UNIT 1: MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS

1.1 General

 Physics is about trying to find the simple laws that describe all natural
phenomena.
 Physics operates on a vast range of scales of length, mass and time.
Scientists use the concept of the order of magnitude of a number to track
which phenomena occur on which scales. They also use orders of magnitude
to compare the various scales.
 Scientists attempt to describe the world by formulating models, theories and
laws.

1.2 Units and Standards

 Systems of units are built up from a small number of base units which are
defined by accurate and precise measurements of conventionally chosen
base quantities. Other units are then derived as algebraic combinations of the
base units.
 Two commonly used systems of units are English units and SI units. All
scientists and most of the other people in the world use SI whereas non-
scientists in the United States still tend to use English units.
 The SI base units of length, mass and time are the meter (m), kilogram (kg)
and second (s), respectively.
 SI units are a metric system of units meaning values can be calculated by
factors of 10. Metric prefixes may be used with metric units to scale the base
units to sizes appropriate for almost any application.

1.3 Unit Conversion

 To convert a quantity from one unit to another, multiply by conversions factors

in such a way that you cancel the units you want to get rid of and introduce
the units you want to end up with.
 Be careful with areas and volumes. Units obey the rules of algebra so, for
example, if a unit is squared we need two factors to cancel it.
1.4 Dimensional Analysis

 The dimension of a physical quantity is just an expression of the base

quantities from which it is derived.
 All equations expressing physical laws or principles must be dimensionally
consistent. This fact can be used as an aid in remembering physical laws as a
way to check whether claimed relationships between physical quantities are
possible and even to derive new physical laws.
1.6 Scientific notation

We use Scientific notation for writing very large or very small numbers. A number is
written in scientific notation when a number between 1 to 9 is multiplied by a power
of 10. For example, 650,000,000 can be written in scientific notation as 6.5 ✕ 108.

1.7 Significant Figures

 Accuracy of a measured value refers to how close a measurement is to an

accepted reference value. The discrepancy in a measurement is the amount
by which the measurement result differs from this value.
 Precision of measured values refers to how close the agreement is between
repeated measurements. The uncertainty of a measurement is a
quantification of this.
 The precision of a measuring tool is related to the size of its measurement
increments. The smaller the measurement increment, the more precise the
tool.
 Significant figures express the precision of a measuring tool.
 When multiplying or dividing measured values, the final answer can contain
only as many significant figures as the value with the least number of
significant figures.
 When adding or subtracting measured values, the final answer cannot contain
more decimal places than the least-precise value.
1.8 Trigonometry and geometry
  The branch of mathematics in which the relationship between the angles and
the ratios of the sides of the right-angled triangles is studied is known as
trigonometry.
 Ratios used to study these relationships which include tangent, sine, cosine,
secant, cotangent and cosecant are known as the trigonometric ratios.
 We use trigonometry in order to find the unknown dimensions of any right-
angled triangle by using the formulas and the identities.
 The branch of mathematics in which the principles related to the angles,
patterns, covered distances, areas and volumes known as geometry.
 Geometry includes the study of all the concepts related to spatial and visual.
Geometry can be classified into three types such as euclidean, elliptical and
hyperbolic.
 The geometry in which we study the properties of a planar surface and solid
figures which are based upon theorems and axioms is known as Euclidean
geometry. While the geometry in which does not hold Euclid’s parallel
postulates is known as elliptical geometry. The geometry in which we study
hyperbolic surfaces is known as hyperbolic geometry.
 Trigonometry can be considered as a subset of geometry. In modern
mathematics, trigonometry plays a huge role. There are six trigonometric
relations.
 Three basic ones named Sine, Cosine, and Tangent are clubbed together
with Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent. Cosec, Sec and Cot can also be
stated as the reciprocal of Sine, Cosine and Tangent respectively.
 Trigonometry is not just a study of simple plane figures.

1.9 Scientific calculator

Scientific calculators include exponents, log, natural log (ln), trig functions and
memory. These functions are vital when you're working with scientific notation or any
formula with a geometry component. Basic calculators can do addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.

1.10 Quadratic and simultaneous equation

Quadratic simultaneous equations are two or more equations that share variables
that are raised to powers up to 2 e.g. x2 and y2. Algebraic skills are required to find
the values of letters within two or more equations. If two or more equations have the
same variables and solutions, then they are simultaneous equations.

1.11 Area and Volume

As we know that geometry is the study of Shapes. It deals with plane shapes and
solid shapes. We calculate different terms associated with the shapes, like length,
width, height, Area, perimeter, Volume, etc. Area and Volume are the two important
concepts used in our daily life. We see many shapes around like squares,
rectangles, circles, polygons, etc. Every Shape has its unique properties and
measurements. Hence every Shape has a different Area and Volume, based on their
measurements. So here on this page, we will study the difference between Area and
Volume in Math and formulas associated with different shapes.

 Area

The Area is the measurement of the region covered by any two-dimensional

geometric shapes. The Area of any shape depends upon its dimensions. Different
shapes have different Areas. For instance, the Area of the square differs from the
Area of the rectangle. The Area of a shape is calculated in square units (sq units).
Suppose if you want to paint the rectangular wall of your house, you need to know
the Area of the wall to calculate the quantity of the paint required to paint the wall
and the cost of painting. If two figures have a similar shape it is not necessary that
they have equal Area unless and until their dimensions are equal. Suppose two
squares have sides s and s1, so the Areas of the two square will be equal if s = s1

 Volume
The space occupied by the three-dimensional object is measured in terms of the
volume of that object. The volume of a solid shape is the product of three
dimensions, so the volume is expressed in cubic units. Suppose the volume of a
cube is measured by the product of its length, width, and height.

1.12 Algorithm to solve problems

The three stages of the process for solving physics problems used in this book are
as follows:
 Strategy: Determine which physical principles are involved and develop a
strategy for using them to solve the problem.
 Solution: Do the math necessary to obtain a numerical solution complete with
units.
 Significance: Check the solution to make sure it makes sense (correct units,
reasonable magnitude and sign) and assess its significance.
1.13 Scalars and Vectors
 A vector quantity is any quantity that has magnitude and direction, such as
displacement or velocity. Vector quantities are represented by mathematical
objects called vectors.
 Geometrically, vectors are represented by arrows, with the end marked by an
arrowhead. The length of the vector is its magnitude, which is a positive
scalar. On a plane, the direction of a vector is given by the angle the vector
makes with a reference direction, often an angle with the horizontal. The
direction angle of a vector is a scalar.
 Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitudes and
directions. Parallel vectors have the same direction angles but may have
different magnitudes. Anti-parallel vectors have direction angles that differ
by 180°. Orthogonal vectors have direction angles that differ by 90°.
 When a vector is multiplied by a scalar, the result is another vector of a
different length than the length of the original vector. Multiplication by a
positive scalar does not change the original direction; only the magnitude is
affected. Multiplication by a negative scalar reverses the original direction.
The resulting vector is anti-parallel to the original vector. Multiplication by a
scalar is distributive. Vectors can be divided by nonzero scalars but cannot be
divided by vectors.
 Two or more vectors can be added to form another vector. The vector sum is
called the resultant vector. We can add vectors to vectors or scalars to scalars
but we cannot add scalars to vectors. Vector addition is commutative and
associative.
  To construct a resultant vector of two vectors in a plane geometrically, we use
the parallelogram rule. To construct a resultant vector of many vectors in a
plane geometrically, we use the tail-to-head method.

 Vector Addition and Subtraction

 One procedure for adding vectors utilizes a graphical technique in which the
vectors to be added are arranged in a tail-to-head fashion.
 The resultant vector is drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the
last vector.
 The subtraction of a vector is treated as the addition of a vector that has been
multiplied by a scalar factor of -1.
 Multiplying a vector by -1 reverses the direction of the vector.
 The Components of a Vector
 In two dimensions, the vector components of a vector A are two perpendicular
vectors A and A that are parallel to the x and y axes, respectively, and that
add together vectorially so that A = Ax + Ay.
 The scalar components A has a magnitude that is equal to that of Ax and is
given a positive sign if Ax points along the +x axis and a negative sign if Ax
points along the –x axis. The scalar component A is defined in a similar
manner.
 Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and
direction. Alternatively, two vectors are equal in two dimensions if the x vector
components of each are equal and the y vector components of each are
equal.
 A vector is zero if, each of its vector components is zero.
 Addition of Vectors by means of Components

If two vectors A and B are added to give a resultant C then Cx = Ax + Bx and Cy =

Ay + By, where Cx,Ax and Bx are the scalar components of the vectors along the x
direction and Cy, Ay and By are the scalar components of the vectors along y
direction.