GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
UNIT– I
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya
- Prof. Jainin Vakil
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

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Data Transmission refers to the process of transferring data
between two or more digital devices.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
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Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital
devices.
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There are two methods used to transmit data between digital
devices:
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Parallel transmission ● Serial transmission.
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Parallel transmission:
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Multiple data bits are transmitted over multiple channels at the
same time.
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Data can be sent much faster than using serial transmission.
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It requires those many wires parallel to each other, each carrying a
single bit. E.g. 8 wires are needed to pass 01100010 in parallel
communication.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

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Parallel transmission:
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It is very expensive method because it requires several wires as
well as various sending and receiving equipment.
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It demands extraordinary accuracy, which is not guaranteed over
long distances.
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Digital pulses may not traverse at the same speed, This rise to the
problem of Skew.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
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To avoid skew problem, parallel transmission is used only for a
short distance. E.g. Data transmission from CPU registers to
memory or vice versa
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Serial transmission:
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Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over a
single channel.
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The data bits are organized in a specific order, since they can only
be sent one after another. There is some hardware equipment
involved in converting the data from parallel to serial.
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At the destination, all the bits are collected, measured and put
together as bytes in the memory. This requires conversion from
serial to parallel.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

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Serial transmission:
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Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data
transfer.
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It is also used in cases where the amount of data being sent is
relatively small.
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Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous and
synchronous.
Asynchronous Serial Transmission
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
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Data bits can be sent at any point in time.
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Stop bits and start bits are used between data bytes to synchronize
the transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is
transmitted correctly.
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The time between sending and receiving data bits is not constant,
so gaps are used to provide time between transmissions.
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It is also a more cost effective method.
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data transmission can be slower, but this is not always the case.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
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Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master
clock.
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The data transmitter and receiver both operate using a synchronized
clock frequency; therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used.
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The data moves faster and timing errors are less frequent because the
transmitter and receiver time is synced.
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In comparison with asynchronous serial transmission, this method is
usually more expensive.

Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex

Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
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Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data
between two devices connected over a network. It is also called
Communication Mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of
information. There are three types of transmission modes. They are:
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Simplex Mode
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Half duplex Mode
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Full duplex Mode

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Simplex Mode:
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The communication is unidirectional only.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
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A simplex communication channel only sends information in one
direction.
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We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional
communication is done in Simplex Systems where we just need to send
a command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
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Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting,
television and remote, keyboard and monitor etc.
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For example, a radio station usually sends signals to the audience but
never receives signals from them.
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E.g. Keyboard to computer monitor data transmission.
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In Simplex, entire bandwidth can be used during the transmission.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

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Half Duplex Mode:
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Both devices can transmit; not at the same time.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
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When one device is sending data, the other must only receive it, and vice
versa.
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half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line (one that can carry
data in both directions) but data can be sent in only one direction at a
time.
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Half duplex communication is slower. However, it is more convenient
than simplex.
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Walkie-talkie is a typical half duplex device. It has a “push-to-talk”
button which can be used to turn on the transmitter but turn off the
receiver. Therefore, once you push the button, you cannot hear the
person you are talking to but your partner can hear you..
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

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Full Duplex Mode:
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In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is
bidirectional at the same time in other words, data can be sent in both
directions simultaneously.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
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Both the connected devices can transmit and receive at the same time
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Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is
communication between two persons by a telephone line, using which
both can talk and listen at the same time.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

DCN UNIT – 1 NOTES

DIFFERENCE
Analog Digital
Analog signal is a continuous signal
Digital signals are discrete time signals
Signal which represents physical
generated by digital modulation.
measurements.
Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
Uses continuous range of values to Uses discrete or discontinuous values to
Representation
represent information represent information
Human voice in air, analog electronic Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital
Example
devices. electronic devices.
Analog technology records Samples analog waveforms into a limited
Technology
waveforms as they are. set of numbers and records them.
Subjected to deterioration by noise
Data Can be noise-immune without deterioration
during transmission and write/read transmissions during transmission and
write/read cycle.
cycle.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
Response to More likely to get affected reducing Less affected since noise response are accuracy
Noise analog in nature
Digital hardware is flexible in
Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. implementation.
Can be used in analog devices only.
Best suited for Computing and digital
Uses
Best suited for audio and video electronics.
transmission.
Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs
There is no guarantee that digital signal
Analog signal processing can be processing can be done in real time and done in real
Bandwidth time and consumes less consumes more bandwidth to carry out the bandwidth. same
information.
Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit
Analog instrument draws large Digital instrument drawS only negligible
Power power power
Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily portable
Impedance Low High order of 100 megaohm
Analog instruments usually have a
Digital instruments are free from scale which is
Errors cramped at lower end observational errors like parallax and and give considerable
observational approximation errors. errors.

Key Differences Between Serial And Parallel Transmission

1. Serial transmission requires a single line to communicate and transfer data whereas, parallel transmission requires multiple lines.
2. Serial transmission used for long distance communication whereas, the parallel transmission used for shorter distance.
3. Error and noise are least in serial as compared to parallel transmission. Since one bit follows another in Serial Transmission whereas, in Parallel Transmission
multiple bits are sent together.
4. Parallel transmission is faster as the data is transmitted using multiples lines whereas, in Serial transmission data flows through a single wire.
5. Serial Transmission is full duplex as the sender can send as well as receive the data whereas, Parallel Transmission is half duplex since the data is either
sent or received.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
6. Serial transmission cables are thinner, longer and economical in comparison with the Parallel Transmission cables.
7. Serial Transmission is reliable and straightforward whereas, Parallel Transmission is unreliable and complicated.
• Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information, usually through electric signals. In both these technologies, the information, such as any
audio or video, is transformed into electric signals.
• The difference between analog and digital technologies is that in analog technology, information is translated into electric pulses of varying
amplitude. In digital technology, translation of information is into binary format (zero or one).

Analog Signal
• Analog signals are signals with continuous values. Analog signals are continuous in both time and value.
Digital Signal
• Digital signals are discrete in time and value. Digital signals are signals that are represented by binary numbers, "1" or "0".

An analog signal is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities. Unlike a digital signal, which has a discrete value at each sampling point, an analog
signal has constant fluctuations. The illustration below shows an analog pattern (represented as the curve) alongside a digital pattern (represented as the
discrete lines).
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

Bandwidth

Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network or Internet connection. It measures how much data can be sent over a specific connection in a
given amount of time.

The difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies of a composite signal.It also used as a means of measuring the information carrying capacity of a
line or a network.

The amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.

In analog transmission (such as of voice signals) bandwidth is measured in cycles per second (or Hertz)
In digital transmission (such as of data from one computer to another) bandwidth is measured in bits per second (BPS).

The bandwidth of a signal is the amount of "frequency'' required to sustain the signal unmodified.

A signal is a periodic signal if it completes a pattern within a measurable timeframe. A periodic signal is characterized by 3 parameters:

Amplitude: It is the value of the signal at different instants of a time. It is measured in volts.
Amplitude is the objective measurement of the degree of change (positive or negative) in atmospheric pressure (the compression and rarefaction of air
molecules) caused by sound waves. Sounds with greater amplitude will produce greater changes in atmospheric pressure from high pressure to low pressure.

Frequency: It is the inverse of the time period. i.e f=1/T. The unit of frequency is cycles per second or Hertz.
Period: Time taken for the completion of one cycle is called period.
Phase: It gives a measure of the relative position in time of two signals within a single period.

When data in either digital or analog forms needs to be sent over an analog media it must first be converted into analog signals. There can be two cases
according to data formatting.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
Bandpass: In real world scenarios, filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A bandpass is a band of frequencies which can pass the filter.

Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.

When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-analog conversion. When low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass
analog signal it is called analog-to-analog conversion.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first converted into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital
data, i.e. binary data.

An analog is characterized by its amplitude, frequency and phase. There are three kinds of digitalto-analog conversions possible:

• Amplitude shift keying

In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.

When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held otherwise it is set to 0. Both frequency and phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.

• Frequency shift keying

Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.

This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1, is chosen to represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to represent binary
digit 0. Both amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are kept intact.

• Phase shift keying

In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to reflect the binary data.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered. Amplitude and frequency of the original carrier signal is kept intact.

• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

QPSK alters the phase to reflect 2 binary digits at once. This is done in two different phases. The main stream of binary data is divided equally into two sub-
streams. The serial data is converted in to parallel in both sub-streams and then each stream is converted to digital signal using NRZ technique. Later, both the
digital signals are merged together.

Baud Rate
Baud rate refers to the number of signal or symbol changes that occur per second. A symbol is one of several voltage, frequency, or phase changes.

A baud rate is the number of times a signal in a communications channel changes state or varies. For example, a 2400 baud rate means that the channel can
change states up to 2400 times per second. The term “change state” means that it can change from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 up to X (in this case, 2400) times per
second.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
Bit Rate
Bit Rate is how many data bits are transmitted per second. A baud Rate is the number of times per second a signal in a communications channel changes. Bit
rates measure the number of data bits (that is 0′s and 1′s) transmitted in one second in a communication channel. A figure of 2400 bits per second means 2400
zeros or ones can be transmitted in one second.

Synchronous transimission
Data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data signals is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the
transmitter and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another. The data is sent in blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals. In
contrast, asynchronous transmission works in spurts and must insert a start bit before each data character and a stop bit at its termination to inform the receiver
where it begins and ends. Most network protocols (such as Ethernet, SONET, Token Ring) use synchronous transmission whereas asynchronous transmission is
used commonly for communications over telephone lines.

• Synchronous data transfer: sender and receiver use the same clock signal
• supports high data transfer rate
• needs clock signal between the sender and the receiver
• requires master/slave configuration

• Asynchronous data transfer: sender provides a synchronization signal to the receiver before starting the transfer of each message
• does not need clock signal between the sender and the receiver • slower data transfer rate

Advantages Disadvantages
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
• Simple, doesn't require synchronization of • Large relative overhead, a
both communication sides Cheap, high proportion of the
• because Asynchronous transmission transmitted bits are
require less hardware Set-up is faster than uniquely for control
• other transmissions, so well suited for purposes and thus carry no
applications where messages are useful information
generated at irregular intervals, for
example data entry from the keyboard
and the speed depends on different
applications.
Asynchronous
transmission
• •
•
Synchronous Slightly more complex
transmission Lower overhead and thus, greater throughput Hardware is more expensive
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
UNIT– I
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya
- Prof. Jainin Vakil
Communication can be defined as exchange of information between two humans.

Data communication can be defined the exchange of information between two computers.

One computer (sender) can send a message to another (receiver) computer over a wire called Transmission Medium as shown in figure:
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

Message:
The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

Sender:
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

Receiver:
The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telep hone handset, television, and so on.
Transmission medium:

The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-
pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

Protocol:
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

Modem: A modem is connected to every computer that is involved in data commnication.

Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
Multiplexer and Demultiplexer: The main function of the multiplexer is that it combines input signals, allows data compression, and shares a single
transmission channel.

A multiplexer is a circuit that accept many input but give only one output. A demultiplexer function exactly in the reverse of a multiplexer, that is a
demultiplexer accepts only one input and gives many outputs. Generally multiplexer and demultiplexer are used together, because of the communication
systems are bi directional.

Transmission medium: Transmission medium or wire is the means of transferring data from sender to the receiver. Modern data communication can also be
wireless.

The data communication involves exchange of data between two comptuers. computer works with the binary language of zeros and ones. Therefore, one
computer generates a stream ofzeros and sends it to another computer to which it is connected in some fashion.

For enabling data communication, a combination of hardware and software is essential.

Following are the characteristics of data communication system:

Correct delivery: When a sender transmits data for an intended recipient, the data must reach only the intended recipient and not someone else.

Accurate delivery: The data sent must be received in the same form as the one in which it was sent. There must not be any sort of alternations to it in
transit.

Timely delivery: The data must travel from the sender to the receiver in a finite amount of time. The term finite is quite vague, and would depend on
the reasons why the data communication is taking place.
Protocol

Two key aspects of data communication systems need a good amount of understanding.

Transmission media: the physical path over which data travels from the sender to the receiver. Ex: twisted-pair of copper wires, coaxial cable, optical
fiber or wireless media such as radio waves.

Protocol: a set of rules and conventions. Ex: The sender and the receiver, the two key parties in data communication must agree on a common set of
rules, i.e. protocols before they can communicate with each other.

The protocol defines following:

Syntax (What is to be communicated?)

Semantic (How it is to be communicated?)

Timing (When it should be communicated?)

Protocol

Syntax (What is to be communicated)– The syntax defines the structure or format of data. This means that the order in which it is to be sent is decided. For
instance, a protocol could define that the first 16 bits of a data transmission must always contain the receiver’s address.

Semantics (How it is to be communicated) – The semantics define the interpretation of the data that is being sent. For example, the semantics could define
that if the last two bits of the receiver’s address field contain a 00, it means that the sender and the receiver are on the same network.
 Timing (When it should be communicated) – This refers to an agreement between the sender and the receiver about the data transmission rates and
duration. For instance, a protocol could demand that the sender must send 1000 bytes and then wait for an acknowledgement from the receiver before
sending any more data.

Standards

Standards
Standards are necessary in every walk of life. For instance, when you want to replace a light bulb in your home because it has been damaged, you expect
the new bulb to fit in the holder straightaway and work like the old bulb did. What is the use if the bulb does not fit in the holder, or if it fits in the holder but
does not illuminate because it requires a different voltage level?

Data communication standards are classfied into two categories:

De facto
De Jure

Standard

De facto Standard
Standards developed by a private company which are used widely as a result of the choices of consumers.

Are adopted widely by an industry and its customers. They are also known as market-driven standards.
 De facto standards can be divided into proprietary and non-proprietary.

Properitary - Closed proprietary standards are owned by a single company. Only that company’s customers and partners are allowed to use them.
Competitors are banned from implementing products that use closed proprietary standards.

Non- Proprietary - Open proprietary standards also are owned by a single company, yet the company allows anyone to use them.

Standard

De jure Standard
De jure means according to “Law and Regulation.”

Standards registered at a recognized standards organization such as ITU, IEC, ISO, etc.

They are endorsed by a formal standards organization. The organization ratifies each standard through its official procedures and gives the standard its
stamp of approval.

Analog and Digital Signal

Analog and Digital Signal
Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information, usually through electric signals.

Analog signals are signals with continuous values in both time and value.
 Digital signals are discrete in time and value where we have nothing or something. Digital signals are signals that are represented by binary numbers, "1" or
"0".

The difference between analog and digital technologies is that in analog technology, information is translated into electric pulses of varying amplitude. In
digital technology, translation of information is into binary format (zero or one).

Analog and Digital Signal

Analog Signal Digital Signal
An analog signal is a continuous A digital signal is a discrete wave
wave that changes over a time that carries information in binary
period. form.
An analog signal is represented by A digital signal is represented by
a sine wave. square waves.
 An analog signal is described by A digital signal is described by bit
the amplitude, period or rate and bit intervals.
frequency, and phase.
Analog signal has no fixed range. Digital signal has a finite range i.e.
between 0 and 1.
An analog signal transmit data in A digital signal carries data in the
the form of a wave. binary form i.e. 0 nad 1.
The human voice is the best Signals used for transmission in a
example of an analog signal. computer are the digital signal.
Bandwidth

Bandwidth
Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network or Internet connection. It measures how much data can be sent over a specific
connection in a given amount of time.

The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

A strength of the signal at any point is known as amplitude.

Time taken for the completion of one cycle is called period.

The number of cycle or periods a signal completes in one second called frequency.

In analog transmission (such as of voice signals) bandwidth is measured in cycles per second (or Hertz)

In digital transmission (such as of data from one computer to another) bandwidth is measured in bits per second (BPS).
Signal Transmission
Signal Transmission
Analog Signal, Analog Transmission
Digital Signal, Digital Transmission
Digital Signal, Analog Transmission
Analog Signal, Digital Transmission Signal Transmission: Analog Signal,
Analog Transmission Analog transmission refers to the transmission of
analog signal.
The human voice generates an anlog (i.e. continuously varying) signal,
which is transmitted as an analog signal over the medium.
The signal suffers Attenuation.
Amplifiers are used to overcome this problem, but then amplifiers
amplify noise along with the original signal. Singal gets distorted, it can’t
be reconstructed at all.
Signal Transmission
At the destination, it is very difficult to imagine, from the received
distorted signal, what the signal shoul have been.
Signal Transmission
Signal Transmission: Digital Signal, Digital
Transmission
Computer generates digital signal
As digital signal traverses over the medium,
noise adds further distortion. The signal
becomes unrecognizable from the original
one.
The hardware equipment called regenerative
repeater or repeater is used to regenerate
the digital signal.
Only one repeater will not do it, many such
repeaters will be required on the same line.
Signal Transmission
If the distance between repeater is very large, the original signal may get
so distorted. Any line with repeaters placed at the appropriate distance is
called a digital line.
Signal Transmission: Digital Signal, Analog Transmission
Some technique is necessary to convert a digital signal into analog, which
could be carried over the telephone network, and at the other end,
convert it back into a digital signal. Modem is used for this purpose.
A modem is derived from two components: A Modulator and A
Demodulator
A modulator uses some convention or a coding scheme and converts a
digital signal into an analog signal.
A demodulator converts the analog signal back into the digital signal.
Signal Transmission
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog
carrier, it is first converted into analog signals. Analog signals are
modified to reflect digital data, i.e. binary data.
Signal Transmission: Digital Signal, Analog Transmission
An analog is characterized by its amplitude, frequency and phase. There
are three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions possible:

1.Amplitude Shift Keying

2.Frequency Shift Keying
3.Phase Shift Keying
Signal Transmission: Digital Signal, Analog Transmission
Amplitude Shift Keying:
A bit string 10011010011 modulated as an analog signal.
Signal Transmission
Only the amplitudes of the signal change as per the values 0 and 1, but
the phase and frequency are same.
The frequency is between 0 to 4000 Hz. So the signal can be send over
telephone line.
When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held otherwise it
is set to 0. Both frequency and phase remain same as in the original

carrier signal.
Signal Transmission: Digital Signal, Analog Transmission Phase
Shift Keying:
Signal Transmission
The amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal unchanged.
Only change the phase to denote 0s and 1s.
i.e. Start with a phase of 0 degrees to represent binary 0 and then change
the phase to 180 degrees to represent binary 1.

Signal Transmission: Digital Signal, Analog Transmission

Frequency Shift Keying:
The amplitude and the phase of the carrier signals are kept unaltered.
Signal Transmission
A certian frequency f1 to denote 1 and f2 to denote 0 is assigned.
The frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 (using
f1) and binary 0(f2).
The signal component with slower cycle is f1 and the signal component
that shows rapid cycle portions if f2.
The modem at the destination decodes these signals into 0s and 1s by
measuring the frequencies of the
received signals at regular
predefined time intervals.
Signal Transmission: Analog
Signal, Digital Transmission
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a
method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals.
Signal Transmission
The idea is to represent an analog signal into digital bits and then
transmit as a digital signal.
PCM - Pulse Code Modulation is one of the most commonly used method
to convert analog data into digital form.
The basic steps in PCM are as given below:
At Source:
Sample the analog signal at regular interval Say t
Convert the analog signal into some discrete values.
Convert thse values into binary numbers by assigning a fixed number of
bits for each value.
Convert the binary numbers as a digital signal by concatenating all these
binary numbers.
Signal Transmission: Analog Signal, Digital Transmission
At Destination:
Signal Transmission
Convert the digital signal into binary numbers.
Seperate out the discrete values of signals by using the number of bits
for each discrete value.
Reconstruct the original analog signal.
Signal Transmission
Bit Rate & Baud Rate

Bit Rate:
Bit Rate is how many data bits are transmitted per second. Bit rates
measure the number of data bits (that is 0′s and 1′s) transmitted in one
second in a communication channel. A figure of 2400 bits per second
means 2400 zeros or ones can be transmitted in one second.
Baud Rate:
Baud rate refers to the number of signal or symbol changes that occur
per second. A baud rate is the number of times a signal in a
communications channel changes state or varies. For example, a 2400
baud rate means that the channel can change states up to 2400 times
per second. The term “change state” means that it can change from 0
to 1 or from 1 to 0.
Signal Transmission
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000 signal units are
sent per second, find the baud rate and the bit rate.
Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second
Bit rate = 1000 * 4 =4000 bps
Signal Transmission

GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
UNIT– I
Signal Transmission
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya - Prof. Jainin Vakil
Internetworking devices - Repeater

Repeaters are also called regenerator.

Repeater regenerates a signal.

Even digital signals become weak when they travel long distances.

In telecommunications, a repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.

Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an obstruction.

Repeaters amplify the received/input signal to a higher frequency domain so that it is reusable, scalable and available.

Signals travelling across a physical wire travel some distance before they become weak or corrupted as they get interfered with other signals/voice.

It operates at the physical layer.

Signal Transmission
Internetworking devices - Repeater
Signal Transmission
Internetworking devices - Bridges

A bridge is a computer that has its own processor, memory and two NIC cards to connect to two portions of a network.
A bridge does not run application programs but it facilitates hosts-to-host communication within a network.

It operates at the physical layer and data link layer of OSI layer.
The main idea of bridge is to divide a big network into
smaller subnetworks called segments.

Internetworking devices - Routers

A Router operates at the physical, data link and network layer

of the OSI model.
A router is termed as intelligent device.
It interconnects two or more network.
Network can differ in physical characteristics such as
frame size, transmission rates, topologies, addressing,
etc.

A router is a device that forwards data packets along

networks.

A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network.
Signal Transmission
Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.

These nodes maintain routing tables and execute routing algorithms to take routing decisions.

When an intermediate node is equipped with the capability to take decisions, it called router instead of switch.

Internetworking devices - Gateway

A gateway operates at all the seven layers of the OSI model.

A router can forward packets across different network types. However they are not using the same protocol a router would not be able to forward packets
from one network to another.

Example: if network is a Token Ring using TCP/IP and network B is Novell Netware network, a gateway can relay frames between the two.
Gateway is not only resposible for translating between different frame formats but also different protocols.

A gateway is a very powerful computer as compared to a bridge or a router.

It is used to connect huge incompatible networks.

Signal Transmission
Internetworking devices - Gateway
Signal Transmission
A switch is a multiport device that improves network efficiency.

The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the internal network, and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers.

Switches can read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.

A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI model.

A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers, which means that it can operate as both a switch and a router.

A multilayer switch is a high-performance device that supports the same routing protocols as routers.

The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to correct port only.

Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are used to prevent malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt.

Switch port security is important so be sure to secure switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping, ARP inspection and MAC address filtering.
Signal Transmission
Signal Transmission

GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
UNIT– II
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya - Prof. Jainin Vakil
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Introduction

A network can be as small as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself, covering the whole
geographical world.

Types of Computer Network:

1. PAN
2. LAN
3. MAN
4. WAN
5. VLAN
PAN

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user.

This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.

PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.
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For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8 devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.

LAN
LAN (local area network) is a group of computers and network devices connected together, usually within the same building.

LAN broadcast their message to all the hosts on that LAN.

The main reason for designing a LAN is to share resources such as disks, printers, programs and data.

LAN uses star, bus or ring topology.

The bus topology is popular in the Ethernet LANs and Token Bus LANs.

Ring topology is popular in Token Ring, modified version is FDDI – Fiber Distributed Data Interface.
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LAN
While transmission on LAN address in the packet or frame enables destination host to receive that packet, while other hosts ignores it.

Packets are transmitted on network through static or dynamic method.

In static method each host is given a fixed time slot to send a frame. Similar to TDM – which means if a host does not have anything to send than that time
slot is wasted.

In dynamic method, a host can send frame any time. Thus if two hosts send a frame at the same time the two frames could collide(accident) with each
other. To solve this problem there is a protocol called MAC – Media Access Control which performs this job & decides which node can access medium and
when.

Dynamic method is further divided into types:

Centralized: there is single entity, for example- a bus – which decides who can send data next. Master-slave method. A host want to send data have to
request this unit and alternatively master asks the slave whether any one of them to send or not.

Decentralized: does not require any external master. This method is more efficient and more popular.
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MAN

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV network.

It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand their Local Area Networks

For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city.

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink
for LANs to WANs or internet.

WAN

As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span across provinces and even a whole country.

Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs.

Since they are equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.
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WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be

managed by multiple administration.

VLAN

A VLAN is a group of devices on one or more LANs that are configured to communicate as if they were attached to the same wire, when in fact they are
located on a number of different LAN segments. Because VLANs are based on logical instead of physical connections, they are extremely flexible.
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LAN stands for Local Area Network is a group of network devices which allow the communication between connected devices. On the other hand VLAN
stands for Virtual Local Area Network which is used to enhance the performance of LANs.
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The main difference between LAN and VLAN is that LAN work on single broadcast domain on the other hand VLAN works on multiple broadcast domain and
In local are network, the Packet is advertised to each device while In virtual local are network, packet is send to specific broadcast domain.
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LAN VLAN
LAN stands for Local Area Network. VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Network.
The cost of Local Area Network is high. The cost of Virtual Local Area Network is less.

The devices which are used in LAN are: Hubs, The devices which are used in VLAN are: Bridges
Routers and switch. and switch.
In local are network, the Packet is advertised to In virtual local are network, packet is send to
each device. specific broadcast domain.
Local are network is less efficient than virtual Virtual local are network is greater efficient than
local are network. local are network.
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GLS UNIVERSITY
0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING.
UNIT– II

- Prof. Hemali Moradiya

- Prof. Jainin Vakil
Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a shared medium.
Multiplexing is done by using a device called multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to generate one output line i.e. (many to one). Therefore
multiplexer (MUX) has several inputs and one output.
At the receiving end, a device called demultiplexer (DEMUX) is used that separates signal into its component signals. So demultiplexer has one input and several
outputs.
HISTORY:
Multiplexing was first developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to send through a single cable. The process of multiplexing divides a
communication channel into several number of logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data stream to be transferred. The device
that does multiplexing, can be called as a MUX.
The reverse process, i.e., extracting the number of channels from one, which is done at the receiver is called as demultiplexing. The device which does
demultiplexing is called as DEMUX.
The following figures illustrates the concept of MUX and DEMUX. Their primary use is in the field of communications.

Advantages of Multiplexing
If no multiplexing is used between the users at two different sites that are distance apart, then separate communication lines would be required as shown in
fig.
This is not only costly but also become difficult to manage. If multiplexing is used then, only one line is required. This leads to the reduction in the line cost and
also it would be easier to keep track of one line than several lines.
Multiplexing efficient for utilization of bandwidth.

Analog Multiplexing
The signals used in analog multiplexing techniques are analog in nature. The analog signals are multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or wavelength
(WDM).
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FDM used in public telephones and cable TV systems, where a single cable carries multiple video signals from different channels to the TV set.
With the remote control, we essentially activate the electronic circuits in the television to select a specific frequency band or channel and our program on TV
set is set(visualize).
The signals from other programs also actually traverse to your TV set on the same cable, but they lie idle at your TV set for you to choose from.
In FDM , the medium is divided into number of channels, each with a frequency bandwidth. Though the composite signal ultimately carried by the medium in
analog the input signals can be analog or digital. If the input signals are analog, multiplexers at both the ends are sufficient as shown in fig.

If the input signals are digital, such as from computers, they need to be passed through modems and multiplexers at both the ends as shown in fig. Modem
converts the digital signals into analog signals and then at the other end covert them back into digital signals.

Advantages:
It does not need synchronization between its transmitter and receiver.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is simpler and easy demodulation.
It is used for analog signals.
A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
It is suffers problem of cross-talk.
It is used only when a few low speed channels are desired.
Intermodulation distortion takes place.
The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.
Large number of modulators and filters are required.
Applications:
It is used to public telephones.
In cable TV systems. A multiplexor is used to combine many channels to maximize the use of the available bandwidth and a Demultiplexer built into the
television or set top box will separate the channel that the viewer wants to watch.
It is used in broad casting.
It is used in AM and FM broadcasting.

Time Division Multiplexing is a technique used for digital transmission only (However, this does not mean that the sources cannot produce analog data; analog
data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then multiplexed by using TDM).
In TDM transmission time is divided into number of time slices, then allocate time slice to a different source node which wants to send data.
The time slice during which a source node is sending some data the entire bandwidth belongs to that source node. Hence the source node send data high rate.
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In TDM is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a line. Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time
is shared.
The time span is divided into equal time slices. There are two ways of allocating the time slices to various source nodes.
Synchronous TDM ( also known as TDM)
Statistical TDM

Synchronous TDM ( also known as TDM)

In synchronous TDM, each device is given same time slot to transmit the data over the link, irrespective of the fact that device has any data to transmit or not.
The time slice is allocated to a source node regardless of whether it wants to send some data or not.
Each device places its data onto the link when its time slot arrives i.e. each device is given the possession of line turn by turn.
If any device does not have data to send then its time slot remains empty.
The various time slots are organized into frames and each frame consists of one or more time slots dedicated to each sending device.
If there are n sending devices, there will be n slots in frame i.e. one slot for each device.
A small buffer is associated with every source node. At any time, note all nodes may want to send some data.
If there was no data to be transmitted, the buffer will be empty, but it will still be sent.
Hence it can be a very wasteful scheme, because the time slot is allotted to a source node even if it has nothing to send.

Asynchronous/Statistical TDM (also known as STDM) It is also known as statistical time division multiplexing.
This technique is more intelligent. It monitors which machine or terminal is sending the data more frequently and in more quantity, and allocates the time
slices more often to those nodes.
Relatively inactive computers/ terminals get the time slice less often, while a completely idle computer/terminal may not get any time slice at all.
Time slots are not fixed i.e. the slots are flexible.
In synchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then there are n slots in one frame. But in asynchronous it is not so.
In asynchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then the frame contains not more than m slots, with m less than n (m < n).
In asynchronous TDM, the number of time slots in a frame is based on a statistical analysis of number of input lines.
In this system slots are not predefined, the slots are allocated to any of the device that has data to send.

Advantages:
Time division multiplexing systems are more flexible than frequency division multiplexing.
Time division multiplexing circuitry is not complex.
Problem of cross talk is not severe.
Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
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Disadvantages:
Synchronization is essential for proper operation.
Due to slow narrowband fading, all the TDM channels may get wiped out
Applications:
It used in ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) telephone lines.
It is used in PSTN (public switched telephone network).
It is used for some telephone system.

WDM – Wavelength Division Multiplexing

In this transmission medium, copper wire is not used but it uses optical fiber. Also it is variation of the basic FDM scheme.
In WDM transmission multiple optical fibers are combined and sent together.
In FDM the transmission from various sources are combined and sent together on the basis of their frequencies, here in WDM transmissions are combined on
the basis of the difference between the wavelengths.
The transmissions from various optical fibers are combined on the sender’s side. These transmissions have different wave lengths. The combined transmission
is sent to the other side via a single and more powerful optical fibers.
At the receiver's end, the individual transmissions are retrieved by filtering out the individual source signals on the basis of their wavelengths.
WDM is similar to FDM, exccept that very high frequencies are used in WDM.
When there are more than 200 different channels to share a single high capacity optical fiber line. In such a case, where a significant number of input sources
are combined into a single channel, we call it as Dense WDM(DWDM).
TDM – Time Division Multiplexing
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GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.

UNIT– II
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya
- Prof. Jainin Vakil
In Data Communication Networks electromagnetic signals can cause incorrect delivery of data. Due to this data in the communication can be received
incorrectly or data can be lost or unwanted data can be generated. Any of these problems are called transmission errors in communication networks.
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Error is a condition when the output information does not match with the input information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can
introduce errors in the binary bits travelling from one system to other. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.

The errors can be classified in three basic categories as given below:

Delay distortion
Attenuation
Noise

The errors can be classified in three basic categories as given below:

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Delay distortion
Attenuation
Noise
Delay Distortion
Delay Distortion is caused because signals at different frequencies travel at different speeds along the medium.

Any complex signal can be decomposed into different sinusoidal signals (Component signals) of different frequencies resulting in a frequency bandwidth for
every signal.
The property of signal propagation is such that the speed of travel of frequency at the center of this bandwidth is highest and this speed is low at both ends
of the frequency bandwidth.

At the receiving end, signals with different frequency in a given bandwidth will arrive at different times. Hence at the receiver, if the receiving frequencies
are measured at a specific time, they will not measure up to the original signal resulting in its misinterpretation.

Attenuation:
Attenuation is another form of distortion.

In attenuation , as a signal travels through any medium, its strength decreases. For ex. Just like our voice becomes weak over a distance and loses its
contents beyond a certain distance.

Attenuation means loss of energy. When any signal travels over a medium or channel, it loses some of its energy in the form of heat in the resistance of the
medium. Attenuation decides the signal to noise ratio hence the quality of received signal.

Attenuation is very small at short distances, it increases with distance.

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Noise:
The random/unwanted signal mixes up with the original signal is called noise.

When signals travel as electromagnetic signals through any medium, some electromagnetic energy get inserted somewhere during transmission – called
Noise

There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.

Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving
antenna. Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire. Impulse
noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines.
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Types of Errors:
If the signal is carrying binary data there can be two types of errors. 1. Single bit errors and 2. burst errors.

In single bit errors a bit value of 0 changes to 1 and vice versa.

In burst error, multiple bits of binary value are changed.

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Single Bit Error:
It means only one bit of data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1 as shown in fig:

Single bit error can happen in parallel transmission where all the data bits are transmitted using separate wires.

Burst Error:
It means two or more bits in data unit are changed from 1 to 0 from 0 to 1 as shown in fig:

Burst error does not necessarily mean that errors occur in consecutive bits.
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Most likely to happen in serial transmission.

The length of burst error is measured from first changed bit to last changed bit.

As shown in fig. length of burst error is 8, although some bits are unchanged in between.

Number of bits affected depends on the data rate and duration of noise.
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Error Detection:
Whenever a message is transmitted, it may get scrambled by noise or data may get corrupted. To avoid this, we use error-detecting codes which are
additional data added to a given digital message to help us detect if any error has occurred during transmission of the message.

Basic approach used for error detection is the use of redundancy bits, where additional bits are added to facilitate detection of errors.

Some popular techniques for error detection are:

Checksum
Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC) or Parity Check
Longitudinal Redundancy Check(LRC)
Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC)
Checksum:
A checksum also called hash sum is fixed-length data that is the result of performing certain operations on the data to be sent from the sender to the
receiver.

The sender runs the appropriate checksum algorithm to compute the checksum of the data, appends it as a field in the packet that contains data to be sent
as well as headers.

When the receiver receives the data the receiver runs the same checksum algorithm to compute a fresh checksum.

The receiver compares freshly computed checksum with the checksum that was computed by the sender.

If the two checksums match, the receiver of the data is assured that the data has not changed during transmission.

Various checksum algorithms are popular. Most common are parity check, modular sum, position-dependent checksum, etc.
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Checksum:
In modular sum, the data that the sender is sending is arranged into smaller blocks called words. For example, if the data stream that needs to be sent is
11001000011111100110, then we can make up 5 words, each containing 4 bits.

The 5 words are:

1100 1000 0111 1110 0110 This is the 5 words are added.
1100

1000

0111

1110

0110

101111

The result is 101111. Find complement – 010000. Then 2’s complement of the result is found, which is equal to 010001. This value is considered as the
checksum and is sent along with the data. The receiver computes a fresh checksum and compares it with received checksum.

Checksum:
Example- 4-bit numbers are: 7, 11, 12, 0, 6

Message to be sent:7,11,12,0,6,36 [7+11+12+0+6=36]

Receiver adds actual nos. and compares with the sum(36)

If the two are the same receiver assumes no error, nos. accepted and sum discarded.
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Else an error somewhere and data are not accepted.

Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC) or Parity Check:

Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC) also known as parity check.
It is least expensive technique.

In this method, the sender appends a single additional bit called the parity bit, to the message before transmitting it.

There are two types i.e. odd parity and even parity.
In odd parity, given some bits, an additional bit is added in such a way that the number of 1s in the bits inclusive of the parity bit is odd.

In even parity, the parity bit is added such that the number of 1s inclusive if the parity bit is even.

Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC) or Parity Check:

Suppose we want to transmit the binary data unit 1100001, adding the number of 1s gives us 3, an odd number. Before transmitting, a parity generator
counts the 1s and appends the parity bit (a 1 in this case) to the end. The total number of 1 becomes 4 now (even number). The system now transmits the
entire appended unit across the network link.
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Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC) or Parity Check:

When the data unit is reached its destination, the receiver puts all eight bits through an even-parity checking function. If the receiver sees 11100001, it
counts and gets four 1s, an even number.

But if the receiver sees 11100101, or total number of 1s is odd. The receiver knows that an error has been occurred into the data somewhere and therefore
rejects the whole unit.

This method VRC can detect only single-bit errors.

Longitudinal Redundancy Check(LRC):
In this error detection method, a block of bits is organized in a table with rows and columns.
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For instance, if we want to send 32 bits we arrange them into a list of four rows. Then parity bit for each column is calculated and a new row of eight bits is
created. These become the parity bits for the whole block.

After that the new calculated parity bits are attached to the original data and sends to the receiver.

LRC increases the likelihood of detecting burst error. An LRC of n bits can easily detects a burst error of n bits.
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Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC):
In Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC) a sequence of redundant overhead bits called CRC or CRC remainder is added to the end of the data to be transmitted.

The CRC is so calculated that it can be perfectly divided by a second predecided number. At the receiver, the arriving data is divided by the same predecided
number.

If this division produces a zero remainder, the transmission is considered as error-free.

In such a case, the incoming data is accepted by the receiver. If there is a remainder, it means that the transmission is in error and therefore the arriving data
must be rejected.
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Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC):

In Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC) a sequence of redundant overhead bits called CRC or CRC remainder is added to the end of the data to be transmitted.

The CRC is so calculated that it can be perfectly divided by a second predecided number. At the receiver, the arriving data is divided by the same predecided
number.
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If this division produces a zero remainder, the transmission is considered as error-free.

In such a case, the incoming data is accepted by the receiver. If there is a remainder, it means that the transmission is in error and therefore the arriving data
must be rejected.

Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC):

1)Data unit 1001000 is divided by 1011.
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2)During this process of division, whenever the leftmost bit of dividend or remainder is 0, we use a string of Os of same length as divisor. Thus in this case
divisor 1011 is replaced by 0000.

3)At the receiver side, data received is 1001110.

Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC):

4) This data is again divided by a divisor 1011.

5) The remainder obtained is 000; it means there is no error.
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GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.

UNIT– II
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya - Prof. Jainin Vakil
Recovery from Errors
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Once error detected there are multiple ways of recovery from errors.

If we follow a scheme of necessarily sending some form of acknowledgement, the receiver will send a positive Acknowledgement (ACK) back to the sender if
every thing was ok.

If any error were found, it will send a negative acknowledgement (NAK) to the sender.

The sender would wait until it receives an ACK or NAK and would then decide whether to retransmit the same chunk or block or frame of data or not, and only
then send the next block

This is very simple method where receiver sends one frame of data and necessarily waits for an acknowledgement (ACK) from the receiver before sending the
next frame.

Only after the sender receives an acknowledgement for a frame then it sends the next frame.

Thus the transmission always takes the form: data- ACK-data ACK…etc. where the data frames are sent by the sender and the ACK frames are sent by the
receiver, back to the sender.
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The stop and wait approach is pretty

simple to implement.
Every frame must be individually
acknowledges before the next frame
can be transmitted.
There is also lies its drawback , since
the sender must receive each
acknowledgement before it can
transmit next frame, it makes the
transmission very slow.
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The sender sets a timer for every frame that it sends.

If it does not receive any acknowledgement from the receiver before the timer
expires, it sends the same frame again, with the new timer.

However it could happen that the sender resends the frame while the
acknowledgement for the same is already half way through to the sender from the
receiver.

In this case, the receiver receives two or more instances of the same frame. The
receiver is equipped with the understanding that the duplication has to be rejected,
in such a case.
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In Go-back-n , the sender starts retransmission with the last acknowledged frame, even if the subsequent frames have arrived correctly at the receiver.

For example, suppose the sender sends 5 frames to the receiver (i.e. the window size is 5).

The frames 0,1,2 arrive correctly at the receiver, but the frame 3 is in error. The receiver send NAK for frame 3

By the time the NAK reaches the sender, the sender may have already sent frames 4 and 5. however after receiving the NAK, the sender now retransmits
frame 3 and all frame transmitted after frame 3.

Assuming that this retransmission is successful the receiver would now acknowledge this correct transmission of frames 3, 4, 5 after discarding the
duplicates for frames 4 and 5.
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Let us consider another situation where the sender has transmitted all the frames and is actually waiting for an acknowledgement that has been lost on the
way.
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The sender waits for some time and then retransmits the unacknowledged frames. The receiver detects this duplication, sends another acknowledgement
and discards the redundant data.
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Another possibility is when a damaged frame is received by the receiver. Here the receiver receives frames 0 and 1 correctly, but does not immediately
acknowledge them.

It receives frame 2 is in error, so it returns NAK 2. this informs the sender that frame 0 and 1 have been received correctly, but that frame 2 must be resent.

However in this case, the receiver keeps accepting new frames and doesn’t reject them.

• After it receives the resent frame 2, the receiver will send ACK 5 implying that it is now ready to accept frame 5.

• The processor needs lots of memory and processing logic to keep a track of all these things.
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The sliding window technique is a variation of the Go-Back-n technique.

The data to be send is divided into frames.

The sender must send a frame, wait for its acknowledgement and only after it receives that acknowledgement, send the next frame.

A trick to improve efficiency would be to send multiple frames at a time, check the CRC of all the frames one by one, send the acknowledgement for all and
request for the next set of frames. The sliding window is based on this philosophy.

In this technique, the underlying transmission mechanism defines an imaginary window consisting of maximum n frames to be sent at a time. The
transmission mechanism allows the data to be transmitted at a time only up to the size of the window.

The window defines how much data sender can send before it must wait to receive an acknowledgement from the receiver. The term sliding window is used
because the data window slides over the data buffer to be sent.

Fig shows a sliding window of size 8 frames. That is the sender can send eight frames before it must wait to receive an acknowledgement from the receiver.
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The sender and receiver both maintain their own sliding windows.

The sender sends the number of frames that it is allowed to send by its sliding window and then waits for the acknowledgement from the receiver.

When receiver sends an acknowledgement back to the sender, it includes the number of next frame that is expect to receive.

Thus if sender has sent frames numbered 1 to 3 to the receiver, assuming that the receiver has received them correctly, the receiver sends back an
acknowledgement that includes number 4.

Thus sender knows that frames 1 to 3 received correctly and proceeds to send frame 4.

The sender sends these eight frames and receives an acknowledgement for the first two frames.
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th th
In such case, the sender slides the window two frame to the right and sends the 9 and 10 frames.

Thus the receiver again has 8 frames. It can now check CRC for all, one by one, and if it founds an error in 7 and finds frame 3 to 6 ok, it will send the
acknowledgement that includes the number 7.

The sender now sends 8 frames from frame 7 onwards again.

It uses two buffers and one window to control the flow of data.

The sender has buffer for storing data coming from the sending application program.
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The application program creates the data to be sent and writes it to this buffer. The sender imposes a window on the buffer and sends frames till all the
frames have been sent.

The receiver also has a buffer. The receiver receives the data, checks if any error and stores the correct ones in this buffer.

The application program at the receiver‘s end then picks up the data from this receiver buffer
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GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
UNIT– III
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya
Signal Transmission

- Prof. Jainin Vakil

Transmission Media

Transmission media are the physical infrastructure components which carry data from one computer to another.

In other words, a transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one
place to another.
All transmission media can be divided into the following two main categories:
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Transmission Media

Guided Media can be further divided into three main types:

Guided media is based on physical cable. Twisted pair and coaxial cable carry signal in form of electric current whereas optical fibres carry signals in form of
light.
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Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.

Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.

The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

UTP: Unshielded Twisted Pair

Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals because of good performance at low costs.
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This cable can carry both voice as well as data.

They are most commonly used in telecommunication.

Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data. Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps
Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.

Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for longdistance communication.

Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

UTP’s of higher categories are also used in

Computer networks due to high speeds & Realibility.
UTP: Unshielded Twisted Pair Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
It is cheap.
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Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.

It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:
This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

STP: Shielded Twisted Pair

In this, the twisted pair wire itself is carried by a metal shield, and finally by a plastic cover.

The metal shield prevents penetration of electromagnetic noise, it helps to eliminate crosstalk.

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the
higher transmission rate.
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STP: Shielded Twisted

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.

An installation of STP is easy.

It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.

It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

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Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable also called coax.

Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.

It has an inner central conductor surronded by an insulating sheath, which in turn is enclosed in an outer conductor. Then outer conductor is covered by a
plastic cover.
Coaxial Cable:
As compared to UTP or STP, coaxial cable is more expensive, less flexible and more difficult to install in a building where a number of twists and turns are
required.
Coaxial cables are divided into various categories depending upon the thickness and size of the shields, insulator and the outer coating, etc.

They are commonly used by cable companies to carry cable transmission.

Various coaxial cable standards are RG-8, RG-9, RG-11, RG-58 and RG-59.
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Coaxial Cable:
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

The data can be transmitted at high speed.

It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable. It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
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Transmission Media: Guided Media – Optical Fiber

Optical Fiber:
Light is used as means of signal propogation, instead of electrical signals.

Optical fibres are made up of glass fibres that are enclosed in a plastic jacket, which allows fibres to bend and not break.

Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

A transmitter at the sender’s end of the optical fiber sends a light emitting diode (LED) or laser to send pulses of light across the fiber.

A receiver at the other end makes use of a light-sensitive transistor to detect the absence or presence of light indicates a 0 or 1.

Transmission Media: Guided Media – Optical Fiber

Optical Fiber:
Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the
core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
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Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface
as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra
fibre protection.

GLS UNIVERSITY
Signal Transmission

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
UNIT– III
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya
- Prof. Jainin Vakil
Transmission Media : Unguided Media

Unguided media also called wireless communication.

An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.

Send communications signals through air or space.

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Used when inconvenient or impossible to install cables.

Transmission Media : Unguided Media – Wireless Band

VLF: Very Low Frequency, Usually spread through air and water. VLF waves do not suffer attenuation but affected by atmoshphere.It is generally used for long
distance.

LF: Low Frequency, waves works with long-distance-radio frequency.

MF: Middle Frequency, waves rely on line-of-sight antennas to increase control problems. AM radio.

HF: High Frequency used in amateur radio, citizen band radio, international broad casting, military communication, telephone and telegraph.
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VHF: Very High Frequency, are used in television, FM radio, aircraft AM radio.

UHF: Ultra High Frequency, used for television, moile phone,cellular radio, paging and microwaves

SHF: Super High Frequency, in space used for terrestrial and satellite microwave and radar communications.

EHF: Extremely High Frequency, are transmitted in to space and used for radar, satelite and experiment communication.
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Microwave uses the line of sight method of propogation as the signals do not travel along the surface of the earth.
So, two antennas must be in a straight line able to look at each other without any obstacle in between.

The taller the antenna the more is the distance that these waves travel.

The antennas are positioned on mountains to avoid obstacles.

Microwave signals travel only in one direction at at time. Therefore for two way communication two frequencies is required.

Repeaters are used to enhance the signal.

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Microwaves are used for unicast(single sender and a single receiver) communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.

The frequencies used are in the low-gigahertz range.

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Characteristics of Microwave:
Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.

Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.

Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.

Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and antenna size.

Advantages of Microwave Communication:

Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
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It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.

Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
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The main problem with micro wave communication is the mountains & other structure often block the line of side.

Due to this reason, many repeats are required for long distance which increases the cost of data transmission between the two points.

This problem is recommended by using satellites.

Satellite micro wave transmission is used to transmit signals through out the world. These system use satellites in orbit about 50,000 Km above the earth.
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Satellite communication is similar to microwave communication, except that the satellite acts as one of the station.

The satellites are launched either by rockets or space shuttles carry them.

These are positioned 3600KM above the equator with an orbit speed that exactly matches the rotation speed of the earth.

The satellite performs the functions of an antenna and the repeater together.
Receives on one frequency (uplink), amplifies or repeats signal and transmits on
another frequency (downlink)
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Transmission Media : Unguided Media - Geosynchronous Satellite

If the earth along with its ground stations is revolving and the satellite is stationery, the sending and receiving earth stations and the satellite will be out of sync
as time passes by.

So geosynchronous satellites are used which move at the same RPM (Revolution Per Minute) as the earth in the same direction exactly like the earth.

Therefore both the earth and the satellite complete one revolution exactly in the same time.

Using this satellite we can communicate between any two parts of the world.

Minimum three satellites are needed to cover the earth’s surface.

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Transmission Media : Unguided Media - Geosynchronous Satellite

Features of Satellite Microwave :

Bandwidth capacity depends on the frequency used.

Satellite microwave deployment for orbiting satellite is difficult.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave :

Transmitting station can receive back its own transmission and check whether the satellite has transmitted information correctly.

A single microwave relay station which is visible from any point. Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave :

Satellite manufacturing cost is very high

Cost of launching satellite is very expensive

Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, it can go down in bad weather

If communication takes place between any two earth stations through a satellite, then it is called as satellite communication. In this communication,
electromagnetic waves are used as carrier signals. These signals carry the information such as voice, audio, video or any other data between ground and
space and vice-versa.

Two frequncy bands are used for signals from the earth to satellite called uplink and from satellite to earth called downlink.

Three methods of communication using satellites.

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1. FDMA – frequency division multiple access
2. TDMA – time division multiple access
3. CDMA – code division multiple access
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FDMA
FDMA puts each transmission on a seperate frequency.

FDMA splits the total bandwidth into multiple channels.

Each ground station on the earth is allocated a particular frequency group.

Within each group, the ground station can allocate different frequencies to individual channels.

FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple individual bands, each for use by a single user.

Used in GSM mobile and FM Radio.

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TDMA:
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TDMA allows access to the full bandwidth of the frequency.

In TDMA,each transmitter is allocated a predefined time slot.

TDMA is a digital technique that divides a single channel or band into time slots.

Each time slot is used to transmit one byte or another digital segment of each signal in sequential serial data format.

This technique works well with slow voice data signals, but it’s also useful for compressed video and other high-speed data.

Use in 2G phone.
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CDMA:
CDMA – Code Divison Multiple Access

CDMA allows any transmitter to transmit in any frequency and at any time.

The transmitter and the receiver agree upon a unique coding scheme ( similar to encryption) before the start of transmission.

Used in CDMA card in dedicated phone.

It is popular in military installations.

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Telephones

The emergence of the first mobile telephone as early as 1946.

Difficult to operate .

Single channel for both sending and receiving comunication.

Also known as push to talk system.

Second development took place in 1960, known as Improved Mobile telephone System (IMTS)

Stronger and used two frequencies.

One frequency was used for sending and other for receiving.

Third Development was Advance Mobile Phone System(AMPS).

In this schema, the area covered is conceptually divided in small region known as cells, thus the name cellular phones.
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Telephones

Each cell has an antenna and a cell office to control that cell.

A Mobile Telephone switching Office (MTSO) controls various such cell offices
and coordinates the communication between them and the Telephone Central
Office (TCO) or a telephone exchange.

TCO is part of wired land telepnone system.

MTSO is resposible for connections, information and billing for calls.

A typical cell radius size is 0 to 12 miles which can be changed upon the
population of the area.

Telephones

During the conversation, if the mobile phone crosses the cell, the signal can
became weak. The MTSO constantly checks the signal level, and if it finds low
then immediately seeks a new cell.

The process of handling the signal off from the old channel to the new one is
called handoffs.
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GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
Signal Transmission

UNIT– III
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya
- Prof. Jainin Vakil
Network Topologies
Network topology defines how various computers or nodes are connected to one another.
It determines the various communication paths available between any pair of nodes in the network.

There are six basic topologies as shown:

Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.

Physical - actual layout of the computer cables(wire or media) and other network devices.

Logical - Defines how the hosts access the media to send data.
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In Mesh Topology(also called complete topology) each node is connected to every other node by direct links.
So for m nodes there would be m(m-1)/2 physical links.

This also means that every node must have (m-1) I/O ports.

Mesh topology does note have traffic congestion problem due to dedicated links.

Creats a point-to-point connection between every device on the network.

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The purpose of the mesh design is to provide a high level of redundancy. If one network cable fails, the data always has an alternative path to get to its

destination.
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Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It
provides the most reliable network structure among all network topologies.

Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists
where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

Advantages:
It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used for data communication.
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Each connection can have its own data load, so the traffic problem is eliminated.

It ensures the data privacy or security, because every message travels along a dediacated link.

Its performance is not affected with heavy load of data transmission.

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The arrangement of the network nodes is such that it is possible to transmit data from one node to many other nodes at the same time.

Disadvantages:
It becomes very expensive because a large number of cabling when large number of ports are required.

Difficult and complicated to install.

Installation is complex as each node is connected to every node.

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Suppose a we have a telephone exchage to which all phones are connected and through which connections are established using switching. Star topology
uses same concept.
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable.
There is a central node, often called a hub. If a node wants to send some data to another node, it sends it to this hub. The hub in turn sends to the appropriate
node.

This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node, known as hub device, using a point-to-point connection.
There is no direct link between these computers and the computers can
communicate via central controller only.
Advantages:
Less Expensive than Mesh topology.

Hub can be upgraded easily.

Easy to troubleshoot.

Easy to setup and modify.

Less Cabling, Addition and Deletion involves only one connection between the
devices and the Hub or Switch.

Easy for Fault identification and fault isolation. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active.

It is easier to add new node or modify any existing node without disturbing network

Disadvantages:
Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity.
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One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
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In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a way that they make a closed loop. Each computer is connected to two other computer on
either side, and it communicates with these two adjacent neighbors.
Data travels around the network, in one direction. Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN(PACKETS).

Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Message travel around the ring from node to node in a very organized manner. Each workstation checks the message for a matching destination address.

If the address doesn't match the node simply regenerates the message and sends it on its way. If the address matches, the node accepts the message and

sends a reply to the originating sender.

A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
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The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup,
to keep the network up.
Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit.

Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.
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Advantages:
Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data. Cheap to install and expand
There are no collisions.
Data packets travel at greater speeds.

It is easier to locate the problems with device and cable i.e. fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages:
A break in cable ring brings down entire network (in case of single ring).

Adding or removing the node disturbs the network activity.

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It is considerably difficult to install and reconfigure ring Topology

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Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called
Linear Bus topology.
It uses multipoint philosophy.
A long cable called bus acts as a backbone for all the nodes.

In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all devices on a local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone
It consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) that is shared by all the nodes in the network and a terminating resistor (terminator) at each end that
absorbs the signal when it reaches the end of line.
Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked up by a workstation or server NIC.

A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus cable. Although the message is broadcasted but only the intended
recipient, whose MAC address or IP address matches, accepts it.
If the MAC /IP address of machine doesn’t match with the intended address, machine discards the signal.

A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be used to extend it.
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Advantages:
It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.

Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.

Bus topology costs very less.

Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

Used in small networks. It is easy to understand.

Disadvantages:
It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.

Cables fails then whole network fails.

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Cable has a limited length.

If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
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Tree topology is derived from star topology.

Tree has a hierarchy of various hubs like branches in tree.

In Tree Topology, every node is connected to some hub. However, only a few nodes are connected directly to the central hub.
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.

It is also called hierarchical topology.

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This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in
LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached.
The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between
upper layer and lower layer.
The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network i.e. root
of the tree from which all nodes fork.
Advantages:
Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data. Cheap to install and expand There are
no collisions.
Data packets travel at greater speeds.

It is easier to locate the problems with device and cable i.e. fault isolation is
simplified.

Disadvantages:
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
• Heavily cabled.
Costly.
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If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

Central hub fails, network fails.

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Hybrid topology – which uses two or more of the topologies.
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in
another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
It is a combination of two or topologies.

These topologies include a mix of bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology, and tree topology.
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Advantages:
Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
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Effective

Scalable as size can be increased easily.

Flexible

Disadvantages:
Complex in design.

Costly.

GLS UNIVERSITY
Signal Transmission

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.

UNIT– III
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya
- Prof. Jainin Vakil
When a message travels from sender to receiver (from source to destination), it often passes through a network of intermediate nodes.

This is because direct connectivity between any two nodes is not possible and uneconomical.

The intermediate nodes are called network switches as they provide a switching facility for moving a message from one node to another until it reaches its
destination.

A switched network is made up of number of interlinked nodes called switches.

A switch is a hardware device that allows a connection to be established between two or more devices, which are linked to it.

There are three commonly used switching techniques:

1.Circuit switching
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2.Packet switching
3.Message Switching

Circuit switching:
A dedicated physical path called as circuit is established between the sender and the receiver through the intermediate node of the communication network.

Once established, the circuit is available exclusively from source to destination.

Data can be transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established.

PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) is the best example of circuit switching.

Specifically developed for telephone communications.

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Circuit switching:
Advantages:
The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.

Disadvantages:
Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds, more on long- distance or international calls.) during which no data can be transmitted.

More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a dedicated path is required for each connection.

Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the channel is not used when the connected systems are not using it.

Message switching:
Message switching is better known as the store-and-forward approach.

This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching.

In message switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its entirety.
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In message switching, end users communicate by sending and receiving messages that included the entire data to be shared.

Message switching:
Also, the sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a number of intermediate nodes transfer data and ensure that the message reaches its
destination.

A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If
the next hop is not having enough resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits

Advantages:
The store-and-forward capability of intermediary nodes, traffic can be efficiently regulated and controlled.

Message delivery as one unit, rather than in pieces.

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Message switching:
Disadvantages:
Since messages are stored indefinitely at each intermediate node, switches require large storage capacity.
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This is pretty slow - This is because at each node, first there us wait till the entire message is received, then it must be stored and transmitted after
processing the next node and links to it depending on availability and channel traffic.

For example, in most electronic mail systems the delivery process is based on message switching, while the network is in fact either circuit-switched or packet-

switched.
Packet switching:
Packet switching has emerged as the standard switching technology for computer-to-computer communications, and therefore it is used by most
communication protocols such as X.25, TCP/IP, Frame Relay, ATM, etc.

In packet Switching, the sender node divides the message into fixed size data, packets.

Broken into small pieces of variable length – Packets.

The destination nodes re-assembles the packets of message in correct sequence to create the original message.
It also adds the destination address, the message number, the sequence number of the current packet, the total number of packets to each packet.

The packet is transmitted on the base of available free channel.

Internet uses packet switching for data transmission.

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Packet switching:
Advantages:
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More efficient in terms of bandwidth

More reliable as destination can detect the missing packet. Cost effective and comparatively cheaper to implement.
Disadvantages

Packet Switching don’t give packets in order.

Since the packets are unordered, we need to provide sequence numbers to each packet.

Transmission delay is more because of rerouting.

Packet switching:
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information
about the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
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The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Packet switching:

Virtual Circuit Switching

• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are sent.

• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and receiver.

• In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Packet switching:
Virtual Circuit Switching

• In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.

• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender and receiver.

• When a route is established, data will be transferred.

• After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the message has been received.
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• If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.

GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
Signal Transmission

UNIT– III
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya - Prof. Jainin Vakil
CSMA/CD

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

Multiple host can access the Ethernet bus at a time through their transceiver and determine for the absence/presence of a carrier wave on the bus.

If a host wants to send the data , first check the cable is ideal or not -sensing

It defines how network devices respond when two devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously and encounter a data collision.

The CSMA/CD rules define how long the device should wait if a collision occurs. The medium is often used by multiple data nodes, so each data node
receives transmissions from each of the other nodes on the medium.
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CSMA/CD - Binary Exponential back-off Policy

The Ethernet standard specifies a binary exponential back-off policy, where in a sender waits for a random time after a first collision, twice a long if
retransmission also results into collision, four times as long if the retransmission also results in a collision and so on.

Wi-Fi as an example. Two Wi-Fi stations Sue and Mira want to send data to Arnold at the same time. When two stations access the channel at the same
time, we say that it's a collision. Stations whose packets have just collided will initiate a backoff procedure. Every station maintains a number called
Contention Window (CW). The station will choose a random value within this window. This value, which is really the number of idle transmission slots that
the station has to wait, is called the Backoff Period. During this period, these stations (Sue and Mira) cannot transmit.

CSMA/CD - Binary Exponential back-off Policy

The essence of BEB is that the backoff period is randomly selected within the CW. Each station will potentially have a different waiting time. They can't
transmit until the backoff period has passed. Moreover, when another station gains access, backoff timer is paused. It's resumed only when the channel
becomes idle again as determined by Distributed Interframe Space (DIFS).

With every collision, the station will double its CW. This is why the prefix "binary exponential" is used. It's common to have minimum and maximum values
for CW.
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Token Ring
The Token ring network is based on the ring topology.

The most broadly deployed token ring protocols were IBM's, released in the mid-1980s, and the standardized version of it known as IEEE 802.5, which
appeared in the late 1980s known as IBM Token ring.

The IEEE standard version provides for data transfer rates of 4, 16 or 100 Mbps A token ring network employ a mechanism called token passing.

All host on token ring share the same physical medium just as host on Ethernet, so we need MAC.

In token ring all the hosts are arranged to form a circular ring.
When a host on the ring wants to transmit data it cannot send it immediately. It must wait for permission for data transmission it is guaranteed tht no other
host would be allowed to transmit data at the same time.

The sending computer transmits a frame which travel across the ring. Host checks the destination address and if it is not meant for it, it forwards.
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Token Ring

At destination node, before it transmits the frame, hosts checks the CRC to ensure that there are no errors and then only accepts the frame.but also
changes a flag bit in the frame to indicate the receipt of a correct frame.

When it comes it back to sender after covering the entire ring. The sender checks the falg bit to verify the frame was received by the destination
successfully.
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The Fiber Distributed Data Interface(FDDI) network architecture is a LAN protocol standardized by ANSI and other organizations.

It supports data transmission rates upto 100mbps, and it is alternative to Ethernet and Token Ring.

FDDI was developed using optical fiber as the transmission medium because only optical fiber could support data rates upto 100 mbps. But even copper
wires can support such rates and such version is called Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI).

FDDI uses glass fibers for data transmission and encodes data in form of pulses of light.

Properties of FDDI:
Token Passing for Media Access Control:
Like token ring, FDDI also uses the concept of a token frame.

FDDI also has a ring-like structure where network medium starts from a computer passes through all hosts in the network and ends back at the original
host.

Self-healing mechanism:
The hardware in FDDI provides mechanism for detecting and problems on its own.
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Operations of FDDI:
FDDI operates exactly like Token Ring, with one difference. Token Ring uses a single wire through all the hosts whereas FDDI uses two.

FDDI hardware uses two independent rings to connect to every host.

Normally, FDDI uses only one ring for transmission. The NIC of each host examines all the frames that circulate, compare the destination address.

It keeps copy of the frame only if the two addresses match, else it simply forwards. What is the need of second ring?

Self-healing mechanism:
The self-healing mechanism of FDDI network is possible by the second ring. When a network error occurs or host is down, the NIC of a host realizes that it
cannot communicate with its neighbouring host.

In such case, the NIC uses the second ring, which is used as a backup for such failures.

This is called loopback.

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Whenever the first ring fails, or a host on the ring fails, the second ring is used to create another closed loop.

GLS UNIVERSITY
0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &
NETWORKING.
UNIT– III
Signal Transmission

- Prof. Hemali Moradiya

- Prof. Jainin Vakil
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is a network architecture approach that
enables the network to be intelligently and centrally controlled, or
‘programmed,’ using software applications. This helps operators manage the
entire network consistently and holistically, regardless of the underlying
network technology.
SDN
SDN
An example of an architecture based on SDN controllers.
A typical representation of SDN architecture comprises three layers: the
application layer, the control layer and the infrastructure layer.
The first tier in the SDN architecture is the physical infrastructure, which
includes all the hardware devices and cabling required to support the network.
Network control is decoupled from hardware and given to a software
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application, in this case an SDN controller.
Controllers, which initiate and terminate traffic, make up the second tier of the
architecture.
Note: An SDN controller is an application in a software-defined networking
(SDN) architecture that manages flow control for improved network
management and application performance. The SDN controller platform
typically runs on a server and uses protocols to tell switches where to send
packets.
The third tier is the SDN applications, which direct specific functions through
the controller.
SDN
Advantages of SDN:
An administrator can change any network switch's rules when necessary --
prioritizing, deprioritizing or even blocking specific types of packets with a
control and security.
It enables the administrator to manage traffic loads in a flexible and more
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efficient manner.
A network administrator need only deal with one centralized controller to
distribute policies to the connected switches, instead of configuring multiple
individual devices. This capability is also a security advantage because the
controller can monitor traffic and deploy security policies. If the controller
deems traffic suspicious, for example, it can reroute or drop the packets.
SDN
Some terminologies:
A northbound interface is an interface that allows a particular component of a
network to communicate with a higher-level component. Conversely, a
southbound interface allows a particular network component to communicate
with a lower-level component.
In a figurative sense, northbound flow can be thought of as going upward,
while southbound flow can be thought of as going downward.
it enables the administrator to manage traffic loads in a flexible and more
efficient manner.
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SDN
Cloud networking refers to hosting or using some or all network resources and
services—virtual routers, bandwidth, virtual firewalls, or network management
software—from the cloud, whether public, private, or hybrid.
Cloud networking is a type of infrastructure where network capabilities and
resources are available on demand through a third-party service provider that
hosts them on a cloud platform.
The network resources can include virtual routers, firewalls, and bandwidth and
network management software, with other tools and functions becoming
available as required.
In cloud-based networking, the entire network is in the cloud. This includes
network management resources and physical hardware. Cloud-based
networking is used to provide connectivity between applications and resources
deployed in the cloud.
Cloud Networking
Cloud Networking
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A Public Cloud is based on the standard cloud computing framework which
consists of files, applications, storage and services available to the public via
the internet. Gmail is an example of a Public Cloud.
A Private Cloud is comprised of files, applications, storage and services that are
implemented and protected within a corporate firewall, under the control of a
corporate IT department. An example of a Private Cloud would be a company
that uses Microsoft Exchange because Microsoft Exchange can only be
accessed by an authorized user through a secure VPN connection.
Cloud Networking
Some common services that are hosted in the cloud are hosted desktop,
provided by companies like AT&T; hosted email like Gmail, provided by
companies like Google; cloud storage, provided by companies like Dropbox;
and streaming music, provided by companies like Spotify.
There are a wide range of companies and industry verticals that use cloud
computing such as Amazon and Google.
Cloud Networking
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4D - four planes: decision, dissemination, discovery, and data.
In the 4D architecture, the routers and switches simply forward packets at the
behest of the decision plane,and collect measurement data to aid the decision
plane in control-ling the network.
Decision plane: The decision plane makes all decisions driving network
control, including reachability, load balancing, accesscontrol, security, and
interface configuration. The decision plane operates in real time on a
networkwide
view of the topology, the traffic, and the capabilities and resource
limitations of the routers/switches.
Dissemination plane: The dissemination plane provides a ro-bust and efficient
communication substrate that connects routers/switches with decision
elements. While control information may traverse the same set of physical
links as the data packets, the dissemination paths are maintained separately
from the data paths so they can be operational without requiring
configuration or successful establishment of paths in the data plane.
4D Networking
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4D - four planes: decision, dissemination, discovery, and data.
Discovery plane: The discovery plane is responsible for discovering the
physical components in the network and creating logical identifiers to
represent them.
Data plane: The data plane handles individual packets based on the state that is
output by the decision plane. This state includes the forwarding table, packet
filters, link-scheduling weights, and queue-management parameters.
4D Networking
The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a computer networking protocol used in
Internet Protocol networks to automatically assign an IP address to network
devices from a configuration server.
When a computer that is connected to a network is powered up and boots its
operating system, the system software broadcasts BOOTP messages onto the
network to request an IP address assignment. A BOOTP configuration server
assigns an IP address based on the request from a pool of addresses configured
by an administrator.
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BOOTP
The host sends a BOOTP request and uses UDP source port 68 and destination
port 67. This packet is a broadcast so everything in the broadcast domain
receives it. On our network, we have a BOOTP server listening on UDP port
67:
BOOTP
he server sees the broadcast packet from the host and since it’s listening on
UDP port 67, it processes the packet. The server then looks in its database to
find a matching entry for the MAC address of the host. When there is a match,
it returns the information to the host with a unicast packet.
Nowadays, we don’t use BOOTP as it has been replaced by DHCP.
BOOTP
When a BOOTP client is started, it has no IP address, so it broadcasts a
message containing its MAC address onto the network. This message is called a
“BOOTP request,” and it is picked up by the BOOTP server, which replies to
the client with the following information that the client needs:
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1)The client’s IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway address
2)The IP address and host name of the BOOTP server
3)The IP address of the server that has the boot image, which the client needs to
load its operating system
When the client receives this information from the BOOTP server, it configures
and initializes its TCP/IP protocol stack, and then connects to the server on
which the boot image is shared. The client loads the boot image and uses this
information to load and start its operating system.
BOOTP

Unit-4
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GLS UNIVERSITY

0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.

UNIT– IV
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya
- Prof. Jainin Vakil
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.

• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks
only Japanese.
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• Communications devices have to agree on many physical aspects of the data to be exchanged before successful transmission can take place. Rules defining
transmissions are called protocols.

Protocols in Computer Communication

Communication protocols are formal descriptions of digital message formats and rules. They are required to exchange messages in or between computing
systems and are required in telecommunications

Communications protocols cover authentication, error detection and correction, and signaling.

They can also describe the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of analog and digital communications.

Properties of transmission that a protocol define: packet size, transmission speed, error correction types, handshaking and synchronization techniques,
address mapping, acknowledgement processes, flow control, packet sequence controls, routing, address formatting.
Popular protocols include: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), TCP/IP, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Post Office Protocol
(POP3), Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

OSI Model

ISO has developed this. ISO stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for open system interconnection (OSI) and is
normally called as OSI model.
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The ISO-OSI model consists of seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete communication system.

It was first introduced in the late 1970s. An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication between all types of computer systems.

It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network.
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OSI Model – Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with sending raw bits between the source and destination nodes, coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream
over a physical medium.

It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium.

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
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OSI Model – Physical Layer

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

Signal Encoding: how bits are represented 0 or 1?

Medium: Type of medium?

Bit Synchronization: Synchronuos or asynchronous?

Transmission type: Serial or parallel?

Transmission mode: simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex?

Topology: Which topology it uses – mesh, star, bus, etc.

Multiplexing: which type – FDM, TDM?

Interrface: How the devices are connected?

Bandwidth: Broadband communication is used?

Signal type: Analog or digital?

OSI Model – DataLink Layer

The datalink layer is resposible for transmitting a group of bits between the nodes.
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The group of bits is called frame or packet.

The network layer passes data to data link layer. Then data link layer adds the header and trailer information to this data.
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OSI Model – DataLink Layer

The data link layer performs the following functions:

Addressing: Headers and trailers information are added to the packet.

Flow control: Avoids overwriting.

Media Access Control (MAC): who can send data when n how much

Synchronization: Headers tell the receiver when frame is arriving, it also contains bits to synchronize its timings.

Error Control: checks CRC to ensure correctness.

Node to node delivery: error – free delivery of entire frame.

OSI Model – Network Layer

The Network layer is responsible for routing and forwarding of a packet from the source to destination.
This layer ensures successful delivery of a packet to the destination node.
It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
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Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing services within an internetwork.

The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

This layer guarantee an error-free delivery of a packet to destination. So, this layer has to carry out accounting function to facilitate this billing based on
how many packets are routed, when they are routed, etc.

OSI Model – Network Layer

The network layer performs the following functions:

Routing: determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths

Congestion control: manages all route & traffic control

Address Information: interpreting logical address(discuss later)

Accounting & bill: as stated above

Source to destination error free delivery: of a packet
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The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.

The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.

It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.

This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
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Example:
Suppose there are two computers A and B. Let us say that A hosts a file server, in which B is interested. Similarly A wants to send a message to B. As there
are two different applications wants to communicate with their counterparts on remote computers at the same time it is essential that communication
channel must be established not only between two computers but also between respective applications on two computers. This is the job of transport
layer.

The transport layer performs the following functions:

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Host to host message delivery: Ensures all the packets of a message sent by a source node to destination.

Application to application communication: enables communication between two applications running on different computers.

Segmentation and re-assembly: this layer breaks a message into packets and numbers them by adding sequence number at the source and
reassemble original message at destination.

Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link.

Connection control: A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the
destination. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.

GLS UNIVERSITY
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0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.

UNIT– IV
- Prof. Hemali Moradiya - Prof. Jainin Vakil
OSI Model – Session Layer
The main function of Session layer is to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction between two communicating hosts.

For example, suppose user wants to send a very big document consists of 1000 pages to another user on a different computer .

Suppose first 105 pages have been sent and the connection between two computer is broken for some reason.
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OSI Model – Session Layer

A question comes now is how two hosts connection is reesatblish? Whether it starts from page 1 or page 106?

To avoid complete retransmission from the first page the session layer between the two hosts could create subsessions. After each subsession is over, a
checkpoint is taken.

For instance, the session layer at the two hosts decide that after a succesful transmission of a set of every 10 pages, they would take a checkpoint.

The resposibilities of session layer as follow:

Sessions and subsessions:

Synchronization: decides the order in which data will be sent.

Session closure: ensures that the session between hosts is closed.

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OSI Model – Presentation Layer

When two hosts are communicating with each other, they might be using different coding standards to represent data internally.

For example, one host vould be using ASCII code for character representation whereas the other host could be using EBCDIC.

The presentation layer is resposible for taking care of such differences.

It is also resposible for data encryption and decryption for security.

Also for data compression and decompression for more efficiency.

The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to another format.
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OSI Model – Presentation Layer
The resposibilities of presentation layer as follow:

Translation: It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent
format at the receiving end.

Encryption: Performs data encryption and decryption.

Compression: Performs data compression before sending and decompression at the destination.
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OSI Model – Application Layer

The Application layer, the topmost layer in the OSI model, enables user to access the network.

This layer provides user interface for network applications such as remote log in(TELNET), World Wide Web(WWW), File Transfer Protocol(FTP),
electronic mail(email), etc.

It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.

This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

OSI Model – Application Layer

The resposibilities of application layer as follow:
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Network Abstraction: Provides network to an end user and an application.

Mail Services:

Remote log in:

WWW:

File access and transfer: allows user to access, download, upload file from a remote server.
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GLS UNIVERSITY
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0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.

UNIT– IV
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- Prof. Hemali Moradiya - Prof. Jainin Vakil
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It is used for initial set up of devices like switches.

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Using a process called “store and forward,” SMTP moves your email on and
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FTP stands for file transfer protocol.

But FTP is not just a protocol but it is also a program.

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HTTP utilizes TCP connections to send client requests and server replies.
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leading to lack of reliability during a transmission.

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Transport Layer

Transport Layer Protocols :

1) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

TCP is a layer 4 protocol which provides acknowledgement of the received packets and is also reliable as it resends the lost packets.

It is better than UDP but due to these features it has an additional overhead. It is used by application protocols like HTTP and FTP.

2) UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

UDP is also a layer 4 protocol but unlike TCP it doesn’t provide acknowledgement of the sent packets.

Therefore, it isn’t reliable and depends on the higher layer protocols for the same.

But on the other hand it is simple, scalable and comes with lesser overhead as compared to TCP.

It is used in video and voice streaming.

TCP/IP – Network / Internet layer

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Network/Internet Layer:
The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they
take.

This layer is concerned with the format of datagrams as defined in the Internet Protocol(IP).

This layer is responsible for actual routing of datagrams.

The IP portion of the TCP/IP suite deals with this layer.

It routes and forward a datagrams to the next node but it is not resposible for the accurate and timely delivery of all the datagrams to the destination in
a proper sequence.

Some other protocols in this layer ARP(Address Resolution Protocol), RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) and ICMP(Internet Control Message
Protocol).
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TCP/IP – Protocol Suite

Internetworking Protocol (IP)
The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service. IP transports data in packets called datagrams.

Address Resolution Protocol

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical address

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet address when it knows only its physical address

Internet Control Message Protocol

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the
sender.

ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

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It covers MAC(Media Access Control) i.e. who can send data and when, etc.

The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
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0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING.
Unit- IV
Prof. Hemali Moradiya
Prof. Jainin Vakil
Mobile Computing
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be
connected to a fixed physical link.
Mobile Computing is ability to compute remotely while on the move, it possible for people to access information from anywhere and at anytime.
Mobility provides the capabilities to change location while communicating to invoke computing services at some remote computers .
Mobile devices can be connected to a Local Area Network (LAN) or can take advantage of WiFi or wireless technology by connecting via a Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN).
Mobile Computing
Benefits of Mobile Computing:
• Connectivity: You can stay connected to all sources at all times.
• Social Engagement: You can interact with a variety of users via the internet.
• Personalization: You can tailor your mobile computing to your individual needs.
Mobile Computing v/s Wireless Networking
Mobile Computing Wireless Networking
Mobile Computing refers to computing devices that are not restricted to a desktop. Wireless networking refers to the method of transferring information
between a computing devices and a data source without a physical connection
It refers to computing device that is not connected to a central network It is simply data communication without the use of landline
Include laptop, smart phones, PDA Involve cellular telephone, a two way radio, fixed wireless connection, a laser or satellite communication.
Communicate with base location, with or without a wireless connection Computing device is continuously connected to the base network.
Uses mobile networks (airtel, idea,jio) Routers
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Uses GPRS, HSPA, EDGE, LTE Wireless switches, Wireless HUBs
Can use wireless network also This cannot use Mobile Networks directly(only through network sharing
Wired Networks v/s Mobile Networks
Wired Networks Mobile Networks
Speed of operation : Higher Speed of operation : lower compare to wired networks
System Bandwidth : High System Bandwidth : Low, as Frequency Spectrum is very scarse resource
Cost : Less as cables are not expensive Cost : More as wireless subscriber stations, wireless routers, wireless access points and adapters are expensive
Installation : Wired network installation is cumbersome and it requires more time Installation : Wireless network installation is easy and it requires less
time
Transmission medium : copper wires, optical fiber cables, ethernet Transmission medium : EM waves or radiowaves or infrared
Applications : LAN (Ethernet), MAN Applications : WLAN, WPAN(Zigbee, bluetooth), Infrared, Cellular(GSM,CDMA, LTE)
Quality of Service : Better Quality of Service : Poor due to high value of jitter and delay in connection setup

Characteristics of Mobile Computing:

Portability :-
The Ability to move a device within a learning environment or to different environments with ease.
Social Interactivity :-
The ability to share data and collaboration between users.
Context Sensitivity :-
The ability to gather and respond to real or simulated data unique to a current location , environment or time.
Characteristics of Mobile Computing:
Connectivity :-
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The ability to be digitally connected for the purpose of communication of data in any environment.
Individual :-
The ability to use the technology to provide scaffolding on
difficult activities and lesson customization for individual learners.
Wireless Communication :-
Mobile devices are typically capable of communication with other similar devices , with stationary computers and portable phones. Base mobile devices are
capable of accessing the Internet through Bluetooth or Wi- Fi networks, and many models are equipped to access data networks as well.
Structure of Mobile Computing:

Structure of Mobile Computing:

•Programming languages are used for mobile system software.
•Operating system functions to run the software components onto the hardware.
•Middleware components deployment.
•Layered structure arrangement of mobile computing components is used.
•Protocols and layers are used for transmission and reception.

Cellular Mobile Communication

The cellular wireless Generation (G) generally refers to a change in the nature of the system, speed, technology and frequency. Each generation have some
standards, capacities, techniques and new features which differentiate it from the previous one.
List of Generations:
1G - Voice signals only , Analog cellular phones
2G - Voice & data signals , Digital cellular phones
3G - Voice, data & video signals , Video telephony/Internet surfing
4G - High speed & IP-based
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5G - Advance version of 4G
6G - Upcoming mobile computing generation
1G:
1G, which stands for "first generation," refers to the first generation of wireless telecommunication technology, more popularly known as cellphones. A set of
wireless standards developed in the 1980's, 1G technology replaced 0G technology,
Advantage: featured mobile radio telephones and such technologies as Mobile Telephone System (MTS), Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS),
Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), and Push to Talk (PTT).
Disadvantage: The only disadvantage is 1st generation networks are analog and 2nd generation uses Digital networks.
2G:
2G technology means second-generation wireless telephone technology. ● It is based on the technology known as the global system for the mobile
communication or in short we can say GSM.
● This technology enabled various networks to offer services such as the text messages, picture messages & MMS (multimedia messages).
● All phone conversations are digitally encrypted.
● 2G networks are more efficient on the spectrum.
● They can allow far greater mobile phone penetration levels.
● 2G network holds sufficient security for both the sender &the receiver.
2G:
Advantages
● 2G technology offers improved privacy that was not possible with the earlier technologies.
● 2G phones are more private than 1G phones which have no protection whatsoever against eavesdropping.
Disadvantages
● 2G technology requires powerful digital signals to help the mobile phones work.
● The digital signals could be weak if there is no network coverage in any specific area.
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3G Networks allow a wider radio spectrum that allows faster data transmission. The goal of 3G systems was to offer increased data rates. International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) has defined the demand for 3G in the International Mobile Telecommunication (IMT)-2000 standards to facilitate growth,
greater voice and data capacity, support diverse applications, and high data transmission at low-cost.
Advantages:
● Allows for advanced technology, multimedia services and larger network capacity.
● Allows location based services like weather reports on the mobile.
● Applications that are more data intensive can be developed and used. ● 3G enables video calls, therefore, business conferencing between cities, states,
and even countries.
Disadvantages:
● 3G plan prices for cell phones are much higher than 2G.
• The radiation of magnetic waves generated with the heavily use of the wireless system will affect our life.
● The cost of cellular infrastructure , upgrading base stations is very high.
● Power consumption is high.
● Requires closer base stations and are expensive

• 4G wireless means fourth-generation wireless cellular service.

• 4G is the big next step after 3G and is almost 10 times faster than that.
• Introduced in 2009.Works in most areas of the country.
• India ranked 14th in the world for 4G accessibility.(2017)
• 4G also known as 4G LTE(Long Term Evolution) used by Verizon
• Wireless while some use WiMax technology.
• Smart antennas –Multiple input & Multiple output(MIMO) were used.
Advantages:-
• High speed, capacity and low cost per bit.
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• Affordable, Global access, Server portability.
• Better spectral efficiency.
• Disadvantages:-
• Battery consumption is high.
• Needs complicated hardware.
• Equipment required is still very expensive.
• Providers have to plan carefully to keep expenses realistic

5G:
Fifth Generation (5G): Initiation year-2015
● It will make Unified global standard. The Physical and Data Link layer defines the 5G wireless technology indicating it as an Open Wireless Architecture(OWA).
• The 5G technology also maintain virtual multi-wireless network. ● To perform this the Network layer is sub-divided into two layers; upper network layer for
mobile terminal and lower network layer for interface.
In 5G technology the higher bit rate loss is overcome by using Open Transport Protocol (OTP).
● 5G brings forward a real wireless world- Wireless World Wide Web
(WWWW)
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Unit-5
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0301404 DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING.
Unit- V
Prof. Hemali Moradiya Prof. Jainin Vakil
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Mobile IP - Overview

Mobile IP (Internet Protocol) enables the transfer of information

to and from mobile computers, such as laptops and wireless
communications.
The mobile computer can change its location to a foreign network
and still access and communicate with and through the mobile
computer's home network.
The Solaris implementation of Mobile IP supports only Ipv4.
1) Transparency
2) Compatibility
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3) Security
4) Efficiency & Scalability
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Mobile IP - Terminology

The Mobile Node is a device such as a cell phone, personal digital assistant, or
laptop whose software enables network roaming capabilities.

Mobile Host: The device which has moved from its home network to a visiting
network without changing its address

Home Agent: A router on the home network which tunnels packets to the mobile
host while it is away from home

Foreign Agent: A router on the foreign network which provides routing service
to a mobile host all the while it is registered with the Foreign Agent

Correspondent Host: A peer with which a mobile node is communicating – may

be either stationary or mobile
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Mobility Agent: Either a Home Agent or a Foreign Agent, Care-of Address, A
temporary address used by the mobile host while it is on a foreign network.

Mobile IP - Terminology

Tunneling: A tunnel is the path followed by a first packet while it is encapsulated

within the payload portion of a second packet

Home Address: The original (normal) address of the mobile host.

Mobility Binding: An association between a home address, care-of address and

a registration lifetime.

The care-of address is the termination point of the tunnel toward the Mobile
Node when it is on a foreign network. The Home Agent maintains an association
between the home IP address of the Mobile Node and its care-of address, which
is the current location of the Mobile Node on the foreign or visited network
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• GSM is a digital cellular system designed to support a wide variety of
services, depending on the user contract and the network and mobile
equipment capabilities.
• In GSM terminology, telecommunication services are divided into two
broad categories:
Bearer services are telecommunication services providing to send and
receive data to/from remote computers or mobile phones. Bearer
services is also known as data services. Like SMS,e-mail,voice mailbox
and internet access.
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Teleservices are telecommunication services providing the complete
capability, including terminal equipment functions, for
communication between users according to protocols established by
agreement between network operators.
In addition to these services, supplementary services are defined that
modify or supplement a basic telecommunication service.
Bearer services:
• Data services or Bearer Services are used through a GSM phone. to receive and
send data is the essential building block leading to widespread mobile Internet
access and mobile data transfer.
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• GSM currently has a data transfer rate of 9.6k. New developments that will push up
data transfer rates for GSM users are HSCSD (high speed circuit switched data) and
GPRS (general packet radio service) are now available.

Teleservices:
• A variety of enhanced services via telephone, including faxon-demand, voicemail
and computer telephone integration.
• Teleservices are services offered by a mobile service network to a caller.
• Voice Calls/ Telephony- The most basic Teleservice supported by GSM is
telephony. This includes full-rate speech at 13 kbps and emergency calls, where the
nearest emergency-service provider is notified by dialing three digits.
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• Video text and Facsmile- Another group of teleservices includes Videotext access,
Teletex transmission, Facsmile alternate speech and Facsmile Group 3, Automatic
Facsmile Group, 3 etc.

Teleservices:
• Short Text Messages- Short Messaging Service (SMS) service is a text messaging
service that allows sending and receiving text messages on your GSM mobile
phone. In addition to simple text messages, other text data including news, sports,

financial, language, and location-based data can also be transmitted.

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Supplementary Services:
• Supplementary services are additional services that are provided in
addition to teleservices and bearer services.
• These services include caller identification, call forwarding, call
waiting, multi-party conversations, and barring of outgoing
(international) calls, among others.
Supplementary Services:
Conferencing : It allows a mobile subscriber to establish a multiparty conversation,
i.e., a simultaneous conversation between three or more subscribers to setup a
conference call
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Call Waiting : This service notifies a mobile subscriber of an incoming call during a
conversation.
Call Hold : This service allows a subscriber to put an incoming call on hold and
resume after a while.
Call Forwarding : Call Forwarding is used to divert calls from the original recipient to
another number
Supplementary Services:

Call Barring is useful to restrict certain types of outgoing calls such as ISD or stop
incoming calls from undesired numbers
Advice of Charge (AoC) : This service was designed to give the subscriber an
indication of the cost of the services as they are used.
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Closed User Groups (CUGs) : This service is meant for groups of subscribers who
wish to call only each other and no one else.
Unstructured supplementary services data (USSD) : This allows operator-defined
individual services
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VoIP
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VoIP
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Communication Systems
 Communication Systems

Cellular Concepts
Modes of Data Transmission
Communication Systems

Spread Spectrum Techniques

1) FHSS
2) DSSS / CDMA
Modes of Data Transmission
Communication Systems

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum : FHSS

This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies of
usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency hopping.
For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time. Now, after a
while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first frequency, which
was previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure
transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.
Communication Systems
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum : DSSS
Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit
of the user data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code.
This chipping code is nothing but the spreading code which is multiplied with the
original message and transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the
original message.
Communication Systems
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
Modes of Data Transmission
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is a feature of the IEEE Wi-
Fi 6 (802.11ax) standard.
OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a form of signal waveform or
modulation that provides some significant advantages for data links.
This feature allows data transmission signals to be split into smaller signals. Your
router sends these small signals directly to individual devices in your network.
Because multiple devices can be served in the same transmission window, your
router doesn’t have to wait for medium access for every packet. This method of
communication increases network speed and efficiency.
Accordingly, OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is used for many of
the latest wide bandwidth and high data rate wireless systems including Wi-Fi,
cellular telecommunications and many more.
The fact that OFDM uses a large number of carriers, each carrying low bit rate data.
Communication Systems
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
The benefits from using a standard that supports OFDMA include:

Improved data transmission between every device in your network

Modes of Data Transmission
Greatly improved network efficiency (less waiting for data transmission)
Greatly improved latency for small packet transmission
Improved communication between your router and your devices
Improved battery life for your devices

Note: Devices enter a sleep state after data transmission.

Communication Systems
Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC – FDMA)

It is not possible to use OFDMA on the uplink since, as told before, it presents a high
Peak-to-average Power Ratio.
SC-FDMA (Singe Carrier FDMA) presents the benefit of a single carrier multiplexing of
having a lower Peak-to-average Power Ratio.
Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) is a frequency-division multiple access scheme. It is
also called linearly precoded OFDMA (LP-OFDMA). Like other multiple access
schemes (TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, OFDMA), it deals with the assignment of multiple
users to a shared communication resource.
Especially in the uplink communications where lower peak-to-average power ratio
(PAPR) greatly benefits the mobile terminal in terms of transmit power efficiency
Modes of Data Transmission
and reduced cost of the power amplifier. It has been adopted as the uplink multiple
access scheme in 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE), or Evolved UTRA (E-UTRA)
Communication Systems
Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC – FDMA)

It is not possible to use OFDMA on the uplink since, as told before, it presents a high
Peak-to-average Power Ratio.
SC-FDMA (Singe Carrier FDMA) presents the benefit of a single carrier multiplexing of
having a lower Peak-to-average Power Ratio.
On SC-FDMA before applying the IFFT the symbols are pre coded by a DFT (Discrete
Fourier Transform).
This way each subcarrier after de IFFT will contain part of each symbol.
Looking to the figure bellow it is possible to see the difference between SCFDMA
and OFDMS.
Also, it is possible to notice that the intersymbol interference will be reduced since all
subcarriers on a period of time represent the same symbol.
Modes of Data Transmission