Disaster Preparedness & Planning Management

DISASTER
PREPAREDNESS
&
PLANNING
MANAGEMENT
SYLLABUS
UNIT – I
Introduction: Concepts and definitions: disaster, hazard, vulnerability,
resilience, risks severity, frequency and details, capacity, impact, prevention,
mitigation.
UNIT – II
Disasters: Disasters classification; natural disasters (floods, draught, cyclones,
volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunami, landslides, coastal erosion, soil erosion, forest
fires etc.); manmade disasters (industrial pollution, artificial flooding in urban
areas, nuclear radiation, chemical spills, transportation accidents, terrorist
strikes, etc.); hazard and vulnerability profile of India, mountain and coastal
areas, ecological fragility.
UNIT – III
Disaster Impacts: Disaster impacts (environmental, physical, social,
ecological, economic, political, etc.); health, psycho-social issues; demographic
aspects (gender, age, special needs); hazard locations; global and national
disaster trends; climate change and urban disasters.
UNIT – IV
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): Disaster management cycle – its phases;
prevention, mitigation, preparedness, relief and recovery; structural and non-
structural measures; risk analysis, vulnerability and capacity assessment; early
warning systems, Post disaster environmental response (water, sanitation, food
safety, waste management, disease control, security, communications); Roles
and responsibilities of government, community, local institutions, NGOs and
other stakeholders; Policies and legislation for disaster risk reduction, DRR
programmes in India and the activities of National Disaster Management
Authority.
UNIT – V
Disasters, Environment and Development: Factors affecting vulnerability
such as impact of developmental projects and environmental modifications
(including of dams, land use changes, urbanization etc.), sustainable and
environmental friendly recovery; reconstruction and development methods.
Disaster Preparedness & Planning Management
UNIT – I
Introduction: Concepts and Definitions: Disaster, Hazard, Vulnerability,

Resilience, Risks severity, Capacity, Prevention, Mitigation.
– Disaster:
Definition: An event, natural or human made sudden or progressive, which

impacts with such severity that the affected community has to respond by taking
exceptional measures!
Or
A disaster can be defined as “A serious disruption in the functioning of the

community or a society causing wide spread material, economic, social or
environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope
using its own resources”.
Or
The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster as “a catastrophe, mishap,

calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or manmade
causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or
human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property or damage to, or
degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be
beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area”.
Or
The United Nations defines disaster as “the occurrence of sudden or major

misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of the society
or community”.
Disaster Background: Disasters are as old as human history but the dramatic
increase and the damage caused by them in the recent past have become a cause
of national and international concern. Over the past decade, the number of
natural and man‐made disasters has climbed inexorably. From 1994 to 1998,
reported disasters average was 428 per year but from 1999 to 2003, this figure
went up to an average of 707 disaster events per year showing an increase of
about 60 per cent over the previous years.
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The biggest rise was in countries of low human development, which suffered an
increase of 142 per cent. Disasters are not new to mankind. They have been the
constant, though inconvenient, companions of the human beings since time
immemorial. Disasters can be natural or human‐made.
Earthquake, cyclone, hailstorm, cloud‐burst, landslide, soil erosion, snow

avalanche, flood etc. are the examples of natural disasters while fire, epidemics,
road, air, rail accidents and leakages of chemicals/nuclear installations etc. fall
under the category of human‐made disasters.
Relationship: Hazard x Vulnerability = Disaster
Classification: Disaster can classified as:
1. Natural (Resulting from Natural Forces).

2. Man-made (Resulting from Human Decision).
3. Hybrid (resulting from both natural and man made)
1. Natural Disaster classified in to:
i. Resulting from phenomenon beneath the earth surface (E.g. Earthquake,

tsunami, Volcano) At the earth surface – landslide & Avalanche.
ii. Resulting from meteorological/hydrological phenomenon (e.g. Wind
storm, cyclones, hurricane, typhoon, tornados, flood, drought, heat wave).
iii. Biological phenomenon (E.g. epidemics, infestation).
2. Man-made Disaster classified in to:
i. Socio –technical disaster.

ii. Warfare Disaster.
i. Socio technical disaster can occur in following situation:
 Technological (e.g. gas leakage, fire during industrial activity).

 Transport failure (e.g. Air crash, Road/rail accidents).
 Stadia and public place failure (fire, structural, collapse, crushing).
ii. Warfare Disaster classified in Interstate conflict and international conflict,

which can further include – chemical, biological, nuclear wars.
3. Hybrid Disaster are result of natural forces and human action (e.g. excessive
deforestation).
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India Disaster Scenario: India due to its geo‐climatic and socio‐economic

condition is prone to various disasters. During the last thirty years’ time span
the country has been hit by 431 major disasters resulting into enormous loss to
life and property. According to the Prevention Web statistics, 143039 people
were killed and about 150 crore were affected by various disasters in the
country during these three decades. The disasters caused huge loss to property
and other infrastructures costing more than US $ 4800 crore. The most severe
disasters in the country and their impact in term of people affected, lives lost
and economic damage is given in the In India, the cyclone which occurred on
25th November, 1839 had a death toll of three lakh people.
The Bhuj earthquake of 2001 in Gujarat and the Super Cyclone of Orissa on 29 th
October, 1999 are still fresh in the memory of most Indians. The most recent
natural disaster of a cloud burst resulting in flash floods and mudflow in Leh
and surrounding areas in the early hours of 6th August, 2010, caused severe
damage in terms of human lives as well as property. There was a reported death
toll of 196 persons, 65 missing persons, 3,661 damaged houses and 27,350
hectares of affected crop area. Floods, earthquakes, cyclones, hailstorms, etc.
are the most frequently occurring disasters in India.
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Disasters – Global Scenario: Disasters ‐ natural or human‐made are common

throughout the world. Disasters continue to occur without warning and are
perceived to be on an increase in their magnitude, complexity, frequency and
economic impact. Hazards pose threats to people and assume serious
proportions in the under developed countries with dense population. During the
second half of the 20th century, more than 200 worst natural disasters occurred
in the different parts of the world and claimed lives of around 1.4 million
people. Losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as % of GDP) in the
developing countries than in industrialized one. Asia tops the list of casualties
due to natural disasters. Figure shows the Regional distribution of disasters by
type, as prepared by Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disaster.
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There have been several natural, as well as, man‐made disasters. Records of
natural disasters can be traced way back to 430 B.C. when the Typhus epidemic
was reported in Athens. Ten deadliest natural disasters recorded in the world are
dated back to 1556 when an earthquake in Shaanxi province of China occurred
on 23rd January, 1556 and 8,30,000 casualties were recorded. List of ten
deadliest disasters which have occurred across the world and in India in the
known history and in the last century may be seen from the respectively.
World Disaster
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Indian Disasters
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Impact of Disasters:
1. Loss of lives.
2. Loss to Property and infrastructure.
3. Damage to livelihood.
4. Economic Loss.
5. Environmental Damage- Flora & Fauna.
6. Sociological & Psychological after effects.
– Hazard:
Definition: “Hazards are defined as physical phenomena that pose a threat to

the people, structures or economic assets and which may cause a disaster.”
Earthquake, floods, tsunami etc are all hazards and we can prevent them from
becoming disasters.
Or
Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or event that threat or have

the potential for causing injury to life or damage to property or the
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environment.” The word ‘hazard’ owes its origin to the word ‘hasard’ in old
French and ‘az‐zahr’ in Arabic meaning ‘chance’ or ‘luck’.
Types/Classification: Hazards can be grouped into two broad categories

namely:
1. Natural hazards.
2. Manmade hazards.
1. Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural

phenomena (hazards with meteorological, geological or even biological origin).
Examples of natural hazards are cyclones, tsunamis, earthquake and volcanic
eruption which are exclusively of natural origin. Landslides, floods, drought,
fires are socio‐natural hazards since their causes are both natural and manmade.
For example flooding may be caused because of heavy rains, landslide or
blocking of drains with human waste.
2. Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to human negligence.

Manmade hazards are associated with industries or energy generation facilities
and include explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam failure, wars or
civil strife etc. The list of hazards is very long. Many occur frequently while
others take place occasionally.
Hazards can be grouped as,
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– Vulnerability:
Definition: Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community,

structure, services or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the
impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and
proximity to hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area.” It is the likely extent
of damage due to a hazard.
Key Concept of Vulnerability:
Types of Vulnerability: Vulnerabilities can be categorized into:
1. Physical vulnerability.
2. Socio‐economic vulnerability.
1. Physical vulnerability: It includes notions of who and what may be

damaged or destroyed by natural hazard such as earthquakes or floods. It is
based on the physical condition of people and elements at risk, such as
buildings, infrastructure etc; and their proximity, location and nature of the
hazard. It also relates to the technical capability of building and structures to
resist the forces acting upon them during a hazard event. The settlements which
are located in hazardous slopes.
Figure below shows the settlements which are located in hazardous slopes.
Many landslide and flooding disasters are linked to what you see in the figure
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below. Unchecked growth of settlements in unsafe areas exposes the people to

the hazard. In case of an earthquake or landslide the ground may fail and the
houses on the top may topple or slide and affect the settlements at the lower
level even if they are designed well for earthquake forces.
Fig: Site after pressures from population growth and urbanization
2. Socio‐economic vulnerability: The degree to which a population is affected

by a hazard will not merely lie in the physical components of vulnerability but
also on the socio‐ economic conditions. The socioeconomic condition of the
people also determines the intensity of the impact. For example, people who are
poor and living in the sea coast don’t have the money to construct strong
concrete houses.
They are generally at risk and lose their shelters whenever there is strong wind
or cyclone. Because of their poverty they too are not able to rebuild their
houses.
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– Resilience:
“Resilire” (Latin word) ‐ to bounce back.
Engineering resilience: The time taken by a system to bounce‐back from

shocks.
Ecological resilience: The extent of disturbance a system can take without

undergoing structural change.
Disaster Resilience is the ability of individuals, communities, organizations and

states to adapt to and recover from hazards, shocks or stresses without
compromising long‐term prospects for development.
According to the Hyogo Framework for Action (UNISDR, 2005), disaster

resilience is determined by the degree to which individuals, communities and
public and private organizations are capable of organizing themselves to learn
from past disasters and reduce their risks to future ones, at international,
regional, national and local levels.
Disaster resilience is part of the broader concept of resilience – ‘the ability of

individuals, communities and states and their institutions to absorb and recover
from shocks, whilst positively adapting and transforming their structures and
means for living in the face of long‐term changes and uncertainty’.
Elements of a resilience framework: In practice, DFID’s framework (DFID,

2011a, 6‐7; diagram below) depicts the core elements of disaster resilience as
follows:
1. Context: Whose resilience is being built – such as a social group,

socio‐economic or political system, environmental context or institution.
2. Disturbance: What shocks (sudden events like conflict or disasters) and/or

stresses (long‐term trends like resource degradation, urbanization, or climate
change) the group aims to be resilient to.
3. Capacity to respond: The ability of a system or process to deal with a shock

or stress depends on exposure (the magnitude of the shock or stress), sensitivity
(the degree to which a system will be affected by, or will respond to, a given
shock or stress), and adaptive capacity (how well it can adjust to a disturbance
or moderate damage, take advantage of opportunities and cope with the
consequences of a transformation).
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4. Reaction: A range of responses are possible, including: bounce back better,

where capacities are enhanced, exposures are reduced, and the system is more
able to deal with future shocks and stresses; bounce back, where pre‐existing
conditions prevail; or recover, but worse than before, meaning capacities are
reduced. In the worst‐case scenario, the system collapses, leading to a
catastrophic reduction in capacity to cope with the future.
– Risk:
Definition: The probability of harmful consequences or expected losses

resulting from interaction between natural or human induced hazards and
vulnerable conditions.
Or
Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a

given area over a specific time period. Risk is a function of the probability of
particular hazardous event and the losses each would cause.”
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Level of risk: The level of risk depends upon:
1. Nature of the hazard.

2. Vulnerability of the elements which are affected.
3. Economic value of those elements
A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards and is

likely to be adversely affected by its impact. Whenever we discuss ‘disaster
management’ it is basically ‘disaster risk management’. Disaster risk
management includes all measures which reduce disaster related losses of life,
property or assets by either reducing the hazard or vulnerability of the elements
at risk.
Key concept: Hazard * Vulnerability/Capacity = Risk.
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1. Preparedness: This protective process embraces measures which enable

governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster
situations to cope with them effectively. Preparedness includes the formulation
of viable emergency plans, the development of warning systems, the
maintenance of inventories and the training of personnel. It may also embrace
search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be at
risk from a recurring disaster.
Preparedness therefore encompasses those measures taken before a disaster

event which are aimed at minimizing loss of life, disruption of critical services,
and damage when the disaster occurs.
2. Mitigation: Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of

the hazard and the vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a
future disaster. Therefore mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard
itself or the elements exposed to the threat. Examples of mitigation measures
which are hazard specific include water management in drought prone areas,
relocating people away from the hazard prone areas and by strengthening
structures to reduce damage when a hazard occurs.
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In addition to these physical measures, mitigation should also aim at reducing

the economic and social vulnerabilities of potential disasters.
Elements at Risk: Persons, buildings, crops or other such like societal

components exposed to known hazard, which are likely to be adversely affected
by the impact of the hazard.
– Capacity:
Definition: Capacity is the resources of individuals, households and

communities to cope with a threat or resist the impact of a hazard.
Or
Capacity can be defined as “resources, means and strengths which exist in

households and communities and which enable them to cope with, withstand,
prepare for, prevent, mitigate or quickly recover from a disaster”.
People’s capacity can also be taken into account. Capacities could be:
1. Physical Capacity: People whose houses have been destroyed by the cyclone
or crops have been destroyed by the flood can salvage things from their homes
and from their farms. Some family members have skills, which enable them to
find employment if they migrate, either temporarily or permanently.
2. Socio‐economic Capacity: In most of the disasters, people suffer their

greatest losses in the physical and material realm. Rich people have the capacity
to recover soon because of their wealth. In fact, they are seldom hit by disasters
because they live in safe areas and their houses are built with stronger materials.
However, even when everything is destroyed they have the capacity to cope up
with it.
Hazards are always prevalent, but the hazard becomes a disaster only when
there is greater vulnerability and less of capacity to cope with it. In other words
the frequency or likelihood of a hazard and the vulnerability of the community
increases the risk of being severely affected.
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Hazard * Vulnerability/Capacity = Risk.
Physical phenomena that pose a threat to the people * Extent to which the
community, structure can get damaged – Available and potential resources =
Risk (Probability of disaster occurrence).
– Prevention:
Definition: Activities to avoid the adverse impact of hazards and means to

check from turning into disasters.
Examples: Avoiding construction in seismically active areas, landslide prone

areas and flood planes.
– Mitigation:
Introduction:
 Mitigation means measures aimed at reducing the risk, impact or effects

of a disaster or threatening disaster situation Measures taken in advance
of a disaster aimed at reducing its impact on society and the environment.
 Learning from the past disaster.
 Incorporating the learning in present scenario.
 Building back better to reduce the impact of future disasters.
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Mitigation Measures:
1. Structural Measures:
i. Multi-hazard resistant buildings.
ii. Shelters.
iii. Retrofitting.
iv. Modernizing early warning system.
2. Non-structural Measures:
i. Awareness generation.
ii. Training and capacity building.
iii. Policy and regulations.
iv. Mock drills and demos.
v. Effective dissemination of early warning.
vi. Development of state, district village plans.
vii. Building byelaws Revision.
******
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UNIT – II
Disasters: Disasters classification; Natural disasters (Floods, Drought,

Cyclones, Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Tsunami, Landslides, Coastal erosion,
Soil erosion, Forest fires etc.); Manmade disasters (Industrial pollution,
Artificial flooding in urban areas, Nuclear radiation, Chemical spills,
Transportation accidents, Terrorist strikes, etc.); Hazard and Vulnerability
profile of India, Mountain and Coastal areas.
– Disasters Classification [Or] Type of Disasters:
There are two types of disasters namely:
1. Natural disasters.
2. Manmade disasters.
Both natural and man-made disasters which have devastating input resulting
loss of human life, loss of livelihoods, property and environmental degradation.
Disasters disrupts normal functioning of society and leave long lasting impact.
1. Natural disasters: Certain disasters occur in nature, without human

provocation. They are listed below:
i. Floods.
ii. Drought.
iii. Cyclones.
iv. Volcanoes.
v. Earthquakes.
vi. Tsunami.
vii. Landslides.
viii. Coastal erosion.
ix. Soil erosion.
x. Forest fires etc.
2. Manmade or Man Induced or Artificial or Anthropogenic disasters:

Certain disasters occur in nature by humans activities. They are listed below:
i. Industrial pollution.
ii. Artificial flooding in urban areas.
iii. Nuclear radiation.
iv. Chemical spills.
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v. Transportation accidents.
vi. Terrorist strikes, etc.
Note: Both Natural & Manmade disasters are explained clearly in sections
2.2 & 2.3
– Natural Disasters (Floods, Drought, Cyclones, Volcanoes, Earthquakes,

Tsunami, Landslides, Coastal Erosion, Soil Erosion & Forest Fires Etc.):
Natural disasters: Natural disasters are disasters that occur as a natural process
of weather patterns or other factors affecting Earth.
Or
Natural disasters occur in nature, without human provocation.
Types of Natural disasters: These types of natural disasters can include:
1. Floods.
2. Drought.
3. Cyclones.
4. Volcanoes.
5. Earthquakes.
6. Tsunami.
7. Landslides or mudslides.
8. Coastal erosion.
9. Soil erosion.
10.Forest fires etc.
FLOODS
Definition:
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that
leads to inundation of land, which is not usually submerged. Floods may happen
gradually and also may take hours or even happen suddenly without any
warning due to breach in the embankment, spill over, heavy rains etc.
Or
Floods are sudden and temporary inundation of a large area as an overflowing
of rivers or reservoirs.
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Or
A flood occurs when the volume of water in the river becomes greater than
bank‐full stage the extra water spills over the banks and spreads in sheets all
along and away from the banks governed by available slope. This condition is
called flood.
Introduction:
Floods are relatively slow in occurrences and often, occur in well‐identified
regions and within expected time in a year. Floods occur commonly when water
in the form of surface run‐off exceeds the carrying capacity of the river channels
and streams and flows into the neighbouring low‐lying flood plains. At times,
this even goes beyond the capacity of lakes and other inland water bodies in
which they flow.
Floods can also be caused due to a storm surge (in the coastal areas), high
intensity rainfall for a considerably longer time period, melting of ice and snow,
reduction in the infiltration rate and presence of eroded material in the water
due to higher rate of soil erosion. Though floods occur frequently over wide
geographical area having disastrous ramifications in many parts of the world,
floods in the South, Southeast and East Asian countries, particularly in China,
India and Bangladesh, are frequent and equally disastrous.
Types/Classification of Floods:
According to their duration flood can be divided into different categories:
1. Slow‐Onset Floods: Slow Onset Floods usually last for a relatively longer
period, it may last for one or more weeks, or even months.
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2. Rapid‐Onset Floods: Rapid Onset Floods last for a relatively shorter period,
they usually last for one or two days only.
3. Flash Floods: Flash Floods may occur within minutes or a few hours after
heavy rainfall, tropical storm, failure of dams or levees or releases from dams,
and it causes the greatest damages to society.
Magnitude & Frequency of Flood:
 The magnitude of a flood is generally indicated by the discharge of water

from a channel at a particular point. The discharge of flow is commonly
indicated by means of a hydrograph.
 As the name indicates, a hydrograph is a plot between discharge of a
stream at a particular place in cubic meters/sec or cubic feet/sec over a
period of time (day/week/month/year). A flood is often indicated by the
Peak in a hydrograph.
 If we have hydrographs of a river for longer periods (or years) then it can
be used for flood prediction studies.
 If we have longer periods of hydrographs, the frequency of flood i.e. its
recurrence or periodicity can be predicted.
 If a flood has return period of 10 years it means it occurs once in 10
years.
Flood Hazard in India/Distributional Pattern of Floods in India:

Floods occur in almost all the river basins of the country. Various states of India
face heavy loss of lives and property due to recurrent floods. National Flood
Commission identified 40 million hectares of land as flood‐prone in India.
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Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among the high flood‐prone states of India.
Apart from these, most of the rivers in the northern states like Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh, are also vulnerable to occasional floods. It has been noticed that states
like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are also getting inundated in recent
decades due to flash floods. This is partly because of the pattern of the monsoon
and partly because of blocking of most of the streams and river channels by
human activities. Sometimes, Tamil Nadu experiences flooding during
November‐ January due to the retreating monsoon.
Most of the flood affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra basin
(comprising of Barak, Tista, Torsa, Subansiri, Sankosh, Dihang and Luhit), the
north western river basin (comprising Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas and
the Ghagra), peninsular river basin (Tapti, Narmada, Mahanadi, Baitarani,
Godavari, krishna, Pennar and the Kaveri) and the coastal regions of Andhra
Pradesh, Tamilnadu, orissa and Kerala. Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa
are some of the states who have been severely prone to floods. Our country
receives an annual rainfall of 1200 mm, 85% of which is concentrated in 3‐4
months i.e June to September. Due to the intense and periodic rain, most of the
rivers of the country are fed with huge quantity of water, much beyond their
carrying capacity.
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Monitoring of Floods:
Anticipating floods before they occur allows for precautions to be taken and
people to be warned so that they can be prepared in advance for flooding
conditions.
In order to make the most accurate flood forecasts for waterways, it is best to
have a long time‐series of historical data that relates stream flows to measure
past rainfall events. Radar estimates of rainfall and general weather forecasting
techniques are also important components of good flood forecasting.
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Possible Risk Reduction Measures:
1. Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing the
risk of the region. Historical records give the indication of the flood inundation
areas and the period of occurrence and the extent of the coverage. Warning can
be issued looking into the earlier marked heights of the water levels in case of
potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels and the land characteristics
will determine the submergence areas. Flood hazard mapping will give the
proper indication of water flow during floods.
2. Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when waters
inundate the floodplains and the coastal areas. The number of casualties is
related to the population in the area at risk. In areas where people already have
built their settlements, measures should be taken to relocate to better sites so as
to reduce vulnerability. No major development should be permitted in the areas
which are subjected to high flooding. Important facilities like hospitals, schools
should be built in safe areas. In urban areas, water holding areas can be created
like ponds, lakes or low‐lying areas.
3. Construction of engineered structures in the flood plains and strengthening

of structures to withstand flood forces and seepage. The buildings should be
constructed on an elevated area. If necessary build on stilts or platform. Flood
Control aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by decreasing the
amount of runoff with the help of reforestation (to increase absorption could be
a mitigation strategy in certain areas), protection of vegetation, clearing of
debris from streams and other water holding areas, conservation of ponds and
lakes etc.
Flood Diversion include levees, embankments, dams and channel improvement.

Dams can store water and can release water at a manageable rate. But failure of
dams in earthquakes and operation of releasing the water can cause floods in the
lower areas. Flood Proofing reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use
of sand bags to keep flood water away, blocking or sealing of doors and
windows of houses etc. Houses may be elevated by building on raised land.
Buildings should be constructed away from water bodies.
4. Flood Management: In India, systematic planning for flood management

commenced with the Five Year Plans, particularly with the launching of
National Programme of Flood Management in 1954. During the last 48 years,
different methods of flood protection structural as well as non-structural have
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been adopted in different states depending upon the nature of the problem and
local conditions.
Causes of Floods:
1. Natural Causes:
i. Heavy Rainfall: Heavy rainfall raises the water level. When the water
level is higher than the river bank or the dams, the water comes out from
the river, and there will be flooding.
ii. Snowmelt: Because of global warming, the temperature of current years
is higher than the temperature of years ago. The ice caps melt in summer,
and the water goes into the sea. The water raises the sea level, and makes
the river level rise. When river level rises, flooding may occur.
iii. Relief (release): Flooding often occurs in lowlands. This is because
rivers flow more slowly in low-lying areas. If the water volume increases
suddenly, floods occur.
iv. Coastal flooding: Flooding also occurs in coastal areas. High tides or
storms cause the water level to rise. If the water level is higher than the
level of the coastal lowland, flooding will occur.
2. Human Causes:
i. Deforestation: Large areas of forests near/besides the rivers have been
cleared. The lands are used to make room for settlement, roads and
farmland. Less vegetation protects the soil; the soil is quickly lost to
rivers and the sea. This raises the river bed, so the river overflows its
banks easily.
ii. Poor farming: Some farming practices can damage the vegetation cover,
which might also become a reason for flooding.
iii. Poor water management: When the dams are poorly constructed or
maintained, they can easily collapse and this result in flooding. Compared
to concrete dams, several earthen dams might fail.
iv. Population pressure: Because of large population, everything needs
more, like wood, land and food. These results in storing more water,
when it can’t be maintained properly, overflow of reservoirs might take
place causing floods in the downstream.
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Typical Adverse Effects/Impacts:
1. Casualties: Human and livestock death due to drowning, serious injuries and
outbreak of epidemics like diarrhoea, cholera, jaundice or viral infections are
common problems faced in flood affected areas. Even wells, other source of
drinking water get submerged resulting in acute shortage of safe drinking water
during floods. Consequently often people are forced to drink the contaminated
floodwater, which may cause serious diseases.
2. Structural damage: During floods mud huts and buildings built on weak
foundations collapse endangering human lives and property. Damage may also
be cause to roads, rail, dams, monuments, crops and cattle. Floods may uproot
trees and may cause landslides and soil erosion.
3. Material loss: Household articles including eatables, electronic goods, beds,

clothes, furniture get submerged in water and get spoilt all materials mounted
on ground e.g. food stock, equipment, vehicles, livestock, machinery, salt pan
and fishing boats can be submerged and spoilt.
4. Utilities damage: Utilities such as water supply, sewerage, communication

lines, power-lines, transportation network and railways are put at risk.
5. Crop loss: Apart from the loss of human and cattle life, floods cause severe
devastation of standing agricultural crops. Floods water spoils the stored food-
grains or harvested crop. Floods may affect soil characteristics and may turn
them infertile due to the erosion of the top soil or in coastal areas agricultural
lands may turn saline due to flooding by sea water.
6. Flood control: Flood control can be achieved through various means. The
floodwater can be reduced by reducing the run-off water through afforestation.
Forests promote rainwater percolation in the ground, thus recharging the
groundwater and reducing the run-off water. Construction of dams also reduces
flood water through storage. Dams can store water, which cannot be
accommodated in the river downstream may cause floods. Water can be
released in a controlled manner from the dam. Desilting, deepening and
increasing embankment increase the capacity of a river/channel/drain.
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Precautions:
Some precautionary measures are as follows:
1. Build houses away from flood prone area.

2. Keep yourself alert and updated to weather and flood forecasting
information.
3. In case evacuation warnings are issued, immediately go to the shelters
provided.
4. When you are moving to a shelter, move your valuable articles to safer
elevated places so that they are not destroyed by flood water.
5. Store extra food, such as rice, pulses etc. for emergency.
6. Do not touch any loose electric wire to avoid electrocution.
7. Do not spread rumours or listen to them.
8. Make provision for adults and children who need special diet.
9. After the flood is over, get yourself and your family members inoculated
against diseases and seek medical care for injured and sick.
10. Clear the house and dwellings of debris.
11.Report any loss to the revenue authorities.
Flood Benefits:
Floods (in particular more frequent or smaller floods) can also bring many
benefits, such as:
1. Recharging ground water, making soil more fertile and increasing
nutrients in some soils.
2. Flood waters provide much needed water resources in arid and semi‐arid
regions where precipitation can be very unevenly distributed throughout
the year.
3. Freshwater floods particularly play an important role in maintaining
ecosystems in river corridors and are a key factor in maintaining
floodplain biodiversity.
4. Flooding can spread nutrients to lakes and rivers, which can lead to
increased biomass and improved fisheries for a few years.
5. Fish, such as the weather fish, make use of floods in order to reach new
habitats.
6. Bird populations may also profit from the boost in food production
caused by flooding.
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DROUGHT
Definition:
Droughts may be defined as a condition that arises from too little precipitation
(rain or snow) for an extended period of time for normal farming practices to be
conducted.
Or
Drought is an event that results from lower than normal expected rainfall over a
season or period. The low rainfall is insufficient to meet the needs of human
beings, plants, animals and agriculture. Short fall in rain results in drying of
rivers, lakes, reservoirs and drying of wells due to excessive withdrawal and
poor recharge of ground water and loss of crop yield due to shortage of water
are some of the main indicators of drought.
Introduction:
 68% of the net area sown in the country is prone to drought.
 Out of this 33% is chronically drought prone, receiving rainfall less than
750mm per annum.
 35% drought prone that receive rainfall between 750-1125 mm per
annum.
Types/Classification:
Droughts can be categorized into the following types:
1. Meteorological Drought: It occurs when the average rainfall and snowfall is
below average for an extended period of time, thereby causing a natural
shortage of available water.
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2. Agricultural Drought: It occurs when the soil moisture is not sufficient to

support the production of crops.
3. Hydrological Drought: This type of drought occurs when the water levels in
aquifers, lakes and reservoirs, fall below the average levels. This can occur even
during average or above average precipitation, when water consumption by
humans is more, thus lowering the water reserves.
Distributional Pattern:
Causes:
Drought occurs due to shortage of rainfall. As per Meteorological Department if

rainfall is deficient by more than 10% of the annual average rainfall, the
condition is said to be that of drought. The severity of drought is determined by
the extent of deviation of rainfall from the average. In the recent past frequency
of periods of drought have increasing due to deforestation and environmental
degradation.
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Effects/Impacts:
1. Economic impacts: It includes the monetary effects of drought to people.
Following are some of the examples:
i. Droughts destroy the growth of crops, with lower yields and crops are of
poor quality. In order to provide sufficient water to crops, farmers have to
spend more money to irrigate their fields.
ii. The livestock of ranches may be lost. More money may have to be spent
to feed and water the livestock.
iii. Fishes and other aquatic organisms are lost due to drought.
iv. The recreation and tourism industry incurs loss.
v. The income from timber production may be lost owing to reduced timber
production due to wild fires, impaired productivity of forest land and loss
of young trees.
vi. Businesses that process various food stuffs may lose business due to loss
of crops by drought.
vii. Since the hydropower will be in short supply, the power generating
companies will have to spend more to provide alternative sources of
power to their customers.
viii. Water companies will have to spend more for new or supplemental water
resource development.
ix. The transportation industries suffer loss due to impaired navigability of
barrages, and ships in streams, rivers and canals owing to decreased water
levels.
x. Shortage in food production and disrupted food supply causes increase in
the import of food at higher costs. So, there is inflation in food prices.
2. Environmental impact: It includes loss to the environment by way of forest
fires, erosion of soil, damage to all living forms and their habitat, decline in the
water and the air quality. Some of the examples are as under:
i. Due to lack of food and drinking water, due to loss of wet lands and
vegetation there is greater mortality of fish and wildlife habitat.
ii. Shortage of food and water leads to diseases in animals.
iii. The wildlife may leave the drought stricken areas and migrate to other
places.
iv. The endangered species are at an increased stress.
v. The water levels in the reservoirs, ponds and lakes decrease. The wetland
also decreases.
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vi. Drought causes the soil to dry up and become prone to erosion by wind,
resulting in reduced soil quality. This leads to loss of biological
productivity of the landscape.
vii. Loss of biodiversity and extinction of species.
3. Social impacts: It involves public safety and health, disputes arising due to
water shortage and lifestyle changes. Some of the examples in this category are:
i. The revenue loss caused by drought may cause mental and physical stress
on people.
ii. The heat stress, mental stress and physical stress may contribute to loss of
human life and suicidal tendencies.
iii. Reduction in recreational activities.
iv. People migrate to other places.
v. The reduction in nutrition due to inflation, causes malnutrition and
famine.
vi. A general increase in poverty leads to changes in lifestyle and quality of
life.
Drought Control Measures:
A drought-like situation can be avoided by the following ways:
1. Rain water harvesting: This is one of the most important and
economical tool of water conservation, used for collecting and storing the
rain water from roof tops and land surface to provide water for
agriculture, industries and domestic use.
2. Crop Rotation: Rotation of perennial crops and leguminous plants
alternating with cash crops controls soil erosion and helps the formation
of better quality soil.
3. Channelizing the rivers: By building canals in drought prone areas is an
efficient way to combat the effects of drought.
4. Cloud seeding: It is an artificial technique to stimulate the precipitation
process and form rain. The method involves sprinkling silver iodide
aerosols into the upper part of clouds. The water droplets in the clouds
attach to silver iodide and freeze. The ice crystals stick together and fall
as snow.
5. Desalination of sea water: Desalination plants are set up to covert sea
water and contaminated water to drinking water. Desalinated water is
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used mostly in the Middle East, North Africa, California and parts of
Florida in the US.
6. Risk mitigation efforts by the Government: These include Drought
Prone Area Program (DPAP), Desert Development Program (DDP),
National Watershed Development Project for Rain-fed areas (NWDPRA),
Watershed Development Program for Shifting Cultivation (WDPSC),
Integrated Water Development Project (IWDP), Integrated Afforestation
and Economic Development Project Scheme (IAEPS).
CYCLONES
Definition:
Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high

atmospheric pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance
accompanied by powerful winds blowing in anticlockwise direction in the
Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the Southern
Hemisphere. They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the
world.
Or
Cyclones are violent storms, often of vast extent, characterised by strong and
high winds rotating about a calm center of low atmospheric pressure. This
center moves onwards, often with velocity of around 50 km/h. Cyclones strike
suddenly though it takes time for them to build up. Cyclone is generally
followed by heavy rains causing floods. Satellite tracking can predict on
possible affected areas and inhabitants fore-warned can be made for warning.
Warning and evacuation is done along the projected path.
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Introduction:
 Long coastline of 8000 kms.

 Pre-monsoon (May-June) and post-monsoon (Sept-Oct) cyclones.
 Coastal districts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Gujrat most prone to
cyclone.
 Most casualties caused by coastal inundation due to tidal waves, storm
surges and torrential rains.
 Cyclones are known by different names in different parts of the world:
• Typhoons in the Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline.
• Hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Northeast Pacific
Ocean east of the dateline, or the South Pacific Ocean.
• Tropical cyclones the Southwest Pacific Ocean and Southeast
Indian Ocean.
• Severe cyclonic storm (the North Indian Ocean).
• Tropical cyclone (the Southwest Indian Ocean).
• Willie‐Willie in Australia.
• Tornado in South America
The term 'cyclone' actually refers to several different types of storms. They
occur in different places, and some occur over land while others occur over
water. What they all have in common is that they are spinning storms rotating
around that low ‐pressure center.
1. Tropical cyclones: Tropical cyclones are what most people are familiar with
because these are cyclones that occur over tropical ocean regions. Hurricanes
and typhoons are actually types of tropical cyclones, but they have different
names so that it's clear where that storm is occurring. Hurricanes are found in
the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, typhoons are found in the Northwest Pacific.
If you hear 'tropical cyclone,' you should assume that it's occurring in the South
Pacific or Indian Ocean, but for this lesson, we'll use it refer to all types of
tropical ocean cyclones.
We can also further describe tropical cyclones based on their wind speeds. They
are called category 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, increasing with intensity and wind speed as
the number increases. A category 1 cyclone is the weakest, with wind speeds of
74‐95 mph. A category 5 cyclone, on the other hand, is extremely dangerous
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and has the potential for major damage. Category 5 cyclones have wind speeds
of 155 mph and above!
2. Polar cyclones: Polar cyclones are cyclones that occur in polar regions like
Greenland, Siberia and Antarctica. Unlike tropical cyclones, polar cyclones are
usually stronger in winter months. As you can see, these storms really do prefer
the colder weather! They also occur in areas that aren't very populated, so any
damage they do is usually pretty minimal.
3. Mesocyclone: Mesocyclone is when part of a thunderstorm cloud starts to

spin, which may eventually lead to a tornado. 'Meso' means 'middle', so you can
think of this as the mid ‐point between one type of storm and the other.
Tornadoes all come from thunderstorm clouds, but not all thunderstorm clouds
make tornadoes. In order for a tornado to occur, part of that cloud has to spin,
and though you can't really see this happening, this is the intermediate, or 'meso'
step from regular cloud to dangerous spinning cloud running along the ground.
General Characteristics:
Cyclones in India are moderate in nature. Some of the general characteristics of

a cyclone are:
1. Strong winds.
2. Exceptional rain.
3. Storm surge.
Cyclones are generally accompanied by strong winds which cause a lot of

destruction. In some cases it is accompanied by heavy downpour and also the
rise in the sea which intrudes inland there by causing floods.
Development of a Cyclone:
The development of a cyclone covers three stages namely:
1. Formation and initial development state: Four atmospheric/oceanic

conditions are necessary for the formation of a cyclone namely:
i. A warm sea temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade, to a depth of

60 meters, which provides abundant water vapour in the air by
evaporation.
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ii. High relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by to a height
of about 7000 meters, facilitates condensation of water vapor into
droplets and clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in pressure).
iii. Atmospheric instability (an above average decrease of temperature with
altitude) encourages considerable vertical cumulus cloud convection
when condensation of rising air occurs.
iv. A location of at least 4‐5 latitude degrees from the Equator allow the
influence of the force due to the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force) to take
effect in inducing cyclonic wind circulation around low pressure centers.
2. Fully matured: The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone is a

spiral pattern of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud bands. These
bands spiral inwards and form a dense highly active central cloud core which
raps around a relatively calm zone. This is called the “eye” of a cyclone. The
eye looks like a black hole or a dot surrounded by thick clouds. The outer
circumference of the thick cloud is called the ‘eye wall’.
3. Weakening or decay: A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon as its

source of warm moist air is abruptly cut off. This is possible when the cyclone
hits the land, on the cyclone moves to a higher altitude or when there is the
interference of another low pressure.
Depending on their track on the warm tropical sea and proximity to land a
cyclone may last for less than 24 hours to more than 3 weeks. On an average the
life cycle of a cyclone (a cyclone to complete these three stages mentioned
above) takes six days. The longest cyclone is typhoon John which lasted for 31
days (August to September, 1994 in the north east and north west pacific
basins).
The map of India shows the areas that are generally affected by strong winds/
cyclones.
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Some of the major cyclones that have affected the country in the past are as
mentioned in table below:
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Elements at Risk:
Strong winds, torrential rains and flooding cause a huge loss to life and
property. The 1999 Super Cyclone of Orissa killed more than 10,000 precious
lives with women and children greatly affected. Apart from loss to life there is a
huge loss to infrastructures like houses built of mud, older buildings with weak
walls, bridges, settlements in low lying areas.
Effects of Cyclones and Hurricanes:
1. Tropical cyclones cause heavy rainfall and landslides.

2. They cause a lot of harm to towns and villages, causing severe damage to
kuccha houses. Coastal businesses like shipyards and oil wells are
destroyed.
3. They harm the ecosystem of the surrounding region.
4. Civic facilities are disturbed.
5. Agricultural land is severely affected, especially in terms of water supply
and soil erosion.
6. It causes harm to human, plant and animal life.
7. Communication systems are badly affected due to cyclones.
1. Coastal belt plantation: Green belt plantation along the coastal line in a
scientific interweaving pattern can reduce the effect of the hazard. Providing a
cover through green belt sustains less damage. Forests act as a wide buffer zone
against strong winds and flash floods. Without the forest the cyclone travel
freely inland. The lack of protective forest cover allows water to inundate large
areas and cause destruction. With the loss of the forest cover each consecutive
cyclone can penetrate further inland.
2. Hazard mapping: Meteorological records of the wind speed and the

directions give the probability of the winds in the region. Cyclones can be
predicted several days in advance. The onset is extensive and often very
destructive. Past records and paths can give the pattern of occurrence for
particular wind speeds. A hazard map will illustrate the areas vulnerable to
cyclone in any given year. It will be useful to estimate the severity of the
cyclone and various damage intensities in the region. The map is prepared with
data inputs of past climatological records, history of wind speed, frequency of
flooding etc.
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3. Land use control: Designed so that least critical activities are placed in
vulnerable areas. Location of settlements in the flood plains is at utmost risk.
Siting of key facilities must be marked in the land use. Policies should be in
place to regulate land use and building codes should be enforced.
4. Engineered structures: Structures need to be built to withstand wind forces.

Good site selection is also important. Majority of the buildings in coastal areas
are built with locally available materials and have no engineering inputs. Good
construction practice should be adopted such as:
i. Cyclonic wind storms inundate the coastal areas. It is advised to construct

on stilts or on earth mound.
ii. Houses can be strengthened to resist wind and flood damage. All
elements holding the structures need to be properly anchored to resist the
uplift or flying off of the objects. For example, avoid large overhangs of
roofs, and the projections should be tied down.
iii. A row of planted trees will act as a shield. It reduces the energy.
iv. Buildings should be wind and water resistant.
v. Buildings storing food supplies must be protected against the winds and
water.
vi. Protect river embankments.
vii. Communication lines should be installed underground.
viii. Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.
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5. Flood management: Torrential rains strong wind and storm range leads to
flooding in the cyclone affected areas. There are possibilities of landslides too.
Flood mitigation measures could be incorporated (see section on floods for
additional information).
6. Improving vegetation cover: The roots of the plants and trees keep the soil
intact and prevent erosion and slow runoff to prevent or lessen flooding. The
use of tree planted in rows will act as a windbreak. Coastal shelterbelt
plantations can be developed to break severe wind speeds. It minimizes
devastating effects. The Orissa calamity has also highlighted the need for urgent
measures like shelterbelt plantation along cyclone‐prone coastal areas. Species
chosen for this purpose should not only be able to withstand the impact of
strong cyclonic winds, but also check soil erosion.
VOLCANOES
Definition & Introduction:

Volcanoes are openings in the earth's crust created when molten material under
the crust is propelled upward though the surface. The magma chamber collects
the magma that is expelled to the surface in an eruption. A volcanic event could
be:
1. Destructive, with voluminous lava flows or explosive activity. This usually
occurs when magma is sticky and contains a lot of gas. Hot debris particles
called pyroclastic are expelled during violent explosions. Heavier pieces land
near the crater and lighter pieces can be carried by the wind for hundreds of
miles.
2. Non-destructive, with little release of solids or magmatic liquid. These

eruptions occur when the magma is more fluid and contains less gas. The solids
or magma rocks and lava cools on its slope.
Causes and Distribution of Volcanoes:
Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or

converging. A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has
examples of volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the
Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic
plates coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are usually not created where
two tectonic plates slide past one another. Volcanoes can also form where there
39 | P a g e
is stretching and thinning of the Earth's crust in the interiors of plates, e.g., in
the East African Rift, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and the Rio
Grande Rift in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella
of "Plate hypothesis" volcanism. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has
also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example
Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the
core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.
Environmental Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions:
Volcanic eruptions can be extremely damaging to the environment, particularly

because of a number of toxic gases possibly present in pyroclastic material. It
typically consists mainly of water vapor, but it also contains carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide gas. Other gases typically found in volcanic ashes are hydrogen
sulphide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, carbon monoxide, and volatile
metal chlorides.
Carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes adds to the natural greenhouse effect.
Sulphur-dioxides cause environmental problems, because they are converted to
sulphuric acid in the stratosphere; the main cause of acid rain. Furthermore,
sulphate aerosols are formed, which reflect solar radiation and absorb heat,
thereby cooling the earth. Sulphate aerosols also take part in chemical reactions,
forming ozone destructive material.
EARTHQUAKES
Definition:
It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is

sudden and there is hardly any warning, making it impossible to predict.
Or
An earthquake is a phenomenon of shaking on the surface of the earth, due to

the movement along geological faults present in the earth’s lithosphere. It is
usually what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one
another, or break apart from each other as a result of tension caused by
prolonged energy build up. This sudden release of energy from the fault plane
will generate seismic waves to travel in all directions. The seismic waves that
reach the earth’s surface cause an earthquake.
Or
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Earthquake is a sudden release of energy accumulated in deformed rocks of

earth crust causing the ground to tremble or shake. Earthquake can occur
suddenly any time of the year without any warning causing severe loss of life
and property (Fig). We are aware of the severe damage caused by earthquakes
of Latur (1993) and Bhuj (2002).
Introduction:
Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any
time of the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can
destroy buildings and infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the
inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but may de-
stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the country.
Globally, earthquakes result in a loss of about 50,000 lives every year.

Earthquakes over 5.5 magnitude on the Richter scale are progressively
damaging to property and human life. However, there are many other factors
that influences the damage pattern. Massive earthquakes generally occur near
the junction of two tectonic plates, e.g., along the Himalayan range, where the
Indian plate goes below Eurasian plate. The Indian subcontinent situated on
the boundaries of two continental plates is very prone to earthquakes. Some of
the most intense earthquakes of the world have occurred in India. Fortunately,
none of these have occurred in any of the major cities. According to latest
seismic zoning map brought out by the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), over
65 percent of the country is prone to earthquake of intensity Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale (MSK) VII or more.
India has been divided into four seismic zones according to the maximum
intensity of earthquake expected (Figure below). Of these, zone V is the most
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active which comprises of whole of Northeast India, the northern portion of

Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Gujarat and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands. India has highly populous cities and the constructions in these cities are
not earthquake resistant. Regulatory mechanisms are weak, thus any earthquake
striking in one of these cities would turn into a major disaster. Six major
earthquakes have struck different parts of India over a span of the last 15 years.
Earthquakes come in many forms:

 Felt as a shock under your feet, or
 Powerful and destructive enough to flatten an entire city.
 Can happen anywhere, land or sea.
Terminology:
1. Focus or Hypocenter: The point on the fault where slip starts is the Focus or
Hypocenter.
2. Epicenter: The point vertically above this on the surface of the Earth is the
Epicenter.
3. Focal Depth: The depth of focus from the epicenter, called as Focal Depth.
4. Epicentral distance: Most of the damaging earthquakes have shallow focus

with focal depths less than about 70km. Distance from epicenter to any point of
interest is called epicentral distance.
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Types/Classification of Earthquakes:
1. Depth of focus as basis:
i. Shallow: Depth of focus lies up to 60km below the surface.

ii. Intermediate: Depth of focus lies between 60-300km below the surface.
iii. Deep seated: Depth of focus lies between 300-700km below the surface.
2. Magnitude as basis (See classification above in Magnitude).
3. Cause of origin as basis:
i. Tectonic earthquakes: Caused due to relative displacements of blocks of

the crust of the earth along the rupture planes.
ii. Non-tectonic earthquake: Caused due to volcanic eruptions, atomic
explosions landslides and subsidence.
Earthquake Hazards Zoning of India:

The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that
the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year.
Geographical statistics of India show that almost 54% of the land is vulnerable
to earthquakes. A World Bank & United Nations report shows estimates that
around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and
earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in
the earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns
four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words, the
earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4
and 5) unlike its previous version which consisted of five or six zones for the
country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level
of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity.
The latest seismic zoning map can be accessed from The India Meteorological
Department website.
Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on
the observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a
descriptive scale like Modified Mercalli intensity scale…
Zone 5: Covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of
intensity IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5.
Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant design of structures
in Zone 5. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The state of
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Kashmir, the western and central Himalayas, the North-East Indian region and
the Rann of Kutch falls in this zone. Generally, the areas having trap or basaltic
rock are prone to earthquakes.
Zone 4: This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable
to intensity VIII or higher. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4.
The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country (Delhi), Jammu and
Kashmir fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra, Patanarea (Koyananager) also comes
under zone 4.
Zone 3: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western
Himalayas fall under this zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage
Risk Zone which is liable to intensity VII. The IS code assigns zone factor of
0.16 for Zone 3.
Zone 2: This region is liable to intensity VI or less and is classified as the Low
Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum
horizontal acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this zone is
10% of gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2.
The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity

earthquakes of a magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter scale, and in a
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relatively short span of about 50 years, four such major earthquakes have
occurred in the region.
The Circulations inside Earth:
 Convection currents develop in the viscous Mantle, because of prevailing

high temperature and pressure gradients between the Crust and the Core,
like the convective flow of water when heated in a beaker.
 These convection currents result in a circulation of the earth’s mass; hot
molten lava comes out and the cold rock mass goes into the Earth. The
mass absorbed eventually melts under high temperature and pressure and
becomes a part of the Mantle.
 Many such local circulations are taking place at different regions
underneath the Earth’s surface, leading to different portions of the Earth
undergoing different directions of movements along the surface.
Tectonic Plates/Plate Tectonics:
 German scientist Alfred Wegener, in 1915 proposed that, 200 million

years ago the earth had only one continent called Pangaea.
 Pangaea broke into pieces that slowly drifted into the present
configuration of continents.
 The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and some
portion of the Mantle, to slide on the hot molten outer core.
 This sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in pieces called Tectonic Plates.
 The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates and many
smaller ones.
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These plates move in different directions and at different speeds from those of
the neighbouring ones.
1. Convergent Boundaries: Sometimes, the plate in the front is slower; then,

the plate behind it comes and collides (and mountains are formed).
2. Divergent Boundaries: Sometimes two plates move away from one another
(and rifts are created).
3. Transform Boundaries: Two plates move side-by-side, along the same

direction or in opposite directions.
The convergent boundary has a peculiarity (like at the Himalayas) that

sometimes neither of the colliding plates wants to sink.
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Elastic Rebound Theory:
 Tectonic plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky material.

 Hence, elastic strain energy is stored in them during the relative
deformations that occur due to the gigantic tectonic plate actions taking
place in the Earth.
 When the rocky material along the interface of the plates in the Earth’s
Crust reaches its strength, it fractures and a sudden movement takes place
there.
 The interface between the plates where the movement has taken place
(called the fault) suddenly slips and releases the large elastic strain energy
stored in the rocks at the interface.
 The sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake - a violent shaking of
the Earth during which large elastic strain energy released spreads out in
the form of seismic waves that travel through the body and along the
surface of the Earth.
 After the earthquake is over, the process of strain build-up at this
modified interface between the tectonic plates starts all over again.
 Earth scientists know this as the Elastic Rebound Theory.
Seismic Waves:
Large strain energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic waves in

all directions through the Earth’s layers, reflecting and refracting at each
interface. These waves are of two types:
1. Body waves.
2. Surface waves.
47 | P a g e
The surface waves are restricted to near the Earth’s surface (See Fig. below).
Body waves consist of Primary Waves (P-waves) and Secondary Waves (S-
waves), and surface waves consist of Love waves (L-waves).
Fig: Arrival of Seismic Waves at a Site
1. The P – waves (Primary waves):
 P-waves are also called primary waves, push and pull waves.
 These are the fastest waves in which the particles vibrate in the direction
of propagation.
 The velocity of P-wave is related to the rigidity of the medium and its
density.
2. The S – waves (Secondary waves):
 S-ways are also called secondary waves.

 In these waves particles vibrate right angles to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
3. The L – waves (Long waves or surface waves):
 L-waves also called Long waves or surface waves.

 These waves are sluggish and recorded only after the arrival of the P and
S waves.
 S-waves do not travel through liquids.
 S-waves in association with effects of Love waves cause maximum
damage to structures.
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Recording of Earthquakes:
 The instrument used to record the motion of seismic waves is called

seismograph.
 The record produced by the instrument is called Seismogram.
 A seismograph is designed for recording either the horizontal or the
vertical component of ground motion.
 A seismograph, has three components – the sensor, the recorder and the
timer.
i. The Sensor: The pendulum mass, string, magnet and support.
ii. The Recorder: The drum, pen and chart paper constitute the
recorder.
iii. The Timer: The motor that rotates the drum at constant speed
forms the timer.
 Pendulum type seismographs are generally used.
Principle of Seismograph:
 A pen attached at the tip of an oscillating simple pendulum (a mass hung

by a string from a support) marks on a chart paper that is held on a drum
rotating at a constant speed.
 A magnet around the string provides required damping to control the
amplitude of oscillations.
 One such instrument is required in each of the two orthogonal horizontal

directions.
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 For measuring vertical oscillations, the string pendulum is replaced with a

spring pendulum oscillating about a fulcrum.
 Today, digital instruments using modern computer technology are more

commonly used.
 The digital instrument records the ground motion on the memory of the
microprocessor that is in-built in the instrument.
Magnitude of Earthquake:
 Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the earthquake.

 Magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of its size.
 Professor Charles Richter noticed that,
a. At the same distance, seismograms of larger earthquakes have
bigger wave amplitude than those of smaller earthquakes.
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b. For a given earthquake, seismograms at farther distances have

smaller wave amplitude than those at close distances.
 These prompted him to propose the now commonly used magnitude
scale, the Richter scale.
 It is obtained from the seismograms and accounts for the dependence of
waveform amplitude on epicentral distance. This scale is also called
Local Magnitude scale.
 Earthquakes are classified based on magnitude as
Intensity of Earthquake:
 Intensity is an indicator of the severity of shaking generated at a given

location.
 Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location
during an earthquake, and is assigned as Roman Capital Numerals.
 There are many intensity scales. Two commonly used ones are the
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale and the Medvedev–Sponheuer–
Karnik (MSK) Scale.
 Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XII
(most severe).
 The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking:
1. Perception by people and animals.
2. Performance of buildings.
3. Changes to natural surroundings.
 The distribution of intensity at different places during an earthquake is
shown graphically using isoseismals, lines joining places with equal
seismic intensity.
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1. Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating

earthquake impact. The most effective way to save you even in a slightest
shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.
2. Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and
guidelines for safe construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the
buildings are constructed the building plans have to be checked by the
Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline
buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with
52 | P a g e
earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by

retrofitting techniques.
3. Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an

earthquake and preparedness measures. It can be created through sensitization
and training programme for community, architects, engineers, builders, masons,
teachers, government functionaries teachers and students.
4. Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as

per the building by laws to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and
engineering inputs need to be put together to improve building design and
construction practices. The soil type needs to be analysed before construction.
Building structures on soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on soft soil are
more likely to get damaged even if the magnitude of the earthquake is not
strong as shown in Figure below. Similar problems persist in the buildings
constructed on the river banks which have alluvial soil.
Mitigation of Earthquake:
 National, State & Dist. Disaster Management Authorities should be
established.
 Large number of strong ground motion recorders should be installed.
 Identification and quantification of where the hazard exists should be
made.
 Seismic zonation (macro and micro) should be done.
 Numerical simulations should be done if there is no previous data.
53 | P a g e
 Review of building bye-laws (codes of practice) should be done, with

every advancement in research.
 Considering probable input forces, buildings should be analyzed,
designed and constructed with utmost care.
 Implementation gap should be reduced between poor and rich.
 Critical information should reach the emergency response team in time,
to prevent further losses.
 Earthquake engineering in undergraduate engineering/architecture
curricular.
 Hospital preparedness and emergency health management in medical
education.
 Retrofitting of life-line structures (old/vulnerable).
 Urban earthquake vulnerability reduction programme.
 Mainstreaming mitigation in rural areas.
Causes of Earthquakes:
Earthquakes develop in the crust of the earth (earth’s surface, submarine levels,
down to the ocean floors). The inner part of the earth contains massive energy.
Some of which escapes through cracks and other volcanic activity. The energy
stored causes the tectonic plates to slide, glide, knock and move around other
tectonic plate. After a period of time, the built up energy and movement causes
huge tension in the plates and there is a massive pressure on the fault lines. The
pressure resulting from built up energy causes the fault line give way, and plates
move over, against or apart from each other.
Hazardous Effect/Impacts of Earthquakes:

Ground shaking itself is not dangerous. However, the resulting damage to
buildings and other structures and the risk of casualties from falling debris can
make it extremely hazardous. The real dangers to people are being crushed in a
collapsing building, drowning in a flood caused by a broken dam or levee,
getting buried under a landslide, or being burned in a fire.
Some of the earthquake effects that can be harmful to people are:
1. The Effect of Ground Shaking: The first main earthquake hazard
(danger) is the effect of ground shaking. Buildings can be damaged by the
shaking itself or by the ground beneath them settling to a different level
than it was before the earthquake (subsidence).
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2. Ground Displacement: The second main earthquake hazard is ground

displacement (ground movement) along a fault. If a structure (a building,
road, etc.) is built across a fault, the ground displacement during an
earthquake could seriously damage or rip apart that structure.
3. Flooding: The third main hazard is flooding. An earthquake can rupture
(break) dams or levees along a river. The water from the river or the
reservoir would then flood the area, damaging buildings and maybe
sweeping away or drowning people.
4. Tsunamis and Seiches: A temporary disturbance or oscillation in the
water level of a lake, esp.one caused by changes in atmospheric pressure
can also cause a great deal of damage.
5. Fire: The fifth main earthquake hazard is fire. These fires can be started
by broken gaslines and power lines, or tipped over wood or coal stoves.
They can be a serious problem, especially if the water lines that feed the
fire hydrants are broken, too. For example, after the Great San Francisco
Earthquake in 1906, the city burned for three days. Most of the city was
destroyed and 250,000 people were left homeless.
TSUNAMI [OR] SEISMIC SEA WAVE [OR] TIDAL WAVE
Definition:
A tsunami is a very long‐wavelength wave of water that is generated by sudden

displacement of the seafloor or disruption of any body of standing water.
Tsunami are sometimes called "seismic sea waves", although they can be
generated by mechanisms other than earthquakes. Tsunami have also been
called "tidal waves", but this term should not be used because they are not in
any way related to the tides of the Earth. Because tsunami occur suddenly, often
without warning, they are extremely dangerous to coastal communities.
Or
Tsunami is also called seismic sea wave, or tidal wave, catastrophic ocean
wave, usually caused by a submarine earthquake occurring less than 50 km (30
miles) beneath the seafloor, with a magnitude greater than 6.5 on the Richter
scale. Underwater or coastal landslides or volcanic eruptions also may cause a
tsunami. The term tidal wave is more frequently used for such a wave, but it is a
misnomer, for the wave has no connection with the tides.
55 | P a g e
Introduction:
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor'
and nami meaning 'waves'. Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they
actually have nothing to do with the tides.
These waves which often affect distant shores, originate by rapid displacement
of water from the lake or the sea either by seismic activity, landslides, volcanic
eruptions or large meteoroid impacts.
Whatever the cause may be sea water is displaced with a violent motion and
swells up, ultimately surging over land with great destructive power. The effects
of a tsunami can be unnoticeable or even destructive.
Physical Characteristics of Tsunami:
All types of waves, including tsunami, have a wavelength, a wave height, an

amplitude, a frequency or period, and a velocity.
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1. Wavelength: It is defined as the distance between two identical points on a

wave (i.e. between wave crests or wave troughs). Normal ocean waves have
wavelengths of about 100 meters. Tsunami have much longer wavelengths,
usually measured in kilometers and up to 500 kilometers.
2. Wave height: It refers to the distance between the trough of the wave and the
crest or peak of the wave.
3. Wave amplitude: It refers to the height of the wave above the still water
line, usually this is equal to 1/2 the wave height. Tsunami can have variable
wave height and amplitude that depends on water depth as we shall see in a
moment.
4. Wave frequency or period: It is the amount of time it takes for one full
wavelength to pass a stationary point.
5. Wave velocity: It is the speed of the wave. Velocities of normal ocean waves
are about 90 km/hr while tsunami have velocities up to 950 km/hr (about as fast
as jet airplanes), and thus move much more rapidly across ocean basins. The
velocity of any wave is equal to the wavelength divided by the wave period.
V = λ/P
Tsunami are characterized as shallow‐water waves. These are different from the
waves most of us have observed on the beach, which are caused by the wind
blowing across the ocean's surface. Wind generated waves usually have period
(time between two successive waves) of five to twenty seconds and a
wavelength of 100 to 200 meters. A tsunami can have a period in the range of
ten minutes to two hours and wavelengths greater than 500 km.
How Tsunami are Generated?
The geological movements that cause tsunamis are produced in three major
ways. The most common of these are fault movements on the sea floor,
accompanied by an earthquake. They release huge amount of energy and have
the capacity to cross oceans. The degree of movement depends on how fast the
earthquake occurs and how much water is displaced. Fig blow shows how an
earthquake causes tsunami.
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The second most common cause of the tsunami is a landslide either occurring
under water or originating above the sea and then plunging into the water. The
largest tsunami ever produced by a landslide was in Lituya Bay, Alaska 1958.
The massive rock slide produced a wave that reached a high water mark of 50 ‐
150 meters above the shoreline.
There is an average of two destructive tsunami per year in the Pacific basin.
Pacific wide tsunami is a rare phenomenon, occurring every 10‐12 years on the
average. Most of these tsunamis are generated by earthquakes that cause
displacement of the seafloor, but, as we shall see, tsunami can be generated by
volcanic eruptions, landslides, underwater explosions, and meteorite impacts.
1. Earthquake: Earthquakes cause tsunami by causing a disturbance of the

seafloor. Thus, earthquakes that occur along coastlines or anywhere beneath the
oceans can generate tsunami. The size of the tsunami is usually related to the
size of the earthquake, with larger tsunami generated by larger earthquakes. But
the sense of displacement is also important. Tsunami are generally only formed
when an earthquake causes vertical displacement of the seafloor.
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2. Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanoes that occur along coastal zones, like in Japan
and island arcs throughout the world, can cause several effects that might
generate a tsunami. Explosive eruptions can rapidly emplace pyroclastic flows
into the water, landslides and debris avalanches produced by eruptions can
rapidly move into water, and collapse of volcanoes to form calderas can
suddenly displace the water.
3. Landslides: Landslides moving into oceans, bays, or lakes can also generate
tsunami. Most such landslides are generated by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions.
4. Underwater Explosions: Nuclear testing by the United States in the

Marshall Islands in the 1940s and 1950s generated tsunami.
5. Meteorite Impacts: While no historic examples of meteorite impacts are

known to have produced a tsunami, the apparent impact of a meteorite at the
end of the Cretaceous Period, about 65 million years ago near the tip of what is
now the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, produced tsunami that left deposits all
along the Gulf coast of Mexico and the United States.
Mitigation of Risks and Hazards:
The main damage from tsunami comes from the destructive nature of the waves
themselves. Secondary effects include the debris acting as projectiles which
then run into other objects, erosion that can undermine the foundations of
structures built along coastlines, and fires that result from disruption of gas and
electrical lines. Tertiary effects include loss of crops and water and electrical
systems which can lead to famine and disease.
Typical Adverse Effects/Impacts:
Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the
majority of damage. The force of the water can raze everything in its path. It is
normally the flooding affect of the tsunami that causes major destruction to the
human settlements, roads and infrastructure thereby disrupting the normal
functioning of the society.
Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves withdraw

towards the ocean they sweep out the foundations of the buildings, the beaches
get destroyed and the houses carried out to sea. Damage to ports and airports
may prevent importation of needed food and medical supplies. Apart from the
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physical damage, there is a huge impact on the public health system. Deaths
mainly occur because of drowning as water inundates homes. Many people get
washed away or crushed by the giant waves and some are crushed by the debris,
causes.
There are very few evidences which show that tsunami flooding has caused
large scale health problem. Availability of drinking water has always been a
major problem in areas affected by a disaster. Sewage pipes may be damaged
causing major sewage disposal problems. Open wells and other ground water
may be contaminated by salt water and debris and sewage. Flooding in the
locality may lead to crop loss, loss of livelihood like boats and nets,
environmental degradation etc.
While it is of course not possible to prevent a tsunami, in certain tsunami prone

countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on
shore. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami
walls of up to 4.5 m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Other
localities have built flood gates and channels to redirect the water from
incoming tsunamis. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as
tsunamis are often higher than the barriers.
For instance, the tsunami which hit the island of Hokkaido on July 12, 1993
created waves as much as 30m (100 ft) tall ‐ as high as a 10‐story building. The
port town of Aonae on Hokkaido was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall,
but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood framed
structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and
moderating the height of the tsunami but it did not prevent major destruction
and loss of life. Some other systematic measures to protect coastlines against
tsunamis include:
1. Site planning and Land management: Within the broader framework of a

comprehensive plan, site planning determines the location, configuration, and
density of development on particular sites and is, therefore, an important tool in
reducing tsunami risk.
 The designation and zoning of tsunami hazard areas for such open‐space
uses as agriculture, parks and recreation, or natural hazard areas is
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recommended as the first land use planning strategy. This strategy is

designed to keep development at a minimum in hazard areas.
 In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open‐space uses, other
land use planning measures can be used. These include strategically
controlling the type of development and uses allowed in hazard areas, and
avoiding high‐value and high occupancy uses to the greatest degree
possible.
2. Engineering structures: Most of the habitation of the fishing community is

seen in the coastal areas. The houses constructed by them are mainly of
lightweight materials without any engineering inputs. Therefore there is an
urgent need to educate the community about the good construction practices
that they should adopt such as:
 Site selection: Avoid building or living in buildings within several

hundred feet of the coastline as these areas are more likely to experience
damage from tsunamis.
 Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to mean sea
level.
 Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters in
height. Elevating house will help reduce damage to property from most
tsunamis.
 Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.
 Use of water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.
 Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can act as
shelters at the time of a disaster.
3. Flood management: Flooding will result from a tsunami. Tsunami waves

will flood the coastal areas. Flood mitigation measures could be incorporated.
Predictability/Warning:
There are two distinct types of tsunami warning:
1. International tsunami warning systems.

2. Regional warning systems.
Tsunamis have occurred in all the oceans and in the Mediterranean Sea, but the
great majority of them have occurred in the Pacific Ocean. Since scientists
cannot exactly predict earthquakes, they also cannot exactly predict when a
tsunami will be generated.
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1. International tsunami warning systems: Shortly after the Hilo Tsunami

(1946), the Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS) was developed with its
operational center at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) near
Honolulu, Hawaii. The PTWC is able to alert countries several hours before the
tsunami strikes. The warning includes predicted arrival time at selected coastal
communities where the tsunami could travel in few hours. A tsunami watch is
issued with subsequent arrival time to other geographic areas.
2. Regional warning systems: It use seismic data about nearby earthquakes to

determine if there is a possible local threat of a tsunami. Such systems are
capable enough to provide warnings to the general public in less than 15
minutes.
In India, the Survey of India maintains a tide gauge network along the coast of
India. The gauges are located in major ports as shown in the figure. The
day‐to‐day maintenance of the gauge is carried with the assistance from
authorities of the ports.
Apart from the tide gauge, tsunami can be detected with the help of radars. The
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, recorded data from four radars and recorded the
height of tsunami waves two hours after the earthquake. It should be noted that
the satellites observations of the Indian Ocean tsunami would not have been of
any use in delivering warnings, as the data took five hours to process and it was
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pure chance that the satellites were overhead at that time. However, in future it
is possible that the space based observation might play a direct role in tsunami
warning.
What to do when a Tsunami warning is issued?
1. Listen to a radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency station, or other

reliable source for updated emergency information. Authorities will issue
a warning only if they believe there is a real threat from tsunami.
2. Follow instructions issued by local authorities. Recommended evacuation
routes may be different from the one you use, or you may be advised to
climb higher.
3. If you are in a tsunami risk area, do the following:
i. If you hear an official tsunami warning or detect signs of a
tsunami, evacuate at once. A tsunami warning is issued when
authorities are certain that a tsunami threat exists, and there may be
little time to get out.
ii. Take your Disaster Supplies Kit. Having supplies will make you
more comfortable during the evacuation.
iii. Get to higher ground as far inland as possible. Officials cannot
reliably predict either the height or local effects of tsunamis.
Watching a tsunami from the beach or cliffs could put you in grave
danger. If you can see the wave, you are too close to escape it.
iv. Return home only after local officials tell you it is safe.
What to do after a Tsunami?
1. Continue listening to the radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency

station, or other reliable source for emergency information.
2. Help injured or trapped persons. Give first aid where appropriate.
3. Help a neighbour who may require special assistance‐infants, elderly
people, and people with disabilities.
4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls.
5. Stay out of the building if waters remain around it.
6. When re‐entering buildings or homes, use extreme caution.
7. Wear sturdy shoes.
8. Use battery‐powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
9. Examine walls, floors, doors, staircases, and windows to make sure that
the building is not in danger of collapsing.
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10. Inspect foundations for cracks or other damage.

11.Look for fire hazards.
12. Check for gas leaks.
13. Look for electrical system damage.
14.Check for sewage and water line damage.
15. Use tap water if local health officials advise it is safe.
16. Watch out for animals, especially poisonous snakes that may have come
into buildings with the water.
17. Watch for loose plaster, drywall and ceilings that could fall.
18. Take pictures of the damage, both building and its contents, for insurance
claims.
19. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.
20. Shovel mud while it is still moist to give walls and floors an opportunity
to dry.
21. Check food supplies.
LANDSLIDES [OR] MASS MOVEMENT [OR] LAND SLIPS [OR]

MUDSLIDES
A landslide or landslip is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range

of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes and shallow
debris flows, which can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments.
Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to
occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability.
Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that
make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often requires
a trigger before being released.
Or
In many regions of the world a temporary instability of superficial mass of soil

and rock has always been an acute problem. These superficial mass may leave
their original position abruptly or extremely slowly and start their downgrade
movement or vertically downward sinking.
This Movement of the ground may entail loss to property and life, especially
when they happen to occur in or near the populated areas, along highways,
railway lines, dams and reservoirs, tunnels or under heavy structures.
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Such movements of the superficial masses have been termed in common

language as landslides or landslips, technically termed as Mass Movement.
 About 25% of the total geographical area of India is prone to landslides.

 Entire Himalayas, North eastern region, western ghats are perennially
affected by landslides.
Important Terminology:
1. Landslide Hazard refers to the potential of occurrence of a damaging

landslide within a given area; such damage could include loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental
degradation.
2. Landslide Vulnerability reflects the extent of potential loss to given

elements (or set of elements) within the area affected by the hazard, expressed
on a scale of 0 (no loss) to 1 (total loss); vulnerability is shaped by physical,
social, economic and environmental conditions.
3. Landslide Risk refers to the probability of harmful consequences-the

expected number of lives lost, persons injured, extent of damage to property or
ecological systems, or disruption of economic activity –within a landslide prone
area. The risk may be individual or societal in scope, resulting from an
interaction between the hazard and individual or societal vulnerability.
4. Landslide Risk Evaluation is the application of analyses and judgments

(encompassing physical, social, and economic dimensions of landslide
vulnerability) to determine risk management alternatives, which may include
determination that the landslide risk is acceptable or tolerable.
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Many classification has been suggested for Mass movements attributed to a

number of factors such as variety of geological situations, nature of surface,
speed with which failure occurs etc.
On the basis of type of failure, mass movements are divided into 3 types,
1. Flowage.
2. Sliding.
3. Subsidence.
1. Flowage:
 By flowage is understood a downgrade movement of mass along no

definite surface of failure.
 Mass involved in this type of failure is primarily unconsolidated or
loosely packed or rendered so by natural processes of decay and
disintegration.
 The result is that the movement is distributed throughout the mass and in
a highly irregular manner.
 Flowage is further distinguished into slow and rapid flowage.

 In the slow flowage, failure is not easily perceptible. The ground may be
moving downslope at as such low rates as few centimeters a year or even
less.
 In rapid flowage, however, the movement of failing mass may be easily
visible and the mass may travel a few meters or more a day.
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2. Sliding:
 True landslide is a type of mass failure in which a superficial mass fails

by moving as a whole along a definite surface of failure.
 The surface of failure may be planar or semi circular in outline.
 It is often characteristic of a landslide that the mass above the failure
surface is unstable whereas the material lying below this surface is
generally stable.
 In unconsolidated deposits, loose inherently weak rock masses, sliding
commonly takes place along curved shear surfaces.
 But when the mass involved is hard, brittle and coherent, such as massive
rocks, shear surfaces are broadly planar in nature. In such cases, a set of
joint planes or bedding planes or fault planes may be the most convenient
natural planes of failure.
3. Subsidence: It is defined as sinking or settling of the ground in almost

vertically downward direction which may occur because of removal of natural
support from the underground or due to compaction of the weaker rocks under
the load from overlying mass.
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Landslides constitute a major natural hazard in our country, which accounts for
considerable loss of life and damage to communication routes, human
settlements, agricultural fields and forest lands. The Indian subcontinent, with
diverse physiographic, seismic, tectonic and climatological conditions is
subjected to varying degree of landslide hazards; the Himalayas including North
eastern mountains ranges being the worst affected, followed by a section of
Western Ghats and the Vindhyas. Removal of vegetation and toe erosion have
also triggered slides. Torrential rainfall on the deforested slopes is the main
factor in the Peninsular India namely in Western ghat and Nilgiris. Human
intervention by way of slope modification has added to this effect. Figure shows
landslide hazard zonation map of India.
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Monitoring of Mass Movements:
 Detection of possibility of failure before its occurrence by noting the

present conditions is called Monitoring.
 Monitoring of slopes may be achieved by using conventional surveying
techniques.
 Land or mass movement can be ascertained using electronic equipment,
laser equipment, settlement gauges and extensometers.
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 Pore water pressure can be measured using the Piezometers and thus
possibility of failure by pore water pressure can be understood.
Causes:
Landslides occur when the stability of the slope changes from a stable to an
unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a
number of factors, acting together or alone.
Natural causes of landslides include:
1. Ground water (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope.
2. Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil
structure (e.g. after a wildfire).
3. Erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves.
4. Weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting,
or heavy rains earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope
earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes volcanic erosion
Landslides are aggravated by human activities.
Human Causes include:
1. Deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already
fragile slopes.
2. Earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads
on an existing slope.
3. In shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds
colluviums (loose, unconsolidated sediments) to bedrock.
4. Construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change
the amount of water which infiltrates the soil.
Adverse Effects:
The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on the steep slopes,
built at the toe and those built at the mouth of the streams emerging from the
mountain valley. All those buildings constructed without appropriate foundation
for a given soil and in sloppy areas are also at risk. Roads, communication lines
are vulnerable.
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Control of Mass Movements:
1. Drainage:
 Water presence is the one of the factor that leads to the mass movement.
 Avoid water content either by surface or sub-surface methods.
 Construct series of ditches.
 Backfill the pits on the soil surface with concrete or asphalt to prevent the
water impounding.
 Cover the slope surface with granular material to remove excess rainfall.
 Remove the cracks and fissures in the surface by filling with cement,
bitumen or clay mixture.
 Construct interception drains (To reduce pore water pressure).
 Oiling of slope surfaces.
 Electroosmosis.
 Heating the slope surface to avoid water content.
2. Retaining structures:
 Construct Retaining walls and buttresses.

 These are suitable where:
i. The ground is neither too fine nor too plastic.
ii. The sliding mass is likely to remain dry.
iii. The movement is of a shallow nature and limited extent.
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3. Slope reinforcement by rock bolting:
Rock Bolts:
 Rock bolts are used to tie up different rock blocks together there by
improving the stability of rock mass.
 A rock bolt is a steel bar of suitable dia (2-25mm) and length (60cm-5m)
one end of which is designed for expanding and other end is threaded to
take a nut and washer.
 Such a bolt is inserted into a hole drilled in the rock at a proper angle with
the plane of weakness and its end within the rock is made to expand
whereby it fits tightly into the rock.
 The other end is tied on a plate with the help of a nut and washer. The rod
is generally pre-stressed and is always placed in tension.
 When placed in the above fashion, the rock bolt held up within the two
ends of the bolt gets compressed and hence stabilized against falling.
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Rock Anchors:
 Rock anchors are structural elements made up of cables, bars. Like bolts,
it is also placed in previously drilled holes and then whole or part of them
is bonded to the rock using a proper technique.
 They may be tensioned after placing in the hole before or after grouting
which is an integral part of anchorage system.
 Anchor system may exceed 20-30m in length and once installed they
modify the original stress field of the rock to a considerable extent.
 Use corrosion resistant materials for rock anchors.
4. Slope treatment:
 Treat the top layers of formation.

 Apply concrete or mortar on the top surface.
 The mixture of cement and sand (1:3) with little water is applied on the
face under pressure and thus the slopes gains sufficient strength on
hardening.
 Flatten the slope to ensure stability.
 Decreasing the load on slopes (For example on hill roads, reduce the
traffic).
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 Provide benches at the foot of the slope.

 Promote afforestation (Vegetation cover reduces the infiltration of
water).
Preventive Measures:
A significant reduction in landslide hazards can be achieved by preventing or

minimizing the exposure of population and facilities to landslides and by
physically controlling landslides that occur. The problem of management of
landslides through effective control measures would require enormous financial
resources, which will never be available. Hence, the wisdom lies in full
exploitation of human resources and in making best use of local skills and
materials.
Some critical measures that should be undertaken to prevent further landslides

are drainage measures which would include surface draining, and sub-surface
drainage, erosion control measures which would consist of bamboo check dams,
terracing, jute and coir netting, rock fall control measures which would
comprise grass plantation, vegetated dry masonry wall, retaining wall, and
afforestation.
The control works that are actually carried out in the landslide areas are
primarily for the purpose of saving life. Secondly, for the preservation of public
structures and buildings and thirdly, prevent the disruption of road traffic and to
prevent flooding in the event of a landslide damming (build a dam across) a
river.
COASTAL EROSION
Coastal erosion is the loss or displacement of land, or the long-term removal of

sediment and rocks along the coastline due to the action of waves, currents,
tides, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms. The
landward retreat of the shoreline can measured and described over a temporal
scale of tides, seasons, and other short-term cyclic processes. Coastal erosion
may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion by wind and
water, and other forces, natural or unnatural.
On non-rocky coasts, coastal erosion results in rock formations in areas where

the coastline contains rock layers or fracture zones with varying resistance to
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erosion. Softer areas become eroded much faster than harder ones, which
typically result in landforms such as tunnels, bridges, columns, and pillars. Over
time the coast generally evens out. The softer areas fill up with sediment eroded
from hard areas, and rock formations are eroded away. Also abrasion commonly
happens in areas where there are strong winds, loose sand, and soft rocks. The
blowing of millions of sharp sand grains creates a sandblasting effect. This
effect helps to erode, smooth and polish rocks. The definition of abrasion is
grinding and wearing away of rock surfaces through the mechanical action of
other rock or sand particles.
Example: The coastline of North Cove, Washington has been eroding at a rate
of over 100 feet per year, earning the area the nickname "Wash away Beach."
Much of the original town has collapsed into the ocean. The area is said to be
the fastest-eroding shore of the United States' West Coast. Measures were
finally taken to slow the erosion, with substantial slowing of the process noted
in 2018.
Coastal Processes:
1. Hydraulic action: Hydraulic action occurs when waves striking a cliff face
compress air in cracks on the cliff face. This exerts pressure on the surrounding
rock, and can progressively splinter and remove pieces. Over time, the cracks
can grow, sometimes forming a cave. The splinters fall to the sea bed where
they are subjected to further wave action.
2. Attrition: Attrition occurs when waves cause loose pieces of rock debris
(scree) to collide with each other, grinding and chipping each other,
progressively becoming smaller, smoother and rounder. Scree also collides with
the base of the cliff face, chipping small pieces of rock from the cliff or have
a corrasion (abrasion) effect, similar to sandpapering.
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3. Solution: Solution is the process in which acids contained in sea water will
dissolve some types of rock such as chalk or limestone.
4. Abrasion: Abrasion, also known as corrasion, occurs when waves break on

cliff faces and slowly erode it. As the sea pounds cliff faces it also uses the
scree from other wave actions to batter and break off pieces of rock from higher
up the cliff face which can be used for this same wave action and attrition.
5. Corrosion: Corrosion or solution/chemical weathering occurs when the

sea's pH (anything below pH 7.0) corrodes rocks on a cliff face. Limestone cliff
faces, which have a moderately high pH, are particularly affected in this way.
Wave action also increases the rate of reaction by removing the reacted
material.
Factors that influence Erosion Rates:
1. Primary factors: The ability of waves to cause erosion of the cliff face
depends on many factors.
The hardness (or inversely, the erodibility) of sea-facing rocks is controlled by

the rock strength and the presence of fissures, fractures, and beds of non-
cohesive materials such as silt and fine sand.
The rate at which cliff fall debris is removed from the foreshore depends on the
power of the waves crossing the beach. This energy must reach a critical level
to remove material from the debris lobe. Debris lobes can be very persistent and
can take many years to completely disappear.
Beaches dissipate wave energy on the foreshore and provide a measure of

protection to the adjoining land.
The stability of the foreshore, or its resistance to lowering. Once stable, the
foreshore should widen and become more effective at dissipating the wave
energy, so that fewer and less powerful waves reach beyond it. The provision of
updrift material coming onto the foreshore beneath the cliff helps to ensure a
stable beach.
The adjacent bathymetry, or configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave

energy arriving at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of
cliff erosion. Shoals and bars offer protection from wave erosion by causing
storm waves to break and dissipate their energy before reaching the shore.
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Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor, changes in the location of shoals and
bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff erosion to change position along the
shore.
Coastal erosion has been greatly affected by the rising sea levels globally. There
has been great measures of increased coastal erosion on the Eastern seaboard of
the United States. Locations such as Florida have noticed increased coastal
erosion. In reaction to these increases Florida and its individual counties have
increased budgets to replenish the eroded sands that attract visitors to Florida
and help support its multibillion-dollar tourism industries.
2. Secondary factors:
i. Weathering and transport slope processes.

ii. Slope hydrology.
iii. Vegetation.
iv. Cliff foot erosion.
v. Cliff foot sediment accumulation.
vi. Resistance of cliff foot sediment to attrition and transport.
vii. Human Activity.
3. Tertiary factors:
i. Resource extraction.
ii. Coastal management.
Control Methods:
There are three common forms of coastal erosion control methods. These three
include:
1. Hard-erosion controls.
2. Soft-erosion controls.
3. Relocation.
1. Hard-erosion controls: Hard-erosion control methods provide a more

permanent solution than soft-erosion control methods. Seawalls and groynes
serve as semi-permanent infrastructure. These structures are not immune from
normal wear-and-tear and will have to be refurbished or rebuilt. It is estimated
the average life span of a seawall is 50–100 years and the average for a groyne
is 30–40 years. Because of their relative permanence, it is assumed that these
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structures can be a final solution to erosion. Seawalls can also deprive public
access to the beach and drastically alter the natural state of the beach. Groynes
also drastically alter the natural state of the beach. Some claim that groynes
could reduce the interval between beach nourishment projects though they are
not seen as a solution to beach nourishment. Other criticisms of seawalls are
that they can be expensive, difficult to maintain, and can sometimes cause
further damage to the beach if built improperly.
Natural forms of hard-erosion control include planting or maintaining native

vegetation, such as mangrove forests and coral reefs.
2. Soft-erosion controls: Soft erosion strategies refer to temporary options of

slowing the effects of erosion. These options, including Sandbag and beach
nourishment, are not intended to be long term solutions or permanent solutions.
Another method, beach scraping or beach bulldozing allows for the creation of
an artificial dune in front of a building or as means of preserving a building
foundation. However, there is a U.S. federal moratorium on beach bulldozing
during turtle nesting season, 1 May – 15 November. One of the most common
methods of soft erosion control is beach nourishment projects. These projects
involve dredging sand and moving it to the beaches as a means of reestablishing
the sand lost due to erosion. In some situations, beach nourishment is not a
suitable measure to take for erosion control, such as in areas with sand sinks or
frequent and large storms. Dynamic revetment, which uses loose cobble to
mimic the function of a natural storm beach, may be a soft-erosion control
alternative in high energy environments such as open coastlines.
3. Relocation: Relocation of infrastructure any housing farther away from the

coast is also an option. The natural processes of both absolute and relative sea
level rise and erosion are considered in rebuilding. Depending on factors such
as the severity of the erosion, as well as the natural landscape of the property,
relocation could simply mean moving inland by a short distance or relocation
can be to completely remove improvements from an area. Typically, there has
been low public support for “retreating.
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SOIL EROSION
Definition:
The loose superficial layer of earth’s crust is the soil. The various components
of the soil are mineral matter, soil water, soil organic matter, soil organisms,
and soil air. Soil degradation refers to the undesirable depletion of the physical
components of the soil, thereby rendering it unhealthy for cultivation. This may
also be referred to as soil retrogression/regression.
Causes of Soil Erosion:
1. Soil erosion by water: This may further be categorized as Sheet erosion,
Rill erosion, Inter-rill erosion and gully erosion, Riparian erosion and
erosion due to rains.
2. Soil erosion by wind.
3. Deforestation.
4. Natural factors like heavy rainfall, drought, steep slopes, floods, severe
storms and tornadoes, etc.
5. Human induced factors like intensive farming, unmanaged construction
of buildings and roadways.
6. Due to gravity, the land and water are pushed downhill.
7. Compaction of soil by cattle.
8. Desertification.
9. Salinization of soils.
10.Organic and nutrient depletion.
11.Chemical contamination.
12.Landslides.
13.Acidification of soil.
Control of Soil Erosion:
1. Strip cropping.
2. Planting leguminous plants in soil to restore soil fertility.
3. Soil erosion by wind can be checked by retaining the stubble of the crops
in the soil, crop rotation, proper grazing of the cattle.
4. Developing good vegetation and constructing physical structures
stabilizes the slipping away of soil.
5. Humic acid can be added to soil to prevent excess salination.
6. Soil pH balance has to be restored.
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7. Growth of macroscopic and microscopic soil organisms should be

promoted.
8. Use of anthropogenic chemicals in farming should be discouraged.
9. Soils may be rejuvenated by the process of active mineralization.
10.Crop rotation must be encouraged.
11.Grazing should be carried on in a controlled fashion.
12.Afforestation.
13. Terracing.
14. Building of dams across streams, and deep ditches or gullies, control soil
erosion by water.
FOREST FIRES [OR] WILD FIRES
Bush fires, forest fires, and mine fires are generally started by lightning, but also
by human negligence or arson. They can burn thousands of square kilometers. If
a fire intensifies enough to produce its own winds and "weather", it will form
into a fire storm. A good example of a mine fire is the one near Centralia,
Pennsylvania. Started in 1962, it ruined the town and continues to burn today.
Some of the biggest city-related fires are The Great Chicago Fire, The Peshtigo
Fire (both of 1871) and the Great Fire of London in 1666.
Casualties resulting from fires, regardless of their source or initial cause, can be
aggravated by inadequate emergency preparedness. Such hazards as a lack of
accessible emergency exits, poorly marked escape routes, or improperly
maintained fire extinguishers or sprinkler systems may result in many more
deaths and injuries than might occur with such protections.
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– Manmade Disasters (Industrial Pollution, Artificial Flooding in Urban

Areas, Nuclear Radiation, Chemical Spills, Transportation Accidents &
Terrorist Strikes, Etc.):
Manmade disasters: Man induced hazards are hazards caused by human action
or inaction. They are contrasted with natural hazards. Anthropogenic hazards
may adversely affect humans, other organisms and biomes and ecosystems. The
frequency and severity of hazards are key elements in some risk analysis
methodologies.
Or
Manmade disasters occur in nature by humans activities.
Types of manmade disasters:
1. Industrial pollution.
2. Artificial flooding in urban areas.
3. Nuclear radiation.
4. Chemical spills.
5. Transportation accidents.
6. Terrorist strikes, etc.
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Industrial pollution is the pollution which can be directly linked with industry.
This form of pollution is one of the leading causes of pollution
worldwide. There are a number of forms of industrial pollution. Industrial
pollution can also impact air quality, and it can enter the soil, causing
widespread environmental problems.
Industrial activities are a major source of air, water and land pollution, leading
to illness and loss of life all over the world. The World Health Organisation
(WHO) estimates that outdoor air pollution alone accounts for around 2% of all
heart and lung diseases, about 5% of all lung cancers, and about 1% of all chest
infections.
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Six Causes of Industrial Pollution:
The causes of industrial pollution are extensive but here is a list of some of the
top reasons.
1. Industrial Growth that is Unplanned: A lot of air and water pollution has
occurred from companies who ignored rules or standard practices to facilitate
rapid growth. Industrial growth has been a frequent culprit for pollution.
2. Lack of Effective Policies: Many industries have been able to ignore or

entirely by pass pollution laws because the policies are either not valid, or not
adequately enforced by pollution control boards. The result has been significant
pollution that has had a direct effect on many people.
3. The Sheer Number of Industries: There are many industries and factories,
and most of them are polluting the air every day. Small sectors that have to rely
on grants from the government to keep operating are often able to avoid
following environmental regulations. Those companies have been discovered to
release significant amounts of toxic gas, making pollution an even more
substantial issue from those smaller industries.
4. Using Old and Outdated Technology: Updating technology is expensive,

and there are many companies and plants which are relying on outdated
technology to continue operating their business successfully. Older technologies
tend to produce large amounts of waste.
Even when companies realize the harmful effect they are having on the
environment, they choose to save money by keeping their old systems instead of
upgrading.
5. Natural Resource Use: Raw material is necessary for a lot of industries,

which requires them to pull underground elements. One of the most common
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forms of leaching from natural resources is fracking for oil. When industries
pull minerals, the process causes pollution in the soil and also causes oil leaks
and spills that are harmful and deadly to people and animals.
6. Improper Disposal of Waste: One of the most common forms of soil and
water pollution are because of companies who do not dispose of their waste
correctly. This is one of the most significant causes of pollution because the
effects include severe and chronic health issues and lower air quality.
The Effects of Industrial Pollution:
The causes of industrial pollution are extensive but here is a list of some of the
top reasons.
1. Water Pollution: The ecosystem has been significantly impacted because of

pollution, and the consequence will affect many future generations. Big
industries and manufacturing plants use significant amounts of water from
nearby lakes, rivers, and oceans to operate.
During the manufacturing process, the water is exposed to chemicals, heavy

metals, organic sludge, and radioactive waste. That water is then dumped back
into its original water source. Not only does this process affect the plants,
animals, and insects in their habitat, farmers also use that water for irrigation,
causing harmful effects to the food we eat.
Water pollution has caused many different groundwater sources to be labeled as

unsafe for people and animals alike. Once it is rendered dangerous, the only use
for that water is for it to be reused in the plants that initially harmed it.
2. Soil Pollution: Soil pollution is the result of land degradation, and it is

caused because of human-made (xenobiotic) chemicals as a result of industrial
activity, the improper disposing of waste and various agricultural chemicals.
Soil pollution poisons agriculture and sometimes kills local vegetation.
The results of soil pollution include chronic health concerns for people who
work with soil, for farmers, and for people who consume the fruits and
vegetables from contaminated land.
3. Air Pollution: Similar to water and soil pollution, air pollution has been the
culprit for many illnesses, increasingly frequent over time. The effects of air
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pollution have an impact on everyone, every day. It is caused by the smoke

released by various industries.
4. Animal Extinction: Pollution is one of the most significant contributors

to global warming. There are conspiracy theories and people who believe global
warming doesn’t exist, but scientists and environmentalists have proven the
existence of global warming.
The rapid increase of global warming is of concern to many people. The

greenhouse gasses, and the smoke that causes it is released into the air daily and
causing consequential problems. Glaciers are melting, polar animals are
becoming extinct, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, and other natural disasters are
increasing, and all of those are the effects of global warming.
5. Natural Resource Use: Industrial pollution continues to cause significant

damage to the earth and all of its inhabitants. It disrupts natural habitats and
rhythms, affecting wildlife and ecosystems. Animals are becoming extinct, and
habitats are being destroyed.
Pollution is the culprit for oil spills and radioactive material leaks, and both of
those types of disasters take years to decades to clean up.
Facts about Industrial Pollution:
Industrial pollution is wreaking havoc on the planet. Every nation is affected,

and there are many people who are working tirelessly to increase awareness and
advocate for change. The activities that are causing pollution include:
1. Burning fossil fuels like oil, natural gas, and petroleum.

2. Burning coal.
3. Chemical solvents used in dyeing and tanning industries.
4. Untreated gas and liquid waste being released into the environment.
5. Improper disposal of radioactive material.
Control/Reducing Industrial Pollution:
As the harmful effects of industrial pollution increase, there are many agencies
and individuals who are working to reduce carbon footprints and live and work
eco-friendlier. Here are some of the different steps being taken to reduce and
eliminate pollution:
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1. Development of better technology for waste disposal.

2. Increased recycling efforts.
3. Development of cooling rooms or bins that allow industries to recycle the
water they need instead of pushing it back into the natural water source it
came from.
4. Adopting organic water and soil cleaning methods, like using microbes
that feed off of metal and waste.
5. Creating policies that prevent land misuse.
Other Ways to Control/Reduce Industrial Pollution:
Here are some of the ways companies are working to reduce industrial
pollution.
1. Source Control: Adopting new technology, efficiently training employees

for safe use and disposal of waste, and being more conscientious about the raw
materials used can help control industrial pollution at the source.
2. Industry Site Selection: Putting more consideration into where new sites are
located, and the potential impact of the environment surrounding it can help
reduce harmful consequences.
3. Proper Treatment of Industrial Waste: By developing and implementing

adequate treatment habits for handling industrial waste, pollution can be
reduced.
4. Planting and Rebuilding: Rebuilding habitats by planting more trees and

plants can help give wildlife back their homes and the trees can help purify air,
output oxygen, and act as a buffer against the environment.
5. Stricter Laws and Enforcement: While we do have the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) working to correct the damage from pollution, they
need more ability to take action against the companies who do not follow proper
protocol. Rule enforcement needs to have stronger consequences and more
significant rewards for the companies who do operate properly.
6. Regular Environmental Impact Assessments: Being a responsible

company or industry should require regular environmental impact assessments
that are reported for evaluation. If there are harmful impacts discovered during
the review, actions to correct the negative consequences should be developed
and enforced.
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ARTIFICAL FLOODING IN URBAN AREAS [OR] URBAN FLOODING
Flooding in urban areas can be caused by flash floods, or coastal floods, or river
floods, but there is also a specific flood type that is called urban flooding.
Urban flooding is specific in the fact that the cause is a lack of drainage in an
urban area. As there is little open soil that can be used for water storage nearly
all the precipitation needs to be transport to surface water or the sewage
system. High intensity rainfall can cause flooding when the city sewage system
and draining canals do not have the necessary capacity to drain away the
amounts of rain that are falling. Water may even enter the sewage system in one
place and then get deposited somewhere else in the city on the streets.
Sometimes you see dancing drain covers.
Throughout Europe urban flooding happens fairly frequently. The virtual

tour shows two examples, Hull in England in 2007 and Mestre in Italy in 2007.
The same sort of thing can happen in rural areas and is then called ponding.
Urban floods are a great disturbance of daily life in the city. Roads can be
blocked, people can’t go to work or to schools. The economic damages are high
but the number of casualties is usually very limited, because of the nature of the
flood. The water slowly rises on the city streets. When the city is on flat terrain
the flow speed is low and you can still see people driving through it. The water
rises relatively slow and the water level usually does not reach life endangering
heights.
What causes urban flooding?
Urban flooding occurs when water flows into an urban region faster than it can
be absorbed into the soil or moved to and stored in a lake or reservoir. It can be
caused by flash flooding, coastal flooding, river floods or rapid snow melt.
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NUCLEAR DISASTERS [OR] NUCLEAR RADIATION
Definition: Sudden release of huge amount of harmful radiations or radioactive

materials or both together in environment in a small area either through
explosion of a nuclear bomb or in the operation of nuclear reactors and other
nuclear related activities.
Causes:
1. Intentional use of nuclear weapons in the event of war.

2. Accidental explosion of nuclear weapons.
3. Accidents in nuclear power projects.
4. Terrorist attacks.
CHEMICAL SPILLS [OR] CHEMICAL DISASTERS
Definition: Chemical hazards refers to chemicals used in industries, agriculture

and household activities that have a potential to cause irreparable harm to life,
property and environment, including a large number of fatalities.
Hazardous chemicals are of the following types:

1. Inflammable.
2. Reactive.
3. Toxic.
Causes: Caused by chemical, mechanical, civil, electrical or other process
failures due to accident, negligence or incompetence, in an industrial plant
which may spill over to the areas outside the plant or with in causing damage to
life, property and environment. Or Due to occurrence of emission, fire or
explosion involving one or more hazardous chemicals in the course of industrial
activity (handling), storage or transportation or due to natural events leading to
serious effects inside or outside the installation likely to cause loss of life and
property including adverse effects on the environment.
Following the Bhopal Gas Disaster in 1984, major incidences of chemical

disasters in India include:
 A fire in an oil well in Andhra Pradesh (2003).

 A vapour cloud explosion in the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation
Limited Refinery (HPCL), Vishakhapatnam (1997).
 An explosion in the Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited (IPCL)
Gas Cracker Complex, Nagothane, Maharashtra (1990).
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TRANSPORTATION ACCIDENTS
Transportation accidents includes:
1. Road Accidents.
2. Rail Accidents.
3. Air Accidents.
4. Boat Accidents.
Road Accidents:
Definition: Both National and State Highways are particularly vulnerable to

serious road accidents. Apart from these, roads in hilly sections and ghat areas
are also vulnerable to road accidents due to road vehicles falling into pits.
Congestion in traffic is inevitable and the consequences are road accidents.
Or
Road networks are developed for better connectivity and service. Increased
number of vehicles, violation of traffic rules, speeding, drunken driving and
poor maintenance of vehicles as well as of roads are some of the main causes of
road accidents.
Causes: In most cases due to human failures and in a few rare cases these are
caused by technical failures such as failure of brakes etc. Road accidents also
occur under conditions of impaired visibility, slippery road surface etc.
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Safety Measures/Precaution: In order to avoid accidents following safety

measures can be adopted:
1. Look on either side of the road before crossing.

2. Use zebra crossing while crossing the road by foot.
3. Wear helmet while riding a two-wheeler.
4. Use seat belt provided in your car.
5. Drive only if you possess a proper driving license.
6. Be familiar with road markings and honour them.
7. Maintain a safety distance from the vehicle in front.
8. Do not jump lanes. It becomes difficult for other vehicles, on the road to
anticipate your move.
9. Do not be rash and do not try to overtake unnecessarily.
10.The best way to be safe on roads is to follow “lane driving”.
11.While driving avoid sudden acceleration and deceleration.
12.Replace the worn tyres and faulty headlamps.
13.Check the tyre pressure, radiator water, brake oil and fuel frequently.
14.Dip your beam whenever you spot an oncoming vehicle.
15.Follow the maintenance schedule prescribed by the manufacturer.
16.Overcome impatience, anger and intoxication during driving. Road rage
is dangerous.
17. In case a mishap occurs stay calm.
18. In case of fire, try to get out as early as possible and do not worry about
the baggage.
Rail Accidents:
Definition: Principal mode of transport for both passengers and goods in the
country. railways are confronted with disasters arising out of cyclone, floods,
fires, bomb blasts and accidents etc., involving trains. While a railway accident
can occur at any stretch of railway track, experience has shown that portion of
railway track having double line sections are particularly vulnerable to serious
rail accidents.
Or
The most common type of rail accident is derailment due to human error,
sabotage or natural landslide in a hilly track, or fire. Rail accidents lead to large
number of casualties and material damage. Indian Railways incur heavy loss
due to such accidents every year.
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Causes:
1. Breaches of tanks due to heavy rains.

2. Cyclone/flash floods.
3. Human failures.
4. Equipment failures.
5. Heavy rains leading to washing away of the track/collapse of bridges.
6. Landslides.
7. Breach of rules on unmanned railway level crossing.
8. Sabotage.
9. Tampering with track
Safety Measures/Precaution:
1. At railway crossings pay attention to the signal and the swing barrier. Do
not get underneath and try to get across.
2. In case of a unmanned crossing, get down from the vehicle and look at
either sides of the track before crossing.
3. Do not stop the train on a bridge or tunnel where evacuation is not
possible.
4. Do not carry inflammable material in a train.
5. Do not lean out of a moving train.
6. Do not smoke in train.
7. Do not pull the emergency cord unnecessarily.
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Air Accidents:
Definition: 3 types; mid-air collisions, forced landings, crash due to technical

snags or air-crash in mountainous terrain due to poor visibility. Past experience
shows that majority of air accidents occur either during take-off or landing and
also take place at remote inaccessible places like forests, hilly and mountainous
regions, high seas, etc.
Or
Air accidents may occur due to technical problems, fire, poor landing and take-
off, weather conditions, hijacking, bombing etc.
Causes: Causes of air accidents are either human failure of pilots, air traffic
controllers or technical failures of on board, landing instruments. In rare cases it
may also be the result of terrorist activities.
Safety Measures/Precaution:
1. Pay attention to the flight crew safety demonstration.

2. Carefully read the safety card in the pocket.
3. Know where is the nearest emergency exit and learn how to open it.
4. Always keep your seatbelt fastened when seated.
5. Stay calm, listen to the crew members and follow their instructions.
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6. Before you try to open any emergency door yourself, look outside the
window. If you see a fire outside the door, do not open it or the flame
may spread into the cabin. Try to use an alternate route for escape.
7. Remember, smoke rises. So try to stay down if there is smoke in the
cabin.
8. If you have a cloth, put it over your nose and mouth.
Boat Accidents:
Definition: Either due to cyclones or floods, or over loading of the boat, poor
quality of equipment in the boat, poor maintenance and consequent breakdown
and of course human error of judgment.
Causes: A major cause for boat accidents is due to lack safety consciousness on
the part of crew, which leads to unsafe situations such as overloading,
overcrowding, sailing in adverse weather and collision.
TERRORISM
Terrorism is a controversial term with varied definitions. One definition means

a violent action targeting civilians exclusively. Another definition is the use or
threatened use of violence for the purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a
political, religious, or ideological goal. Under the second definition, the targets
of terrorist acts can be anyone, including civilians, government officials,
military personnel, or people serving the interests of governments.
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Definitions of terrorism may also vary geographically. In Australia, the Security

Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002, defines terrorism as "an action
to advance a political, religious or ideological cause and with the intention of
coercing the government or intimidating the public", while the United States
Department of State operationally describes it as "premeditated, politically-
motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub national
groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience".
– Hazard & Vulnerability Profile of India:
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– Mountain & Coastal Areas:
Since early civilisation, coastal areas have been attractive settling grounds for
human population as they provided abundant marine resources, fertile
agricultural land and possibilities for trade and transport. This has led to high
population densities and high levels of development in many coastal areas and
this trend is continuing into the 21st century. At present, about 1,2 billion people
live in coastal areas globally, and this number is predicted to increase to 1,8-5,2
billion by the 2080s due to a combination of population growth and coastal
migration. Along with this increase follows major investments in infrastructure
and the build environment.
The characteristics of coastal environments, however, pose some great

challenges to human habitation. Coastlines are highly dynamic natural systems
that interact with terrestrial, marine and atmospheric processes and undergo
continuous change in response to these processes. Over the years, human
society has often failed to recognize the hazards related to these dynamics and
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this has led to major disasters and societal disruption to various degrees. Even
today, coastal development is often taking place with little regard to the hazards
present in these environments, although climate change is likely increase the
general hazard levels. Societal activities in coastal areas can also pose a hazard
to the natural balance of coastal systems, thereby disrupting e.g. sensitive
ecosystems and subsequently human livelihood.
Coastal hazard management has become an increasingly important aspect of

coastal planning in order to improve the resilience of society to coastal hazards.
Possible management options include hard engineering structures, soft
protection measures, various accommodation approaches as well as a managed
retreat from the coastline. For addressing coastal hazards, it is also important to
have early warning systems and emergency management plans in place to be
able to address sudden and potential disastrous hazards e.g. major flooding
events. Events as the Hurricane Katrina affecting the southern USA in 2005 and
the cyclone Nargis affecting Myanmar in 2008 provides clear examples of the
importance of timely coastal hazard management.
******
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UNIT – III
Disaster Impacts: Disaster impacts (Environmental, Physical, Social,

Economic, Political etc.); Health, Psycho-social issues; Demographic
aspects (Age); Hazard locations; Global and National disaster trends;
Climate change and Urban disasters.
– Disaster Impacts/Impact of Disasters (Environmental, Physical, Social,

Economic & Political):
Disaster Impacts/Impact of Disasters: These are the physical and social

disturbances that a hazard agent inflicts when it strikes a community. Physical
impacts comprise casualties (deaths, injuries, and illnesses) and damage to
agriculture, structures, infrastructure, and the natural environment. Social
impacts comprise psychological impacts, demographic impacts, economic
impacts, and political impacts.
1. Environmental impacts:
i. Water.
ii. Land/Soil.
iii. Land-use.
iv. Landscape.
v. Crops.
vi. Lake/Rivers/Estuaries.
vii. Aquaculture.
viii. Forests.
ix. Animal/Livestock.
x. Wildlife.
xi. Atmosphere.
xii. Energy.
2. Physical impacts:
i. Injuries.
ii. Death.
iii. Physical disability.
iv. Burns.
v. Epidemic.
vi. Weakness/uneasiness.
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vii. Physical illness.

viii. Sanitation.
ix. Miscarriage.
x. Reproductive health.
xi. Fatigue.
xii. Loss of Sleep.
xiii. Loss of Appetite.
3. Social impacts:
i. Change in individual’s role.

ii. Disruption of social fabric.
iii. Isolation.
iv. Change in marital status.
v. Sexual abuse & domestic violence.
vi. Orphans.
vii. Single parent children.
viii. Family & social disorganization.
ix. Migration.
x. Life style changes.
xi. Breakdown of traditional Social Status.
4. Economic impacts:
i. Loss of life.
ii. Unemployment.
iii. Loss of Livelihood.
iv. Loss of property/land.
v. Loss of household articles.
vi. Loss of crops.
vii. Loss of public infrastructure.
5. Political impacts: There is substantial evidence that disaster impacts can

cause social activism resulting in political disruption, especially during the
seemingly interminable period of disaster recovery. The disaster recovery
period is a source of many victim grievances and this creates many
opportunities for community conflict (Bates and Peacock, 1993; Bolin, 1982,
1993). Victims usually attempt to recreate preimpact housing patterns, which
can thwart government attempts at relocation to less hazardous areas (Dove,
2008). Such attempts also can be problematic for their neighbours if victims
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attempt to site temporary housing, such as mobile homes, on their own lots
while awaiting the reconstruction of permanent housing.
Conflicts arise when such housing is considered to be a blight on the

neighbourhood and neighbours are afraid the “temporary” housing will become
permanent. Neighbours also are pitted against each other when developers
attempt to buy damaged or destroyed properties and build multifamily units on
lots previously zoned for single family dwellings. Such rezoning attempts are a
major threat to the market value of owner-occupied homes but tend to have less
impact on renters because they have less incentive to remain in the
neighbourhood. There are exceptions to this generalization because some ethnic
groups have very close ties to their neighbourhoods, even if they rent rather than
own.
– Health:
An epidemic is an outbreak of a contractible disease that spreads through a

human population. A pandemic is an epidemic whose spread is global. There
have been many epidemics throughout history, such as the Black Death. In the
last hundred years, significant pandemics include:
 The 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, killing an estimated 50 million people

worldwide.
 The 1957–58 Asian flu pandemic, which killed an estimated 1 million
people.
 The 1968–69 Hong Kong water flu pandemic.
 The 2002-3 SARS pandemic.
 The AIDS pandemic, beginning in 1959.
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 The H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu) Pandemic 2009–2010.
Other diseases that spread more slowly, but are still considered to be global
health emergencies by the WHO, include:
1. Impact events: One of the largest impact events in modern times was the
Tunguska event in June 1908.
2. Solar flare: A solar flare is a phenomenon where the sun suddenly releases a
great amount of solar radiation, much more than normal. Some known solar
flares include:
 An X20 event on August 16, 1989.

 A similar flare on April 2, 2001.
 The most powerful flare ever recorded, on November 4, 2003, estimated
at between X40 and X45.
 The most powerful flare in the past 500 years is believed to have occurred
in September 1859.
Ten milliseconds to several minutes. The initial burst is usually followed by a

longer-lived "afterglow" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet,
optical, infrared, microwave and radio).
All the bursts astronomers have recorded so far have come from distant galaxies
and have been harmless to Earth, but if one occurred within our galaxy and
were aimed straight at us, the effects could be devastating. Currently orbiting
satellites detect an average of about one gamma-ray burst per day. The closest
known GRB so far was GRB 031203.
– Psycho-Social Issues:
Various psychosocial consequences were observed. They are:
1. Post‐traumatic symptoms.
2. Depression.
3. Anxiety.
4. Dissociation.
5. Suicidality.
6. Dissocial behaviour.
7. Substance abuse were common.
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Most symptoms started soon after the disaster and were evident in the majority
of victims. A number of victims continued to have psychiatric symptoms with
considerable intensity, clarity and multiplicity, which suggested probable
syndromes. Religious observations and self‐help groups were the usual coping
methods of the community. Psychosocial manifestations could be
conceptualized in five phases depending upon the period around the disaster and
the availability of outside help.
– Demographic Aspects:
Age:
1. Impaired balance (balance disorder).

2. Decreased strength.
3. Poor exercise tolerance.
4. Deterioration of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
5. Unable to hear danger signals, alarms, etc.
6. Difficulty in evacuation.
7. Difficulty in protection.
8. Difficulty in getting access to relief and compensation money.
9. Difficulty locating avenues of escape.
10. Have to face the shock of losing all that they had attained in life
i. Home.
ii. Family.
iii. Security.
– Hazard/Hazardous Locations:
Hazardous Locations consist of areas where there is the potential for a fire or
explosion due to electrical equipment that is in operation in this area with a
reaction to flammable or ignitable gases, liquids, vapours, combustible dusts,
fibers or flyings. The need for Explosion-Proof equipment then arises due to
this potential for fire or explosion.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) along with the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) have published a
guide along with codes that classify hazardous areas into classes, divisions and
zones.
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The “Combustion” or “Fire” Triangle is used to classify Hazardous Locations in

the Explosion-Proof industry. A source of fuel (explosive gases, liquids, or
vapours), source of ignition (fire, spark, or explosion) and oxygen must be
present in the appropriate consistencies for an explosion to occur. Our
Explosion-Proof Enclosures & Systems operate to prevent these three criteria
from mixing in such a way that would generate an explosion and be hazardous
to the surrounding environment.
CLASS I:
Class I locations consist of areas where gases, vapors or liquids may exist that
have the potential to become flammable or ignitable. There are two different
divisions that exist in Class I, Division 1 and Division 2, along with three
Zones; Zone 0, 1 & 2. Locations that would be considered to be Class I include
Petroleum Refineries, Gasoline Storage Areas, Dry Cleaning Plants, Spray
Finishing Areas, Fuel Servicing Areas, etc.
Division 1 is a subset of Class I and is classified as an area where the explosive

or flammable gases, vapors or liquids mentioned above can exist under normal,
everyday operating conditions.
Division 2 is also a subset of Class I and is classified as an area where the

explosive or flammable gases, vapors or liquids mentioned above are not likely
to exist during regular operation.
Zone 0 is described as the presence of explosive or flammable gases, vapors or

liquids for long periods of time during operating conditions or during a large
portion of the operating conditions.
Zone 1 is described as the presence of explosive or flammable gases, vapors or

liquids for some of the time during normal operating conditions.
Zone 2 is described as there not being a likelihood of explosive or flammable

gases, vapors or liquids present during normal operating conditions.
CLASS II:
Class II locations consist of locations where combustible dusts may exist that
have the potential to become flammable or ignitable. Locations that would be
considered to be Class II include Grain elevators, Flour and feed mills, Metal
powder manufacturers, and Coal plants, etc.
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Division 1 is a subset of Class II and is classified as an area where the explosive

or flammable combustible dusts mentioned above can exist under normal,
everyday operating conditions.
Division 2 is also a subset of Class II and is classified as an area where the

explosive or flammable combustible dusts mentioned above are not likely to
exist during regular operation.
CLASS III:
Class III locations consist of locations where fibers and flyings may exist that
have the potential to become flammable or ignitable. Locations that would be
considered to be Class III include Cotton Gins, Cotton Seed Mills, Sawdust or
flyings plants, or Textile mills.
Division 1 is a subset of Class III and is classified as an area where ignitable

fibers or flyings may be manufactured, stored or handled.
Division 2 is also a subset of Class III and is classified as an area where

ignitable fibers or flyings may be stored or handled.
Hazardous Location Equipment:
Sources of Ignition: Now that we've completed our Code translation, we're
ready to move to the next part of our discussion hazardous location equipment.
To do this, let’s first take a look at the ways in which electrical equipment can
become a source of ignition. There are three of them:
1. Arcs and sparks produced by the normal operation of equipment, like motor
starters, contractors, and switches, can ignite a hazardous location atmosphere.
2. The high temperatures of some heat producing equipment, such as lamps

and lighting fixtures, can ignite flammable atmospheres if they exceed the
ignition temperature of the hazardous material. The National Electric Code
requires special marking of heat producing equipment with temperatures above
100 C (212aP).
3. Electrical equipment failure is another way an explosion could be set off. A

burn out of a lamp socket or shorting of a terminal could spark a real disaster in
a hazardous location.
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– Global & National Disaster Trends:
Development and relief agencies have long recognized the important role
played by data and information in mitigating the impacts of disasters on
vulnerable populations. Systematic collection and analysis of these data
provides invaluable information to governments and agencies in charge of relief
and recovery activities. It also aids the integration of health components in
development and poverty alleviation programs.
However, there is a lack of international consensus regarding best practices for

collecting these data. Together with the complexity of collecting reliable
information, there remains huge variability in definitions, methodologies, tools
and sourcing. CRED has a long history of standardized data compilation,
validation and analysis. It provides free and open access to its data through its
website. One of CRED’s core data products is the EM-DAT the International
Disaster Database. EM-DAT provides an objective basis for vulnerability
assessment and rational decision-making in disaster situations.
For example, it helps policymakers identify disaster types that are most
common in a given country and have had significant historical impacts on
specific human populations. In addition to providing information on the human
impact of disasters, such as the number of people killed, injured or affected,
EM-DAT provides disaster-related economic damage estimates and disaster-
specific international aid contributions.
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– Climate Change:
Climate change is a phrase that is essentially self‐explanatory, it is the change in

the climate of a country, region, or the world over, and is believed to be caused
either directly or indirectly by the activity of the human race.
The type of climate we experience now might be prevailing over the last 10,000
years with minor and occasionally wide fluctuations. The planet earth has
witnessed many variations in climate since the beginning. Geological records
show alteration of glacial and inter‐glacial periods. The geomorphological
features, especially in high altitudes and high latitudes, exhibit traces of
advances and retreats of glaciers. The sediment deposits in glacial lakes also
reveal the occurrence of warm and cold periods. The rings in the trees provide
clues about wet and dry periods. Historical records describe the vagaries in
climate. All these evidences indicate that change in climate is a natural and
continuous process.
India also witnessed alternate wet and dry periods. Archaeological findings
show that the Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool climate around 8,000
B.C. The period 3,000‐ 1,700 B.C. had higher rainfall. From about 2,000‐1,700
B.C., this region was the centre of the Harappan civilisation. Dry conditions
accentuated since then.
Climate in the recent past: Variability in climate occurs all the time. The
nineties decade of the last century witnessed extreme weather events. The 1990s
recorded the warmest temperature of the century and some of the worst floods
around the world. The worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, south of
the Sahara desert, from 1967‐1977 is one such variability. During the 1930s,
severe drought occurred in southwestern.
Great Plains of the United States, described as the dust bowl. Historical records
of crop yield or crop failures, of floods and migration of people tell about the
effects of changing climate.
Causes of Climate Change: Climate refers to the long‐term average of the

aggregation of all components of weather: precipitation, temperature and
cloudiness, for example. The climate system includes processes involving
ocean, land and sea ice in addition to the atmosphere.
The Earth system encompasses the climate system. Many changes in Earth
system functioning directly involve changes in climate. However, the Earth
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system includes other components and processes, biophysical and human those
are important for its functioning. Some Earth system changes, natural or driven
by humans, can have significant consequences without involving changes in
climate. Global change should not be confused with climate change; it is
significantly more, indeed, climate change is part of this much larger challenge.
The causes for climate change are many. They can be grouped into:
1. Astronomical causes.
2. Terrestrial causes.
Astronomical causes: The astronomical causes are the changes in solar output
associated with sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and cooler patches on the
sun which increase and decrease in a cyclical manner. According to some
meteorologists, when the number of sunspots increase, cooler and wetter
weather and greater storminess occur. A decrease in sunspot numbers is
associated with warm and drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not
statistically significant.
Climate Change – Inter relationships with earth subsystems:
1. Geosphere: The global distribution of water and land at the Earth’s surface
significantly affects the circulations in the ocean and the atmosphere. Thus,
plate tectonics contribute to the development of climate and to changes in global
environment. Volcanic eruptions, even though local in origin, can affect the
Earth system as a whole. They devastate wide areas of land and drastically
change the habitat of flora, fauna and man, and for climate purposes the
volcanic output reflects in the substance composition of the atmosphere.
Submarine volcanoes create and destroy groups of islands. Some large volcanic
events cause eruptions of volcanic ash reaching the stratosphere, where it
remains for many years, substantially influencing the radiation balance of the
Earth. Identification of volcanic ash of particular volcanic events in ice cores
obtained in the Arctic and the Antarctic provide evidence for the worldwide
distribution of volcanic ash in the atmosphere.
Volcanism is considered as another cause for climate change. Volcanic eruption

throws up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere. These aerosols remain in the
atmosphere for a considerable period of time reducing the sun’s radiation
reaching the Earth’s surface. After the recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic
eruptions, the average temperature of the earth fell to some extent for some
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years. The most important anthropogenic effect on the climate is the increasing
trend in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which is likely
to cause global warming.
2. Hydrosphere: It is generally accepted that the oceanic circulation has a

profound influence on the mean state of the Earth’s climate and on climate
changes on decadal and longer time scales. Large‐scale transports of heat and
fresh water by ocean currents are key climate parameters. The stratification and
circulation in the upper ocean is crucial for the penetration of heat and
substances into the ocean.
The circulation is determined by the structure and strength of the wind systems,
the regional distribution of precipitation patterns, and the heat exchange with
the atmosphere. The shape of the sea floor, particularly the great deep‐sea
basins, also has a decisive influence on ocean current systems.
The World Ocean plays a twofold role in the Earth’s climate system. On the one
hand climate fluctuations are caused by long‐term changes in the heat
distribution of the ocean. On the other hand the thermal ‘inertia’ of the great
water masses slows down climatic changes. The close link between ocean and
atmosphere is also effective on shorter time scales. This is seen by the close
correspondence between the surface temperature of the ocean and the air
temperature close to the ground. The surface winds also strongly contribute to
changes in the oceanic circulation and thus regional weather conditions.
3. Biosphere: The most important anthropogenic effect on the climate is the

increasing trend in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
which is likely to cause global warming.
– Urban Disasters:
Disasters are the result of the interaction of hazards and vulnerable conditions
and as such the product of the social, political, and economic environments.
When disasters affect cities or urban areas (nonrural contexts) they are referred
to as urban disasters.
There is general agreement that urban disasters & risk are linked to broader
development processes, & disaster risk reduction should be mainstreamed into
the general development process. Risk is becoming highly urbanized, with
increasing populations & assets exposed to hazards, combined with difficulties
in addressing vulnerability and risk drivers, especially in low & middle income
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countries. The quality and capacity of city governments is highly relevant to the
distribution of local risk levels, those associated with everyday life as well as
less frequent, more extreme events. Tackling urban disasters and creating more
resilient cities capable of managing disaster risk and climate change requires
good governance.
******
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UNIT – IV
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): Disaster management cycle – its phases;

Prevention, Mitigation, Preparedness, Relief and Recovery; Structural & Non-
Structural measure, Risk analysis, Early warning systems, Post disaster
environmental response (Water, sanitation, Food safety, Waste management,
Disease control, Security, Communications); Roles and Responsibilities of
government, Community, Local institutions, Stakeholders, Policies and
Legislation for disaster risk reduction, DRR programmes in India and the
Activities of National Disaster Management Authority.
– Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR):
The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to

minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid
(prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of
hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development.
– Disaster Management Cycle – its Phases/Stages:
 Activities and Measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation) and

(preparedness) adverse effects of disasters in the pre-disaster phase and
(Response, Relief, Recovery, Reconstruction) in the post-disaster Stage.
 Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities,
programmes and measures which can be taken up before, during and after
a disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or
recover from its losses.
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Phases/Stages: The three key stages of activities that are taken up within
disaster risk management are:
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1. Before a disaster (pre‐disaster): Activities taken to reduce human and

property losses caused by a potential hazard. For example carrying out
awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of
the disaster management plans at household and community level etc. Such risk
reduction measures taken under this stage are termed as mitigation and
preparedness activities.
2. During a disaster (disaster occurrence): Initiatives taken to ensure that the

needs and provisions of victims are met and suffering is minimized. Activities
taken under this stage are called emergency response activities.
3. After a disaster (post‐disaster): Initiatives taken in response to a disaster

with a purpose to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected
communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called as response
and recovery activities. In the subsequent chapters we would discuss in detail
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some of the major hazards prevalent in our country its causes, impact,
preparedness and mitigation measures that need to be taken up.
– Prevention:
Definition: Activities to avoid the adverse impact of hazards and means to

check from turning into disasters.
Examples: Avoiding construction in seismically active areas, landslide prone

areas and flood planes.
– Mitigation, Structural & Non-Structural Measures:
Introduction:
 Mitigation means measures aimed at reducing the risk, impact or effects

of a disaster or threatening disaster situation.
 Measures taken in advance of a disaster aimed at reducing its impact on
society and the environment.
 Learning from the past disaster.
 Incorporating the learning in present scenario.
 Building back better to reduce the impact of future disasters.
Mitigation Measures:
1. Structural Measures:
i. Multi-hazard resistant buildings.
ii. Shelters.
iii. Retrofitting.
iv. Modernizing early warning system.
2. Non-structural measures:
i. Awareness generation.
ii. Training and capacity building.
iii. Policy and regulations.
iv. Mock drills and demos.
v. Effective dissemination of early warning.
vi. Development of state, district village plans.
vii. Building byelaws Revision.
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– Preparedness:
Introduction:
 Preparedness means the state of readiness to deal with a threatening

disaster situation or disaster and the effects thereof.
 Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to
the impact of hazards, including the issuance of timely and effective early
warnings and the temporary evacuation of people and property from
threatened locations.
 Participation is essential at all stages.
Mitigation Vs Preparedness:
SNO. Mitigation Preparedness

1. Long Term Short term
2. Might not be recurring or on Routine Basis
routine basis
3. Might be before or after a disaster Immediately before a disaster
4. E.g. Construction of embankment E.g. Checking the status of
embankment
– Relief:
Definition: An act of helping or alleviating the conditions of persons who are

suffering from the effects of disaster/calamity.
The relief plan provides provisions of assistance or intervention

during/immediately after a disaster to meet the basic needs of affected people.
Minimum Standards of Relief: Section 12. The National Authority

recommends guidelines for minimum standards of relief to be provided to
persons affected by disaster, which include:
1. Minimum requirements to be provided in the relief camps in relation to

shelter, food, drinking water, medical cover and sanitation.
2. Special provisions to be made for widows and orphans.
3. Ex gratia assistance on account of loss of life as also assistance on
account of damage to houses and for restoration of means of livelihood.
4. Such other relief as may be necessary.
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– Recovery:
Constitutes the last step of post-disaster actions, such as rebuilding livelihood,

infrastructure or retrofitting of damaged structures.
– Risk Analysis:
Definition: The probability of harmful consequences or expected losses

resulting from interaction between natural or human induced hazards and
vulnerable conditions.
Or
Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a

given area over a specific time period. Risk is a function of the probability of
particular hazardous event and the losses each would cause.”
Level of risk: The level of risk depends upon:
1. Nature of the hazard.

2. Vulnerability of the elements which are affected.
3. Economic value of those elements
A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards and is
likely to be adversely affected by its impact. Whenever we discuss ‘disaster
management’ it is basically ‘disaster risk management’. Disaster risk
management includes all measures which reduce disaster related losses of life,
property or assets by either reducing the hazard or vulnerability of the elements
at risk.
Key concept: Hazard * Vulnerability/Capacity = Risk.
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1. Preparedness: This protective process embraces measures which enable

governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster
situations to cope with them effectively. Preparedness includes the formulation
of viable emergency plans, the development of warning systems, the
maintenance of inventories and the training of personnel. It may also embrace
search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be at
risk from a recurring disaster.
Preparedness therefore encompasses those measures taken before a disaster

event which are aimed at minimizing loss of life, disruption of critical services,
and damage when the disaster occurs.
2. Mitigation: Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of

the hazard and the vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a
future disaster. Therefore mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard
itself or the elements exposed to the threat. Examples of mitigation measures
which are hazard specific include water management in drought prone areas,
relocating people away from the hazard prone areas and by strengthening
structures to reduce damage when a hazard occurs.
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In addition to these physical measures, mitigation should also aim at reducing

the economic and social vulnerabilities of potential disasters.
Elements at Risk: Persons, buildings, crops or other such like societal

components exposed to known hazard, which are likely to be adversely affected
by the impact of the hazard.
– Early Warning Systems (EWS):
Definition: The term 'early warning' is used in many fields to describe the
provision of information on an emerging dangerous circumstances where that
information can enable action in advance to reduce the risks involved. Early
warning systems exist for natural geophysical and biological hazards, complex
socio-political emergencies, industrial hazards, personal health risks and many
other related hazards.
Or
An Early Warning System (EWS) can be defined as a set of capacities needed to

generate and disseminate timely and meaningful warning information of the
possible extreme events or disasters (e.g. floods, drought, fire, earthquake and
tsunamis) that threatens people‘s lives. The purpose of this information is to
enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened to prepare and act
appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm, loss or
risk.
Elements of Early warning: Early warning is the integration of four main

elements:
1. Risk Knowledge: Risk assessment provides essential information to set

priorities for mitigation and prevention strategies and designing early warning
systems.
2. Monitoring and Predicting: Systems with monitoring and predicting

capabilities provide timely estimates of the potential risk faced by communities,
economies and the environment.
3. Disseminating Information: Communication systems are needed for

delivering warning messages to the potentially affected locations to alert local
and regional governmental agencies. The messages need to be reliable, synthetic
and simple to be understood by authorities and public.
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4. Response: Coordination, good governance and appropriate action plans are a

key point in effective early warning. Likewise, public awareness and education
are critical aspects of disaster mitigation.
Need of Early Warning System: Early Warning for disaster reduction is a

legitimate matter of public policy at the highest national levels for two main
reasons:
1. The first one, clearly, is public safety, and the protection of human lives.
2. The second is the protection of the nation’s resource base and productive
assets (infrastructure and private property or investments) to ensure long-
term development and economic growth. Conversely, by reducing the
impact of disasters, a government avoids the financial and political-
burden of massive rehabilitation costs.
Investing in early warning and other measures of disaster reduction is neither

simple nor inexpensive, but the benefits of doing so, and the costs of failing to,
are considerable. For instance:
 In terms of reducing economic losses, early warning and disaster

preparedness pay for themselves many times over the life of the warning
system.
 The reduction of environmental losses can, if properly managed and
publicized, have both long-term benefits to the economy, and short-term
benefits for the administration in-charge.
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 A country can strengthen its stature and influence in international

relations by a good handling of externalities, or indirect effects, on
neighbouring nations.
From a public policy viewpoint, early warning, disaster preparedness and

prevention must be part of a single, well integrated process.
Communication of early warning information: An effective early warning

system needs an effective communication system. Early warning
communication systems are made of two main components:
1. Communication infrastructure hardware that must be reliable and robust,
especially during the natural disasters.
2. Appropriate and effective interactions among the main actors of the early
warning process such as the scientific community, stakeholders, decision
makers, the public, and the media.
Many communication tools are currently available for warning dissemination

such as Short Message Service (SMS) (cellular phone text messaging), email,
radio, TV, and web service. Information and communication technology (ICT)
is a key element in early warning. ICT plays an important role in disaster
communication and dissemination of information to organizations in charge of
responding to warnings and to the public during and after a disaster.
Redundancy of communication systems is essential for disaster management,
while emergency power supplies and back-up systems are critical in order to
avoid the collapse of communication systems after disasters occur.
Early warning systems and policy: For early warning systems to be effective,
it is essential that they be integrated into policies for disaster mitigation. Good
governance priorities include protecting the public from disasters through the
implementation of disaster risk reduction policies. It is clear that natural
phenomena cannot be prevented, but their human, socio-economic and
environmental impacts can and should be minimized through appropriate
measures, including risk and vulnerability reduction strategies, early warning,
and appropriate action plans. Most often, these problems are given attention
during or immediately after a disaster. Disaster risk reduction measures require
long term plans and early warning should be seen as a strategy to effectively
reduce the growing vulnerability of communities and assets.
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The information provided by early warning systems enables authorities and

institutions at various levels to immediately and effectively respond to a
disaster. It is crucial that local government, local institutions, and communities
be involved in the entire policy making process, so they are fully aware and
prepared to respond with short and long-term action plans.
Key elements for successful implementation of early warning:
1. Understand the most likely threats, likelihood of disasters and their

potential consequences: Although natural disasters are not precisely
predictable, they are most often generally foreseeable. In other words, there are
many areas where the occurrence of floods is likely; one does not necessarily
know exactly when, but one knows they will occur sooner or later. Many
natural hazards can be foreseen, or anticipated, from past experience, the
analysis of current patterns of land use, or population distribution.
2. Establish proper priorities: To allocate scarce resources most wisely,

decision makers must rely on the type of analysis above, and make the disaster
management choices which have the highest value, in terms of losses avoided.
One common approach is to use the expected value criteria; that is, the
likelihood of an event multiplied by the potential cost of this event if it
occurred. Simply stated, it is a matter of giving priority to the worst-most likely
over the most benign-least likely events.
3. Developing institutional networks with clear responsibilities:

Understanding the nature of natural hazards and related vulnerabilities, for early
warning purposes, requires a combination of actors from several areas, such as
science and research (including social sciences and cultural aspects), land use
planning, environment, finance, development, education, health, energy,
communications, transportation, labour and social security as well as national
defence. On the other hand, a prompt and effective response to a disaster, based
on early warning, implies that concerted action managed by a higher authority
be taken by specific types of institutions: civil defence or public safety
personnel, power and other utility agencies or companies, public health
authorities, etc. at levels ranging from the cabinet minister’s to the community
leaders.
4. Establish or strengthen the legislative/legal framework and mechanisms:

Just as for any other aspect of public policy, early warning systems, as well as
other disaster reduction applications need to be motivated and based within
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governmental responsibilities, especially since response to disasters may require

exceptional executive powers for a specific period of time but its success cannot
be accomplished without the benefits of widespread decision making and the
participation of many others.
5. Developing effective communication strategies: The context of early

warning system communications has two aspects; the hardware aspect relates to
the maintenance of lifelines, i.e. the necessity to build or strengthen robust
hazard-resistant communication systems; the software aspect relates to the
maintenance of relationships, i.e. the need to establish and maintain effective
links and working relationships among the actors involved in the early warning
communication chain.
6. Securing resources: A substantial amount of resources is needed to ensure

monitoring, adequate early warning, concerted disaster reduction, and a return
to normal life. To a great extent, the capacity to secure resources to do this
versus undertaking a competing public program depends on the quality and
credibility of the overall system: understanding threats, clear priority setting and
institutional networks, and appropriate legislative dialogue.
– Post Disaster/After a Disaster Environmental Response (Water,

Sanitation, Food Safety, Waste Management, Disease Control, Security,
Communications):
Introduction:
 Post disaster stage or third stage of disaster management cycle.

 It involves the initial actions taken as the event takes place.
 It involves efforts to minimize the hazards created by a disaster.
 Examples: Evacuation; search and rescue; emergency relief.
1. Water: Do not use water you suspect or have been told is contaminated to
wash dishes, brush your teeth, wash and prepare food, wash your hands, make
ice, or make baby formula. Safe water for drinking, cooking, and personal
hygiene includes bottled, boiled, or treated water. Your state, local, or tribal
health department can make specific recommendations for boiling or treating
water in your area.
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Safe drinking water:
 After an emergency, especially after flooding, drinking water may not be

available or safe to drink.
 Do not use water you suspect or have been told is unsafe to wash dishes,
brush teeth, wash and prepare food, make ice, or make baby formula.
 Alcohol dehydrates the body, which increases the need for drinking
water.
 Floods and other disasters can damage drinking water wells and lead to
aquifer and well contamination. Flood waters can contaminate well water
with livestock waste, human sewage, chemicals, and other contaminants
which can lead to illness when used for drinking, bathing, and other
hygiene activities.
 If your water comes from a private well that has been flooded, consider
the following guidance for making water safe and for emergency water
sources until you are certain your water is free of contaminants and safe
to drink.
Make water safe: Water often can be made safe to drink by boiling, adding
disinfectants, or filtering. (important: Water contaminated with fuel or toxic
chemicals will not be made safe by boiling or disinfection. Use a different
source of water if you know or suspect that water might be contaminated with
fuel or toxic chemicals).
Finding emergency water sources: Alternative sources of clean water can be

found inside and outside the home. Do not drink water that has an unusual odor
or color, or that you know or suspect might be contaminated with fuel or toxic
chemicals; use a different source of water.
The following are possible sources of water:
 Water from your home’s water heater tank (part of your drinking water
system, not your home heating system).
 Melted ice cubes made with water that was not contaminated.
 Water from your home’s toilet tank (not from the bowl), if it is clear and
has not been chemically treated with toilet cleaners such as those that
change the color of the water.
 Liquid from canned fruit and vegetables.
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 Water from swimming pools and spas that hasn’t been contaminated with
flood or storm water can be used for personal hygiene, cleaning, and
related uses, but not for drinking.
 Possible sources of water that could be made safe by treatment include:
i. Rainwater.
ii. Streams, rivers, and other moving bodies of water.
iii. Ponds and lakes.
iv. Natural springs.
Unsafe water sources: Never use water from the following sources:
i. Radiators.
ii. Hot water boilers (part of your home heating system).
iii. Water beds (fungicides added to the water and/or chemicals in the vinyl
may make water unsafe for use).
2. Sanitation: Good basic personal hygiene and handwashing are critical to

help prevent the spread of illness and disease. Clean, safe running water is
essential for proper hygiene and handwashing.
Hygiene is especially important in an emergency such as a flood, hurricane, or

earthquake, but finding clean, safe running water can sometimes be difficult.
The following information will help to ensure good hygiene and handwashing
in the event of an emergency.
Handwashing: Keeping hands clean during an emergency helps prevent the

spread of germs. If your tap water is not safe to use, wash your hands with soap
and water that has been boiled or disinfected. Follow these steps to make sure
you wash your hands properly:
 Wet your hands with clean, running water (warm or cold) and apply soap.
 Rub your hands together to make a lather and scrub them well; be sure to
scrub the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your
nails.
 Continue rubbing your hands for at least 20 seconds. Need a timer? Hum
the “Happy Birthday” song from beginning to end twice.
 Rinse your hands well under running water.
 Dry your hands using a clean towel or air dry them.
A temporary hand washing station can be created by using a large water jug
that contains clean water (for example, boiled or disinfected).
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Washing hands with soap and water is the best way to reduce the number of
germs on them. If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand
sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers can
quickly reduce the number of germs on hands in some situations, but
sanitizers do not eliminate all types of germs. Hand sanitizers are not effective
when hands are visibly dirty.
When to Wash Hands: Wash hands with soap and clean, running water (if
available):
i. Before, during, and after preparing food.

ii. Before eating food.
iii. After using the toilet.
iv. After changing diapers or cleaning up a child who has used the toilet.
v. Before and after caring for someone who is sick.
vi. After blowing your nose, coughing, or sneezing.
vii. After touching an animal or animal waste.
viii. After touching garbage.
ix. Before and after treating a cut or wound.
Bathing: Bathing or showering after a water-related emergency should only be

done with clean, safe water. Sometimes water that is not safe to drink can be
used for bathing, but be careful not to swallow any water or get it in your eyes.
If you have a drinking water well, listen to your local health authorities for
advice on using your well water for showering and bathing. If extensive
flooding has occurred or you suspect that your well may be contaminated,
contact your local, state, or tribal health department for specific advice on well
testing and disinfection.
Dental Hygiene: Brushing your teeth after a water-related emergency should

only be done with clean, safe water. Listen to local authorities to find out if tap
water is safe to use.
Wound Care: Keeping wounds clean and covered is crucial during an

emergency. Open wounds and rashes exposed to flood waters can become
infected. To protect yourself and your family:
 Avoid contact with flood waters if you have an open wound.

 Cover clean, open wounds with a waterproof bandage to reduce chance of
infection.
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 Keep open wounds as clean as possible by washing well with soap and
clean water.
 If a wound develops redness, swelling, or oozing, seek immediate
medical care.
 Vibrios are naturally occurring bacteria that live in certain coastal waters.
They can cause a skin infection when an open wound is exposed to salt
water or a mix of salt and fresh water, which can occur during floods.
The risk for injury during and after a hurricane and other natural disasters is
high. Prompt first aid can help heal small wounds and prevent infection. Wash
your hands with soap and water before and after providing first aid for a wound
to help prevent infection. Use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer that contains at
least 60% if soap and water are not available. Tetanus, other bacterial
infections, and fungal infections are potential health threats for persons who
have open wounds.
Seek medical attention as soon as possible if:
 There is a foreign object (soil, wood, metal, or other objects) embedded

in the wound.
 The wound is at special risk of infection (such as a dog bite or a puncture
by a dirty object).
 An old wound shows signs of becoming infected (increased pain and
soreness, swelling, redness, draining, or you develop a fever).
3. Food Safety: Throw away food that may have come in contact with flood or
storm water; perishable foods that have not been refrigerated properly due to
power outages; and those with an unusual odor, color, or texture. Unsafe food
can make you sick even if it looks, smells, and tastes normal. When in doubt,
throw it out.
Identify and throw away food that may not be safe to eat: Do the following
with food and containers that may have had contact with flood or storm water.
Throw away the following foods:
 Food that has an unusual odor, color, or texture. When in doubt, throw it
out.
 Perishable foods (including meat, poultry, fish, eggs and leftovers) in
your refrigerator when the power has been off for 4 hours or more.
 Food not in packages or cans.
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 Canned foods or food containers that are bulging, opened, or damaged.

Throw away the food if the container spurts liquid or foam when you
open it or the food inside is discolored, is moldy, or smells bad.
 Packaged food: Throw away food containers with screw-caps, snap-lids,
crimped caps, twist caps, flip tops, and snap-open, and home-canned
foods because they cannot be disinfected. Throw away food in cardboard
containers, including juice/milk/baby formula boxes.
How to reuse commercially prepared cans and retort pouches (like flexible,
shelf-stable juice and seafood packages):
 Remove labels if they are removable.

 Brush or wipe away dirt or silt.
 Wash cans and pouches with soap and water, using hot water if available.
 Rinse cans and pouches with water that is safe for drinking, if available.
 Sanitize cans and pouches in one of two ways:
i. Place them in a solution of 1 cup (8 oz/240 mL) of unscented
household bleach in 5 gallons of water for 15 minutes.).
ii. Submerge in a pot of water, bring to a boil, and continue boiling
for 2 minutes.
 Re-label cans or pouches with a marker. Include the expiration date.
 Use food in reconditioned cans or pouches as soon as possible.
Store food safely: While the power is out, keep the refrigerator and freezer
doors closed as much as possible.
Feeding infants and young children when your tap water is unsafe:
 Breastfed infants should continue breast feeding. For formula-fed infants,

use ready-to-feed formula if possible. If using ready-to-feed formula is
not possible, it is best to use bottled water to prepare powdered or
concentrated formula when your tap water is unsafe. If bottled water is
not available, check with local authorities to learn the status of your
drinking water to see if boiling it will make it safe to drink. Use treated
water (see water treatment instructions below) to prepare formula only if
you do not have bottled or boiled water.
 If water is contaminated with a chemical, boiling it will not remove the
chemical or make it safe to consume.
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 If you prepare infant formula with boiled water, let the formula cool
sufficiently before giving it to an infant. Put a couple drops of formula on
the back of your hand to see if it is too hot.
 Clean feeding bottles with bottled, boiled, or treated water before each
use. Throw away baby bottle nipples or pacifiers that have been in
contact with flood waters; they cannot be sanitized.
 Wash your hands before preparing formula and before feeding an infant.
You can use alcohol-based hand sanitizer if water is limited or unsafe.
Clean and sanitize food-contact surfaces that have been flooded: Throw out
wooden cutting boards, baby bottle nipples, and pacifiers if they have come into
contact with flood waters because they cannot be properly sanitized. Clean and
sanitize food-contact surfaces in a four-step process:
i. Wash with soap and hot, clean water.

ii. Rinse with clean water.
iii. Sanitize by immersing for 1 minute in a solution of 1 cup (8 oz/240 mL)
of unscented household chlorine bleach in 5 gallons of clean water.
iv. Allow to air dry.
4. Waste Management: The debris generated by most severe disasters,

overwhelm existing solid waste management facilities or force communities to
use disposal options that otherwise would not be acceptable (EPA, 2008). This
waste problem arising from disasters are grave and should attract much social
attention due to adverse effects on water quality, air quality and noise, flora and
fauna, visual impacts and socio economy (Petersen, 2004). European
Commission has also identified waste management as a key issue to be
addressed among several dimensions in rehabilitation of environment in post
emergency relief (EC, 2006). According to Aung and Arias (2006) the problem
of waste can be addressed in a number of ways at community and governmental
levels. Therefore, proper planning is of utmost importance to reduce future
vulnerabilities and to improve long-term sustainability (Shaw and Sinha, 2003).
The measures aiming at controlling disaster waste generation such as building

regulations and codes need to be introduced at mitigation phase of disaster
management cycle, as illustrated at Figure. The management of debris is
involved at the recovery stage as debris generated through damaged buildings
need to be collected, transported, reused, recycled, land filled or disposed. Rafee
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et al. (2008) indicated that disposal of debris is one of the main challenges of a
disaster recovery operation.
Therefore, a proper waste management plan should be established at the

recovery stage. At the reconstruction phase, construction waste is produced by
reconstruction work which is usually clean and relatively uncontaminated which
creates specific opportunities for recycling.
The Environment Protection Agency (EPA) in USA in their report (EPA, 2008)
has identified several items which are generated as waste at most post disaster
circumstances as soil and sediments, building rubble, vegetation, personal
effects, hazardous material, mixed domestic and clinical wastes and, all too
often, human and animal remains. These wastes represent a risk to human health
from biological sources, chemical sources and physical sources (EPA, 2008).
Further findings reveled that generation of waste is also varying according to
the type of disasters. Among these, building waste is a common type of waste
with almost all types of disasters other than automobiles, furniture, vegetative
debris, mixed metals, ash and charred wood waste and other debris.
Kobayashi (1995) classified the disaster waste as: rubble and other waste
accumulated on roads, demolition and dismantling waste of buildings, bulky
waste and raw materials, items in processes or other substances.
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In 2004, Baycan refined the classification in a more comprehensive manner as:

recyclable materials (concrete, masonry, wood, metal, soil and excavated
material), non recyclable materials (household inventory, organic materials, and
other inert materials) and hazardous waste (asbestos, chemicals) (Baycan,
2004).
Kourmpanis et al. (2008) has pointed out that building waste is considered to be
one of the priority waste streams and appropriate actions need to be taken with
respect to its effective management.
Post disaster waste management strategies: Waste management is a

discipline associated with control of generation of waste, storage, collection,
transfer and transport, processing, reuse and recovery and disposal of solid
waste in accordance with best principles of public health, economics,
engineering, conservation of nature, aesthetics and environmental, while
considering the general public attitude.
5. Disease control: Natural disasters are tragic incidents originating from

atmospheric, geologic and hydrologic changes. In recent decades, millions of
people have been killed by natural disasters, resulting in economic damages.
Natural and complex disasters dramatically increase the mortality and morbidity
due to communicable diseases. The major causes of communicable disease in
disasters are categorized into four sections: Infections due to contaminated food
and water, respiratory infections, vector and insect-borne diseases, and
infections due to wounds and injuries. With appropriate intervention, high
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morbidity and mortality resulting from communicable diseases can be avoided

to a great deal.
Communicable disease after disaster: The major causes of communicable

disease in disasters can be categorized into four areas: Infections due to
contaminated food and water, respiratory infections, vector and insect borne
diseases, and infections due to wounds and injuries. The most common causes
of morbidity and mortality in this situation are diarrheal disease and acute
respiratory infections.
i. Waterborne diseases:
a. Diarrheal disease: Diarrheal disease outbreaks can arise subsequent to

drinking-water contamination, and have been reported after flooding and related
movement. Vibrio cholera (O1 Ogawa and O1 Inaba) and enterotoxigenic
Escherichia coli are the major causes of this type.
b. Hepatitis A and E: Hepatitis A and E have also fecal-oral transmission,

especially in poor water sanitation.
c. Leptospirosis: Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis transmitted through

contact of mucous membranes and skin with water, moist vegetation, or dirt
contaminated with rodent urine.
ii. Diseases associated with crowding: Acute respiratory infections (ARI) as

the main cause of morbidity and mortality among unsettled people are seen
predominantly in children less than 5 years old. Furthermore, meningitis and
measles are transmitted from person to person, especially in crowded
circumstances.
iii. Vector-borne diseases: Malaria, cutaneous leishmaniasis and rabies are

transmitted by vectors. In 1991, an earthquake in Costa Rica's Atlantic region
was accompanied with1a high increase in malaria cases. Furthermore,
intermittent flooding associated with El Niño–Southern Oscillation has been
correlated with malaria epidemics in Peru.
iv. Infections due to wounds and injuries: The potentially significant threats
to persons suffering a wound are tetanus, staphylococci and streptococci.
Strategies for prevention of communicable disease in Post disaster Phase:

In this phase, the emergency response for controlling communicable disease
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includes: Emergency medical care, provision of shelter and site planning, water
and sanitation, safe food preparation, nutrition, case management, medical
supplies and vector control. Moreover, health education and providing the
health of humanitarian workers is a critical point.
i. Select and plan sites: providing appropriate shelters and site planning at the
start of an emergency can decrease the incidence of communicable disease
especially diarrheal diseases, acute respiratory infections, meningitis,
tuberculosis, measles and vector-borne diseases. Shelters should have sufficient
space according to the needs of victims. Furthermore, access to the water, fuel,
and transport, solid waste management, and safety of food stores are essential.
The new methods of GIS (Geographic Information System) application is useful
for finding the proper place for shelter settlement.
ii. Ensure adequate water and sanitation facilities: As mentioned before,

water borne diseases are a main cause of communicable disease after disaster.
Ensuring constant delivery of safe drinking-water is the major preventive
measure to be applied after a natural disaster.
According to WHO guidelines, Chlorine is broadly obtainable, low-cost, easily

used and effective against almost all waterborne pathogens. The sphere project
proposes the following minimum standards for the water supply in disasters:
 Sufficient access to safe water.

 Water quality should be maintained based on international guidelines.
 Water consumption facilities and goods should be safe.
iii. Ensure safety of food: Food safety is crucial for disease prevention in
natural disasters. The World Health Organization recommends five keys for
ensuring the safety of food supplements following a disaster event;
Key 1: Preserve clean (prevents the growth and spread of hazardous

microorganisms).
Key 2: Separate cooked and raw food (microorganisms transfer prevention).
Key 3: Cook thoroughly (kills dangerous microorganisms).
Key 4: Preserve food at harmless temperatures (microorganisms growth

prevention).
Key 5: Consuming safe water and raw materials (contamination prevention)
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iv. Control vectors: Natural disasters can influence transmission of vector-

borne disease. The crowding of infected and vulnerable hosts, a debilitated
public health infrastructure and disruptions of ongoing control processes are
entirely risk factors for transmission of vector-borne disease. Major diseases
frequently spread by vectors are malaria, dengue, Japanese encephalitis, yellow
fever, typhus, and trypanosomiasis. For prevention, vector control interventions
based on the local context and epidemiology of diseases are essential. Examples
of some useful interventions are indoor residual spraying for malaria,
insecticide-treated nets, and traps for tsetse flies as the vectors of
trypanosomiasis.
v. Implement vaccination campaigns (e.g. measles): Campaigns for measles

immunization are one of the most cost-effective interventions in public health.
Mass measles immunization, as well as vitamin A supplementation is an
immediate health priority after natural disasters in regions with poor coverage
levels. Mass immunization should be fulfilled as soon as possible in areas with
baseline coverage rates below 90% among individuals under 15 years old.
Furthermore, immediate provision of Tetanus Diphtheria (TD) vaccine and

tetanus antitoxin to persons injured during the earthquake and those undergoing
emergency surgeries, is essential.
vi. Provide essential clinical services: Access to the primary care services is
critical to prevention, early diagnosis and treatment of a variety of diseases, as
well as providing secondary and tertiary care. Effective diagnosis and treatment
of communicable diseases, prevents excess mortality and morbidity.
vii. Provide basic laboratory facilities: Establishing a clinical laboratory is not

a priority during the initial phase of most disasters. The diagnosis of most
common communicable diseases can usually be done by clinical diagnosis.
Laboratory testing is remained useful for confirming during a supposed
epidemic event for which mass immunization may be indicated (e.g.
meningococcal meningitis) or where culture and antibiotic sensitivity testing is
effective in clinical decisions (e.g. dysentery)
6. Security: “Environmental security” was identified as a core component of

the definition of human security outlined in UNDP’s 1994 report. Nevertheless,
human security debates and policies have tended to focus more on human-made
disasters, such as armed conflicts and human rights abuses. At the same time,
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strategies for disaster risk reduction (e.g. the Hyogo Framework for Action
2005-2015) have largely avoided explicitly referring to human security.
Even so, as recent catastrophes like the earthquakes in Haiti and Japan have
clearly shown, the actual threats that people struggle with following a natural
disaster are similar to those of a human-made crisis such as armed conflict:
“fear” (such as aftershocks and deteriorating social order) and “want” (lack of
food, water and shelter). Likewise, many of the same actors are involved in the
response, notably the UN and humanitarian NGOs. Indeed, most of the
organizations involved in natural disaster relief are working to protect human
security, even if they don’t label their work as such.
In post-conflict situations the practical value of the human security approach

lies in its ability to focus and coordinate the efforts of many different actors on
actual human needs, by providing a holistic and bottom-up perspective.
Clearly, this approach would also be beneficial in the response to natural

disasters—where coordination of relief efforts has been a recurring problem, as
seen in the Indian Ocean tsunami and the earthquakes in Haiti and Japan. A
human security approach would encourage systematic information sharing,
common action plans, needs assessment, and better coordination of responses
and offers of assistance.
A human security perspective encourages us to consider the needs of the most

vulnerable parts of the population, most notably protecting women, children,
and the elderly. Human security also emphasizes empowerment strategies,
enabling people — both individuals and communities — to act on their own
behalf, and on the behalf of others. Particularly during rebuilding, it would
suggest a bottom-up approach and incorporation of the voices of all those
affected. In disaster preparedness, human security would assist in guiding policy
development by ensuring resilience measures and scenarios include
consideration of human and community needs.
An important distinction when applying human security to natural disasters

concerns the role of the military and the nature of civil-military relations. In
civil conflicts, the military can sometimes be a major threat to human security,
but in the case of natural disasters, the military, with its significant operational
capacity and field experience, may instead be a major provider of human
security — as in the current efforts of the Japan Self-Defense Forces.
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7. Communications: Management of any disaster or emergency event is a

complicated and multi-faceted task. One of the most important, and oftentimes
overlooked, parts of any highly efficient disaster response is effective
information exchange between information sources, emergency managers and
those impacted by the disaster or emergency event. As an HOA board member,
you probably don’t have to manage disaster events very frequently (hopefully!).
This lack of experience, however, does have a downside; it can make
responding to a disaster in a managerial capacity even more uncomfortable and
stressful. The entire disaster management process is further complicated when
hindered by ineffective information gathering and distribution.
Assuming that your home owners association has adopted a comprehensive

emergency plan and has conducted adequate preparation and training exercises,
your response to a disaster or emergency should be coordinated and highly
effective. Hopefully, effective communication and information systems are
included in that plan.
Manage the Information Exchange: In disaster management, reliable and

timely information gathering and exchange from a variety of sources results in
more effective decision making at the managerial level.
Receiving Information: In the case of a disaster affecting your HOA, the

information flowing to emergency managers could be from a variety of sources,
such as residents, emergency responders, radio or television news broadcasts,
specialized search and evaluation teams, and other emergency management
agencies. This inflow of information needs to be reviewed, assimilated,
evaluated and prioritized in order to make timely and effective managerial
response and recovery decisions.
Distributing Information: As important as the flow of information into the

managers of any disaster situation is, the flow of information out to emergency
responders, residents, search and evaluation teams, other emergency managers
and management agencies is critical. Dissemination of timely and credible
information can minimize the potential for loss of life and injury, help residents
understand the extent of the emergency, simplify first responders’ tasks,
accelerate the recovery phase and minimize the overall impact of the disaster
event on the community.
In order to ensure that effective information exchange occurs, planning and

training need to occur. Information systems should be adopted that enhance
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your board’s ability to receive and disseminate critical event information.

Redundancy should also be considered, as system failures always seem to occur
when those systems are needed the most!
– Roles & Responsibilities of Government [Or] Government Initiatives on

Disaster Management:
 The Government of India has set up a National Committee on Disaster

Management (NCDM) under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister.
 The recommendations of this National Committee would form the basis
of national disaster risk management programme and strengthening the
natural disaster management and response mechanisms.
 United Nations Development Programmes (UNDP) has also been
supporting various initiatives of the government to strengthen disaster
management capacities.
 The programme components would include the following:
 Development of state and district disaster management plans.
 Development of disaster risk management and response plans at
Village/Ward, Gram Panchayat, Block/Urban Local Body levels.
 Constitutions of Disaster Management Teams and Committees at
all levels with adequate representation of women in all committees
and team. (Village/Ward, Gram Panchayat, Block/Urban local
body, District and State.).
 Capacity Building of Disaster Management Teams at all levels.
Special training for women in first aid, shelter management, water
and sanitation, rescue and evacuation, etc.
 Capacity Building in cyclone and earthquake resistant features for
houses in disaster prone districts, training in retrofitting, and
construction of technology demonstration units.
 Integration of disaster management plans with development plans
of local self governments.
 Primary responsibility of the State Government.
 Central Government supplements the efforts of State Government by
providing financial and logistic support in case of a major calamity.
 Supplementary support by centre
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– Community [Or] Community Level Disaster Management:
At the time of disaster, various agencies such as government, NGOs and

community plays an important role for disaster management.
These are preparedness, response, recovery and prevention details are on

follows: Disaster management has four basic components:
1. Preparedness: Measure to ensure that communities and services are capable

of coping with the effect of disaster. It has the following main elements:
i. Community awareness and education.

ii. Preparation of disaster management plans for community, school,
individual.
iii. Mock drill, training and practice.
iv. Inventory of resources both material resources and human skill resources.
v. Proper warning systems.
vi. Mutual aid arrangement.
vii. Identifying the vulnerable groups.
2. Response: Measures taken in anticipation of, during and immediately after a

disaster for minimizing its adverse impact. It has following main elements:
i. Activate the emergency operation centres (control room).

ii. Deployment of search and rescue teams.
iii. Issuing updated warning.
iv. Setting up community kitchens using local groups.
v. Set up temporary living accomodation and toilet faciliites.
vi. Set up medical camps.
vii. Mobilising resources.
3. Recovery: Measures are initiated to undertake reconstruction of the physical

infrastructure and restoration of economic and emotional well being. The main
elements are as follows:
i. Community awareness on health and safety measures.

ii. Counselling programme for those who have lost the near and dear ones.
iii. Restoring the essential services -roads, communication links, electricity
etc.
iv. Providing shelters.
v. Collecting usable materials for construction from rubble.
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vi. Providing financial support.

vii. Finding employment opportunities.
viii. Reconstructing new buildings.
4. Prevention: Measures to eliminate or reduce the incidence of severity.
i. Land use planning.

ii. Preventing habitation in risk zones.
iii. Disaster resistant buildings.
iv. Finding ways to reduce risk even before the disaster strikes.
v. Community awareness and education.
The first few hours before and after a disaster are critical and precious for
saving lives and reducing further injury. Often external help may take time to
reach the disaster site. In any disaster, often the neighbours are first to respond.
The first responders are people who act first in a disaster situation, usually lack
basic response skills to deal medical or other emergencies. The aim of
community level management is to train the individuals and the members of
local community to deal with emergency situation effectively. Trained
community members are life saving assets in such situations. Thus community
level management involves people’s participation.
– Local Institutions [Or] Institutional Framework:
1. Disaster Management Structure:

i. NDMA Apex Body with Prime Minister as Chairperson.
ii. National Executive Committee - Secretaries of 14 Ministries.
iii. Chief of Integrated Defence Staff.
2. Centre Level Central Ministries:
i. National Disaster Management Authority.
ii. National Institute of Disaster Management.
iii. National Disaster Response Force (NDRF).
3. State Level:
i. SDMA headed by Chief Minister.
ii. State Executive Committee (SEC).
4. District Level:
i. DDMA headed by District Magistrate.
ii. Interface between Govt. and Public.
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Other institutional arrangements:
1. Armed Forces.
2. Central Para Military Forces.
3. State Police Forces and Fire Services.
4. Civil Defence and Home Guards.
5. State Disaster Response Force (SDRF).
6. National Cadet Corps (NCC).
7. National Service Scheme (NSS).
8. Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS).
– Stakeholders:
1. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).

2. Public Private Partnership (PPP).
3. Media Partnership.
4. Training of Communities.
5. DM Education in Schools.
– Policies & Legislation for Disaster Risk Reduction:
Policies for Disaster Risk Reduction: The general objectives of the Disaster
Management Policy are:
1. To avoid loss of human life and destruction of property by

natural disasters or by man.
2. To incorporate disaster prevention into the overall national development
process.
3. To promote domestic and external.
Legislation for Disaster Risk Reduction: Laws and regulations serve as a

foundation for building community resilience. They are essential to reducing
existing risks posed by natural hazards, preventing new risks from arising and
making people safer. In 2005, the Hyogo Framework for Action highlighted the
importance of good legislation to support disaster risk reduction (DRR).
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, adopted in March 2015,
calls for a renewed focus on reviewing and strengthening legal frameworks.
In light of this international guidance, many countries have sought to strengthen

their laws and regulations for DRR and have been asking: what should good
legislation say about DRR?
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Since 2012, The IFRC and the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) have been working on a joint project to research, compare and consult
on the efforts of various countries to strengthen how their laws support the
reduction of disaster risks, particularly at the community level. In June 2014,
they launched a major new study examining 31 countries and in December
2015, they launched a new tool, The Checklist on Law and Disaster Risk
Reduction and its accompanying guide, The Handbook on Law and Disaster
Risk Reduction, to provide practical guidance on this area of law.
– DRR Programmes in India:
About 57% of India’s land is vulnerable to earthquake, 28% to drought, and

15% to floods. Millions of Indians are displaced and severely affected by
natural disasters every year. These three innovations are ensuring are making
sure better disaster risk reduction techniques that save lives during disasters.
1. Oxfam's Disaster Risk Reduction interventions.

2. Area Development Programmes of World Vision India.
3. Safe School Programme of Plan International (India Chapter).
1. Oxfam’s Disaster Risk Reduction interventions: Oxfam India works with

multiple stakeholders to design innovative disaster risk reduction (DRR) and
resilience building programs for various communities. We run a series of
programs in collaboration with the local administrations, non-governmental
organizations and the private sector to prepare India to face disasters in a better
manner.
Two of our DRR programs received a special mention by UNICEF and Cansa.
These programs are Community Managed Flood Proof Pond Water Filter
Systems and Volunteer Network Management Systems.
The former intervention addresses the water contamination issues in flood prone
geographies while the latter strengthens community based early warning system
through effective coordination amongst local actors in the last mile.
Through our DRR activities in 2017, we were able to reach out to 101544
people during India floods. With 750 existing water sources including hand
pumps and open wells and supply water points tested and repaired. We were
able to reach to 94603 men, women and children for public health promotion
activities and support16924 families with shelter and livelihood opportunities.
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2. Area Development Programmes of World Vision India: ADPs (Area

Development Programs) are integrated programs that help communities by
assisting them to achieve a better standard of living and well-being. Each ADP
touches the lives of 20,000 to 1,00,000 people.
When the 2017 floods hit the states of Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and
Mizoram, claiming 790 lives; World Vision India sent out emergency relief that
reached more than 22,500 people. Their services provided basic amenities such
as dry ration, cooking oil, soaps and tarpaulin sheets to 3,610 households.
3. Safe School Programme of Plan International (India Chapter): Plan India

is on a mission to strengthen the resilience in education sector. The goal of this
program is to ensure safety, accessibility, sustainability and relevance of
children’s education in the context of disasters and climate change. They also
aim to build a culture of safety and contribute to the resilience of the children
and community.
Their program outline incorporates 200 schools through structural and non-
structural mitigation and risk reduction measures. They reinforce building
structures of schools to strengthen them. Non-structural measures include
ensuring that casualties due to falling objects are avoided through anchoring of
the architectural elements such as ensuring the outward opening of doors,
filming of glass windows, anchoring of the cup boards, computers, etc.
– Activities of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):
National Disaster Management Authority, abbreviated as NDMA, is an apex

Body of Government of India, with a mandate to lay down policies for disaster
management. The phrase disaster management is to be understood as a
continuous and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating and
implementing measures, which are necessary or expedient for prevention of
danger or threat of any disaster, mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or
severity of its consequences, capacity building, preparedness to deal with any
disaster, prompt response, assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any
disaster, evacuation, rescue, relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction'. NDMA
was established through the Disaster Management Act enacted by
the Government of India on 23 December 2005. NDMA is responsible for
framing policies, laying down guidelines and best-practices for coordinating
with the State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to ensure a holistic
and distributed approach to disaster management. It is headed by the Prime
139 | P a g e
Minister of India and can have up to nine other members. Since 2020, there
have been five other members. There is a provision to have a Vice Chair-person
if needed. NDMA has a vision to "build a safer and disaster resilient India by a
holistic, pro-active, technology driven and sustainable development strategy that
involves all stakeholders and fosters a culture of prevention, preparedness and
mitigation." NDMA equips and trains other Government officials, institutions
and the community in mitigation for and response during a crisis situation or a
disaster. It works closely with the National Institute of Disaster Management for
capacity building. It develops practices, delivers hands-on training and
organizes drills for disaster management. It also equips and trains disaster
management cells at the state and local levels.
Functions and responsibilities: NDMA, as the apex body, is mandated to lay

down the policies, plans and guidelines for Disaster Management to ensure
timely and effective response to disasters. Towards this, it has the following
responsibilities:
1. Lay down policies on disaster management.

2. Approves the National Plan.
3. Approve plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the
Government of India in accordance with the National Plan.
4. Lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing
up the State Plan.
5. Lay down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or
Departments of the Government of India for the Purpose of integrating
the measures for prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effects in
their development plans and projects.
6. Coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plans
for disaster management.
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7. Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation;

8. Provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as
may be determined by the Central Government.
9. Take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the mitigation,
or preparedness and capacity building for dealing with threatening
disaster situations or disasters as it may consider necessary.
10. Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the
National Institute of Disaster Management.
Programs: NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority) runs various

programs for mitigation and responsiveness for specific situations. These
include the National Cyclone Risk Management Project, School Safety
Project, Decision Support System and others. India Disaster Response Summit
held on 9 November 2017 held at New Delhi. This Summit was jointly
organised by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and social
networking site Facebook. India has become the first country to partner with
Facebook on disaster response.
NDMA Guidelines:
1. Guidelines for Preparation of Action Plan – Prevention and Management

of Heat-Wave.
2. Guidelines on Management of School Safety.
3. Guidelines on Management of Hospital Safety.
4. Guidelines on Minimum Standards for Shelter, Food, Water, Sanitation,
Medical Cover in Relief Camps.
5. Guidelines on Management of Earthquakes.
6. Guidelines on Management of Tsunamis.
7. Guidelines on Management of Cyclones.
8. Guidelines on Management of Flood.
9. Guidelines on Management of Urban Flooding.
10.Guidelines on Drought Management.
11.Guidelines on Landslide and snow avalanches.
12.Guidelines for Nuclear attack disaster.
13.Guidelines on Chemical Disaster (Industrial).
14.Guidelines for Chemical (Terrorism) Disaster).
15.Guidelines on Medical Preparedness and Mass Casualty Management.
16.Guidelines for Biological Disaster.
17. Guidelines for Psycho-Social Support.
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18. Guidelines on Formulation of State DM Plans.

19.Guidelines for Incident Response System.
20. Guidelines for National Disaster Management Information and
Communication System.
21. Guidelines for Scaling, Type of Equipment and Training of Fire Services.
22.Guidelines for Seismic Retrofitting of Deficient Buildings and Structures.
23.Guidelines on temporary shelters for disaster affected families.
24.Guidelines on disability inclusive disaster risk reduction
******
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UNIT – V
Disasters, Environment and Development: Factors affecting

vulnerability, Sustainable and Environmental friendly recovery.
– Factors affecting Vulnerability:
Human Factors: The severity of a disaster depends on both the physical nature
of the extreme event and the social nature of the human populations affected by
the event. Here are some important human factors that tend to influence disaster
severity:
1. Wealth: Wealth is one of the most important human factors in vulnerability.

Wealth affects vulnerability in several ways: The poor are less able to afford
housing and other infrastructure that can withstand extreme events. They are
less able to purchase resources needed for disaster response and are less likely
to have insurance policies that can contribute. They are also less likely to have
access to medical care. But there are exceptions.
2. Education: Education is another important factor in hazard impacts. With

education, we can learn how to avoid or reduce many impacts. When
populations are literate, then written messages can be used to spread word about
hazards in general or about specific disasters. Even without literacy, it is
possible to educate a population about hazards in order to help it reduce its
vulnerability. When populations include professionals trained in hazards, then
these people can help the populations with their hazards preparations and
responses.
3. Governance: The nature of both formal governments and informal

governance in a population is another important factor. Governments can
advance policies that reduce vulnerability. They can establish agencies tasked
with reducing vulnerability, such as NDMA. They can support education and
awareness efforts, as well as economic development to reduce poverty. Finally,
they can foster social networks and empower individuals and communities to
help themselves to prepare for and respond to hazards. Likewise, even without
governments, communities can informally engage in many of these governance
activities. Often the most vulnerable people are those who are politically
marginalized, because these people have less access to key resources and
opportunities.
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4. Technology: The capabilities of the available technology can also play a

large role in disasters. Technology can improve our ability to forecast extreme
events, withstand the impacts of the events, and recover afterwards. Technology
is closely tied to wealth, education, and governance. Wealthier, more educated
society's are more likely to have more advanced technology. A society's
governance systems play a large role in how - and how effectively - the
available technology is used in a disaster situation.
5. Age: Children and the elderly tend to be more vulnerable. They have less
physical strength to survive disasters and are often more susceptible to certain
diseases. The elderly often also have declining vision and hearing. Children,
especially young children, have less education. Finally, both children and the
elderly have fewer financial resources and are frequently dependent on others
for survival. In order for them to survive a disaster, it is necessary for both them
and their caretakers to stay alive and stay together.
6. Gender: Women are often more vulnerable to natural hazards than men. This
is in part because women are more likely to be poor, less educated, and
politically marginalized. Women often face additional burdens as caretakers of
families. When disaster strikes, women are often the ones tasked with protecting
children and the elderly. This leaves them less mobile and more likely to
experience harm themselves.
– Sustainable & Environmental Friendly Recovery:
Sustainability:
Sustainability is the ability to exist constantly. In the 21st century, it refers

generally to the capacity for the biosphere and human civilization to co-exist. It
is also defined as the process of people maintaining change in
a homeostasis balanced environment, in which the exploitation of resources, the
direction of investments, the orientation of technological development and
institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future
potential to meet human needs and aspirations. For many in the field,
sustainability is defined through the following interconnected domains or
pillars: environment, economic and social, which according to Fritjof Capra is
based on the principles of Systems Thinking. Sub-domains of sustainable
development have been considered also: cultural, technological and political.
According to Our Common Future, sustainable development is defined as
development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the
144 | P a g e
ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Sustainable development

may be the organizing principle of sustainability, yet others may view the two
terms as paradoxical (i.e., development is inherently unsustainable).
Sustainability can also be defined as a socio-ecological process characterized by

the pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a given
time and space. However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the
process results in a sustainable system. Many environmentalists and ecologists
argue that sustainability is achieved through the balance of species and the
resources within their environment. As is typically practiced in natural resource
management, the goal is to maintain this equilibrium, available resources must
not be depleted faster than resources are naturally generated.
Modern use of the term sustainability is broad and difficult to define

precisely. Originally, sustainability meant making only such use of natural,
renewable resources that people can continue to rely on their yields in the long
term. The concept of sustainability, or Nachhaltigkeit in German, can be traced
back to Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645–1714), and was applied to forestry.
Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans

and other organisms. Ways of reducing negative human impact
are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources
management and environmental protection. Information is gained from green
computing, green chemistry, earth science, environmental
science and conservation biology. Ecological economics studies the fields of
academic research that aim to address human economies and natural
ecosystems.
Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that

entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, supply
chain management, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism.
Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganizing living
conditions (e.g., ecovillages, eco-municipalities and sustainable cities),
reappraising economic sectors (permaculture, green building, sustainable
agriculture), or work practices (sustainable architecture), using science to
develop new technologies (green technologies, renewable energy and
sustainable fission and fusion power), or designing systems in a flexible and
reversible manner, and adjusting individual lifestyles that conserve natural
resources.
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In sum, "the term 'sustainability' should be viewed as humanity's target goal of

human-ecosystem equilibrium (homeostasis), while 'sustainable development'
refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end
point of sustainability." Despite the increased popularity of the use of the term
"sustainability", the possibility that human societies will achieve environmental
sustainability has been, and continues to be, questioned—in light
of environmental degradation, climate change, overconsumption, population
growth and societies' pursuit of unlimited economic growth in a closed system.
Environmentally Friendly:
Environment friendly processes, or environmental-friendly processes (also

referred to as eco-friendly, nature-friendly, and green), are sustainability
& marketing terms referring to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies
that claim reduced, minimal, or no harm upon ecosystems or the environment.
Companies use these ambiguous terms to promote goods and services,
sometimes with additional, more specific certifications, such as ecolabels. Their
overuse can be referred to as greenwashing.
The International Organization for Standardization has developed ISO 14020

and ISO 14024 to establish principles and procedures for environmental labels
and declarations that certifiers and eco-labellers should follow. In particular,
these standards relate to the avoidance of financial conflicts of interest, the use
of sound scientific methods and accepted test procedures, and openness and
transparency in the setting of standards.
******
THE END
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DISASTER

Introduction: Concepts and Definitions: Disaster, Hazard, Vulnerability,

Definition: An event, natural or human made sudden or progressive, which

A disaster can be defined as “A serious disruption in the functioning of the

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster as “a catastrophe, mishap,

The United Nations defines disaster as “the occurrence of sudden or major

Earthquake, cyclone, hailstorm, cloud‐burst, landslide, soil erosion, snow

Relationship: Hazard x Vulnerability = Disaster

Classification: Disaster can classified as:

1. Natural (Resulting from Natural Forces).

1. Natural Disaster classified in to:

i. Resulting from phenomenon beneath the earth surface (E.g. Earthquake,

2. Man-made Disaster classified in to:

i. Socio –technical disaster.

i. Socio technical disaster can occur in following situation:

 Technological (e.g. gas leakage, fire during industrial activity).

ii. Warfare Disaster classified in Interstate conflict and international conflict,

India Disaster Scenario: India due to its geo‐climatic and socio‐economic

Disasters – Global Scenario: Disasters ‐ natural or human‐made are common

Definition: “Hazards are defined as physical phenomena that pose a threat to

Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or event that threat or have

Types/Classification: Hazards can be grouped into two broad categories

1. Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural

2. Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to human negligence.

Hazards can be grouped as,

Definition: Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community,

Key Concept of Vulnerability:

Types of Vulnerability: Vulnerabilities can be categorized into:

1. Physical vulnerability: It includes notions of who and what may be

below. Unchecked growth of settlements in unsafe areas exposes the people to

Fig: Site after pressures from population growth and urbanization

2. Socio‐economic vulnerability: The degree to which a population is affected

“Resilire” (Latin word) ‐ to bounce back.

Engineering resilience: The time taken by a system to bounce‐back from

Ecological resilience: The extent of disturbance a system can take without

Disaster Resilience is the ability of individuals, communities, organizations and

According to the Hyogo Framework for Action (UNISDR, 2005), disaster

Disaster resilience is part of the broader concept of resilience – ‘the ability of

Elements of a resilience framework: In practice, DFID’s framework (DFID,

1. Context: Whose resilience is being built – such as a social group,

2. Disturbance: What shocks (sudden events like conflict or disasters) and/or

3. Capacity to respond: The ability of a system or process to deal with a shock

4. Reaction: A range of responses are possible, including: bounce back better,

Definition: The probability of harmful consequences or expected losses

Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a

Level of risk: The level of risk depends upon:

1. Nature of the hazard.

A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards and is

Key concept: Hazard * Vulnerability/Capacity = Risk.

1. Preparedness: This protective process embraces measures which enable

Preparedness therefore encompasses those measures taken before a disaster

2. Mitigation: Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of

In addition to these physical measures, mitigation should also aim at reducing

Elements at Risk: Persons, buildings, crops or other such like societal

Definition: Capacity is the resources of individuals, households and

Capacity can be defined as “resources, means and strengths which exist in

2. Socio‐economic Capacity: In most of the disasters, people suffer their

Hazard * Vulnerability/Capacity = Risk.

Definition: Activities to avoid the adverse impact of hazards and means to