Microbial

update yeasts& moulds

Dr Roy Betts, Head of Microbiology, potent food spoilage organisms responsible Yeasts are generally associated with the
Campden BRI, Chipping Campden, for large economic losses of some food fermentation of sugars such as glucose and
Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK. products. sucrose, but they are able to utilise a variety
Produced as a service to the food The origin of the positive effects of yeasts of other compounds, such as alcohols,
industry by Thermo Fisher Scientific. in food production probably came about by organic acids, hydrocarbons and aromatic
an accidental contamination of some raw compounds. Some yeasts are also capable
t is quite probable that fungi cause more materials with environmental yeasts. Mead, of utilising certain acid-based preservatives

I losses within the world food supply chain

than any other group of micro-organisms.
As such they should be of major interest to
a fermented honey drink, is the oldest alco-
holic beverage known to man and is
believed to have been discovered during the
such as benzoic acid, propionic acid and sor-
bic acid, and this can make them a major
issue in foods and drinks that rely on these
growers, processers, suppliers and retailers Stone Age. preservatives for stability.
of foods. A chance occurrence of honeycomb Other general environmental factors that
Fungi tend to be divided into two groups, becoming wet from rain and then airborne influence growth are temperature and the
the yeasts and the moulds. Yeasts are char- yeasts fermenting the mixture is thought to concentration of oxygen. The temperature
acterised by their single celled nature. They have led to its discovery. Leavened bread range for yeast growth is about 0-47°C,
reproduce by a process known as budding, first appeared in Egypt about 5,000 years with yeasts from Antarctic soils, for exam-
where ‘daughter’ cells bud off the parent cell ago, when flat bread dough became conta- ple, having a maximum growth temperature
forming new single cells. Yeasts tend to minated with wild yeasts which would have of 17°C, whilst some from tropical environ-
grow within food and drink matrices in produced carbon dioxide, and ‘raised’ the ments will grow at greater than 40°C.
planktonic form and they tend to ferment bread. No doubt an ‘accidental’ contamina- Some yeast species are strict aerobes
sugars growing well under anaerobic condi- tion of various fruit juices would have whilst others also have a fermentative
tions. Moulds on the other hand tend to caused the production of wines. metabolism. In the case of a contaminated
grow on the surface of objects in the form fruit juice for example, fermentative yeasts
of a visible ‘mycelium’ made up of many will cause alcoholic fermentation in the bulk
cells. Moulds exist in this multicellular for- of the product, whilst aerobic yeasts will
mat, usually known as a hyphal mat, and produce a film or pellicle on the surface of
tend to grow on the surface of food and the liquid. In most food spoilage it is the
drinks and not within them as yeasts do. anaerobic fermentative yeasts that cause the
They are aerobic organisms and cannot major issue. In sealed food containers, any
grow well under conditions in which oxygen oxygen will be rapidly consumed creating an
is limited. anaerobic environment, and it is here that
Yeasts and moulds form an important the spoilage organisms will grow, the most
group of organisms of great importance to characteristic spoilage event being gas pro-
the food industry. These groups are very dif- duction. Flexible containers will become dis-
ferent from the bacteria that are commonly Contamination of raw materials with wild tended, whilst rigid containers appear
associated with food, being eukaryotic environmental yeasts is still used to produce unaffected until opened when rapid pres-
organisms similar to cells found in plants and some foods such as specialist sourdough sure release can result in a forcible ejection
animals. The yeasts and moulds are widely breads and lambic beers. However, most of the contents.
dispersed, found in a variety of locations and food production that uses yeasts will now The osmophilic or xerotolerant yeasts
are virtually ubiquitous in any environment. utilise specialist strains obtained from cul- specialise in growing in environments of high
ture collections that are cultured and delib- osmotic pressure, due to the presence of
erately inoculated into their growth salt or sugar. Many of the yeasts isolated
Yeasts substrate to create the food required. from high salt environments will grow read-
Today in food production, yeasts are more ily under salt-free conditions, but this is not
Yeasts are very important within food usually linked with food spoilage. Yeasts are the case for those organisms isolated from
microbiology as they can create both posi- slow growing organisms when compared to high sugar environments, which grow poorly
tive and negative effects. Where would we bacteria. If yeasts and bacteria were placed or not at all on standard growth agars.
be without bread, beer and wine, all created in the same optimum environment and both Syrups, jams, conserves, fondants are all sus-
by the fermentative action could grow, it is most likely that the faster ceptible to spoilage by xerotolerant yeasts.
of yeasts? Conversely, growing bacteria would quickly outgrow and
the ability of some outcompete the slower growing yeast,
yeasts to survive becoming the dominant flora. However, if Moulds
and grow at low we move outside the ‘optimum’ growth
pH, low water conditions of most bacteria, into environ- Like the yeasts, moulds can also produce
activity, and in ments that are acidic, or of low water activ- both positive and negative effects in foods.
the presence ity (high in sugar), then the yeasts have the Their negative effects are well known –
of some com- advantage and would rapidly overtake the mould contamination of products containing
mon chemical growth of bacteria. It is in these specialist high sugar or of low pH is obvious with the
preservatives, niches in foods that the spoilage yeasts organisms tending to grow as colonies on
makes them become a problem. the surface of such products. Their positive

10 International Food Hygiene — Volume 24 Number 4

effects are also well known. Moulds will be surfaces are adequately sanitised. Factories Companies wishing to establish heat
seen on the surface of mould ripened should be designed in such a way as to processes able to destroy such organisms
cheeses such as brie and camembert, and reduce the risk of cross contamination of are advised to contact specialist advisors
within blue veined cheeses like Stilton and the finished product by the raw product. In who can help to establish suitable heating
Danish Blue. many cases it is assumed that low pH prod- processes.
Some species are a key part of some fer- ucts are quite stable due to an inability of Whilst yeasts are not usually acknowl-
mented food products from Japan, whilst bacteria and many yeasts to grow in such edged to cause foodborne illnesses, some
the meat replacement known as Quorn, is conditions. moulds can produce a range of mycotoxins
produced from a Fusarium mould that is cul- However it only takes very low levels of that can have chronic effects. Unacceptable
tured and treated to form a ‘meat-like’ tex- specialist spoilage yeasts and moulds to cre- levels of many mycotoxins are detailed in
ture. On the negative side, mould like yeasts ate major spoilage problems in these prod- legislation, and this should be consulted if
can affect low pH and low water activity ucts. Such organisms are ideally suited to moulds are considered a potential problem
foods. Indeed this group can grow at very the environmental niches in these produc- in particular foods types.
low water activities (Aw) causing spoilage tion environments, hence the need for good Yeasts and moulds can be major problems
problems in products with Aw values below hygiene in such areas. within certain sectors of the food industry.
0.75. Any food or ingredient that has a reduced
Moulds are slow growing organisms and pH, a low water activity, or has been chemi-
will be rapidly out competed by bacteria and Packaging materials cally preserved may be open to attack by
even yeasts in normal conditions. They yeasts or moulds.
come into their own when the pH and/or It is of considerable importance to consider They are able to grow in pH and Aw con-
Aw is reduced and other groups are unable the hygienic status not only of the product ditions that will prevent all bacterial growth,
to grow. Then the moulds can take over, and production equipment, but also of any they can be resistant to many chemical
forming hyphal mats or colonies on the sur- containers and packing materials, as these preservatives, and some fungal spores can
face of food products. It is important to too can be a source of spoilage yeast and exhibit heat resistance. Some yeasts have
realise that moulds are aerobic organisms, moulds. even been seen growing as small visible
they need oxygen to grow, so they will usu- Any purchased containers, for example colonies on the surface of chilled proteina-
ally be confined to the surfaces of foods, jars and bottles and container closures ceous products such as chilled sausages or
forming easily visible, often coloured (lids/caps), have to be assessed for their chicken portions giving rise to a ‘white spot’
colonies. level of contamination and any need for spoilage.
decontamination before use. The storage of
such containers/closures before use is also
Airborne yeasts important. On a number of occasions the Testing methods
storage of opened pallets of containers in
Yeasts which are present in the air must be open/semi-open environments drastically It is of great importance to ensure raw
capable of surviving very harsh conditions. increases the potential for contamination. material, the production environment and
Airborne yeasts can be present in the form Cardboard may be highly contaminated the final product are subject to testing for
of ascospores and although these are more with environmental yeast and mould spores potential spoilage yeasts and moulds. This,
resistant than vegetative yeast cells, the and even foils and plastics may show low however, is not as easy as it sounds.
majority of yeast particles present in the air levels of contamination. Yeast numbers may Whilst ‘normal’ yeasts and moulds may be
will not be viable. Soil, dust, drains, equip- increase substantially during storage, easily grown on media such as Rose Bengal
ment surfaces, raw materials and ventilation unrolling and moulding due to static electric- Chloramphenicol Agar (RBCA) or Malt
ducts can all release yeasts into the air. ity attracting dust from the environment. Extract Agar (MEA), specialist spoilage
Viable counts from settle plates reflect a organisms present in low water activity or
dynamic situation of yeast particles becom- low pH environments may not. It is usual for
ing airborne and then settling again. The size Resistance and illness low water activity foods to be tested using
of the yeast particle determines how far it media such as DG18, and even the initial
will travel before settling, with most air- Moulds and some forms of yeast are able to dilution of the foods may need to be done
borne particles being between 2-20µm in produce spores, and these can be heat using a specialist diluent, containing levels of
size. As a source of product contamination, resistant. This makes the determination of sugar.
airborne yeasts are of most concern for any heat process used on food products This will prevent the yeasts and moulds
such operations as aseptic filling plants and, very important. It is not unknown for heat- being injured by osmotic stress. Injured cells
in these cases, control of the air quality by processed, low pH/low Aw products to be may not grow, will not be detected and thus
means of air filtration will be necessary. spoiled by moulds whose spores have sur- a possible problem will remain hidden, until
vived heat processes able to destroy vegeta- product begins to spoil! It is recommended
tive bacteria. Generally, yeast and mould that when setting up testing regimes for
Processing equipment spores are not as resistant as bacterial such organisms, expert help is consulted on
spores, but are much more resistant than methods required.
A lack of attention to the hygienic design of vegetative bacterial or yeast cells. Identification of yeasts and moulds is a
factory plant and cleaning and sanitation specialist area, requiring specialist knowl-
procedures can lead to yeast and mould edge. The development of molecular meth-
contamination of products. This is particu- ods has been moving the basis for
larly problematic in plants producing high identification away from fermentation based
sugar/low water activity/low pH products. and morphological assessment, towards the
Factories producing fruit products, baked analysis of the DNA within the organism.
goods, confectionary, fermented dairy prod- Again if identification is required, specialist
ucts etc can be at real risk from yeast and laboratory help should be requested. n
mould contamination. b [email protected]
In such plants, care must be taken to
ensure that equipment such as proportion-
ing pumps, hose connections and valves, References are available from
storage chillers, and other product contact the author on request

International Food Hygiene — Volume 24 Number 4 11