward of START &
FEATHER unfeathers the propeller when the engine is running. When the condition lever is moved from START
& FEATHER to FUEL OFF, it mechanically closes the fuel shut-off valve on the HP fuel system and shuts down
the engine. The condition lever range between MIN and MAX sets propeller RPM for in-flight constant speed
operation.

Constant Speed Range

The constant speed range is defined as propeller operation from a fully fine setting (condition lever at MAX
RPM) to an increased blade angle pre-selected by a condition lever angle (CLA) setting of a speed-sensitive,
flyweight governor in the PCU. The governor operates to obtain and maintain constant speed settings between
900 and 1,200 propeller RPM (Np). Ground range lights indicate at 16.5° and the dicing is between 1.5 and 3.0°.

Beta Range
The term "Beta Range" is used to define propeller operation from a maximum Beta setting (propeller blade
angle 26°) to a full reverse setting (propeller blade angle -11.5°). The Beta range is divided operationally into
two ranges by a gate on the associated power lever which controls blade angle from 16 to 19° above the gate
and below the gate to full reverse.

Propeller blade angle at full feather is 86 +/-50.

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 Figure 6.10: Power Lever and Propeller ranges

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 Figure 6.11: Power Lever Quadrant and associated typical blade angles

Fixed and Removable Stops

A number of stops or latches can be incorporated in the propeller control system; their purpose is to confine the
angular movement of the blades within limits appropriate to the phase of flight or ground handling. The most
common stops are described below and typical values are given for the corresponding blade angles.
 Feather and Reverse Braking Stops. These two fixed stops define the full range within which the
propeller angle may be varied (+85° to -15°).
 Ground Fine Pitch Stop. This is a removable stop (-1°) which is provided for starting the engine and
maintaining minimum constant RPM; the stop also prevents the propeller from entering the reverse pitch
range.
 Flight Fine Pitch Stop. This is a removable stop (+14°) which prevents the blade angle from fining off
below its preset value. Its purpose is to prevent propeller over speeding after a CSU failure. It also limits
the amount of windmilling drag on the final approach. The stop is usually engaged automatically as the
pitch is increased above its setting; removal of the stop is, however, usually by switch selection.
 Flight Cruise Pitch Stop. This is a removable stop (+27°) which is fitted to prevent excessive drag or
over speeding in the event of a PCU failure. The stop engages automatically as the pitch is increased
above its setting and is also withdrawn automatically as the pitch is decreased towards flight idle
provided that two or more of the propellers fine off at the same time. Variations on this type of stop
include automatic drag limiters (ADL) and a Beta follow-up system. In the first of these, the stop is in the
form of a variable pitch datum which is sensitive to torque pressure. If the propeller torque falls below
the datum value, the pitch of the propeller is automatically increased.
The pitch value at which the ADL is set is varied by the position of the power lever. Thus, as the power
is reduced, the ADL torque datum value is also reduced so that the necessary approach and landing
drag may be attained, while simultaneously limiting the drag to a safe maximum value. The Beta follow-
up stop uses the Beta control (i.e. direct selection of blade angle for ground handling) to select a blade
angle just below the value controlled by the PCU. In the event of a PCU failure, the propeller can only

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 fine off by a few degrees before it is prevented from further movement in that direction by the Beta
follow-up stop. In the flight range, the position of this stop always remains below the minimum normal
blade angle and so does not interfere with the PCU governing.
 Coarse Pitch Stop. This stop (+50°) limits the maximum coarse pitch obtainable in the normal flight
range. A feathering selection normally over-rides this stop

Example - PT6 Power Turbine

The PT6 (typical free turbine engine) is controlled by engine and propeller control systems that are operated by
three levers: a power control lever, a propeller control lever, and a start control lever.
 The power control lever - is connected to the fuel control and is used to control the engine power
(Torque) from full reverse thrust, through idle, to takeoff.
 The propeller speed lever - is connected to the propeller governor to request blade angle and maintain
the desired propeller RPM. When moved to the extreme aft position, it causes the propeller to feather.
 The start lever - attaches to the fuel control and it has three positions: Cutoff, Idle, and Run.
 The emergency power lever - used to directly control engine power if the pneumatic side of the fuel
control unit fails.

Figure 6.12: PT6 Engine Control

Example - TPE331 Fixed Turbine Turbo-Prop

The TFE 331 uses two engine controls on the cockpit quadrant:
 The power lever, and
 The speed, or condition, lever.

The power lever relates to the throttle of a reciprocating engine, but it also gives the pilot control over the
propeller during ground operation. It affects the fuel flow, torque, and EGT, and has four positions:
 REVERSE(REV)
 GROUND IDLE (Gl)
 FLIGHT IDLE (Fl)
 MAXIMUM (MAX)

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The speed or condition lever primarily controls the propeller at higher speeds in the alpha range and in some
installations it acts as a manual feather and emergency cutoff lever. The condition lever has three positions:
 EMERGENCY SHUTOFF
 LOW RPM
 HIGH RPM

The condition lever sets engine speed by changing the propeller blade angle. During flight this lever remains at
its set position with the engine running at a constant speed.

Figure 6.13: TPE 331 propeller controls

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6.5.2 FADEC Control System
The primary function of the cockpit engine controls is to give the inputs to control the operation of the power
plants. The engine controls are divided as follows:
 The power control
 The emergency shutdown.

The power control system changes the manual inputs from the two pilots, into an electrical or an electronic
output signal. The electrical and the electronic output signals give the input data (in relation to the position of the
engine controls) to the full-authority digital engine-control (FADEC) and the other applicable systems of the
aircraft. The emergency shutdown procedure: safely stops the operation of the power plant and automatically
closes the fuel, the hydraulic and the pneumatic connections between the airframe and the power plant.

Considering a newer version (FADEC controlled) of the Allison 250 engine, there is a handling difference to look
at. The condition lever no longer controls the propeller governor; this task is calculated by the FADEC system
depending on the position of the power lever, other aircraft system inputs and flight phase.

Figure 6.14: FADEC control

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6.6 Instrumentation
6.6.1 Turboprop Engines
Usually four instruments are used to monitor the performance of a turboprop engine:

 Tachometer: Shows the RPM of the compressor in percentage of its rated speed
 Torque meter: Shows the torque or shaft horsepower being developed
 Fuel Flow meter: Shows the number of pounds of fuel per hour being delivered to the engine
 EGT Indicator: Shows the temperature of the exhaust gases as they leave the turbine

Figure 6.15: Turbo-prop engine power monitoring instruments

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6.6.2 Piston Engines
Usually three instruments are used to monitor the performance of a turboprop engine:
 Tachometer: Shows the RPM of the engine/propeller. It often incorporates the Engine Hours Meter
(Hobbs Meter)
 Manifold Pressure Gauge: Shows the pressure inside the induction system of an engine. Usually
found only on variable-pitch propeller engines
 Cylinder Head Temperature Indicator: Shows the temperature of one or more of the engine cylinders

Figure 6.16: Piston engine power monitoring instruments

Measurement of the pressure at the induction manifold is carried out by a pressure gauge, colloquially known as
a boost gauge or a manifold pressure gauge. Gauges are calibrated in lbf/in2 or inches of mercury (in Hg) where
14.7 lbf/in2 or 29.92 in Hg equals standard atmospheric pressure. Gauges calibrated in inches of mercury tend
to be used in small piston engines that have no supercharging (see below) and at high power will indicate a
figure below 29.92 in Hg. These gauges tend to be known as manifold pressure gauges.

Gauges calibrated in lbf/in2 are calibrated to read zero at atmospheric pressure and hence for a normally
aspirated engine will read a negative pressure i.e. - 4lbf/in2. These gauges are more normally used by high
powered engines using superchargers. The gauge tends to be known as the boost pressure gauge.

Fixed-Pitch Propeller
The fixed-pitch propeller is usually mounted on a shaft, which may be an extension of the engine crankshaft. In
this case, the RPM of the propeller would be the same as the crankshaft RPM. On some engines, the propeller
is mounted on a shaft geared to the engine crankshaft. In this type, the RPM of the propeller is different than
that of the engine. In a fixed-pitch propeller, the tachometer is the indicator of engine power.

A tachometer is calibrated in hundreds of RPM, and gives a direct indication of the engine and propeller RPM.
The instrument is color-coded, with a green arc denoting the maximum continuous operating RPM.

Some tachometers have additional markings to reflect engine and/or propeller limitations.
Therefore, the manufacturer's recommendations should be used as a reference to clarify any misunderstanding
of tachometer markings.

The revolutions per minute are regulated by the throttle, which controls the fuel/air flow to the engine. At a given
altitude, the higher the tachometer reading, the higher the power output of the engine.

When operating altitude increases, the tachometer may not show correct power output of the engine. For
example, 2,300 RPM at 5,000 feet produce less horsepower than 2,300 RPM at sea level. The reason for this is
that power output depends on air density. Air density decreases as altitude increases.

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Therefore, a decrease in air density (higher density altitude) decreases the power output of the engine. As
altitude changes, the position of the throttle must be changed to maintain the same RPM. As altitude is
increased, the throttle must be opened further to indicate the same RPM as at a lower altitude.

Adjustable-pitch propeller
On airplanes that are equipped with a constant-speed propeller, power output is controlled by the throttle and
indicated by a manifold pressure gauge. The gauge measures the absolute pressure of the fuel/air mixture
inside the intake manifold and is more correctly a measure of Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP). At a constant
RPM and altitude, the amount of power produced is directly related to the fuel/air flow being delivered to the
combustion chamber. As you increase the throttle setting, more fuel and air is flowing to the engine; therefore,
MAP increases. When the engine is not running, the manifold pressure gauge indicates ambient air pressure
(i.e., 29.92 in Hg).

When the engine is started, the manifold pressure indication will decrease to a value less than ambient pressure
(i.e., idle at 12 in Hg). Correspondingly, engine failure or power loss is indicated on the manifold gauge as an
increase in manifold pressure to a value corresponding to the ambient air pressure at the altitude where the
failure occurred.

This Manifold Pressure Gauge, which is read in inches of mercury or "inHg" (absolute pressure), is one of the
best methods to determine how much power is being developed by the engine. The more air and fuel that can
pumped or pulled into the cylinders, the more power the engine can develop.

In normally aspirated engines (non-turbocharged), the manifold pressure gauge has a range of anywhere
between 10-40 in Hg. In a turbocharged engine, the manifold pressure is allowed to go as high as the engine
manufacturer allows. When the engine is shut down, the manifold pressure gauge should read very close to the
current atmospheric pressure setting.

In order to equate manifold pressure to aircraft performance we need to look in Section 5, or the performance
section of the Flight Manual:

Figure 6.17: Piston engine cruise power settings

Refer to figure 6.17. At 8,000 feet pressure altitude, -2°C, and 2,450 RPM the engine would be developing about
19.5 inches of mercury in the induction system. This is then related to fuel flow and our true air speed.

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The manifold pressure gauge is color-coded to indicate the engine's operating range. The face of the manifold
pressure gauge contains a green arc to show the normal operating range, and a red radial line to indicate the
upper limit of manifold pressure.
For any given RPM, there is a manifold pressure that should not be exceeded. If manifold pressure is excessive
for a given RPM, the pressure within the cylinders could be exceeded, thus placing undue stress on the
cylinders. If repeated too frequently, this stress could weaken the cylinder components, and eventually cause
engine failure.
The operator can avoid conditions that could overstress the cylinders by being constantly aware of the RPM,
especially when increasing the manifold pressure.

Conform to the manufacturer's recommendations for power settings of a particular engine so as to maintain the
proper relationship between manifold pressure and RPM.

When both manifold pressure and RPM need to be changed, avoid engine overstress by making power
adjustments in the proper order:
 When power settings are being decreased, reduce manifold pressure before reducing RPM If RPM is
reduced before manifold pressure, manifold pressure will automatically increase and possibly exceed
the manufacturer's tolerances.
 When power settings are being increased, reverse the order—increase RPM first, then manifold
pressure.
 To prevent damage to radial engines, operating time at maximum RPM and manifold pressure must be
held to a minimum, and operation at maximum RPM and low manifold pressure must be avoided.

Under normal operating conditions, the most severe wear, fatigue, and damage to high performance
reciprocating engines occurs at high RPM and low manifold pressure.

6.7 Running Procedures

6.7.1 Starting
The pilot must monitor the compressor speed during engine start up, and upon reaching the prescribed speed
for light off, advance the condition lever to maximum speed position to initiate fuel flow. The fuel control unit will
automatically regulate fuel flow during the acceleration to idle. Propeller unfeathering will automatically occur
with the propeller beta valve regulating the blade angle. A ground start is accomplished with the power lever
placed into flight idle position.

On FADEC controlled engines the start-up sequence is accomplished automatically, when the condition lever is
moved to the START position. When the engine reaches ground idle RPM, the operator moves the condition
lever to the RUN position to conclude the start-up sequence.

6.7.2 Running
For low power settings during the engine run the condition lever should be put in the MAXIMUM PROPELLER
SPEED range. The power lever can then be moved freely to obtain the desired thrust.

When the engine is operating with a given propeller load, and the power lever is moved forward to increase the
fuel flow, the RPM will try to increase. To prevent this, the propeller governor increases the blade angle, which
causes the RPM to remain constant and the power produced by the engine to increase. When the power lever is
moved back, the fuel flow is reduced, and the RPM begins to decrease. But the propeller governor decreases
the blade angle, which causes the RPM to remain constant, and the power to decrease.

For high power settings, i.e., takeoff power, the condition lever should be in the position for 100% propeller
speed, allowing the propeller governor to maintain the compressor speed control. The power lever controls the
power setting of the engine. The power lever must be controlled so as not to exceed the turbine outlet
temperature and torque limits.

On FADEC controlled engines only the power lever is used to change power settings and propeller pitch, the
FADEC system monitors and controls the power and propeller settings according to the position of the power
lever, inputs from other systems and flight face. During normal engine operation the condition lever remains in
its RUN position.

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6.7.3 Stopping
Engine stopping is affected by shutting off the fuel supply by means of a fuel control cutoff valve. At the same
time the propellers move to the feathered position. The condition lever controls both the fuel cutoff and propeller
feathering. Make sure that before the engine is shut down, the power lever is first put in the Ground Idle
position, and allow the turbine outlet temperature to stabilize for two minutes.

The condition lever is then moved to FUEL SHUTOFF and PROPELLER FEATHERING.

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7 Propeller Storage and Preservation
Propeller storage and conservation may vary in a great way considering the many different kinds of propellers
available for airplanes. Depending on the material used for manufacturing or if the propeller remains installed on
airplane or not, the preservation will be different. Propeller preservation and depreservation is usually described
in applicable component maintenance manual (CMM) and service bulletins (SB) or if the propeller remains
installed in a stored airplane, applicable instructions may be found in chapter 10 of the applicable aircraft
maintenance manual (AMM) The following descriptions are part of instructions from different propeller
manufacturers.

The following pages show mandatory specified time between overhaul for propellers, governors, and
accumulators.

Specifications are based on hours of operation and calendar time, whichever occurs first. The starting point for
the calendar limit is the date of first installation on an engine (not from date of manufacture or overhaul). Date of
manufacture or overhaul is applicable when determining long term storage inspections. If the propeller has been
removed from service, the time between overhaul (TBO) calendar limit still applies, not long term storage.

Calendar month is the period of time from the first day of a month to the last day of the month. When the term
calendar month is used, compliance can be achieved at any time during the month, up to and including the last
day of the month.

For example: a propeller with a 60 calendar month inspection interval is inspected and approved upon any
given day of the month. This propeller will become due for inspection upon the last day of the
same month, 60 months later.

7.1 CAA CAIPs Recommendations

Propellers installed on an engine which may be out of use for a period of up to three months should be kept
clean, and should be inspected regularly for corrosion. The internal parts of a variable-pitch propeller will be
protected by exercising the propeller during weekly engine runs where these are possible, but, if the engine
cannot be run, the propeller should be feathered and unfeather using the feathering pump.
If the engine is likely to be out of use for more than three months, the propeller mechanism should be flushed
with inhibiting oil, and all external parts of the propeller should be treated with lanolin or an approved rust
preventative. The propeller operating mechanism should be covered with waxed paper, and all visible parts
should be regularly inspected for corrosion.

7.2 Propeller Preservation (In-situ)

Airplane parking is divided into different categories, depending on the length of time out of service. As an
example Saab defines for its S2000 a short term parking from 0-45 days in which no special conservation of
propeller is demanded. After 45 days maintenance personnel is asked to run the engines for at least 15 minutes
and after that to park again for the next 45 days.

If the aircraft will be parked from 46-180 days, Saab demands:

7.3 Long Term Storage of Governors and Accumulators

The following is applicable to new and overhauled governors or accumulators prior to entering service (engine
installation) or at any time governor or accumulator is removed from service. Storage time is determined from
date of manufacture or overhaul or removal from aircraft.

Storage must be in a clean and dry environment, preferably in the original shipping carton and above ground
level, to minimize exposure to dirt and moisture.

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If storage period exceeds 2 years, before entering service or returning to service, perform the following
inspection:
 Inspect externally for damage and corrosion.
 Test run the governor on a governor test bench to verify correct operation and check for leakage. This
must be accomplished only by an approved governor repair station or international equivalent in
accordance with the governor service manual.
 Pressure check accumulator to verify correct operation and check for leakage.

This must be accomplished only by an approved governor repair station or international equivalent in
accordance with the governor service manual.

If storage period exceeds 5 years before entering service or returning to service, perform the following
inspection and parts replacement:
 Completely release all air or nitrogen pressure before any disassembly of accumulator.
Removal of retaining rings with air pressure inside the cylinder will result in explosive blowout of parts
with danger of serious injury.
 Disassemble as necessary to replace all rubber seals and gaskets. Total disassembly (such as
disassembling the flyweight assembly) is not required unless evidence of corrosion warrants further
disassembly.
 Inspect parts for damage and corrosion, repair/replace parts as necessary.
o Critical inspection areas for governors are the drive gear, gear of the pilot spool, and "toes" of
flyweight. Work must be accomplished only by an approved governor repair station in
accordance with the governor service manual,
o Critical inspection area for accumulators is inside of cylinder for corrosion. Work must be
accomplished only by an approved governor repair station in accordance with the governor
service manual.
 Test run the governor on a governor test bench to verify correct operation and check for leakage. This
must be accomplished only by an approved governor repair station or international equivalent in
accordance with the governor service manual.
 Pressure check accumulator to verify correct operation and check for leakage.

This must be accomplished only by an approved governor repair station.

7.4 Wood Propellers

Propellers should be stored with their blades in a horizontal position. If a wood propeller is left with its blades in
a vertical position, moisture can collect in the lower blade and cause an out of-balance condition. When an
aircraft with three-blade constant-speed propellers is left outside for an extended period of time, position the
propeller with one of the blades pointing down. This prevents water from collecting around a blade seal and
entering the hub.

Never store a propeller or blades standing on the tips.

7.5 Propeller Depreservation

Prior to initial installation propellers are occasionally stored for long periods.

If the storage period is less than two (2) years:

 Carry out a general visual inspection of its condition. As necessary, investigate and correct any
questionable conditions.
 Check current Service Bulletins (SB) and Manufacturer Technical Information.
Documents may have been issued since manufacture or overhaul, which require compliance.

If storage exceeds two (2) years comply with above requirements and in addition:
 Inspect for internal/external damage or corrosion. Paint and plating has not to be removed. Total
disassembly is not necessary unless corrosion or damage was found. Replace parts as necessary.
o Replace all seals and gaskets.
o Replace lubricant according to the applicable overhaul manual.

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  If applicable, test the de-ice system including boots. Ensure that boots are still well bonded, with no sign
of blistering or peeling.
o Repaint and/or replace components as required.
o After accomplishing required procedures the propeller may be released for full
o TBO and calendar life.

Above procedure must be accomplished by an approved propeller repair station in accordance with the
applicable overhaul manual.

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