SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE

The Problem

PROBLEM

 A research explanation that needs to be studied. It allows the reader to get the goal and intent of
the research.
 The question that asks what is the purpose of the experiment.

SOURCES OF THE PROBLEM:

 Consultation with experts

 Personal experience
 Practical experience
 Previous research
 Existing theories
 Social issues
 Intuition
 Folklores
 Exposure to field situations
 Brainstorming
 Critical appraisal of literature
Solvable problem
 One that poses a question that can be answered with the use of our normal capacities susceptible
to empirical solutions by studying observable events.
 Should possess a hypothesis that is testable, relevant to the problem and empirically established
as true.
 The problem selected is good only if it is solvable so the chances of insolvability problems should
be minimized. These enhance relevant results.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLVABLE PROBLEM:
 Clear
 Relevant
 Has basis
 Testable
 Obtainable
 Verifiable
EXAMPLE OF A SOLVABLE PROBLEM
 What is the Source of Stress for First Generation Freshman Female College Students?
 The example is clear, relevant, & has a basis
  Also, the example is testable, obtainable, & verifiable
Unsolvable Problem
 Raises questions that are unanswerable.
 Often concern supernatural phenomena or questions about ultimate causes.
 Problems that are ambiguous and impossible to solve.
 Unclear and can’t give clues to various aspects of methodology

CHARACTERISTICS OF UNSOVABLE PROBLEM:

 Too broad
 Too simple
 Unobtainable
 Not testable
 Can’t manipulate a variable
 Doesn’t elucidate the significance

EXAMPLE OF AN UNSOLVABLE PROBLEM

 About moral luck
 Nature of God
 Relationship between
 science and religion
The Variables
 Anything that can change in value or amount, such as magnitude or intensity

Independent variable
 Stimulus event that is experimentally studied
 The variable that is manipulated by the researchers
 Should consists of at least two or more-level treatment conditions to which subjects are exposed.
 Variable that varies in an experimental study to explore its effects.
 Was called an “independent” because it’s not influenced by any other variables in the study.

Independent variable types:

 Stimulus variable - refers to any aspect of the environment (physical, social, etc.)
 Organismic variable - any relatively stable physical characteristics of an organism such as gender,
eye color, heigh, etc. not used in experimental research for these cannot be controlled.
Dependent variable
 Measure of any change on behavior
 The variable that is being observed or measure to assess the effect of the treatment.
 Variable that changes as a result of the independent variable manipulation.
 The outcome you’re interested in measuring.
 Response measures - includes diverse phenomena, such as volume of saliva, number of errors a
rat makes in a maze
 Accuracy - can be measure through metric system (e.g., target shooting - bull’s eye=5pts, outer
circle=3pts, next circle=1pt.)
  Latency - time onset on a stimulus to start a response (e.g., shooting of starting pistol and a
runner’s feet leaving the starting blocks in a 100 - meter dash.)
 Duration (speed) - how long it takes to complete a response once it has started (e.g., time between
leaving the starting block until reaching finish line)
 Frequency & Rate - number of times a response occurs. (e.g., number of levers pressing inside
Skinner’s box).
 1. Validity of Dependent variables
 Definitions are arbitrary - operationally defined
 Use of commonly accepted dependent variable - conceptually defined
 2. Reliability of dependent variables - degree to which participants receive the same scores when
 repeated measurements of them are taken.

Examples of IV and DV:

 In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps affects test scores; the independent
variable is the length of time spent sleeping while the dependent variable is the test score.
 You want to compare brands of paper towels, to see which holds the most liquid. The independent
variable in your experiment would be the brand of paper towel. The dependent variable would be
the amount of liquid absorbed by the paper towel.
 In an experiment to determine how far people can see into the infrared part of the spectrum, the
wavelength of light is the independent variable and whether the light is observed (the response) is
the dependent variable.
 You want to determine whether a chemical is essential for rat nutrition, so you design an
experiment. The presence/absence of the chemical is the independent variable. The health of the
rat (whether it lives and can reproduce) is the dependent variable.
 If you determine the substance is necessary for proper nutrition, a follow-up experiment might
determine how much of the chemical is needed. Here, the amount of chemical would be the
independent variable and the rat health would be the dependent variable.
Extraneous variable
 Any variables that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research
study.
 Produce an association between two variables that are not causally related.
EXAMPLE:

TYPES OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES:

 Situational variables
 Participant variables
 Experimenter
 Demand characteristics
HOW TO CONTROL EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES?
 Determine which type of extraneous variables are present in your study.
 Select a method of control (Random Sampling, Standardized Procedure, Counterbalancing and
Masking)
 Implement the method of control
 Randomization
 Consistent environment
EXAMPLE OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES:
 Robert conducted a study to examine how lack of sleep affects college students. Each student
participant is a dependent variable, while the independent variable is the amount of sleep that they
get. In this study, an extraneous variable could include other factors that affect college students,
such as living in a loud dormitory or having a smoke detector malfunction one night and wake up a
participant. To control this extraneous variable, Robert might ask students to sleep in a quiet
location for the duration of the experiment.
The Variables
1. Controlled variable - factors in the experiment that remain constant across the number of trials in an
experimentation.
 Any variables that are held constant or limited in a research study.
 Controlled variables help you ensure that your results are solely caused by your experimental
manipulations.
 This is what you keep the same every test or measurement in order to make sure that the
results can be compared fairly.
Examples of Controlled Variables
 A researcher wants to know if different weight loss programs are effective.
- Possible Controlled Variables: Activity level or Starting weight.
 Does a supplement improve memory recall?
- Possible Controlled Variables: Amount of sleep, time of medication and Familiarity with
recall subject.
Types of extraneous variables
1. Physical variable - this includes the physical aspects of the testing conditions that need to be
controlled, such as noise, temperature, size and other possible distractions.
2. Personal variables - this may include the response style and other personal characteristics of the
participants in answering the questions.
3. Social variables - this includes the demand characteristics that participants wish to fulfill thinking of
which as expectations from the experiment.
Experimental bias - in the form of social variables wherein the experimenter unconsciously provides
subtle cues that tell participants how they are expected to behave.
Controlling extraneous variables
1. Elimination - directly removing the extraneous variable.
2. Constancy of conditions – e.g.., subjecting participants under the same time, room temperature etc
3. Balancing - handling the way the variables change, ensuring not to confound the results.
4. Counterbalancing - uses all possible sequences of the conditions and uses every sequence in the
same number of times.
5. Randomization - randomly selecting as many possible sequences as the participants
6. Order effects - maintaining the same effects order of treatment among participants given more than
one condition or treatment in a within-subject treatment.
Other types of variables
1. Continuous variable - capable of changing by any amount, even an infinitesimally small one.
2. Discontinuous or discrete variable - numerical values that differ by clearly defined steps with no
intermittent values possible.

What is hypothesis?
- a precise, testable statement of what the researcher(s) predict will be the outcome of the
study.
- Suggested answer to a problem
- Requirements for an acceptable hypothesis
- 1. Must provide an adequate answer to a specific problem. Several hypotheses may be
formulated to
- answer a single problem. Each hypothesis must suggest an answer from different points of
view.
- 2. Must provide the simplest answer to the problem.
- 3. Must be verifiable and should allow testing of its value.
Types of Hypotheses
1. Alternative hypothesis - hypothesis that is stated in a positive statement
-states that the results are significant between the variables.
Ex. Ha: there is a significant difference between the Math performance of boys and girls
2. Null hypothesis - hypothesis that is formulated in a negative statement
- States that the results are not significant between the variables.
Ex. Ho: there is no significant difference between the Math performance of boys and girls
OTHER TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Directional Hypothesis
 hypothesis tests where the alternative hypothesis is stated as greater than (>) or less than (<) a
value stated in the null hypothesis.
 ex: Women will have higher scores than men will on Hudson's self-esteem scale.
Nondirectional Hypothesis
 where the alternative hypothesis is stated as not equal to (≠) the null hypothesis.
 ex: There will be a difference by gender in Hudson's self-esteem scale scores.
Hypothesis testing
 a method for testing a claim or hypothesis about a parameter in a population, using data measured
in a sample
Example:
The level of calcium in the blood of healthy, young adults varies with a mean of 9.5 mg per
deciliter and a SD of 0.4. A clinic in rural Illinois measures the blood calcium level of 180 healthy pregnant
women and finds x = 9.57mg. Is this an indication that the mean calcium level in this population differs from
9.5mg?
State the Hypothesis:
H0 : There is no significant difference in the calcium levels of the population.
H1 : There is a significant difference in the calcium levels of the population.
Set the criteria of decisions:
α = 0.05 (Significance Level - refers to a criterion of judgment upon which a decision is made.)
Since our significance level is 95%, our
chance of being wrong is 5%. We will split
in half that 5% hence giving us 0.250. It is
equivalent in 1.96 critical value in table.

Compute the test statistic: Make a decision:

Reject the null hypothesis.

Sample and sampling technique

 Sampling technique - discusses how the study used the various sampling techniques. The main
goal is to get a representative sample or a small collection of units, or cases from a larger
population. Another goal is to make generalizations about the larger group.
 Population Sample
 Probability sampling
1. Time and cost - results from a sample may yield 1/1000 the cost of time. 
Ex. 20 million people = 2000. The data from 2000 are equal to the data sample of 20 million
2. Accuracy - 
How large should a sample be?
It depends on the kind of data analysis the researcher plans, on how accurate the sample has to be for the
researcher’s purposes and on the population characteristics.
1. Degree of accuracy required
2. The degree of variability or diversity in the population
3. The number of different variables examined simultaneously in data analysis. 

Computation of Sample
1. Z score
2. Cronbach
3. Slovin 
4. Cochran
5. Raosoft
6. G Power

Why random?
Random - a process that generates a mathematically random result; i.e. the selection process truly
operates in a truly random method (no pattern) and the researcher can calculate the probability of
outcomes. Each element has an equal probability of being selected.

Types of probability sampling

1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic sampling 
 A researcher calculates a sampling interval and the interval becomes the quasi-random
selection method.
 For the interval. Identify the sample size and population size. The sample size is divided by
the no. of population
Ex. total population = 1236, sample size is 406
406/1236 = .3284
.3284 =33%
3 is the sampling interval
3. Stratified sampling 
 The population is divided into subpopulations (strata) on the basis of supplementary
information Then, a random sample will be drawn from each stratum either thru simple
random sampling or systematic sampling
Ex. 10,000 students from CVSU, 250 from 1st year, 200 from 2nd year, 170 from 3rd year
and 50 from 4th year will be part of the participants, after being subjected to Slovin's
formula. 

4. Cluster sampling 
 Researchers lack a good sampling frame for a dispersed population. The cost to reach a
target sample is very high
Ex. the number of teachers in Cavite.
 A researcher first samples clusters, with each cluster containing elements. (The cluster is a
unit that contains the final sampling element but can be treated temporarily as a sampling
element itself.)
  Then draws a second sample from within the clusters
Ex. the number of teachers in cavite. The clusters will be the district. Then, the researcher
will survey 100 teachers per district. 
5.  Within - household sampling 
 For studies that sample a household or a similar unit. This ensures after a random
household is chosen the individual within the household is also selected randomly.
6. Random digit sampling 
A special sampling technique used in research projects in which the general public is interviewed
by people.

Non Probability sampling types

1. Haphazard, Accidental, Availability  or Convenience Sampling 
 get any cases in a manner that is convenient
Ex. survey forms from newspapers and magazines that tell you to fill the questionnaire and
mail it. 
2. Quota Sampling 
 The researcher first identifies relevant categories of people (eg. male and female, age
brackets, occupations) then decides how many to get in each category
 Ensures that some differences are in the sample.
3. Purposive Sampling 
 uses in the judgment of an expert in selecting cases or it selects cases with a specific
purpose in mind. Gets all possible cases that fit in a particular criterion, using various
methods.
 Purposive sampling is appropriate in 3 situations 
1. Selecting unique cases that are especially informative
2. Selecting members of a difficult-to-reach specialized population
3. Identifying particular types of cases of in-depth investigation
4. Snowball Sampling
 Also called network, chain referral or reputational sampling
 A method for identifying and sampling (or selection) the cases in a network
Ex. i would like to study the experience of having fatal accident, i would ask my first
respondent if he/she knows someone who experienced the same event

5. Deviant case Sampling

 Also called extreme case sampling
 Seeks cases that differ from the dominant characteristics of other cases
 Deviant cases are selected because they are unusual, different or peculiar cases that are
not representative of the whole.
Ex. High school dropouts are often from families with low income, single parents or
unstable. The sample will have no record of illegal activity, with two stable parents, and
form the middle class.

6. Sequential Sampling
 Similar to purposive sampling
  A researcher continues to gather cases until the amount of new information or diversity of
cases is filled
 The principle is to gather cases until a saturation point is reached
7. Theoretical Sampling
 The sample (e.g. people, situations, events, time periods, etc) are carefully selected, as
the researcher develops grounded theory.
Ex. the researcher observes BSP 3-5 students during class activities or group activities.
Do BSP 3-5 act the same when not doing academic related activities?