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Vision & Mission
Vision
 To establish a pedestal for the integral innovation, team spirit, originality and
competence in the students, expose them to face the global challenges and become
pioneers of Indian vision of modern society.
Mission
 To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and
Management.
 To impart holistic education to the students to render them as industry ready
engineers.
 To ensure synchronization of institute ideologies with challenging demands of
International Pioneering Organizations.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
A B.Tech –graduate should possess the following program outcomes.
1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2 Problem analysis: Identify ,formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9 Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams ,and in multi disciplinary settings.
10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large ,such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation ,make effective
presentations ,and give and receive clear instructions.
11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as
a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multi disciplinary
environments.
12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
B. TECH- I- YEAR- I &II-SEM

L T P C
- - 3 1.5
(R22A0082) APPLIED PHYSICS LAB
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
1. To experience the mechanical oscillations and resonance phenomena.
2. To verify the concepts of light.
3. To analyze voltage/current phase behavior of RC and LCR circuits.
4. To study the characteristics of semiconductor devices.
5. To understand the concepts of laser.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Melde’s experiment –Frequency of electrical vibrator.
2. Newton’s Rings –Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens.
3. Laser -Wave length of light by using Diffraction grating.
4. CR circuit – Time constant of an RC circuit.
5. LCR Circuit- Quality factor and resonant frequency of LCR circuit.
6. LED -Characteristics of LED.
7. Solar cell -Characteristics of a Solar cell.
8. Optical fiber- Numerical aperture of an optical fiber.
9. Torsional pendulum-Rigidity modulus of given wire (demonstrative).
10. Hall Effect – Hall coefficient of semiconducting samples (demonstrative).
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Practical physics by Dr. Aparna, Dr K.V Rao, V.G.S.Publications.
2. Engineering physics practical lab manual – MRCET.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
1 Students can compare the elastic constants of different metallic wires, and also
determine the ac frequency of vibrating bar.
2 Students can illustrate the interference of light phenomena.
3 Wavelength of the given laser can be determined by using diffraction phenomenon
4 By understanding electrical principles, Time constant of RC and resonance
phenomenon of LCR circuits can be analyzed.
5 V-I characteristics of various semiconductor devices can be illustrated.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
B. TECH- I- YEAR- I &II-SEM
L T P C
- - 3 1.5
(R22A0082) ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY LAB
(Any Eight Experiments Compulsory)
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The students will be able:

1. To understand and explain scientifically the various chemistry related problems in the
industry/engineering and develop experimental skills for building technical competence.
2. To familiarize with the practical implementation of fundamental concepts.
3. To gain hands on experience in handling the instruments.
4. To demonstrate the digital and instrumental methods of analysis.
5. To correlate the practical aspects with theoretical concepts.
List of Experiments
Titrimetry:
1. Estimation of Hardness of water by EDTA method.
2. Estimation of Ferrous ion by Dichrometry
Instrumental Methods
Conductometry:
3. Estimation of concentration of HCl by Conductometric titrations.
4. Estimation of concentration of Acetic acid by Conductometric titrations.
Potentiometry:
5. Estimation of concentration of HCl by Potentiometric titrations.
6. Estimation of amount of Fe2+ by Potentiometric titration using KMnO4.
Colorimetry:
7. Estimation of Copper by Colorimetric method.
Preparation
8. Preparation of a Polymer-Bakelite
Physical Property
9. Determination of Surface Tension of a given liquid by Stalagmometer.
Corrosion control method
10. Electroplating of Copper on an Iron object.
Text Book:
1. Inorganic quantitative analysis, Vogel
2. A text book on experiments and calculation in Engineering Chemistry by S.S. Dara
Suggested Readings:
1. Practical Engineering Chemistry by K. Mukkanti, etal, B.S. Publications, Hyderabad.
2. Text Book of engineering chemistry by R. N. Goyal and HarrmendraGoel, Ane
Books Private Ltd.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
The students will be able:
1. To estimate the total hardness present in a sample of water.
2. To know the strength of an acid by conductometric and potentiometric methods.
3. To find the amount of Cu2+ present in unknown sample using colorimetric method.
4. To prepare a thermosetting polymer.
5. To determine the surface tension of a given liquid.
6. To understand the electroplating method for corrosion protection of metals.
CODE OF CONDUCT
1. Students should bring lab Manual/Record for every laboratory session and should enter
the readings/observations in the manual while performing the experiment.
2. The group- wise division made in the beginning should be adhered to, and no mix up of
students among different groups will be permitted later.
3. The components required pertaining to the experiment should be collected from stores
in –charge after duly filling in the requisition form.
4. When the experiment is completed, students should disconnect the setup made by them,
and should return all the components/instruments taken for the purpose.
5. Any damage to the apparatus that occurs during the experiment should be brought to the
notice of lab in-charge, consequently, the cost of repair or new apparatus should be
brought by the students.
6. After completion of the experiment, certification of the concerned staff in –charge in
the observation book is necessary.
7. Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduled duration.
8. Students should not carry any food items inside the laboratory.
9. Use of cell phones and IPODs are forbidden.
10. Students should not write on or deface any lab desks, computers, or any equipment
provided to them during the experiment.
11. Every student should keep his/her work area properly before leaving the laboratory.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB CONTENTS
PAGE
S.NO NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
NUMBER
1 Melde’s experiment – Frequency of electrical vibrator. 1-6
2 Newton’s Rings – Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens. 7-14
3 Laser - Wave length of light by using Diffraction grating. 15-19
4 CR circuit – Time constant of an RC circuit. 20-27
5 LCR Circuit - Quality factor and resonant frequency of LCR circuit. 28-36
6 LED - Characteristics of LED. 37-41
7 Solar cell - Characteristics of a Solar cell. 42-47
8 Optical fiber - Numerical aperture of an optical fiber. 48-52
9 Torsional pendulum - Rigidity modulus of given wire (demonstrative). 53-60

Hall Effect – Hall coefficient of semiconducting samples 61-68
10
(demonstrative).
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY LAB CONTENTS
S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE NO.
Common apparatus and terms used in Chemistry Laboratory 69-75
1 Estimation of Hardness of water by EDTA method 76-83
2 Estimation of Ferrous ion by Dichrometry 84-87
3 Estimation of concentration of HCl by Conductometric Titrations 88-93
4 Estimation of concentration of Acetic acid by Conductometric Titration 94-99
5 Estimation of concentration of HCl by Potentiometric Titrations 100-105
6 Estimation of amount of Fe2+ by Potentiometric Titration using KMno4 106-110
7 Estimation of Copper by Colorimetric method 111-116
8 Preparation of Polymer - Bakelite 117-120
9 Determination of Surface Tension of a given liquid using Stalagmometer 121-125
10 Electroplating of Copper on an Iron object 126-129

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES APPLIED PHYSICS LAB
1. MELDE’S EXPERIMENT–FREQUENCY OF ELECTRICAL VIBRATOR.

Aim: To determine the Frequency of a vibrating tuning fork using Melde’s Arrangement.
Apparatus: Connecting wires, Meter scale, thread, pan, weight box, smooth pulley fixed to a
stand, electrically maintained vibrator or a tuning fork, Battery eliminator, EM coil.
Formulae:
1 √𝑇
1. Longitudinal arrangement: 𝑛 = Hz.
√𝑚 𝐿
1 √𝑇
2. Transverse arrangement: 𝑛= Hz.
2√𝑚 𝐿
Where, m = mass per unit length of the string or Linear density of the thread (gm/cm)
L = Length of the single loop (cm)
T = Tension in thread.
1
Note: We know from the formulae, that in the case of longitudinal arrangement it is while
𝐿
1
in the case of transverse arrangement it is 2𝐿
Description:
One end of the thin thread is connected to a small screw provided on one of the
prongs of the tuning fork, the other end of the
thread is connected to a light cardboard pan and
the thread is passed over a pulley fixed on to a
stand kept at a distance of 1 – 2 meters from the
fork. Small weights are placed in the pan so that
the sufficient tension is created to the string. The
tension in the string can be altered by changing
the weights in the pan.
Longitudinal and Transverse vibrations
The tuning fork is arranged for longitudinal
vibrations as shown in figure i.e., the vibrations
of the prong are parallel to the length of the
thread. After noting the observations in this
position, the tuning fork is arranged for
Transverse vibrations i.e., the vibrations of the
prong are perpendicular to the length of the
thread. In other words, In transverse wave the
prong should vibrate perpendicular to the thread.
MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in
1
Procedure:
1. The apparatus (tuning fork) is first arranged longitudinal vibrations with the length of the
string 1-2 meters and passing over the pulley. The electric circuit is closed and adjusted
till the fork vibrates steadily.
2. The load in the pan is adjusted slowly, till a convenient number of loops (say between
(3–10) with well – defined nodes and maximum amplitude at the antinodes are formed,
the vibrations of the string being in the vertical plane.
3. The No. of Loops (x) formed in the string between the pulley and the fork is noted. The
length of the string between the pulley and the fork (d) is noted.
𝑑
4. The length (L) of a single loop is calculated by:𝐿 = 𝑥 𝑐𝑚.
5. The experiment is repeated by changing the load M. So that the number of loops
increased or decreased by one. The readings are tabulated in Table I.
6. Next, the fork or vibrator is arranged for the transverse vibrations as in fig(b). The
experiment is repeated as was done for the longitudinal vibrations and the readings are
tabulated in table II.
7. At the end of the experiment, the mass m of the pan, the mass of the string ‘w’ and the
length ‘y’ of the string are noted.
Observations:
Mass of the string (w) = --------------- gm
Length of the string (y) = -------------- cm
Mass of the pan (𝑚′ ) = ------------------ gm
Mass per unit length (or) Linear density ‘m’ = ------------------------gm/cm
Table I: Longitudinal Arrangement:
Load Length Length

No. of of each
Applied in Tension of (x) √𝑇
S.No Loops √𝑇
the pan T=(𝑀 + 𝑚′ ) g Loops Loop
𝐿
(x) 𝑑
(M) gm (d) 𝐿=𝑥
√𝑇
Average value of 𝐿
2
Table II: Transverse Arrangement:

.
Load Length Length of
No. of
Applied Tension of x each loop √𝑇
S. No Loops √𝑇
in the pan T = (M+m1) g loops 𝑑
𝐿
(x) 𝐿=𝑥
M gm (d)
√𝑇
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑜𝑓
𝐿
Precautions:
1. The loops must be well-defined.
2. The plane of vibration of the thread must be vertical.
3. In counting the loop lengths, the two extreme ends must be taken into account.
Result:
1. Frequency of a tuning fork in longitudinal arrangement is ___________ Hz
2. Frequency of a tuning fork in Transverse arrangement is _____________ Hz.
Applications:
1. Melde’s experiment helps us understanding the formation of standing waves with nodes and
anti nodes.
2. By measuring the distance between nodes and anti nodes are in between nodes and anti nodes
the wavelengths can be calculated.
3. With the help of this wavelength and knowing the frequencies the velocity of propagation of
the waves can be also determined.
4. In melde’s experiment the vibrations of the electrically excited tuning fork can be transmitted
as mechanical waves along the thread.
5. We can determine the frequency of electrically driven Tuning fork in transverse longitudinal
arrangement.
6. By calculating the sound frequency through this experiment it can serve multiple benefits to
medical science.
3
VIVA VOICE QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1 Define the term frequency. What are the units and dimensional formula of frequency?
Frequency is defined as the number of cycles passing through a fixed point (i.e., oscillations
or vibrations or revolutions) per unit time. Frequency is also defined as the number of waves
that passes a fixed point in the given time.Its unit is sec-1 or Hertz. Dimensional formula is
[𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 −1 ]
2 What are the laws of stretched strings in terms of frequency?
Frequency is inversely proportional to length of string
Frequency is proportional to the root of the tension
Frequency is inversely proportional to the root of the linear density of the string.
3 Define Resonance?
When natural frequency of a body is equal to applied frequency due to external periodic
force then the body executes sympathetic vibrations and the phenomenon is known as
resonance.
4 What are longitudinal and transverse waves? Give example for each.
Longitudinal and transverse waves are Mechanical Waves i.e., the waves which propagate
through a material medium (mostly gases) at a wave speed which depends on the elastic and
inertial properties of that medium. Longitudinal waves are the waves in which the medium
particles vibrate parallel or along the direction of propagation of the wave.
Example: Sound waves in air are longitudinal waves.
Transverse waves are the waves in which the medium particles vibrate perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
Example: Electromagnetic wave; ripple in water and a waves generated on a musical
instruments.
5 What are nodes and antinodes?
Region of zero or minimum displacement of wave is called nodes and the region of
maximum displacement of wave is called antinodes.
6 What is a Stationary wave?
A stationary wave superposition of incident waves and reflected transverse waves in opposite
direction between any two fixed points is known as stationary wave.
7 What is the distance between two consecutive nodes?
The distance between successive nodes (or successive antinodes) is half a wavelength (λ/2).
8 What is the distance between a node and next immediate antinode?
The distance between node and next immediate antinode is quarter of a wavelength (λ/4).
9 What is linear density?
It is defined as the mass per unit length of the thread. Its unit is gm/cm in CGS and kg/m in
MKS (or SI).
4
5
6
2. NEWTON’S RINGS
Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of Plano convex lens by using Newton’s rings
arrangement.
Apparatus: Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, Plano convex lens, a thick glass
plate (P1), a thin glass plate (P2), a black paper and reading lens.
Formula:
𝐷𝑛 2 −𝐷𝑚 2
Radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens 𝑅 =
4𝜆(𝑛−𝑚)
R = Radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens
𝐷𝑛 = Diameter of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ ring.
𝐷𝑚 = Diameter of the 𝑚𝑡ℎ ring.
𝜆 = Wavelength of the light source
Description:
A black paper is laid on the base of the traveling microscope over which the thick
glass plate p1 is placed. Over this thick glass plate, a Plano convex lens F of large focal
length is placed. A parallel beam of light from the sodium lamp is made to fall on the glass
0
plate P2 , inclined at 45 with the horizontal as shown in the figure 1. A beam of light is
reflected on to the large focus lens by the glass plate P2 . As a result of interference between
the light reflected from the lower surface of the lens and the top surface of the thick glass
plate, concentric rings called the Newton’s rings are formed. The observed rings are with
alternate bright and dark rings, having a central black spot as seen through the microscope.
7
Procedure:
1. The point of intersection of the cross-wires in the microscope is brought to the center
of the ring system, The wire may be set tangential to any one of the ring; and starting
from the centre of the ring system.
2. The microscope is moved on to one side (say) left across the field of view counting the
number of rings.
3. After passing beyond 10th or 15th ring, the direction of motion of the microscope is
reversed and the cross-wires is set at the 10th or 15th dark ring, tangential to it.
4. The reading on the microscope scale is noted, using a magnifying glass.
5. Similarly, the readings with the cross-wires is set on 10th, 8th, 6th --- --- --- 2nd dark
ring the readings are noted.
6. The microscope is moved in the same direction and the readings corresponding to the
2nd, 4th, 6th --- --- --- 10th, dark ring on right side are noted.
7. Readings are to be noted with the microscope moving in one and the same direction to
avoid errors due to backlash.
8. The observations are tabulated in table .
Graph:
A graph is drawn with number of rings as abscissa (x-axis) and the square of diameter of the
ring as the ordinate (y-axis). The graph will be a straight line. From graph, the value of
(𝐷𝑛 2 𝑎𝑚𝑑 𝐷𝑚 2 ) corresponding to two numbers 𝒏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒎 are noted. Using
these values in equation (2) the radius of curvature is calculated
8
9
Precautions:
1. While taking observations, the microscope should be moved only in one direction to avoid
the error due to back-lash.
2. The lens and glass plate must be perfectly clean.
3. The slow motion screw of the microscope must be used while taking readings.
4. The central spot must be dark.
RESULT:
The radius of the curvature of the given Plano convex lens is 𝑹𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 = ………… cm.
𝑹𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 = ……………cm.
Applications:
1. The wavelength of unknown source can be determined.
2. Standardisation of a meter can be done.
3. Optical flatness of surface can be determined.
4. Refractive index of a liquid can be estimated.
10

1 What is the basic principle of Newton’s rings experiment ?
The basic principle illustration of the interference of light waves reflected from the
opposite surfaces of a thin film of variable of Newton’s rings experiment is
Interference phenomenon in thin films. The phenomenon of Newton’s rings is an
thickness.
2 Define Interference ?
It is superposition of two or more coherent waves giving rise for bright and dark
fringes of equal width.
3 Why the rings are circular ?
The air film formed below the Plano convex lens where the rings are observed, is
plano concave. The path difference along the circle is constant that’s why the rings
are circular in this experiment
4 What are Newton’s Rings ?Alternate dark and bright rings with central dark spot are
called Newton’s rings.
5 Why it is necessary for the light to fall normally on Plano convex lens ?
In the path difference 2μt Cos r of thin films ,angle of refraction r should be zero(Cos
r=1).This is possible only when light rays are made to incident vertically on the air
film enclosed, by means of the glass plate kept at 450 with respect to the incident
beam from the source.
6 What is constructive interference and destructive interference?
When two light waves interfere at each other such that the resultant intensity at a
point increases due to crest falling on crest or trough falling on the trough. This
interference is called constructive interference.
If crest falls on the trough or trough falls on the crest, there is annihilation or
cancellation of the wave. Hence the resultant intensity is zero and it is called
destructive interference.
7 What is the purpose of glass plate incline at 𝟒𝟓° in this experiment ?
For normal incidence of light wave.
8 Why the centre of the rings is dark ?
Because the Plano convex lens and the plane glass plate are in contact and
corresponding to that particular point of contact the centre ring appears dark.
9 Which light do we use in this experiment ?
Monochromatic light. Example: Sodium light, refractive index, radius of curvature of
the lens, in designing interferometer.
10 If we replace yellow light with green light, is there any difference in the
formation of rings ?
No, because both are monochromatic lights only.
11 What will happen if we use white light in this experiment ?
Colored fringes will form.
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3. WAVE LENGTH OF LASER BEAM

Aim: To determine the wavelength of laser beam.
Apparatus: Laser source, Diffraction Grating, Screen and Meter Scale.
Principle: The wavelength of the laser can be determined by using diffraction due to N Slits.
When light rays are incident on a grating a diffraction pattern with intensity maxima will be
observed on the screen with diminishing intensity in various orders.
Formula:
sin 𝜃 °
𝜆= 𝐴
𝑁𝑛
Where, ‘’ is the angle of diffraction
‘’ is the wavelength of the laser beam (1Ao =10-8cm)
‘N’ is the number of lines per cm of the grating. (1 Inch= 2.54 cm)
[For 15000 LPI ‘N’ is 5905.5 /cm and For 2500 LPI ‘N’ is 984.25/cm.]
‘n’ is the order of diffraction.
Procedure:
1 Arrange the laser source and grating on the table at the same height.
2 Focus the laser beam on the grating and observe the diffraction pattern formed
on the screen.
3 It will be observed that central maxima will be of maximum intensity and the other
maxima’s are of decreasing intensities. Measure the distance between the screen and grating.
4 Measure the distance between the corresponding maxima of the same order (2x cm).
5 The experiment is repeated for different values of ‘d’ and the readings are noted.
6 The value of wavelength is calculated for each value obtained using the formula
𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = and the average value of wavelength is determined.
√𝒙𝟐 +𝒅𝟐
15
Tabular form:
Distance The distance

between between 𝒙
Order 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = sin 𝜃
S No. screen and corresponding
(n) 𝒙 cm √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒅𝟐 𝜆= 𝑐𝑚
grating maxima (2x) 𝑁𝑛
(d) cm (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Average
Precautions :
1. Do not view the laser beam through naked eye.
2. The measurements are to be done accurately.
Result :
The wavelength of the laser beam is ______________A0
16

1 What is LASER?
The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a
device which produces a powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of light in which the waves
are coherent.
2 What are the characteristic of laser ?
Laser have high intensity, high coherence, high monochoromation and high directionality with
less divergence.
3 What is the principle of LASER?
The principle of a laser is based on three separate features: a) stimulated emission b) population
inversion and c) an optical pumping.
4 What is diffraction?
Diffraction is the bending or spreading of light through narrow apertures or corners of obstacles
and enter into the geometric shadow.
5 What is grating element?
(e+d) is known as grating element where e is the slit width and d is the separation between the
two ruled lines or slits.
6 What is wavelength?
The distance between any two successive points in the wave train which have the same phase is
called the wavelength.
7 What is monochromatic light?
Light source having single colour or single wavelength or single frequency is called
monochromatic light.
8 What is the function of optical resonator?
To amplify or increase the intensity of active medium.
9 What is meta stable state?
Meta stable state is intermediate state and it has a longer lifetime.
10 What is population inversion?
The number of atoms in exited state is more than that of ground state.
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4. CR CIRCUIT
Aim: To study the growth and decay of current in a C- R Circuit and to determine RC time
constant.
Apparatus: C-R circuit board consisting of fixed power supply, Connecting wires, Analog
Voltmeter, combinations of Resistor & capacitors, stop clock.
Formula:
Time constant 𝛕 = 𝐑 × 𝐂 seconds.
Where , R is resistance.
C is capacitance.
Theory:
Current, when passed by keeping key closed CR circuit, current will not reach
maximum value immediately. It takes certain time to attain maximum value. Theoretically it
is shown that Either CURENT or VOLTAGE or CHARGE. Grows exponentially as per the
equation 1 below.
When the key is opened the circuit will be broken. Charge in the condenser
discharges. The discharge is also exponentially as per the equation 2 below
In CR circuit when switch on put on the charge on the condenser (c) grows
exponentially as per
−𝐭⁄
𝐐 = 𝐐𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝐞 𝐂𝐑 )
Where, Q is the charge in time t; and Q0 is the maximum charge.

The charge grows to maximum value 0.632 of the total charge (Q0) in t sec. This t, is
called time consistent. It depends on product of R & C. Time constant (t) , can be determined
by measuring values of R & C as shown in the table I.
Similarly when current is switched off the charge on the condenser is also discharged as
−𝒕⁄
𝑸 = 𝑸𝟎 𝒆 𝑪𝑹 .
In both the cases of charging and discharging, the equations represent exponential
nature as shown in the graphs below.
Procedure:
To study the charge of a capacitor. By charging and discharging
The experiment arrangement for the study of the charging and discharging of a
condenser through a resistance is shown in fig. A condenser of capacity C, resistance R, a tap
key K are to be connected to a battery B. Connect a voltmeter, V parallel to the condenser, by
20
means of which the potential difference across the plates of the condenser can be measured.
Adjust the voltmeter knob so that it reads zero. Switch on the power supply, press the tap key
K and simultaneously start a stop clock. When the tap key, K is pressed the current flows and
the plates of the condenser get charged. Note the voltmeter reading, V at suitable regular
intervals of time ( say 5 seconds) till the voltage a maximum value 𝑉0 i.e., the condenser gets
fully charged. Note the observations in table 1. Repeat the experiment for different sets of R
and C values.
21
Observations:
1. Capacitance (C) = …………………… 𝜇𝐹.
2. Resistance (R) = …………………… kΩ.
Charging Discharging
Time (t) Voltmeter readings Time (t) Voltmeter readings

S.No S.No
sec VOLTS sec VOLTS
22
Precautions:
1. In the circuit note that resistance is in 𝑲𝛀 but the capacitance is in 𝝁𝑭. Select the
values carefully.
2. Give the connections carefully as per the circuit diagram.
3. Readings should be noted quickly and correctly during charging and discharging.
4. The growth and decay take infinite time interval theoretically. But takes certain time
to reach final values practically.
Result:
R= C=
Time constant (𝝉) Charging Discharging
Theoretical
Graphical
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1. What is capacitor?
A capacitor is a device which stores electric energy at very low potential.
2. What is the purpose of Capacitors?
Capacitors are used to store electrical energy to improve the efficiency of electrical gadgets
3. What the resistor will do?
It will oppose the flow of charge.
4. What is Time constant?
It is the time taken for exponential growth or decay of charge in an RC circuit. It is known as
time constant. It is given by the product of resistance and capacitance of CR-circuit denoted
by 𝝉 = RC. The time constant determines nature of the charging and discharging.
5. What is capacitance?
The ratio of magnitude of the charge to the applied voltage of a capacitor.
i.e., Q α V → C = Q/V
6. Define potential?
The electric potential at a point in the electric field is defined as the work done to carry unit
charge within the electric field.
7. What is the nature of Time Vs Voltage (or current) graph?
Exponentially voltage or charge are increasing during charging and exponential decreasing
during discharging of the RC circuit.
8. Describe the types of capacitor?
Non electrolyte capacitors and electrolyte capacitors.
9. Give the unit of capacitor?
Farad
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5. L C R SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT

Aim:To study the frequency response of a series and parallel LCR circuits and to determine
resonant frequency, band width, and quality factor of the circuit.
Apparatus: LCR Trainer kit, Function Generator and connecting wires.
Formula:
Band width ∆𝒇 = 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏
𝟏
Resonant frequency in series𝒇𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
𝟏
Resonant frequency in parallel𝒇𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
𝒇𝟎
Quality factor, 𝑸 = 𝒇
𝟐 −𝒇𝟏
Here C is capacitance of the capacitor in Farads

∆𝒇 is Bandwidth of resonant circuit
𝒇𝟎 is the resonant frequency in Hz.
𝒇𝟏 and 𝒇𝟐 are the lower and upper cut off frequencies or half power frequencies in Hz.
Procedure:
LCR in series:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Apply input signal using signal generator. The output should be 10V only.
3. Take the output across the resistor and feed it to Ammeter input sockets.
4. Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records a sharp rise and fall, adjust the signal such that
the ammeter deflection is the maximum possible. This is the resonance frequency of the
connected combination of the circuit.
5. Adjust the signal generator amplitude such that to get full-scale deflection. In Ammeter
now reduce the frequency till the deflection falls considerably. Then increase the frequency
in regular intervals and note down the Ammeter readings.
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6. Plot a graph between the current and frequency.

7. Repeat the procedure using different combinations of L,C & R and study how Q is affected.
Also study how resonant frequency depends upon different combinations of L,C, R.
LCR in parallel:
1 Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2 Apply input signal using signal generator. The output should be 10V only.
3 Take the output across the tank circuit and connected to Ammeter input sockets.
4 Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records a sharp fall, adjust the signal such that the
ammeter deflection falls down considerably. Then increase the frequency
5 Adjust the signal generator amplitude such that to get full-scale deflection. Now reduce the
frequency till the deflection falls down considerably. Then increase the frequency in regular
intervals and note down the Ammeter readings.
6 Plot a graph between the current and frequency.
7 Repeat the procedure for different values of R and study how Q is affected. Also study how
resonant frequency depends upon different combinations of L,C, R.
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Table:
Resistance R = …………
Capacitance of capacitor C = …………
Inductance of an inductor L =................
Frequency Current (I) mA Frequency Current (I) mA
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Precautions:
1. The output voltage of the signal generator should be kept constant for every
frequency.
2. The readings should be taken on either side of 𝒇𝟎 .
3. R should be less in series circuit and it should be very large in parallel circuit.
4. R should be 10 times the output impedance of the signal generator.
Result:
Verified the Resonant Frequency of LCR in series.
Resonant
Quality factor
frequency Band Width
Type of Resonance 𝒇𝟎
𝟏 ∆𝒇 = 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏 𝑸=
𝒇𝟎 = ∆𝒇
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
Series Resonance
Parallel Resonance
Applications:
1. LCR circuit helps in understanding oscillatory discharging or charging of the
condenser through L and R.
2. In series circuit maximum current is possible at resonance condition.
3. In parallel LCR circuit voltage is maximum at resonance condition.
4. Using LCR circuit the production of electromagnetic waves can be designed.
5. This is the starting basic point for electro communication engineering.
6. LCR circuit is best example of realizing the electrical resonance process.
7. Analogically mechanical resonance in terms of frequencies or energies can also be
realized in mechanically damped oscillation.
1. What is the purpose of Inductors?

Inductors are also used to store electrical energy but in capacitors the energy is stored
in terms of electric fields and in inductors the energy is stored in terms of magnetic
fields.
2. What will happen if both capacitor and inductor are connected in a circuit?
When a capacitor and an inductor are combined in a single circuit the energy can be
traded back and forth between them at any given time. This leads to oscillations in the
circuit. (e.g.: radio receiver).
3. What is quality factor?
It is the ratio of resonant frequency to the band width.i.e., Q = f0 / ∆f
where ∆𝑓 = (𝑓2 – 𝑓1) is the band width.
The Q, quality factor, of a resonant circuit is a measure of the “goodness” or quality
of a resonant circuit. A higher value Q corresponds to a narrower bandwidth, which is
desirable in many applications.
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4. What is Bandwidth?
The bandwidth is defined as the difference between the frequencies f1 and f2
i.e. ∆𝑓 = (𝑓2 – 𝑓1)
5. What is impedance?
It is the ratio between maximum voltage values to the current value
i.e., Z = Vmax / I . It is the resistance term used in AC circuits
6. What is resonant frequency?
The maximum current or voltage frequency at which inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance components are equal in an ac circuit is known as resonant
frequency.
7. LCR series circuit is called Acceptor. Why?
Since the series resonant circuit has the lowest possible impedance resonance
frequency, thus allowing the AC current to circulate through it.
8. What is the relation between impedance and current in this series circuit?
Inversely proportional
9. What is the status of a current in series and parallel connections?
In LCR series the current is high compared to LCR in parallel where the current is
low.
10. What are the types of resonances?
Electrical, electronic, mechanical, magnetic, optical, sound, electron spin resonance
(ESR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) etc.
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6. LED CHARACTERISTICS
Aim: To study the V-I characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.

Apparatus: LED characteristic board, Power supply, Analog/Digital voltmeter and
Ammeter, LED & connectors.
Theory:
LED is an Opto-electronic device which works on the principle of
electroluminescence, the process that converts electrical input into a light output. This device
basically consists of a direct band gap Semiconductor material doped with impurities to
create a structure called p-n junction.
Under forward bias, the positive voltage is applied to the p-region and
negative to the n-region. The holes and electrons are pushed towards the junction. The charge
carriers that diffuse through p-n junction recombine with the majority carriers on the other
side and emit photons whose energy is equal to the difference of conduction and valence
band of the semiconductor (band gap of semiconductor).
𝐸𝑔 = 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑉 = ℎ𝜐
Where, 𝜐 = frequency of emitted photons
h = plank’s constant.
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. Connect the LED circuit as shown in fig.
2. Slowly increase the forward bias voltage with the help of
voltage controller.
3. Note down the corresponding voltage and current readings in
the table.
4. Plot a graph between Voltage v/s Current and find forward
resistance of diode.
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Table :
VOLTAGE CURRENT
Sl. No.
(V) I (m A)
Precautions:
1. Do not Exceed current limit of 30mA else the laser diode may get damaged.
2. Do not look at the laser directly with the laser turned on.
3. It is extremely damaging to apply a large reverse bias to a laser diode.
Result:
V-I Characteristics of LED are studied.
The threshold voltage for given LED is ……….. V.
Applications:
1. Sign Applications with LEDs: The low energy consumption, low maintenance, and small
size of LEDs have led to uses as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment
and installations.
2. Lighting: The mechanical robustness and long lifetime LEDs are used in automotive
lighting on cars, motorcycles, and bicycle lights.
3. Data communication and other signaling: Light can be used to transmit data and analog
signals. For example, lighting white LEDs can be used in systems assisting people in
navigating in closed spaces while searching necessary rooms or objects.
4. Machine vision systems: Barcode scanners are the most common example of machine
vision applications, and many of those scanners use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical
computer mice use LEDs as a light source for the miniature camera within the mouse.
5. Biological detection: UV induced fluorescence is one of the most robust techniques used
for rapid real-time detection of biological aerosols.
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1 What are the applications of LED ?

LEDs, indicator lamps in electronic devices , traffic signals, digital display, burger
alarams etc.
2 What is a LED ?
LED is a Light Emitting Diode which works on the principle of electroluminescence.
3 What is the principle involved behind the emission of light from LEDs ?
Electroluminescence
4 If we increase the LED voltage what happened to LED current ?
LED current increases non-linearly.
5 How is a LED different from other light sources ?
LED consumes less energy and is in toxic compared to incandescent fluorescent light
bulbs. It has much longer life time. For example, a 60-watt incandescent light bulb
draws more than $300 worth of electricity per year and provides about 800 lumens of
light; an equivalent compact fluorescent uses less than 15 watts and costs only about
$75 of electricity per year. LED bulbs are even better, drawing less than 8 watts of
power, costing about $30 per year, and lasting 50,000 hours or longer.
6 What is dynamic resistance ?
Due to the non-linear nature of Current-Voltage curve, there exists a unique value of
resistance at every point of the curve which is called dynamic resistance.
7 What are the materials used in LED ?
GaAs, GaAsP, GaP
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7. SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To determine the characteristics of solar cell and calculate fill factor.
Apparatus required: Solar cell trainer kit, Solar cell, Variable light source
Formula:
𝐼 ×𝑉
Fill factor= 𝐼𝑚× 𝑉𝑚
𝑠𝑐 𝑜𝑐
Where, 𝐼𝑚 is maximum current 𝐼𝑠𝑐 is short circuit current
𝑉𝑚 is maximum voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑐 is open circuit voltage
Theory:
If the depletion of unbiased junction is illuminated, charge separation takes place,
resulting in forward bias on the junction. Such device having large area junction very close to
the surface is capable of delivering power and is known as SOLAR CELL. The cell converts
directly solar energy into electricity.
The Solar Cell radiation is proportional to the delivered power of cell. The efficiency
of a cell is expressed in terms of the electrical power output compared with the power in the
incident Photon Flux. The efficiency of Solar Cell depends on the fraction of light reflected
from the surface and the fraction absorbed before reaching the junction. Silicon is widely
used for Solar Cells.
Procedure:
1. Place solar cell directly in front of variable intensity light source, and connect solar
cell to trainer kit.
2. Keep constant intensity of variable light source and distance from solar cell to the
source.
3. Connect the circuit as shown above.
4. Now measure short circuit current(𝐼𝑠𝑐 ) for zero load
and open circuit voltage(𝑉𝑜𝑐 ) for maximum load.
5. Vary the load and note down voltage and current
readings respectively.
6. Plot a graph by taking voltage and current along x
and y axis with the given scale. An exponential
power decay curve is obtained.
7. Calculate fill factor.
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Table:
Voltage Current (mA) Power

S.No
(V) (I) 𝑃 = 𝑉×𝐼
Precautions:
1. Handle apparatus gently.
2. Give connections correctly.
3. The voltage and corresponding current should be noted simultaneously.
Result: V-I characteristics of solar cell were studied.
Fill factor =
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Applications:
1. Solar cell for transportation: Solar energy is used in cars. This solar power is created by
photovoltaic cells. This electricity is transferred to the storage battery or powers the motor.
2. Solar cell panels: On the rooftop, solar panels are kept. It is used as a solar heater that
heats the water. This water can be used for bathing. Also, another use it helps in
generating power.
3. Solar thermal power production: Solar thermal power production means the conversion
of solar energy into electricity through thermal energy. In this procedure, solar energy is
first utilized to heat up a working fluid, gas, water or any other volatile liquid. This heat
energy is then converted into mechanical energy m a turbine. Finally, a conventional
generator coupled to a turbine converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy.
4. Solar charging batteries: Solar charger is a device that uses sunlight to generate
electricity. This electricity is then used to charge electrical devices.
5. Solar cells in calculators: Solar-powered calculators use photovoltaic cells. These
calculators work with solar energy. The light from the sun gives power for the operation of
calculators. Solar calculators work very well in outdoor light.
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1 What is solar cell?

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical
energy.
2 What is the phenomenon involved in solar cell?
Phenomena involved in solar cell is photo-voltaic effect.
3 Is solar cell prepared from a semiconducting material?
YES, solar cell is Prepared from high semiconductor elements such as gallium, indium,
arsenide etc.
4 Write the maximum power output equation ?
Assuming the current/voltage relationship is linear (it's not, but this gives you crude
lower bound), you could measure the short-circuit current and the open-cell voltage and
𝟏
do 𝟒 𝐈𝐕 to obtain the maximum theoretical power given a worst-case 0.25 fill factor.
However a more reasonable value might be obtained by using a different factor
5 Write the equation for the efficiency of solar cell?
The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of
one solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the
solar cell to input energy from the sun.
6 What is fill factor?
Fill-factor: The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is
calculated by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that would
be output at both the open circuit voltage and short circuit current together
7 What are the applications of solar cell ?
Electrical Grid Power: Solar cell produces electrical power for the commercial grid,
solar cells widely used as, many traffic, emergency and construction road signs use
solar cells for power, reducing the need for gasoline-powered generators for remote and
mobile uses.
Rooftop Solar Panels: Many commercial and residential buildings have solar panels
that produce electricity; in most cases, the building gets its power primarily from a
conventional utility connection, but the solar cells generate enough power to reduce the
owner’s conventional electric use and the associated electric bill. The solar panel
connects to a power management system that automatically switches to the utility when
solar power isn’t available.
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8. NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBRE

Aim: To determine the numerical aperture of an optical fiber.
Apparatus: Optical fiber trainer module, NA Jig (screen with concentric circles) and screen.
Formula:
𝑫
The NA of the optical fiber is =
√𝑫𝟐 +𝟒𝑳𝟐
Acceptance angle of an optical fiber 𝜶 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (𝑵𝑨)

Circuit diagram:
Fig: Focusing of light on the circles of given screen (NA jig)

Theory:
Optical fiber is a very thin and flexible medium having a cylindrical shape consists of core,
cladding and protective shield. The light launched inside the core through its one end
propagates to the other end due to total internal reflection at the core-clad interface. This is
the principle of optical fiber. The angle at which the light ray is incident on the fiber such that
it is transmitted through the fiber in guided mode is called the “acceptance angle” (maximum
launching angle “α”). The cone defined by twice the acceptance angle is called acceptance
cone. The light collecting capacity of the fibre is expressed in terms of acceptance angle
using parameter called Numerical Aperture (NA). The Sin of the acceptance angle is called
NA of the fibre. Thereby the NA of an optical system/device is a measure of how much light
is collected by system/device.
Procedure:
1. One end of the optical fibre is connected to the power output of LED. And the other end
of the fibre is connected to NA Jig through the connector.
2. The AC main is switched on. The light emitted by LED passes through the optical fibre
cable to the other end. The set Po knob is adjusted such that, maximum intensity is
observed on the screen and it should not be further disturbed.
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3. A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is moved along the length of the NA
Jig to observe the circular spreading of the light intensity on the screen.
4. The screen is adjusted such that, the first circle from the centre of the screen is
completely filled with the light. At this position, the distance (L) from this fibre end to
the screen is noted on the NA Jig.
5. The experiment is repeated for the subsequent circles by adjusting the length L along NA
jig and the readings are noted in table.
Table:
Diameter of 𝐃
Distance from Acceptance angle
S. No the circle (D) 𝐍𝐀 =
screen (L) mm √𝐃𝟐 + 𝟒𝐋𝟐 𝜶 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (𝑵𝑨)
mm
Avg values of NA and 𝜶
Precautions:
1. Adjust the distance from the screen properly and measure the diameter of the rings.
2. Handle the optical fibre cable carefully.
3. Use maximum intensity of the light while doing the experiment.
4. Tabulate the readings without parallax
Result:
The numerical aperture of the given optical fiber is found to be __________.
The acceptance angle of the given optical fiber is found to be ___________.
Applications:
1. NA is generally used in microscopy for describing the acceptance cone.
2. In fiber optics, it describes the angles range where light is occurring on the fiber optic
will be broadcasted along with it.
3. Used in microscope objective.
4. Used in lens, photographic objective.
50

1 What is numerical aperture?
Numerical aperture is thus considered as a light gathering capacity of an optical fibre.
Numerical Aperture is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of fibre's light acceptance cone.
i.e.𝑵𝑨 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 where, 𝛼 is called acceptance cone angle.
2 What is acceptance angle ?
The acceptance angle of an optical fiber is defined: It is the maximum angle of a ray (against
the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided by the core.
3 How do you explain total internal reflection ?
When light goes from a denser medium to a less dense medium, as the angle of incidence
exceeds the critical angle, the ray reflects back to the denser medium. This phenomenon is
called Total Internal Reflection. Total Internal Reflection is a very efficient reflection, as the
loss of light energy is almost negligible. Example: such as glass to air or water to air.
4 Give some lively examples which use total internal reflection ?
Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical fibers, which are used in
endoscopes and telecommunications.
5 What is optical fibre ?
An optical fiber is a very thin strand of plastic or glass that is used to transmit messages via
light.
6 Mention the types of optical fiber.
Single mode fiber is optical fiber that is designed for the transmission of a single ray or mode
of light as a carrier and is used for long-distance signal transmission. Multimode fiber is
optical fiber that is designed to carry multiple light rays or modes concurrently, each at a
slightly different reflection angle within the optical fiber core. Multimode fiber transmission
is used for relatively short distances because the modes tend to disperse over longer lengths.
7 What is attenuation?
Attenuation or loss in optical fibers basically refers to the loss of power. During transit, light
pulse loses some of their photons, thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for a fiber is
usually specified in decibels per kilo meter. The degree of attenuation depends on the
wavelength of light transmitted.
Attenuation measures the reduction in signal strength by comparing the output power with
input power. Measurements are made in decibels (dB). The basic measurement for loss is
done by taking the logarithmic ratio of input power (Pi) to the output power (Po).
8 What is bending loss and types of bending loss in optical fibers ?
Transmission loss in the fiber during its propagation through the optical fiber cable.
Types of bending losses in optical fiber are
1. Addition of impurity to fiber.
2. Material composition loss.
3. Absorption & scattering loss.
4. Radiation loss
9 What are the advantages of optical fiber ?
1. Greater bandwidth.2. Low attenuation and greater distance 3. Security
10 What is step index and graded index fiber of an optical fiber?
A step-index profile is a refractive index profile characterized by a uniform refractive index
within the core and a sharp decrease in refractive index at the core-cladding interface so that
51
the cladding is of a lower refractive index.

In fiber optics, a graded index is an optical fiber whose core has a refractive index that
decreases with increasing radial distance from the optical axis of the fiber.
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9.TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Aim: To determine the rigidity modulus (𝜂) of the material of the wire using a Torsional
Pendulum.
Apparatus: A circular disc provided with a chuck nut at its center, copper wire, another
chuck nut fixed to a wall bracket or a rigid clamp, stop watch, meter scale, screw gauge,
vernier calipers.
Description: The Torsional pendulum consists of a uniform circular metallic disc of about 10
to 12 cm diameter with 1 or 2 cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the center of the disc. The
lower end of the wire is gripped into the chuck nut at the center of the disc and the upper end
is gripped into another chuck nut, which is fixed to the wall bracket.
Formula:
4πMR2 L
η= × 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚2
a4 T2
Where , M= Mass of the disc (gm) R = Radius of the disc (cm)
𝐿 = Length of the wire (cm) 𝑎 = Radius of the wire (cm) 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (sec)
Theory:
The Wire fixed in between the chuck nuts is twisted
using the circular brass disc. When the disc is rotated, the
external couple acts on the wire. Due to this an internal couple
develops in the wire. Because of these couples similar to
action and reaction, the disc starts oscillating about the wire as
axis. The oscillations are known as torsional oscillations.
To determine Rigidity modulus the measurable
parameters are M, R, a, L and T. Since the same disc is used M
and R can be determined. Here M can be weighed using a
balance while R can be measured using vernier calipers as per
the table II. The radius of the wire “a” can be determined using
screw guage and can be tabulated in table III. For different
length(L), the time periods (T) and T2 are determined and
tabulated in the table I. Using the formula substituting all the
values, The rigidity modulus can be calculated.
If “a” is the radius of the wire “L” is the length of the wire
between the chuck nuts and the Rigidity modulus ( " " ) of the
material of the wire is related to the couple “C” per unit twist
of the wire as,
𝑎4 𝜂𝜋
𝐶= … … … . . (1)
2𝐿
Time period and Torsional Oscillation is related to couple “C” as,
𝐼
𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 … … … (2)
𝐶
𝐼
𝐶 = 4𝜋 2 2 … … … (3)
𝑇
From equation (3) and (1) we have
𝐿
𝜂 = 8 𝜋𝐼/a4 x 𝑇 2 … … … (4)
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The moment of inertia(I) of a circular disc whose geometric axis coincides with the axis of
rotation is given by
𝑀𝑅 2
𝐼= … … … … (5)
2
where
M = Mass of the disc
R = Radius of the disc
Substituting the value of “I” from (5) in (4) we get
4𝜋𝑀𝑅 2 𝐿
𝜂= × 2 … … … … (6)
𝑎4 𝑇
Procedure:
1. The circular metal disc is suspended as shown in figure. Length of the wire between
the chuck nuts is adjusted to 90 cm.
2. When the disc is in equilibrium position, a small mark is made on the curved edge of
the disc. This marking will help to note the number of oscillations made by the disc
when the disc oscillates.
3. The disc is set to oscillate by slowly turning the disc through a small angle. Care is to
be taken to see that there is no lateral movement of the disc.
4. When the disc is oscillating, the time (t) taken for 10 oscillations is noted with the
help of a stopwatch and recorded in the observation table in trial 1.
5. The procedure is repeated for the same length of the wire and again the time taken for
10 oscillations is noted and recorded in the observations table in trial 2 .From trial 1 &
2 the mean for 10 oscillations is obtained. The time period (T) i.e. the time taken for
one oscillation is calculated.
6. The experiment is repeated, by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of 10 cm and
the results are tabulated in table 1.
7. The radius of the wire ‘a’ is to be found accurately using a screw gauge since it occurs
in the fourth power in equation (6).
8. The Radius (r) and the Mass (m) of the disc are found
with the vernier calipers and a rough balance
𝐿
respectively. The mean value of (𝑇 2 ) is substituted in
equation (6) and  can be calculated.
9. A graph is drawn by taking ‘L’ on the X- axis and 𝑇 2
on Y-axis which represent a linear graph. From the
𝐿 𝐿
linear graph, the slope is determined. Using
𝑇2 𝑇2
the rigidity modulus ‘𝜂’ of the wire can be calculated.
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Observations:
1. Mass of the disc (M) = ------------- gm
2. Radius of the disc (R) = ------------- cm
3. Average radius of the wire (a) = -------------- cm
Table I:
Length of Time taken for 10 Oscillations Time 𝐿

the wire ‘L’ (t sec) Period 𝑇2
S.No. between the 𝑇2
(T sec)
chuck nuts Trial - I Trial – II Average(t) 𝑡
𝑇= cm/sec2
(cm) 10
Average value of 𝐿⁄𝑇 2 =
Table II:
Determination of diameter and radius of the disc using Vernier calipers:
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 = = . . . . . . . . . 𝑐𝑚
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Zero error = ......... Zero correction = .........
Main Scale Reading Vernier Total Reading

S.No. (n) x L.C
(MSR) Coincidence (n) MSR + (n x L.C) cm
Avg
Diameter of the disc = cm

Radius of the disc = cm
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Table III:
Determination of diameter of the wire using SCREW GUAGE:
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = = … … … … … … … . 𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Error = Correction =
Pitch Scale Head Scale Reading Total reading

S.No Reading H.S.R x. L.C PSR + (HSR x L.C) mm
(PSR) Observed Corrected
Average diameter
Average diameter = __________________mm
Radius of the wire (a) = ____________mm………………….cm
Precautions:
1. Ensure the wire is free from kinks.
2. The vibration of the disc must be in the horizontal plane.
3. The amplitude of motion of the disc must be small.
4. Avoid wobbling of the disc.
Result:
The rigidity modulus of   of the given metallic wire
Experimental =__________________ dynes/cm2
Graphical =__________________ dynes/cm2
Applications:
1. The torsional oscillations will help in determining rigidity moduli or rigidity nature of
the material.
2. With help of thee rigidity modulus the other elastic moduli ( Y, Poison ration ,𝜎 ,K)
can be estimated.
3. Anybody which can have the torsional oscillations they can be damped. In ballistic
galvanometer these oscillations are used in determining charge on the conductor.
4. New researches, promising the determination of frictional forces between solid
surfaces and flowing liquid environments using forced torsion pendulums.
5. Use of a torsional pendulum as a high-pressure gage and determination of viscosity of
helium gas at high pressures.
57

1 Define Rigidity modulus? Give the formula & explain ?
It is the ratio of tangential stress to tangential strain. It can also be stated as shearing
stress or angular stress to shearing strain or angular strain. It is generally denoted as
“η”.
2 On what factors the rigidity modulus (η) depends ?
It depends on nature of solid material, It depends on mass of the material, It depends
on radius of disc & depends on length, and inversely on fourth power of radius &
finally on square of time period
3 What is Torsional pendulum? Explain in brief ?
A heavy circular metallic disc suspended by means of a wire in between chuck nuts
from a rigid support is known as torsional pendulum. The disc is made to oscillate
about the wire as the axis.
4 Explain need and meaning of the graph.
𝐿
As per the formula 𝑇 2 is an important term. In this 𝐿 & 𝑇 2 are proptional to one
another. Hence the graph represents a straight line passing through the origin.
5 How do you show that (η) is constant for a given material ?
4𝜋𝑀𝑅 2 𝐿
𝜂= × 2
𝑎4 𝑇
4𝜋𝑀𝑅 2
In the formula 𝑎4 is constant. In the second term since L is proportional to 𝑇 2 ,
second term is also constant. Finally rigidity modulus η must be definitely a constant
6 If L vs. 𝐓 𝟐 is a straight line, what is the nature of the graph between L & T.
L & T is not a straight line but it represents a curve.
7 Write the L.C’s of Vernier and screw gauge.
Least count of Vernier Calipers = 0.01 cm
Least count of Screw Gauge = 0.001 cm
8 What is Zero Error and its correction while using screw gauge ?
Zero of Head scale and zero of the Pitch scale if they are not coinciding then there is
zero error. If zero is above pitch scale error is negative, must give positive correction
by adding & vice-versa.
9 What are the units of η ?
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚2
10 What are three Elastic Moduli ?
Young’s modulus, rigidity modulus, & bulk modulus.
58
59
60
10. HALL EFFECT
Aim: To determine the hall coefficient of the given p type semiconducting material.
Apparatus: IC regulated power supply, Electromagnets, Constant current power supply, Hall
sensor & semiconductor crystal.
Formula:
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
Hall coefficient 𝑹𝑯 = (
𝐼
) 𝐵 𝑚3 ⁄𝐶
Where, 𝑹𝑯 = hall coefficient of semiconductor materials
t = thickness of the sample
B = applied magnetic field in the y − direction.
𝑉𝐻 = Hall voltage in volts.
𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐴
Block diagram of Experimental set up:
61
Circuit diagram:
Principle: If semiconductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field and a constant current is

sent as show in the figure , then a voltage is developed in the sample along z-direction. This
voltage is known as hall voltage and the phenomenon is known as Hall effect. The hall
voltage is depend on magnetic field and the probe current through the sample.
Procedure:
1 Connect the IC regulated power supply terminals to electromagnetic coils in their
respective sockets.
2 Connect Hall probe to Gauss meter .Switch “ ON” the Gauss meter, set the Gauss
meter reading to “0.00” by adjusting the knobs.
3 Now place the Hall probe in the magnetic field exactly at the centre of the
electromagnetic cores. Set the Gauss meter reading to 2KG magnetic field. This is
achieved by applying suitable current to electromagnets & by simultaneously
positioning the electromagnetic cores by turning the knobs.
4 Connect the crystal mounted PCB to constant current power supply to their respective
sockets.
5 Remove Hall probe from the magnetic field and place crystal in the same position
without disturbing the position of the magnetic cores.
6 Switch “ON” the constant current power supply & apply current in steps of 0.1 Ma,
rotate the crystal till it becomes perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be
maximum in this adjustment, note the corresponding Hall voltage at constant
magnetic field.
7 Plot the graph between current and Hall voltage which is a straight line & find the
slope.
62
Observations:
Thickness of the sample = 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝑐𝑚
Magnetic flux density B = ...................... KG
Tables:
At constant magnetic field

Current I Hall Voltage 𝑉𝐻
S.No
(𝑚𝐴) (𝑚𝑉)
63
Calculations:
𝑉 𝑡 8 −1
Hall coefficient 𝑅𝐻1 = (slope 𝐼𝐻 ) 𝐵 × 10 𝑐𝑚3 𝑐𝑜𝑙
Precautions:
1. Keep the sample perpendicular to the magnetic field.
2. Hall probe must be handled carefully.
3. Do not send the high currents through the electromagnets for longer times.
4. Keep the pole gap of 2.5 cm.
5. When the sample is not placed between the poles, set the initial reading to zero by
adjusting the zero control.
Result:
Hall coefficient𝑹𝑯 =..............................
Applications:
1. It is used to find out whether the given semiconductor is N − type or P − type .
2. It is used to measure carrier concentration, mobility and conductivity of a
semiconducting material.
3. Hall voltage is produced of two input quantities namely the current and the magnetic
field. Using this principle, the Hall effect device is used as a multiplier.
4. It is used as a magnetic field sensor. Using the Hall effect devices, the magnetic field
ranging from 𝟏𝝁𝑻𝑡𝑜𝟏𝑻 is sensed.
64
1 Define Hall Effect?

When a current carrying specimen is placed in a transverse magneticfield then a voltage
is developed which is perpendicular to both, direction of current and magnetic field. This
phenomenon is known Hall Effect.
2 What causes Hall Effect?
Whenever a charge moves in a mutually perpendicular electric andmagnetic field it
experiences Lorentz force due to which it deflects from its path and Hall voltage is
developed.
3 what is unit Hall coefficient?
Ohm-meter/Tesla.
4 Which type of magnet is used in the experiment, temporary or permanent?
Temporary.
5 What is Hall Coefficient?
It is the electric field developed per unit current density per unit magnetic field.
6 What is Lorentz force?
If charge ‘q’ moves in a magnetic and electric field ‘B’ &’E’ respectively
with velocity v then force on it is given by
F= qE+ Bqv.sinө
7 What is hall probe ?
A semiconductor sandwiched between two Perspex plates.
8 Under which condition, an electron moving through a magnetic field experiences
maximum force ?
An electron moving through a magnetic field experiences maximum force, when it
moves perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
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ENGINEERING
CHEMISTRY
CODE OF CONDUCT
1. The safe way is the right way to do your job. Plan your work. Follow instructions. If you do not
know how to do the experiment safely, ask your laboratory instructor.
2. No one is allowed in the laboratory without the supervision of a laboratory assistant, course
instructor, or Supervisor. Perform only authorized experiments, and only in the manner
instructed: Do not alter experimental procedures, except as instructed.
3. Laboratory aprons must be worn at all times.
4. Close-toed shoes must be worn at all times.
5. It is strongly recommended that you wear clothing that completely covers your arms, legs, and
feet while working in the laboratory. Inadequate protection often leads to injury. Avoid wearing
expensive clothing to lab as it may get damaged.
6. Absolutely NO food or drinks are allowed into the laboratory.
7. All accidents, injuries, explosions, or fires must be reported at once to the laboratory instructor.
8. Horseplay and carelessness are not permitted. Do not run in laboratory areas.
9. If you see a colleague doing something dangerous, point it out to him or her and to the
laboratory instructor.
10. Report to your laboratory instructor all unsafe conditions, unsafe acts, and "near misses"
that might cause future accidents. Report any accident or fire, no matter how trivial, to
the laboratory instructor.
11. Maintain your working area in a reasonable state of neatness. Clean off your lab work bench
before leaving the laboratory.
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY LAB
COMMON APPARATUS AND TERMS USED IN CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

EXPERIMENTS
Pipettes: Pipettes permit the transfer of accurately known volumes from one container to another.
Commonly we use volumetric pipettes
Burettes: Burettes like measuring pipettes make it possible to deliver any volume up to the
maximum capacity of the device. A burette consists of a calibrated tube to hold titrant and a
valve arrangement by which the flow of titrant is controlled.
Volumetric Flask: Volumetric flasks are manufactured with capacities ranging from 5ml to 5
liter and are usually calibrated to contain a specific volume when filled in line etched on the neck.
They are used for the preparation of standard solution and for dilution of samples to a fixed
volume prior to taking aliquots with pipettes.
The Burette Stand
Standard Flask: The flask filled with standard solution known as standard flask.
Titrations: Titrations are widely used in analytical chemistry to determine the concentration of
acids, bases, proteins, metal ions, oxidants, reductants and many other species. Titrations are
based on a reaction between the analyte and a standard reagent known as “TITRANT”. Titrimetry
includes a group of analytical methods that are based on determining the quantity of a reagent of
known concentration that is required to react completely with the analyte. Volumetric titrimetry is
a type of titrimetry in which the volume of a standard reagent is the measured quantitatively.
Titration:The process of finding out the volume of one of the solution required to react
completely with a definite volume of other solution of known concentration is a called as titration.
Titrant: The solution of known strength is called titrant
Titrate: The solution which contains the substance to be estimated
Standard Solution: A solution of known concentration that is exactly used in titrimetry is known
as “standard solution”.
Equivalence Point: It is the point in a titration when the amount of added standard reagent is
exactly equivalent to the amount of analyte. The end point at which physical changes occurs is
known as equivalence point
End Point: It is the point which indicates the completion of reaction
Titration Error: The difference in volume (or) mass between the equivalence point and the end
point is the titration error.
Indicators: Indicators are added to the analyte solution to produce an observable change at near
equivalence point. Large changes in the relative concentration of analyte (or) titrant occur in the
equivalence point region. These concentrations changes cause the indicator to change in
MRCET EAMCET CODE: MLRDwww.mrcet.ac.in
69
appearance. During titration, the titrant is added to the flask, with swirling until the colour of the
indicator persists.
Primary Standard: Any substance stable, pure, readily soluble in water, with high equivalent
weight and the composition of its solution should not change on standing or during storage is
called primary standard and it serves as the reference material for a titrimetric method of analysis.
For example crystalline oxalic acid, potassium dichromate and anhydrous sodium carbonate etc.
are the primary standard substances.
Secondary Standard: The substance which do not fulfill the requirements of primary standard,
their solutions are not directly prepared by weighing and the exact strength of the solution is
found by titrating it against some primary standard is called secondary standard and the process is
called standardization.
For example: NaOH, KOH which are hygroscopic, KMnO4which undergoes auto decomposition
in permanganate solution on standing and inorganic acids like HCl, H 2SO4 whose concentrations
are known approximately.
Volumetric Calculations: For expressing the concentrations of the solutions MOLARITY and
NORMALITY are usually employed.
(a)Molarity: The number of moles of solute present in 1 liter of the solution is known as
“MOLARITY”.
(b)Normality: The number of gram equivalent weights of the solute present in one liter of the
solution is known as the Normality of the solution. Normality of the solution is denoted by
‘N’.
Calculation of the Molarity of Solution : If ‘n’ be the number of moles of solute and ‘V’ be the
liters of solution then Molarity is given by
n
M
V
W
Where n 
M .W
Where W is the weight of solute in grams, M.W is the gram molecular weight of the solute.
W 1
M X
M .W V
Calculation of Normality of Solution: If ‘n’ gm equivalent weight of solute is dissolved in ‘V’
liters of the solution, then the normality of the solution is given by
n
N
V
W
But n 
E.W
E.W is the gram equivalent weight of the solute.
70
W 1
Hence N  X
E.W V
For example, what is the molarity of 25.5 grams of NaCl dissolved in water, total volume of the
solution being 100 mL?
First calculate molecular weight of the solute, NaCl. Recall that the atomic mass on the periodic
table is the same number as how much a mole of the substance would weigh, in grams. So:
Na: 23.0 g/mol Cl: 35.5 g/mol therefore NaCl: 58.5 g/mol
Write down what you are given in grams and convert into moles.
25.5 g x1 mol = mol

58.5 g
= 0.436 mol
This 0.436 mol is dissolved in 100. mL, so:
100. mL x 1 L = L
1000mL
= 0.100 L
now set up the fraction so it is in terms of mol/L:
0.436 mol = M
0.100 L
4.36 mol = 4.36 M

L
Example 2: Prepare 800 mL of 2 M sodium chloride
MwtNaCl = 58.5 g/mol (The molecular weight or molar mass of NaCl)
Volume in ml x ml to L x Molarity x Molecular weight= grams needed
800 ml x 1L x 2 mol x 58.5 g = g of NaCl needed

1000 mL mol
93.6 g of NaCl is needed; bring the total volume up to 800 mL.
Example 3: Dilution with molarity:
M1V1 = M2V2 or CiVi = CfVf
M1 = starting molarity M2 = ending molarity C= concentration

V1 = starting volume V2 = ending volume i = initial f = final
In this equation, the volume goes with its molarity on the same side of the equals sign.
71
Prepare 100 mL of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid from concentrated, 12.1 M, hydrochloric acid.
So to solve this problem, you would put 100 mL and 1.0 M on the same side of the equals sign
because they go together. 12.1 M would go with a variable on the other side of the equals sign.
We need to figure out how much of the really concentrated acid we need to only have 100 mL of
a 1.0 M solution of acid.
M1V1 = M2V2
(12.1 M) V1 = (1.0 M)(100 mL)
divide both sides by 12.1 M
V1 = 8.26 mL of concentrated HCl
Molality, m:
Number of moles of solute divided by the number of kilograms of SOLVENT (not of solution.)
Note for water, 1 kg of solvent is 1L.
To make a liter of a molal solution with water, you would add one liter of water because 1 L of
water weighs 1 kg.
The difference between molar and molal is that when making 1 liter of a solution, with molar, the
total volume is 1 liter, whereas with molal the total volume is slightly larger than 1 liter because
you added 1 liter of water to the solute. It is a small difference, but for some reason chemists
think it is important.
Normality, N
The number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
For example, 1 M HCl is 1 N, but 1 M H2SO4 is 2 N because 2 hydrogen ions are given off per
mole of H2SO4.
I’ve only seen normality used in reference to acids and bases. Essentially it is the number of
hydrogens that can come off in solution as the acid dissociates.
So, a 3 M H2SO4 solution would be 6 N
3 mol x 2 H+ ions released = 6 equivalents of H+ ions being released= 6 N

L mole liter
The equivalent weight or the molecular weight expressed in grams is called gram equivalent
weight or gram molecular weight.
1) Equivalent weight of an acid
Molecular wt of an acid
=
No.of replaceable hydrogen atoms in one molecule of acid
72
2) Equivalent weight of base
Molecular wt of base
=
No.of replaceable OH−groups in one molecule of base
Example:
The equivalent weight of HCl is 36.5/1 = 36.5
The equivalent weight of H2SO4 is 98/2 = 49
The equivalent weight of oxalic acid is 126/2 = 63
The equivalent weight of NaOH is 40/1 = 40
The equivalent weight of Ca(OH)2 is 74/2 = 37
3) Equivalent weight of oxidising / reducing agents = Molecular mass/ Number of electrons lost
or gained in the redox reaction)
Examples:
a) Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) oxidizes
Cr2O72-+14 H+ + 6e- 2Cr 3+ + 7H2O
Hence its equivalent wt = 294/6 = 49
b) Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) oxidizes
MnO22- + 8H+ + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O
Hence its equivalent weight = 158/5 = 31.6
Types Of Titrations
a) Permanganometric Titrations: The titrations involving addition of potassium permanganate

as a standard reagent to the analyte whose titer value is to be determined are known as
Permanganometric titrations.
Ex: Preparation of standard solution of oxalic acid and estimate the amount of ferrous iron by
Permanganometric titrations
KMnO4 is a powerful oxidizing agent and in acidic medium, it oxidizes oxalic acid to CO 2 
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2C2O4 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 10CO2
Here KMnO4 acts as a self indicator
(b) Potassium Dichromate titrations: The titrations involving the addition of Potassium
Dichromate as a standard reagent to the analyte whose titer value is to be determined are
known are known as Potassium Dichromate titrations
Potassium Dichromate is a strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium and it is used for
estimation of many reducing salts especially of ferrous salts. Here Di-phenyl amine is used as
an indicator
73
(c) Conductometric Titrations: The titrations involving the addition of standard reagent from
the burette to the analyte present in the conductivity cell involving the change in the
conductance of the analyte with the addition of the standard reagent. Conductometric
titrations are those in which the conductance can be determined with the help of conductivity
measurements. While carrying out the conductometric titrations, the following apparatus are
to be used.
(i) Thermostat ii) Conductivity cell

(iii) Conductivity water (iv) Conductivity meter.
The conductance of each volume should be corrected for dilution using the
formula.
C’= C (V+µ)
V
Where C‘= corrected conductance
C = observed conductance
V= initial volume of solution in a beaker
µ = volume of titrating solution added
Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance. It is denoted by ‘C’.

C=1/R
The unit for conductance is mho.
Conductance Curve:
(a) The curve which is drawn between the volume of the solution added in ml & corrected
conductance C’ is known as “conductance curve”.
For ex: - (1) for strong acid vs. strong base the conductance curve is given by
(b) Conductance curve of mixture of acids vs. strong base is given by
74
Potentiometric Titrations: A Potentiometric titration involves measurement of the potential of a

suitable electrode (indicator) as a function of titrant volume. While carrying out the
Potentiometric titrations the following apparatus are to be used.
(a) Potentiometer
(b) Magnetic stirrer
(c) Calomel electrode
(d) Pipette
(e) Burette
Potentiometric titrations offer additional advantages over potentiometry as the measurement is
based on the titrant volume that causes a rapid change in potential near the equivalence point for
detecting end point.
Potentiometric Curve : A graph is drawn between EMF and the volume of the titrant added near
the endpoint 0.1ml portions of the titrant is added each time and measure. The sudden increment
in the EMFvalues indicated as end point. From the graphs the concentrations are calculated.
These graphs are called “Potentiometric titrations curves”. For example Potentiometric curve of
strong acid vs. strong base is shown by
75
Titrimetry:
1. ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY EDTA METHOD
AIM: To determine the total, permanent and temporary hardness of water by EDTA method.
APPARATUS: Burette, Conical flask, Pipette and beakers.
CHEMICALS: Standard ZnSO4 solution, EDTA Solution, Ammonia–ammonium chloride buffer

and water sample.
INDICATOR: Eriochrome black –T
END POINT: The end point is noted when the colour of the solution changes from wine red to
blue.
PRINCIPLE: The hardness of water is due to the presence of salts of Ca2+and Mg2+. The
bicarbonates of Ca2+and Mg2+ impart temporary hardness to water which can be removed by
boiling. The amount of Ca2+ and Mg2+ is estimated by complexometric method using EDTA. The
obtained value gives the total hardness. The permanent hardness is determined first by
precipitating the bicarbonates of Ca2+and Mg2+ by heating and filtering off and the filtrate is
titrated with EDTA. The temporary hardness is obtained by subtracting permanent hardness from
total hardness.
EDTA Titrations (or complexometric titrations): The titrations involving EDTA as a
complexing agent are known as “EDTA Titrations” (or) “Complex Formation Titrations”.
EDTA stands for ‘Ethylene Di-amino Tetra Acetic acid” or “Di-amino Ethane Tetra Acetic
Acid.
The structure of EDTA is given by
EDTA forms complexes with metal ions like Ca 2+, Mg2+, Ba2+, and Sr2+ in aqueous solution.
Complexometric titration is the titration of metal ion with a reagent, usually EDTA, which forms
chelated complex with a metal.
76
The common indicator used is Erichrome Black-T Indicator (EBT), at the end point the colour
generally changes from wine red to blue.
Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid [EDTA] forms colorless stable complex with Ca +2 and Mg+2
ions present in water at pH 9-10. To maintain pH of the solution at 9-10, NH3-NH4Cl buffer
solution is used. Eriochrome black –T (EBT) is used as indicator. The hard water when treated
with (EBT) in presence of buffer solution forms unstable wine red color complex with Ca+2 and
Mg+2 ions present in water.
The stability of a metal indicator complex is less than that of metal EDTA complex. Hence during
the titration EDTA extracts the metal ions from the metal ion EBT indicator complex and forms
stable colorless metal EDTA complex releasing free indicator. Hence the end point of the titration
is the color change from wine red to blue color.
77
Eriochrome-Black T (EBT indicator) Metal-EDTA complex
PROCEDURE:
PART A: STANDARDISATION OF EDTA SOLUTION

10ml of standard Zn2+solution is pipette out into a well cleaned conical flask. To it one
drop of indicator and 1 ml of buffer are added, then the solution is titrated against EDTA until
wine red color changes from wine red to blue. This is taken as end point. Titrations are repeated
until two successively concurrent values are obtained. The molarity of EDTA is calculated using
the formula M1V1=M2V2
PART B: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS OF TAP WATER

50ml of tap water is taken into a well cleaned conical flask. To it 2ml of buffer and 2-3
drops of EBT indicator are added. The color of resulting solution is wine red. The contents of the
conical flask are titrated against EDTA which is taken in the burette until the color of the solution
changes from wine red to blue. This is the end point. Repeat the titration until two successively
concurrent values are obtained
The molarity of tap water is calculated using the formula M2V2=M3V3 and the total
hardness is calculated using amount of Ca2+ × M.W of CaCO3×103.
78
OBSERVATION:
PART A: STANDARDISATION OF EDTA SOLUTION
Burette readings
Volume of standard
S.NO Volume of EDTA run
Zn+2 solution (ml) Initial Final
down ‘x’ ml
1. 10 0
2. 10 0
M1V1=M2V2
M1= Molarity of standard Zn2 +solution 0.05N
V1 = Volume of standard Zn2 +solution 10ml
V2  Volume of EDTA rundown

M2= Molarity of EDTA Solution
PART B: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS OF TAP WATER
Burette readings (ml)

Volume of tap water
S.NO
(ml) Volume of EDTA run
Initial Final
down ‘x’ ml
1. 50 0
2. 50 0
M2V2=M3V3
M2= Molarity of EDTA solution
V2 = Volume of EDTA rundown
M3= Molarity of tap water
V3= Volume of tap water
79
The total hardness of tap water = Amount of Ca2+ × M.W of CaCO3×103ppm
DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS OF WATER

Place 250ml of water sample in a 500ml beaker and boil gently for 20-30 minutes. Cool and filter,
collect the filtrate into a 250ml standard flask. Make up the solution to the mark by adding
distilled water and shake the solution well. Pipette out 50ml of this made up solution into a clean
conical flask, which has been rinsed with distilled water. Add 2ml of p H = 10 buffer solution and
2 to 3 drops of EBT indicator. Titrate this solution against the standard EDTA solution until the
colour changes from wine red to blue. Note down the reading, repeat the process to get at least
two equal titer values. Calculate the permanent and then temporary hardness as parts per million
of CaCO3.
PART C: DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS OF TAP WATER
Volume of Burette readings (ml)

S.NO boiled water Volume of EDTA run
Initial Final
(ml) down ‘x’ ml
1. 50 0
2. 50 0
EDTA BOILED WATER

M2 = calculated in 1ststep M4 = ?
V2 = burette reading V 4 = 50 ml
n2 = 1 n4 = 1
80
CALCULATIONS:
Amount of Ca2+present in water sample = M4 × M.W of Ca+2 × Vol of EDTA
1000
The permanent hardness of tap water = Amount of Ca2+ × M.W of CaCO3 × 103 ppm
Temporary hardness = Total hardness – Permanent hardness
RESULT:
1. Total hardness of the given water sample= ---------- ppm
2. Permanent hardness of the given water sample= -------- ppm
3. Temporary hardness of the given water sample= -------- ppm
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Which reagent is used to determine hardness of water
EDTA is used as a regent to determine hardness of water
2. What is the difference between hard water and soft water.

The water which does not give lather readily with soap is hard water and the water which
readily gives much lather with soap is soft water.
3. What is the cause of hardness of water.

It is due the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium in
water.
4. How is hardness in water classified

Hardness in water is classified as (1) Temporary hardness and (2) permanent hardness.
5. What is the difference between temporary and permanent hardness.

Temporary hardness is due to unstable bicarbonates of Ca and Mg, while permanent hardness
is due to more stable Cl- and SO42- of Ca and Mg.
6. How is temporary hardness removed

The temporary hardness of water can be removed by boiling water during which bicarbonates
decompose to give carbonates.
81
7. What is EDTA.
EDTA is ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid.
8. Why is disodium salt of EDTA preferred to EDTA

EDTA is sparingly soluble in water. Its disodium salt is more soluble as it is ionisable and
hence it is preferred.
9. What is a buffer solution.

The solution which resists change in its pH value even after adding small amount of an acid or
a base to it is called a buffer solution.
10. Which buffer solution is added and why it is added during the determination of hardness of
water.
NH3-NH4Cl buffer solution is added to maintain PH around 9-10 to form stable metal
EDTA complex.
11. Name the most commonly employed indicator in EDTA titrations and what is the end point of
titration
Indicator used is Eriochrome Black T. End point of the titration is color changes from wine
red to blue color
12. What is the application of hardness data in environmental engineering practice

a) Hardness of water is an important consideration in determining the suitability of water for
domestic and industrial uses.
b) Determination of hardness serves as a basic for routine control of softening processes.
13. What are Complexometric titrations.

Titrations which involve the formation of soluble, undissociated, stoichiometric complex at
the equivalence point are called complexometric titrations.
14. What are the units of hardness

1. ppm (parts per million)
2. Degree Clarke
3. Degree French
4. mg/l
15. Does EDTA remove hardness from water.

No, EDTA does not remove hardness but it only determines the hardness of water.
82
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
83
2. ESTIMATION OF FERROUS ION BY DICHROMETRY
AIM: To estimate the amount of ferrous ion (Fe+2) present in a given solution using standard
Potassium dichromate.
APPARATUS: Beakers, conical flask, burette, pipette, measuring jar.
CHEMICALS REQUIRED: K2Cr2O7, Mohr’s salt, Conc.H2SO4, conc.H3PO4
INDICATOR: Diphenyl amine
END POINT: Colorless to blue-violet
PRINCIPLE: Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7, is an inorganic chemical reagent, most commonly

used as an oxidizing agent. In acidic medium K2Cr2O7 oxidizes the ferrous ion (Fe+2) to ferric ion
(Fe+3). The completion of the oxidation reaction is marked by appearance of blue-violet color.
K2Cr2O7 + 6FeSO4 + 7H2SO4 K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4)3 + 3Fe2 (SO4)3 + 7H2O
PROCEDURE:
Preparation of Standard (K2Cr2O7) solution:
i) Weigh out accurately the given pure crystalline sample of potassium dichromate and transfer
into 100 ml standard (volumetric) flask provided with a funnel.
ii) Dissolve the dichromate in a small quantity of distilled water, and make up to the mark. The
contents in the flask are shaken well for uniform concentration.
iii) Calculate the normality of potassium dichromate.
W1 = Weight of bottle + substance (K2Cr2O7) = ____________ gms

W2 = Weight of bottle = ____________ gms
Weight of substance (K2Cr2O7) = (W1-W2) = ____________ gms.
Normality of the K2Cr2O7 solution = (W1-W2) X 10 / Equivalent Weight
N = (W1-W2) X 10 / 49 =
Estimation of Ferrous Ion (Fe2+)

1. Pipette out 10mL the given unknown ferrous solution into a clean conical flask.
2. To it add 2mL of conc. H2SO4, 2mL of Conc. H3PO4 and 2drops of Diphenyl amine indicator.
Shake the contents well.
84
3. Fill the burette with the standard K2Cr2O7 solution.

4. Titrate the contents of conical flask with the K2Cr2O7 solution till the color of the solution
turns blue-violet.
5. Repeat the titration to get concurrent readings.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Estimation of Ferrous Ion (Fe+2):
Burette reading Volume of

+2
Volume of unknown Fe sol. K2Cr2O7 rundown
(mL) Initial Final
S.NO (mL)
( mL) (mL)
1. 10
2. 10
CALCULATIONS:
N1 = Normality of K2Cr2O7 solution =

N2 = Normality of Ferrous iron solution =
V1 = Volume of K2Cr2O7 solution =
V2 = Volume of Ferrous iron solution = 20 ml
N1V1 = N2 V2
N2 = N1 V1 / V2
Normality of Ferrous iron solution = N2 = N1 V1/V2
Amount of Ferrous iron present in the whole of the given solution (100 ml) = N2 X 55.85/10
RESULT:
Amount of Ferrous iron present in the whole of the given solution (100 ml) = _______ gm.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Morality. Give its formula.

2. Name the indicator used in this experiment?
3. What type of titration is involved in this experiment?
4. What are the molecular and equivalent weights of K2Cr2O7 ?
85
5. Write the chemical reactions involved in this experiment?

6. What is the equivalent weight of iron in this experiment?
7. What is the equivalent ratio of K2Cr2O7 and FeSO4 ?
8. What is Oxidation?
9. What is Reduction?
10. Why do you observe a green colour before the end point?
11. How do you detect the end point?
12. Define an oxidizing and a reducing agent.
13. What are oxidizing & reducing agents in this experiment?
86
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
87
Instrumental Methods
Conductometry
3. ESTIMATION OF CONCENTRATION OF HCl BY
CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION
AIM: To determine the neutralization point in an acid base titration and strength of HCl by
titrating with NaOH using conductivity meter.
APPARATUS: Conductivity meter, Conductivity Cell, Burette, Beaker and Glass Rod.
CHEMICALS: HCl solution, 1 N NaOH and distilled water.
PRINCIPLE: As the alkali is added from the burette into the beaker containing acid, the
concentration of H+ ions change in a graphical manner, which leads to a considerable change in
the electrical conductance of the solution, which is measured using a conductivity meter. Then
from the plot of conductance versus volume of alkali, the precise neutralization point is
determined. The titration of strong acid verses strong base involves the following equation.
In the titration of HCl against NaOH, initially the conductance of HCl solution is maximum due
to complete ionization. As the alkali is added, the conductance of solution decreases and after the
neutralization point the conductance starts increasing. This is because during addition of alkali,
the fast moving H+ ions are replaced by slow moving Na+ ions, hence conductance decreases.
Once the neutralization point is reached, addition of alkali introduces fast moving OH - ions, there
by increasing the conductivity of the solution.
PROCEDURE: Pipette out 200ml of HCl into a clean 250ml beaker. Fill the burette with 1M
NaOH solution. Dip a conductivity cell in the HCl solution and connect it to the conductivity
meter and note the initial conductance of solution. Run down the NaOH solution from the burette
in small volumes of 1ml and 0.5ml at the end point to be expected in to the cell and note the
conductance.
GRAPH: A plot of conductance on Y-axis versus volume of alkali on X-axis is drawn.

Extrapolate the straight lines and note the neutralization point from the graph.
88
OBSERVATION:
S.NO. Volume of NaOH (ml) Conductance (µs)
1 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
5. 4
6. 5
7. 6
8. 7
9. 8
10. 9
11. 10
12 11
13. 12
14. 13
15. 14
16. 15
17. 16
18. 17
19. 18
20. 19
21. 20
89
Experimental diagram for Conductometric Titrations:
CALCULATION:
N1V1 = N2V2
Where N1= Strength of the acid =?
V1 = Volume of acid taken in the beaker = 200 ml
N2= Strength of alkali = 1N
V2= Volume of alkali from the graph.
Normality of HCl = Volume of NaOH (equivalence point) X Normality of NaOH

Volume of HCl taken
= ………………….. N
RESULT:
1. From the graph the volume of NaOH required for the neutralization of HCl is ----------- ml
2. The Normality of HCl by titrating with NaOH using conductometer is …………. N
90
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by conductometric titration
Titrations involving conductivity measurements of electrolytes to get endpoint are called
conductometric titrations.
2. Define conductance and give its units.

It is a measure of ability of a material to carry electric current. For direct current, conductance
is called conductivity and is equal to 1/R, where R is the resistance of the material. For
alternating current, conductance is called admittance. Conductance is measured in mhos.
3. Why the conductance at first decreases and then increases during the titration
Conductance decreases initially because the fast moving H+ ions are replaced by slow moving
OH- ions on titrating with NaOH and it again increases after the end point due to the increase
in OH- ion concentration.
4. Explain why equivalent conductivity increases with dilution.

The equivalent and molar conductance increases with dilution because these are the products
of specific conductance and volume of the solution containing 1 g equivalent of the
electrolyte. (λeq= K x V). Hence they are directly proportional to volume.
5. Why specific conductance decreases with dilution.

Conductance of solution increases with increase in the number of ions, charge on the ions and
mobility of ions. Specific conductance is the conductance offered by unit volume of an
electrolyte. So when dilution increases number of ions present in the unit volume of an
electrolyte decreases, so specific conductance decreases.
6. Write down the equation involved in the titration of strong acid vs. strong base.
7. What is the end point in this titrations.

End point or neutralization point is the point at which all H + ions reacts with OH- ions to form
salt or the lowest possible conductance that can be observed for a titration is known as end
point of that titration
.
8. What are the factors that influence the conductance of an electrolytic solution.
Charge of the ion, mobility of the ion and number of ions.
9. What are the advantages of conduct metric titrations over volumetric titrations.
1. Colored solutions where no indicator is found can be successfully titrated by this method.
2. This method is more useful for titration of weak acid against weak base, where no
indicators are available in volumetric analysis.
3. More accurate results are obtained because; the end point is obtained from the graph.
91
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
92
93
4. ESTIMATION OF CONCENTRATION OF ACETIC ACID BY

CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION
AIM: To determine the neutralization point and concentration of acetic acid by conductometric
titration.
APPARATUS: Conductivity meter, Conductivity Cell, Burette, Beaker and Glass Rod.
CHEMICALS: CH3COOH solution, 1N NaOH and distilled water.
PRINCIPLE: Solution of electrolytes conducts electricity due to te presence of ions. The specific
conductance of a solution is proportional to the concentration of ions in it. The titration of acetic
acid of verses NaOH involves the following equation.
(salt, strong electrolyte)
When a solution of acetic acid is titrated with NaOH, the fast moving hydrogen ions are
progressively replaced by slow moving sodium ions. Initially the conductivity of CH3COOH is
low, this is due to the poor dissociation of CH3COOH. As NaOH is added gradually, conductance
increases slowly. This is due to the formation of highly ionized CH3COONa. Finally the
conductivity rises rapidly as the alkali is introduced in excess after the neutralization of the weak
acid.
PROCEDURE:
Prepare 0.1N CH3COOH, and 1N NaOH solutions and take them in separate beakers. Fill the
micro-burette with 1N NaOH solution. Place the conductivity cell in distilled water and adjust the
display to 1.000 with calibration knob. Take a beaker and add 20ml of CH3COOH. Dip a
conductivity cell in the CH3COOH solution and connect it to the conductivity meter and note the
initial conductance of solution. Run down the NaOH solution from the burette in small volumes
of 1ml and 0.5ml at the end point to be expected in to the cell and note the conductance.
The conductivity increases slowly upto the end point. After the end point, on further addition of
NaOH will suddenly increases the conductivity.
94
GRAPH: A plot of conductance on Y-axis versus volume of alkali on X-axis is drawn.

Extrapolate the straight lines and note the neutralization point from the graph.
Observations and Graph:
S.NO. Volume of NaOH (ml) Conductance (µs)

1 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
5. 4
6. 5
7. 6
8. 7
9. 8
10. 9
11. 10
12 11
13. 12
14. 13
15. 14
16. 15
17. 16
18. 17
19. 18
20. 19
21. 20
95
CALCULATION:
N1V1 = N2V2
Where N1= Strength of acetic acid =?
V1 = Volume of acetic acid taken in the beaker = 20 ml
N2= Strength of NaOH = 1N
V2= Volume of NaOH required for the neutralization of acetic acid from the graph,
Normality of CH3COOH = Volume of NaOH (V2) X Normality of NaOH

Volume of Acetic Acid
= ………………….. N
RESULT:
1. Volume of NaOH required for neutralization of weak acid (CH 3COOH), = ----- ml.
2. The Normality of CH3COOH by titrating with NaOH using conductometer is …………. N.
96
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define conductance and give its units.
It is a measure of ability of a material to carry electric current. For direct current,
conductance is called conductivity and is equal to 1/R, where R is the resistance of the
material. For alternating current, conductance is called admittance. Conductance is
measured in mhos.
2. Give the examples of strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes.

Examples for a strong electrolyte are HCl, H2SO4, NaOH, H3PO4 etc.
Examples for weak electrolytes are H2CO3, CH3COOH, NH4OH etc.
3. Explain the graph for the titration of weak acid vs strong base
4. Write down the equation involved in the titration of weak acid vs strong base.
5. Can we use conductometric titrations for the determination of equivalence point of

tribasic acid.
Yes tribasic acids like H3PO4 (orthophosphoric acid) conductance can be determined by
conductometry. In this case three endpoints are obtained.
6. What is the species present at the neutralisation point.

CH3COONa is present at theneutralization point.
97
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
98
99
Potentiometry
5. ESTIMATION OF CONCENTRATION OF HCl BY POTENTIOMETRIC
TITRATION
AIM: To determine the equivalence point between strong acid and strong base and normality of
HCl by titrating with NaOH using potentiometer.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer, saturated calomel electrode, quinhydrone electrode, beaker,

burette and stirrer.
CHEMICALS: HCl, 0.1N NaOH, quinhydrone powder and distilled water.
PRINCIPLE:
When a solution of strong acid (HCl) is titrated with the solution of a strong base (NaOH),
the change in PH will be reflected in the change in EMF. When a small amount of alkali is added
to the acid, a little change in the EMF is produced in the beginning. This change in electrode
potential depends upon the fraction of hydrogen ions removed. As an equivalence point reaches,
the fraction of the hydrogen ions removed by constant volume of standard alkali increases
rapidly, thereby causing a rapid change in the EMF. Thus if the EMF of the cell is plotted against
the volume of the standard alkali added, a curve is obtained. As the changes in EMF is much
more rapid near the equivalent point, the exact equivalent point is obtained by differential method
where, a graph of ΔE/ΔV vs volume of alkali added, gives the maximum of the curve which
corresponds to equivalence point of the titration.
The cell can be represented as

Pt / Q, QH2 / H+= ? // KCl (saturated solution)(s)/ Hg2Cl2 /Hg (s),
Cell EMF = Ecathode- E anode
Ecell = 0.2415 - E0 - 2.303 RT log H+

F
PROCEDURE: Pipette out 20ml of HCl solution into 100ml beaker and saturate it with
quinhydrone powder and dip the indicator electrode (platinum electrode), connect the indicator
electrode and saturated calomel electrode (reference electrode) to the potentiometer. The two half
100
cells are connected by means of a salt bridge. The potentiometer is standardized and the used for
measuring the emf directly. 0.1N NaOH is taken in the burette and is added to the HCl solution.
Measure the emf of the acid taken in the beaker initially. First carry out the rough titrations by
adding 1ml of NaOH and measure the emf for each addition. The emf increase gradually and
then shows a sudden increase in the emf. Take enough readings after the sudden increase in emf.
From these rough titrations, the range of end point is determined.
After finding the end point range, fair titrations are carried out by repeatedly adding 1ml
of NaOH as before and near the end point, small additions in the form of 0.1ml is added and emf
is measured for each addition and the readings are tabulated.
Graph is plotted with volume of alkali (NaOH) along X-axis and measured emf along Y-
axis. A sigmoid curve is obtained and the equivalence point is noted at the point of intersection.
To obtain a sharp end point, another graph of volume of alkali (NaOH) along X-axis and ΔE/ΔV
along Y-axis is plotted. The maximum obtained in the curve gives the accurate equivalence point.
101
CALCULATION:
N1V1 = N2V2
Where N1= Strength of the Acid =?
V1 = Volume of acid taken in the beaker = 20ml
N2= Strength of alkali = 0.1N
V2= Volume of alkali from the graph.
Normality of HCl = Volume of NaOH (equivalence point) X Normality of NaOH

Volume of HCl taken (20ml)
= ………………….. N
OBSERVATION:
Volume of NaOH
S. No EMF (mV)
(ml)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
13 13
14 14
15 15
16 16
17 17
18 18
19 19
20 20
102
RESULT:
3. The equivalence point of potentiometric titration between strong acid vs strong base is
……………. ml
4. The Normality of HCl by titrating with NaOH using potentiometer is …………. N
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define electrode potential.
It is a measure of tendency of a metallic electrode to lose or gain electrons when it is in
contact with its own ions in solution.
2. What is EMF.
The difference of potentials between the electrodes of a cell which causes flow of current from
an electrode at higher potential to other electrode at lower potential is known as electromotive
force or cell potential.
5. Define a reference electrode.

The electrode of standard potential, with which we can compare the potentials of and other
electrode is called a reference electrode. The best reference electrode used is standard
hydrogen electrodes. The electrode potentials at all temp is taken as zero.
4. Why salt bridge is used in the construction of a cell.

Salt bridge helps to complete the circuit by allowing the ions to flow from one solution to the
other without mixing the two solutions.
It helps to maintain electrical neutrality of the solution in the half cells.
5. What are potentiometric titrations

The potentiometric titrations are those titrations which involve the measurement of electrode
potentials with the addition of the titrant. The end point is detected by measuring the changes
in the potential of a suitable electrode during the course of reaction. No indicator is used in
this titrations. The end point of the reaction is indicated by a sharp change in the potential of
the system.
6. What are the Electrodes used in potentiometric titrations

Calomel electrode, Glass electrode, Ion-selective electrodes, Silver indicating electrodes,
Mercury-coated indicating electrodes, Platinum redox electrodes
7. What is an indicator electrode

The electrode whose potential varies during the reaction and which depends upon the
concentration of ionic species is called indicator electrode.
103
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
104
105
6. ESTIMATION OF AMOUNT OF Fe2+ BY POTENTIOMETRIC

TITRATION USING KMnO4
AIM: To estimate the amount of ferrous ion present in a given ferrous solution by potentiometric
titration.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer, Pt-electrode, Calomel electrode, Burette, Beaker, Pipette and

Stirrer.
CHEMICALS: FeSO4 solution, KMnO4 solution and H2SO4.
PRINCIPLE: Potentiometric titrations depend on measurement of emf between reference

electrode and an indicator electrode. When a solution of ferrous iron is titrated with a solution of
potassium permanganate, the following redox reaction takes place.
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ → 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
During this titration Fe2+ is converted in to Fe3+, whose concentration increases. At the end point,
there will be a sharp change due to sudden removal of all Fe2+ ions. The cell is set up by
connecting this redox electrode with a calomel electrode as shown below.
Hg, Hg2Cl2, KCl (saturated) // Fe2+, Fe3+/Pt
Cell EMF = E Cathode- EAnode

Fe3+
Ecell = 0.77 + 0.0592 log - 0.2415
1 Fe2+
A graph between emf measured against the volume of potassium permanganate added is drawn
and the end point is noted from the graph.
PROCEDURE
10ml of ferrous sulphate solution is pipette out into a 100 ml beaker and add 3-4 drops of
dil.H2SO4 (10% solution) .A platinum electrode and a calomel electrode are dipped into this
solution and connected to a potentiometer. Then 1ml of potassium permanganate is added to the
solution from the burette and stirred well for 30 seconds. The emf is measured and the titration is
continued by adding potassium permanganate in 1ml increments till five measurements after the
end point.
106
A graph is drawn by plotting the emf against the volume of potassium permanganate and the end
point range is fixed. The strength of ferrous solution is calculated from the end point.
TABLE:
S.No. Volume of KMnO4 (ml) EMF (mV)
1 0
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
7 6
8 7
9 8
10 9
11 10
12 11
13 12
14 13
15 14
MODEL
1. GRAPH
EMF (mV)
E/ V
End Point
End Point
Volume of KMnO4 Volume of KMnO4
107
CALCULATIONS:
M1V1 M2V2
=
𝑛1 𝑛2
Molarity of Ferrous sulphate (M1) = ?
Volume of Ferrous sulphate (V2) = 10ml
Number of moles of Fe2+ (n1) = 5
Molarity of Potassium permanganate (M2) = 0.02M
Volume of Potassium permanganate (V2) =……. ml (End point)
Number of moles of MnO4 (n2) = 1
M1 x 10 0.02 x end point

=
5 1
0.02 x end point x 5

M1 =
10
RESULT:
1. The volume of KMnO4 required to oxidized Fe2+ ions (ferrous ions) into Fe3+ions (ferric
ions) is ……….ml.
2. The strength of ferrous ions in FeSO4 solution is …….. M
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Which electrodes are used in this potentiometric titration.
Calomel and Redox electrode (Pt / Fe2+, Fe3+)
2. Which oxidizing agent is used in this potentiometric titration.

KMnO4 is used as oxidizing agent.
3. Write Nernst equation for cell reaction.

Fe3+
Ecell = 0.77 + 0.0592 log - 0.2415
1 Fe2+
4. What is the role of H2SO4.

It initiates and reduces KMnO4.
5. Name the type of titration involved in the titration of Fe2+ vs KMnO4.

Redox Titration.
6. Which electrode act as indicator electrode in this titration.

Pt / Fe2+, Fe3+.
108
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
109
110
Colorimetry
7. ESTIMATION OF COPPER BY COLORIMETRIC METHOD
AIM: Estimation of Copper in the given sample by Colorimetry
APPARATUS: Colorimeter, Cuvettes, Volumetric flasks and beakers
CHEMICALS: Copper sulphate, Water, Test solution
PRINCIPLE: Colorimeter measures the optical density of an absorbing substance where optical
Io
density (O.D) is defined as O.D = log 1
I
Where I o = Intensity of incident light
I = Intensity of transmitted light

As per beers law, optical density of an absorbing substance is related to the concentration by the
equation. O.D  E.C.l
O.D  ( E.l ).C  2
Where ‘C’ is the concentration of the substance, l is the path length, which represents the width of
the cell used and is constant for a given cell used, E is the molar absorption coefficient and is a
constant for given substance. Equation (2) may be written as
O.D.  C  3
Equation (3) represents the quantitative form of Beer’s law. If the optical density of a substance is
determined at varying concentration. A plot of O.D.vs C gives a straight line.
111
PROCEDURE:
1. Calibrate the instrument by proper selection of the filter in colorimeter.
2. Place a glass cuvette containing distilled water in to the colorimeter hole and select the filter
No. (40) and set the instrument for 100% transmittance (i.e., at Zero).
3. Then take 0.1M CuSO4 solution into another cuvette, wipe out the outer surface of the
cuvette and place it in the colorimeter. Note the absorbance which is displayed on the
instrument.
4. Repeat the procedure for all the other filters (i.e., at 45, 47, 51, 52, 54, 57, 60, 67) and note the
readings. The filter No. which gives the maximum absorbance is selected and again place the
cuvette with distilled water and adjust to 100% transmittance.
5. After selecting the proper filter, different concentrations of the given CuSO4 solution are
made as follows.
6. Measure the absorbance for each concentration and tabulate the readings.
7. Plot a graph by taking absorbance along Y-axis and concentration along X-axis. A straight
line passing through the origin is obtained.
8. The slope of the curve gives the molar extinction coefficient of the given CuSO 4 solution.
Volume of CuSO4 (ml) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Volume of H2O (ml) 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Estimation of Unknown CuSO4 Solution

Fill the colorimeter cuvette with the given unknown CuSO4 solution and note the absorbance.
This absorbance is marked on the calibration curve from which the concentration of the given
unknown CuSO4 solution is obtained.
Colorimeter Cuvette
112
CALCULATIONS & TABULATION:
Step1: Selection of Filter:
Filter No % Absorbance
45
47
51
52
54
57
60
67
Step 2:
Volume of CuSO4 Volume of H2O Concentration of Absorbance

(ml) (ml) CuSO4 (mg/L)
1 9 0.01
2 8 0.02
3 7 0.03
4 6 0.04
5 5 0.05
6 4 0.06
7 3 0.07
8 2 0.08
9 1 0.09
10 0 0.1
Unknown
Standard calibration graph

Absorbance
Y
Concentration of CuSO4
RESULT:
The concentration of the given unknown CuSO4 solution was found to be ---------------.
113
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. On which principle does the colorimeter works.
The colorimeter works on the principle of Beer –lamberts law
2. What is meant by colorimetry.

The study of variation in the intensity of a given coloured compound with change in
concentration of the compound is termed as colorimetric analysis.
3. Explain Lamberts –Beers law.

The decrease in intensity of incident light is proportional to the thickness of absorbing
medium and the concentration of solution. Mathematical expression of the law is given as
I0
log  A   CL
I
Where Io = intensity of incident light

I = intensity of transmitted light
A = absorbance
L = thickness of the medium
C = concentration in mol L-1
ε = molar absorption coefficient
114
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
115
MRCET EAMCET CODE: MLRDwww.mrcet.ac.in 48
116
Preparation
8. PREPARATION OF POLYMER - BAKELITE
AIM: To prepare phenol formaldehyde resin (Bakelite).
CHEMICALS: Glacial acetic acid, 40% formaldehyde solution, Phenol, conc. H 2SO4
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Glass rod, beakers, funnel, measuring cylinder, dropper and
filter paper.
PRINCIPLE: Phenol formaldehyde resins (PFs) are condensation polymers and are obtained
by condensing phenol with formaldehyde in the presence of an acidic or alkaline catalyst. They
were first prepared by Bakeland, an American Chemist who gave them the name as Bakelite.
These are thermosetting polymers.
THERMOSETS: The polymers which on heating change irreversibly into hard rigid and
infusible materials are called thermosetting polymers. These polymers are usually prepared by
heating relatively low molecular mass, semi fluid polymers, which becomes infusible and form an
insoluble hard mass on heating. The hardening on heating is due to the formation of extensive
cross-linking between different polymeric chains. This lead to the formation of a 3-Dimensional
network of bonds connecting the polymer chains. Since the 3D network structure is rigid and does
not soften on heating, the thermosetting polymers cannot be reprocessed. Some important
examples of thermosetting polymers are Urea-Formaldehyde resin and Melamine-Formaldehyde
resins.
PROPERTIES:
 Phenol- formaldehyde resins having low degree of polymerization are soft. They possess
excellent adhesive properties and are usually used as bonding glue for laminated wooden
planks and in varnishes and lacquers.
 Phenol- formaldehyde resins having high degree of polymerization are hard, rigid, scratch
resistant and infusible. They are resistant to non-oxidizing acids, salts and many organic
solvents. They can withstand very high temperatures. They act as excellent electrical
insulators also.
117
Uses:
 They are used for making molded articles such as radio and TV parts, combs, fountain pen
barrels, phonograph records etc.
 They are used for making decorative laminates, wall coverings etc.
 They are used for making electrical goods such as switches, plugs etc.
 They are used for impregnating fabrics wood and paper.
 They are used as binding glue for laminated wooden planks and in varnishes and
Lacquers.
 Sulphonated phenol-formaldehyde resins are use as ion-exchange resins.
PREPARATION: PFs are prepared by reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in the presence of
acidic or basic catalyst. The process may be carried out as follows:
A mixture of phenol and formaldehyde are allowed to react in the presence of a catalyst. The
process involves formation of methylene bridges in ortho, para or both ortho and para positions.
This results first in the formation of linear polymer (Called NOVALAC) and then in to cross-
linked polymer called phenol-formaldehyde resin or Bakelite.
118
PROCEDURE:
1. Place 5ml of glacial acetic acid and 2.5ml of 40% formaldehyde solution in a
500ml beaker and add 2 grams of phenol.
2. Add few ml of conc. sulphuric acid into the mixture carefully. Within 5 min. a
large mass of plastic is formed.
3. The residue obtained is washed several times with distilled water, and filtered
product is dried and yield is calculated.
RESULT: The weight of the phenol formaldehyde resin is -------------- g.
PRECAUTIONS:
 The reaction is sometimes vigorous and it is better to be a few feet away from the
beaker while adding the H2SO4 and until the reaction is complete.
 The experiment should be preferably carried out in fume cupboard.
VIVA QUESTION:
1. What is the other name given for Phenol formaldehyde?
Phenol formaldehyde is also known as Bakelite
2. What are the monomers used for preparation of bakelite.

Monomers used for preparation of bakelite are Phenol and Formaldehyde
3. Give main uses of the phenol formaldehyde resin.

1. They are used for making moulded articles such as radio and TV parts, combs.
2. They are used for making decorative laminates, wall coverings etc.
3. They are used for making electrical goods such as switches, plugs etc.
4. They are used for impregnating fabrics wood and paper.
5. They are used as binding glue for laminated wooden planks, in varnishes and
Lacquers.
4. What type of co-polymer is phenol formaldehyde resin?
It is a thermosetting polymer.
5. What are thermosetting polymers

The polymers which on heating change irreversibly into hard rigid and infusible
Materials are called thermosetting polymers.
6. Briefly describe the properties of phenol resins.

Hard, rigid, scratch resistant and infusible. Resistant to non-oxidizing acids, salts and
many organic solvents. They can withstand very high temperatures. They act as
excellent electrical insulators.
119
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
120
Physical Properties
9. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE TENSION OF A GIVEN
LIQUID BY STALAGMOMETER
AIM: To determine the surface tension of a given liquid using stalagmometer.
APPARATUS: Stalagmometer, Specific gravity bottle, Rubber bulb and Analytical

balance
CHEMICALS: Distilled water and Methanol (or) Ethanol
PRINCIPLE:
Surface tension is the characteristic property of every liquid and it is due to
intermolecular attraction among molecules of liquid. A molecule in the interior part of the
liquid is attracted by the surrounding molecules in all directions and hence resultant force
on the molecule is zero, whereas the molecules on the surface of the liquid are attracted
only towards the interior i.e., sides and the bottom are in constant tension due to the
downward flow of the molecules in bulk, this tension at the surface is known as surface
tension. It is defined as the force in dynes acting on a surface at right angles to any line of
unit length. It is denoted by “γ” (gamma) and its units are dynes/cm.
Table given below lists the surface tension of several liquids at 20 0C.
Liquid Surface tension Liquid Surface tension
(dynes/cm) (dynes/cm)
Water 72.8 Ethylene glycol 47.7
Benzene 28.9 Glycerol 63.4
Toluene 28.4 Carbon tetrachloride 27.0
Acetone 23.7 Ethyl iodide 29.9
Methyl alcohol 22.6 Ethyl bromide 24.2
Ethyl alcohol 22.3 Nitrobenzene 41.8
PROCEDURE
The determination of surface tension of a liquid involves the following 2 steps.
DETERMINATION OF DENSITY OF A LIQUID
Density of a liquid is mass/unit volume. It is found by using specific gravity bottles. The
specific gravity bottle is first washed with distilled water and finally with alcohol and
121
dried. The weight of the empty specific gravity bottle is found by using analytical
balance. Let it beW1gm. Then it is filled with the distilled water and its weight is
accurately determined. Let it be W2 gm. Now the given unknown liquid is then filled in
the specific gravity bottles and the weight is found. Let this weight be W3gm, the density
of the unknown liquid (d2) is calculated as:
Weight of liquid
Density of liquid (d2) = × Density of water
Weight of water
DETERMINATION OF SURFACE TENSION OF A GIVEN LIQUID:

The stalagmometer is first washed thoroughly with distilled water and finally with
little alcohol and dried. A clean rubber tube is attached to the upper end of the
stalagmometer. A screw pitch cork is fixed on the rubber tube to regulate the flow of
liquid by lifting the influx of air.
The stalagmometer is dipped in a beaker of water and suck the water till it rises
above the upper mark (X). In the stalagmometer the water level is carefully brought to the
mark (X). The pitch cork is opened in such a way that it allows the flow of 12-18 drops
per minute. Now the stalagmometer is adjusted.
Then water is sucked above the mark and the no of drops of water that flows from the
mark (X) to the mark (Y) are noted. This is repeated 3 to 4 times with water.
Now the stalagmometer is rinsed with the liquid whose surface tension is to be
determined. The liquid is then filled in the stalagmometer as above and no. of drops that
flow from the mark(X) to mark (Y) is noted. This is repeated 3 or 4 times with the liquid
and the experimental results are noted in the tabular form.
Stalagmometer
122
CALC ULATIONS:
Calculation of density of the liquid
Room temperature = 27oC
Weight of empty specific gravity bottle (W1) =
Weight of specific gravity bottle + water (W2) =
Weight of specific gravity bottle + given liquid (W3) =
Weight of water = (W2-W1) =
Weight of given liquid = (W3-W1) =
Density of water (d1) = 1 gm/cc
Weight of liquid
Density of liquid (d2) = Weight of water
× Density of water
Volume of Number of drops

water + Concentration Surface
S. No. Volume of of liquid Average tension
Exp.1 Exp. 2
liquid solution (N) (dynes/cm)
Solution (ml)
1 50 + 0 Pure water
2 50 + 50 0.5%
Therefore the surface tension of given liquid (γ2) is determined busing the following
equation.
𝑛1𝑑2
𝛾2 = × 𝛾1
𝑛2𝑑1
Where
γ1 = Surface tension of water=72.8 dynes/cm
n1= no. of drops of water
d1= density of water
γ 2= surface tension of given liquid
n2= no. of drops of given liquid
d2= density of given liquid
RESULT:
The surface tension of given test liquid γ2 = …………… dynes/cm
123
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define surface tension.
The tangential cohesive force acting along the unit length of the surface of a liquid.
T=F/L
Where
F = total force along a line
L = length of the line
2. What are units of surface tension in C.G.S. and S.I. (M.K.S.) system
Dynes / cm (C.G.S.) Newton / meter (M.K.S.)
3. What are cohesion and adhesion force.

Cohesion force is the attractive force between like molecules, whereas, the adhesion
is the attractive force between unlike molecules, e.g. attraction between glass slide
and the liquid.
4. What are the factors affecting the surface tension

a) Nature of liquid b) Nature of the surface in contact c) Temperature
5. What is the effect of temperature on the surface tension.

Surface tension decreases with the rise of temperature.
6. Which instrument is used to find out the surface tension of a given liquid
Stalagmometer is an instrument by which surface tension of a liquid is determined.
7. What is the value of surface tension of water.

72.8 dyne/cm
8. Is surface tension an intensive or extensive property.

Surface tension is an intensive property.
124
NOTES/CALCULATIONS:
125
Corrosion Control Method
10. ELECTROPLATING OF COPPER ON AN IRON OBJECT

AIM: Electroplating of copper on an iron object.
APPARATUS:
 cathode - a key or a steel spoon
 a copper strip --anode
 electronic balance
 battery or power source (9-12 V) DC
 insulated wire leads with alligator clips at both end
 Beaker
CHEMICALS: electrolytic solution – approx. 50 mL of 2.0 mol/L CuSO4
PRINCIPLE:
The process of depositing a layer of one metal over the surface of another metal by
passing electric current is called electroplating. Electroplating of metals is done to protect
them from corrosion and for decoration purpose. For example, the vessels of iron are
electroplated with copper or silver or gold to make it attractive and to protect from
rusting.
Copper is a soft, ductile metal used in numerous industrial processes and

applications. Copper's excellent thermal properties and high electrical conductivity
make it a top choice for manufacturing products such as wire and cable, integrated
circuits and circuit boards, conductors, electric motors, building materials, piping
and many other items. Aside from making cheap jewelry, electroplating has important
uses in the automotive industry for chrome plating, and in the electronics industry for
optics and sensors. Many common objects such as tin cans are actually electroplated steel
with a protective layer of tin.
Medical science has experimented with electroplating to create synthetic joints with
electroplated coatings, and new advances in electronics have been made with
electroplated materials.
126
PROCEDURE:
To deposit a layer of copper metal on an iron object, take a glass beaker and fill it with
copper sulphate solution (electrolyte). Connect the plate of copper metal to the positive
terminal (anode) of battery and iron object to the negative terminal (cathode) of the
battery. Now, dip these two electrodes in the solution of copper sulphate. When an
electric current is passed through the CuSO4 solution, a thin layer of copper metal is
deposited on the cathode (iron object) and an equivalent amount of copper is lost by the
anode (copper plate) and is dissolved into the solution.
A copper-plated key will be prepared using the electroplating technique. In the

preparation of the copper-plated key, positive Cu2+ ions from the electrolyte bath will
become attracted to a key carrying a negative charge. When the Cu2+ ions reach the key
they will gain electrons and become reduced to form solid copper on its surface:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
The copper (II) ions removed from the bath must be replenished; this is accomplished at
the anode where a solid copper strip undergoes oxidation:
Cu(s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
127
OBSERVATION
Item mass before mass after difference in mass

electroplating electroplating
Iron Key ------ mg ------ mg ------ mg
Copper sheet ------ mg ------ mg ------ mg
RESULT: Amount of copper deposited on Iron Key --------------- mg
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is electroplating?
The process of depositing a layer of one metal over the surface of another metal
by passing electric current is called electroplating.
2. How to obtain a smooth and firm metal layer on the electroplated object?
a) Temperature, pH and concentration of ions in the electrolyte should be kept
constant.
b) Oil dirt on the surface of electroplated object should be removed before
electroplating.
c) Low current and voltage is used
3. How can electroplating be done?

Electroplating involves passing an electric current through a solution called an
electrolyte. This is done by dipping two terminals called electrodes into the
electrolyte and connecting them into a circuit with a battery or other power
supply.
4. What is electroplating used for?

Electroplating is widely used in various industries for coating metal objects with a
thin layer of a different metal. The layer of metal deposited has some desired
property, which the metal of the object lacks. ... Electroplating has wide usage in
industries. It is also used in making inexpensive jewelry.
5. How Electroplating Works?
Electroplating works like a galvanic cell in reverse. An electrical current reduces
cations from a solution so that they can coat a conductive material with a thin
layer.
6. What are the engineering applications of electroplating?
Engineers can plate copper onto a variety of surfaces for use in the
automotive, aerospace, electrical, or defense industries. Because copper is a
soft, highly malleable metal with excellent electrical and thermal
conductivity, it is the perfect substance for a variety of use cases. However,
sometimes a harder surface may be required. In these instances, copper
plating can be used to increase surface strength.
128
NOTES/CALCULATIONS
129
130

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1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

B. TECH- I- YEAR- I &II-SEM

The students will be able:

1 Melde’s experiment – Frequency of electrical vibrator. 1-6

2 Newton’s Rings – Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens. 7-14

3 Laser - Wave length of light by using Diffraction grating. 15-19

4 CR circuit – Time constant of an RC circuit. 20-27

6 LED - Characteristics of LED. 37-41

7 Solar cell - Characteristics of a Solar cell. 42-47

8 Optical fiber - Numerical aperture of an optical fiber. 48-52

9 Torsional pendulum - Rigidity modulus of given wire (demonstrative). 53-60

S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE NO.

Common apparatus and terms used in Chemistry Laboratory 69-75

1 Estimation of Hardness of water by EDTA method 76-83

2 Estimation of Ferrous ion by Dichrometry 84-87

3 Estimation of concentration of HCl by Conductometric Titrations 88-93

4 Estimation of concentration of Acetic acid by Conductometric Titration 94-99

5 Estimation of concentration of HCl by Potentiometric Titrations 100-105

6 Estimation of amount of Fe2+ by Potentiometric Titration using KMno4 106-110

7 Estimation of Copper by Colorimetric method 111-116

8 Preparation of Polymer - Bakelite 117-120

9 Determination of Surface Tension of a given liquid using Stalagmometer 121-125

10 Electroplating of Copper on an Iron object 126-129

1. MELDE’S EXPERIMENT–FREQUENCY OF ELECTRICAL VIBRATOR.

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

Length of the string (y) = -------------- cm

Mass of the pan (𝑚′ ) = ------------------ gm

Mass per unit length (or) Linear density ‘m’ = ------------------------gm/cm

Table I: Longitudinal Arrangement:

Load Length Length

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

Table II: Transverse Arrangement:

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

VIVA VOICE QUESTION AND ANSWERS

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

VIVA VOICE QUESTION AND ANSWERS

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

3. WAVE LENGTH OF LASER BEAM

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

Distance The distance

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

VIVA VOICE QUESTION AND ANSWERS

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

Where, Q is the charge in time t; and Q0 is the maximum charge.

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in

2. Resistance (R) = …………………… kΩ.

Time (t) Voltmeter readings Time (t) Voltmeter readings