Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Mathematics-III
Subject Code: BT-301
Semester: 3rd
Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Module 1:
Numerical Methods Solution of polynomial and transcendental equations Bisection method,
Newton Raphson method and Regula Falsi method.
Fi ite diffe e es, Relatio et ee ope ato s, I te polatio usi g Ne to ’s fo a d a d
backward Difference fo ulae. I te polatio ith u e ual i te als: Ne to ’s di ided diffe e e
a d Lag a ge’s fo ulae.

Introduction
In this unit we will discuss one of the most basic problems in numerical analysis. The problem is called

f(x) = 0, for a given function f. Let f be a real-value function of a real variable. Any real number  for
a root-finding problem and consists of finding values of the variable x (real) that satisfy the equation

which f() = 0 is called a root of that equation or a zero of f. We shall confine our discussion to
locating only the real roots of f(x), that is, locating non-real complex roots of f(x) = 0 will not be
discussed. This is one of the oldest numerical approximation problems. The procedures we will discuss
range from the classical Newton-Raphson method developed primarily by Isaac Newton over 300 years
ago to methods that were established in the recent past.

Myriads of methods are available for locating zeros of functions and in first section we discuss bisection
methods and fixed point method. In the second section, Chord Method for finding roots will be
discussed. More specifically, we will take up regula-falsi method (or method of false position),
Newton-Raphson method, and secant method. In section 3, we will discuss error analysis for iterative
methods or convergence analysis of iterative method.

We shall consider the problem of numerical computation of the real roots of a given equation
f(x) = 0

which may be algebraic or transcendental. It will be assumed that the function f(x) is continuously
differentiable a sufficient number of times. Mostly, we shall confine to simple roots and indicate the
iteration function for multiple roots in case of Newton Raphson method.

All the methods for numerical solution of equations discussed here will consist of two steps. First step
is about the location of the roots, that is, rough approximate value of the roots are obtained as initial
approximation to a root. Second step consists of methods, which improve the rough value of each
root.
A method for improvement of the value of a root at a second step usually involves a
process of successive approximation of iteration. In such a process of successive approximation a
sequence {Xn} = , , , … is ge erated y the method used starting with the initial approximation xo
of the root  obtained in the first step such that the sequence {Xn} converges to  as n  . This xn is
called the nth approximation of nth iterate and it gives a sufficiently accurate value of the root .

For the first step we need the following theorem:

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

at least one real root  of the equation f(x) = 0 such that a <  < b.
Theorem 1: If f(x) is continuous in the closed internal [a, b] and f(a) are of opposite signs, then there is

then f(x) is strictly monotonic in [a, b] and the root  is unique.

If further f(x) is differentiable in the open interval (a, b) and either f’(x) < 0 or f’(x) > 0 in (a, b)

We shall not discuss the case of complex roots, roots of simultaneous equations nor shall we take up
cases when all roots are targeted at the same time, in this unit.

Bisection Method (Bolzano Method)

In this method we find an interval in which the root lies and that there is no other root in that interval.
Then we keep on narrowing down the interval to half at each successive iteration. We proceed as
follows:
(1) Find interval I  (x1 , x 2 ) in which the root of f(x) = 0 lies and that there is no other root in I.
x1  x 2
(2) Bisect the interval at x  and compute f(x). If | f(x) | is less than the desired
2
accuracy then it is the root of f(x) = 0.
(3) Otherwise check sign of f(x). If sign {f(x)} = sign {f(x2)} then root lies in the interval

x to x2 or x1 accordingly. We may test sign of f(x)  f(x2) for same sign or opposite signs.
[x1, x] and if they are of opposite signs then the root lies in the interval [x, x2]. Change

(4) Check the length of interval | x1 – x2 |. If an accuracy of say, two decimal places is required
then stop the process when the length of the interval is 0.005 or less. We may take the
x1  x 2
midvalue x  as the root of f(x) = 0. The convergence of this method is very slow in
2
the beginning.
Example
Find the positive root of the equation x3  4x 2  10  0 by bisection method correct upto two
places of decimal.
Solution
f (x)  x 3  4x 2  10  0

Let us find location of the + ive roots.

x 0 1 2 >2
f(x)  10 5 14

Sign f(x)   + +

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

There is only one + ive root and it lies between 1 and 2. Let x1 = 1 and x2 = 2; at x = 1, f(x) is
x1  x 2
– ive and at x = 2, f(x) is + ive. We examine the sign of f(x) at x   1.5 and check whether
2
the root lies in the interval (1, 1.5) or (1.5, 2). Let us show the computations in the table below :

Iteration x1 +x2 Sign f(x) 

x= Sign f(x) x1 x2
No. 2 f(x2)
1 1.5 + 2.375 + 1 1.5
2 1.25  1.797  1.25 1.5

3 1.375 + 0.162 + 1.25 1.375

4 1.3125  0.8484  1.3125 1.375
5 1.3438  0.3502  1.3438 1.375

6 1.3594  0.0960  1.3594 1.375

7 1.367  0.0471  1.367 1.375

8 1.371 + 0.0956 + 1.367 1.371

We see that | x1  x 2 |  0.004 .

1.367  1.371
We can choose the root as x   1.369 .
2

Regula-Falsi Method (or Method of False Position)

In this method also we find two values of x say x1 and x2 where function f(x) has opposite signs and
there is only one root in the interval (x1, x2). Let us express the function of y = f(x) and we are
interested in finding the value of x where curve y = f(x) intersects x-axis i.e. y = 0. We identify two
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on the curve. Then we approximate the curve by a straight line joining these
two points. We find the point on the x-axis where this line cuts the x-axis. The equation of the straight
line passing through (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
y2  y1
y  y1  (x  x1 )
x 2  x1

The point on x-axis where y = 0 is given by

x1 y2  x 2 y1
x
y 2  y1

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Now we check the sign of f(x) and proceed like in the bisection method. That is, if f(x) has same sign as
f(x2) then root lies in the interval (x1, x) and if they have opposite signs, then it lies in the interval (x, x2).
See Figure 1.

(1) y = f (x)
(2)
x1 x1
x1 x
O x2

Figure 1 : Regula-Falsi Method, Superscript Shows Iteration Number

Example
Find positive root of x3  4x 2  10  0 by Regula-Falsi method. Compute upto the two decimal
places only.
Solution
It is the same problem as given in the previous example. We start by taking x1 = 1 and x2 = 2. We
have y  x3  4x 2  10 ; y1 =  5 and y2 = 14. The point on the curve are (1, – 5) and
(2, 14). The points on the x-axis where the line joining these two pints cuts it, is given by
I-Iteration
1  14  2  ( 5) 24
x   1.26
14  5 19

y  f (x)   1.65

II-Iteration
Take points (1.26, – 1.65) and (2, 14)

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

1.26  14  2  ( 1.65)
x  1.34
14  1.65

y  f (x)   0.41

III-Iteration
Take two points (1.34, – 0.41) and (2, 14)
1.34  14  2  ( 0.41)
x  1.36
14  0.41

y  f (x)   0.086

IV-Iteration
Take two points (1.36, – 0.086) and (2, 14)
1.36  14  2  ( 0.086)
x  1.36
14  0.086

Since value of x repeats we take the root as x = 1.36.

Example: Find the real root of the equation xlog10 � – 1.2=0 by method of False position, correct to
four decimal places.
Solution
f(x)=xlog10 � – 1.2=0
f(2)=-0.5979,f(3)=0.2313
Therefore root lies between 2 & 3
by method of False position
� − �( )
�1 =
� − �( )
�1 = 2.7210, � �1 = −0.01709
Now the roots lie between �1 = 2.7210 & 3, because the function are of opposite sign.
�2 = 2.7402, � �2 = 0.00038
Root lies between 2.7402 & 3,
�3 = 2.7406hence the root 2.7406

Newton-Raphson (N-R) Method

The Newton-Raphso ’s ethod or o o ly k o as N-R method is most popular for finding
the roots of an equation. Its approach is different from all the methods discussed earlier in the
sense that it uses only one value of x in the neighbourhood of the root instead of two. We can
explain the method geometrically as follows :

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Let us suppose we want to find out the root of an equation f(x) = 0 while y = f(x) represents a
curve and we are interested to find the point where it cuts the x-axis. Let x = x0 be an initial
approximate value of the root close to the actual root. We evaluate y(x 0 )  f (x 0 )  y0 (say).

 f  (x) for x = x0, say f  (x 0 ) . Then we

dy
Then point (x0, y0) lies on the curve y = f(x). We find
dx
may draw a tangent at (x0, y0) given as,
y  y0  f  (x 0 ) (x  x 0 )

The point where the tangent cuts the x-axis (y = 0) is taken as the next estimate x = x1 for the
root, i.e.

x1  x 0 
f  (x 0 )
f (x 0 )

In general x n  1  x n 
f  (x n )
f (x n )
, see Figure 3

y = f (x)

x1 x3 x4
x
O x2 x0

Figure 2 : Newton-Raphson Method

Theoretically, the N-R method may be explained as follows :
Let  be the exact root of f(x) = 0 and let  = x0 + h where h is a small number to be determined.
Fro Taylor’s series as ha e,

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

f ()  f (x 0  h)  f (x 0 )  h f  (x 0 )  f  (x 0 )  . . .  0
h2
2

Neglecting h2 and higher powers we get an approximate value of h, as h  

f  (x 0 )
f (x 0 )
. Hence, an

approximation for the exact root  may be written as,

x1  x 0  h  x 0 
f  (x 0 )
f (x 0 )

In general the N-R formula may be written as,

xn  1  xn  n  0, 1, 2, . . .
f  (x n )
f (x n )
,

It is same as derived above geometrically. It may be stated that the root of convergence of N-R
method is faster as compared to other methods. Further, comparing the N-R method with
method of successive substitution, it can be seen as iterative scheme for

xx
f  (x)
f (x)

 (x)  x 
f  (x)
f (x)
where

The condition for convergence |  () |  1 in this case would be

{f  (x)}2  f (x) f  (x) f (x) f  (x)

 (x)  1   , at x = .
{f  (x)}2 {f  (x)}2

This implies that f  ()  0 .

Example
Write N-R iterative scheme to find inverse of an integer number N. Hence, find inverse of 17
correct upto 4 places of decimal starting with 0.05.
Solution
Let inverse of N be x, so that we the equation to solve as,
x  N 1 or x 1  N  0

f (x)  x  1  N ; f  (x)  
1
x2
N-R scheme is

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 1 
xn  1  xn   x n  x n2   N

f (x n )
f (x n )  xn 

 x n (2  N x n )  x n (2  17x n )  N  17.

We take x0 = 0.05.
Substituting in the formula, we get
x1 = 0.0575 ; x2 = 0.0588 ; x3 = 0.0588

 0.0588 .
1
Hence,
17
Example
Write down N-R iterative scheme for finding qth root of a positive number N. Hence, find
cuberoot of 10 correct upto 3 places of decimal taking initial estimate as 2.0.
Solution

We have to solve x  N q or x q  N  0
1

f (x)  x q  N ; f  (x)  q x q  1

The N-R iterative scheme may be written

x qn  N (q  1) x qn  N
xn  1  xn  
q x qn  1 q x qn  1

For cuberoot of 10 we have N = 10, q = 3.

2x 3n  10
Hence, x n  1 
3x 2n

Taking x0 = 2.0 we get the following iterated values

x1   2.167 ; x 2   2.154 ; x 3   2.154

16 30.3520 29.9879
2 14.0877 13.9191

Hence, we get 10 3  2.154 .

1

Example
Using N-R method find the root of the equation x – cos x = 0 correct upto two places of decimal

only. Take the starting value as ( = 3.1416,  radian = 180o).
4

Solution
f (x)  x  cos x ; f  (x)  1  sin x

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

N-R scheme is given by

x n  cos x n x n sin x n  cos x n
xn  1  xn  
1  sin x n 1  sin x n


Taking x 0 
4

    1  1
sin  cos
x1  4 4  4

4 2 2
1  sin 1
1
4 2


1
 4   0.7395
1.7854
2  1 2.4142

0.7395 sin (0.7395)  cos (0.7395)

x2 
1  sin (0.7395)

0.7395  0.6724  0.7449

  0.7427
1  0.6724

Upto two places of decimal the root is 0.74.

Note : If starting value is not given, we can plot graphs of y = x and y = cos x and locate their point
of intersection which will be root of x – cos x = 0. See Figure 4

y= x

y = cos x

/2
x
O

Figure 3 : Intersection of y = x and y = cos x

Find one real root of 3x  cos x  1 by Newton Raphson method.

Example

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Solution
Let � � = 3� − �� − 1

� ′ � = 3 + sin �

By Newton Raphson method

�(� )
� =� −
+1
� ′ (� )

� 0 = −2, � 1 = 2.540

Since f(0)=-2 is nearer to 0,therefore �0 = 0 is our first approximation.

�(� 0 )
�1 = �0 − =0.6
� ′ (� 0 )

�2 = 0.6071

�3 = 0.6071

The real root of equation correct to four decimal places 0.6071.

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Finite Differences and Interpolation

Suppose we are given the following values of y = f(x) for a set of values of x :
x : x0 x1 x2 …… xn
y : y0 y1 y2 …… yn
The process of finding the values of y corresponding to any value of x=x i between x0 and xn is called
interpolation.
(1) The technique of estimating the value of a function for any intermediate value of the
independent variable is called interpolation.
(2) The technique of estimating the value of a function outside the given range is called
extrapolation.
(3) The study of interpolation is based on the concept of differences of a function.
(4) Suppose that the function y=f(x) is tabulated for the equally spaced values x = x0, x1=x0+h,
x2=x0+2h, …, xn=x0+nh giving y = y0, y1, y2, …, yn. To determine the values of f(x) and f '(x)
for some intermediate values of x, we use the following three types of differences
1.Forward differences
2.Backward differences

Forward differences: The forward differences are defined and denoted by ∆f(x)=f(x+h)-f(x),
∆y0 = y1 – y0
∆y1 = y2 – y1
∆y2 = y3 – y2
…………….
∆yr = yr+1 – yr
…………….
∆yn-1 = yn – yn-1
These are called the first forward differences and ∆ is the forward difference operator.
Similarly the second forward differences are defined by
∆2 yr = ∆ yr+1 – ∆yr.
In general
∆p yr = ∆p-1 yr+1 – ∆p-1yr ,
pth forward differences.
The forward differences systematically set out in a table called forward difference table.

Page no: 11 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Value of Value of 1st diff. 2nd diff. 3rd diff. 4th diff. 5thdiff.
x y ∆ ∆2 ∆3 ∆4 ∆5
x0 y0
∆y0
x1 y1 ∆2y0
∆y1 ∆3y0
x2 y2 ∆2y1 ∆4y0
∆y2 ∆3y1 ∆5y0
x3 y3 ∆2y2 ∆4y1
∆y3 ∆3y2
x4 y4 ∆2y3
∆y4
x5 y5

Backward Differences: The backward differences are defined and denoted by f(x)= f(x)-f(x-h),
y1 = y1 – y0
y2 = y2 – y1
y3 = y3 – y2
…………….
yr = yr – yr-1
…………….
yn = yn – yn-1.
These are called the first backward differences and ∇ is the backward difference operator.
Similarly the second backward differences are defined by
2
yr = yr – yr-1.
In general
p
yr= p-1yr – p-1
yr-1 ,
th
p backward differences. The backward differences systematically set out in a table called backward
difference table.

Page no: 12 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Value of Value of 1st diff. 2nd diff. 3rd diff. 4th diff. 5thdiff.
x y ∇ 2 3 4 5

x0 y0

y1

2
x1 y1 y2

3
y2 y3

2 4
x2 y2 y3 y4

3 5
y3 y4 y5

2 4
x3 y3 y4 y5

3
y4 y5

2
x4 y4 y5

y5

x5 y5

Page no: 13 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Example#1. Evaluate
(i) ∆ tan-1x
(ii) ∆ (ex log 2x)
(iii) ∆2 cos 2x
Sol. From the definition of forward differences ∆f(x) = f(x+h) – f(x).
(i) Let f(x) = tan-1x, then
∆ tan-1x = tan-1(x+h) - tan-1x
 xhx   
= tan 1    tan 1  2 
h
 1  ( x  h) x   1  hx  x 
.

(e x log 2 x)  e x  h log 2( x  h)  e x log 2 x

(ii)

 e x  h log 2( x  h)  e x  h log 2 x  e x  h log 2 x  e x log 2 x

 xh
 e x  h log   (e  e ) log 2 x
xh

 x 
x

  h  
 e x e h  log(1  )   (e h  1) log 2 x .
  x  
(iii) ∆2 cos 2x = ∆ [∆ cos 2x]
= ∆ [ cos 2(x+h) – cos 2x]
= ∆ cos 2(x+h) – ∆ cos 2x
= cos 2(x+2h) – cos 2(x+h) – [cos 2(x+h) ) – cos 2x]
= – 2 cos (2x+3h) sin h + 2 sin(2x+h) sin h
= – 2 sin h [sin(2x+3h) – sin(2x+h) ]
= – 2 sin h [2 cos(2x+2h)sin h]
= – 2 sin2 h cos 2(x+h).
Example#2. Evaluate the following, with interval of difference being unity
(i) ∆2 (abx) (ii) ∆n ex
Sol. From the definition of forward differences ∆f(x) = f(x+h) – f(x).
(i) ∆(abx) = a ∆bx = a(bx+1 – bx) = abx(b – 1)
∆2 (abx) = ∆ [∆ (abx)]
= ∆ abx(b – 1) = a(b – 1) ∆(bx)
= a(b – 1) (bx+1 – bx)
= a(b – 1)2 bx.
(ii) ∆e = ex+1 – ex = ex(e – 1)
x

∆2ex = ∆[∆ex] = ∆ [ex+1 – ex ]= (e – 1)∆ex

= (e – 1) ex(e – 1) = (e – 1)2 ex.
Similarly ∆2ex = (e – 1)2 ex, ∆3ex = (e – 1)3 ex, … and ∆nex = (e – 1)n ex.

Page no: 14 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Factorial Notation: A product of the form x(x – 1) (x – 2) …(x – r +1) is denoted by [x]r and is called
a factorial. In particular,
[x] = x, [x]2 = x(x – 1) , [x]3 = x(x – 1) (x – 2), …[x]n = x(x – 1) (x – 2) …(x – n +1).
If the interval of difference is h, then
[x]n = x(x – h) (x – 2h) …(x – (n – 1)h).
The factorial notation is of special utility in the theory of finite differences. It helps in finding the
successive differences of a polynomial directly by simple rule of differentiation ([x]r as xr).
To express a polynomial of nth degree in the factorial notation, we use the following two steps
1. Arrange the coefficients of the powers of x in descending order, replacing missing powers by
zeros.
2. Using detached coefficients divide by x, x – 1, x – 2, … x – (n – 1) successively.
Example#4. Express f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 10 in a factorial notation and hence find all differences.
Sol. Let f(x) = A[x]3 + B[x]2 + C[x] + D. Then
x3 x2 x

1 2 -3 3 -10 = D
_ 2 -1

2 2 -1 2=C
_ 4

3 2 3=B
_

2=A

Hence f(x) = 2[x]3 + 3[x]2 + 2[x] – 10. Therefore,

∆f(x) = 6[x]2 + 6[x] + 2
∆2f(x) = 12 [x] + 6
∆3f(x) = 12.
Other Difference Operators:
(1) Shift operator : Shift operator E is the operation of increasing the argument x by h so that
E f(x) = f(x+h), E2 f(x) = f(x+2h), …
En f(x) = f(x+nh).
-1
The inverse operator E is defined by
E-1 f(x) = f(x-h).
Similarly
E-n f(x) = f(x-nh).
(2) Averaging operator : Averaging operator μ is defined by the equation

Page no: 15 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

μ f(x) = ½ [f(x + h/2) + f(x - h/2)].

In the difference calculus, ∆ and E are regarded as the fundamental operators and , δ and μ
can be expressed in terms of these.

Relations Between the Operators :

1. ∆ = E – 1
2.  = 1 – E-1
3. δ = E1/2 – E-1/2
4. μ = ½ [E1/2 + E-1/2 ]
5. ∆ = E  =  E =δ E1/2
6. E = ehD.
Example#1. Determine the missing values in the following table:
x 45 50 55 60 65
y 3 ? 2 ? -2.4
Sol. Let p and q be the missing values in the given table, then the difference table is as follows:
x y ∆y ∆2y ∆3y
45 3
p–3
50 p 5 – 2p
2–p 3p + q – 9
55 2 p+q–4
q–2 3.6 – p – 3q
60 q –0.4 – 2q
–2.4 – q
65 -2.4
Since three entries are given, the function y can be represented by a second degree polynomial.
Therefore, ∆3y0 = 0 and ∆3y1 = 0. Thus 3p + q – 9 = 0 and 3.6 – p – 3q = 0. Solving these equations, we
get p = 2.925 and q = 0.225.
Example#2. Determine the missing values in the following table without using difference table.
x 45 50 55 60 65
y 3 ? 2 ? -2.4
Sol. Given that y0 = 3, y2 = 2 and y4 = -2.4 and missing values be taken as y1= p and y3 = q. Since three
entries are given, the function y can be represented by a second degree polynomial.
Therefore, ∆3y0 = 0 and ∆3y1 = 0.
(E – 1)3y0 = 0 (E – 1)3y1 = 0
(E – 3E + 3E – 1)y0 = 0
3 2
(E3 – 3E2 + 3E – 1)y1 = 0
y3 – 3y2 + 3y1 – y0 = 0 y4 – 3y3 + 3y2 – y1 = 0
q – 3(2)+ 3p – 3 = 0 -2.4 – 3q + 3(2) – p = 0
3p + q – 9 = 0 3.6 – p – 3q = 0.
Solving these equations, we get p = 2.925 and q = 0.225.

Newton’s Forward Interpolation Formulae:

Let the function y=f(x) take the values y0, y1, y2, … corresponding to the values x0, x1, x2, … of x.
Suppose it is required to evaluate f(x) for x=x0+ph, p is any real number.

For any real number p, we have defined E such that

Page no: 16 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Ep f(x) = f(x0+ph)
yp = f(x0+ph) = Epf(x0)= (1+∆)py0
= [1+p∆+p(p-1)/2! ∆2 + p(p-1)(p-2)/3! ∆3 +…] y0
= y0 + p ∆y0 + p(p-1)/2! ∆2 y0+ p(p-1)(p-2)/3! ∆3 y0+…
It is called Newton’s forward interpolation formulae.

Newton’s Backward Interpolation Formulae:

Suppose it is required to evaluate f(x) for x=xn+ph, where p is any real number.

yp = f(xn+ph) = Epf(xn)= (1-  )-p yn

Ep f(x) = f(xn+ph)

= [1+p  +p(p+1)/2!  2 + p(p+1)(p+2)/3!  3 +…] yn

= yn + p  yn + p(p+1)/2!  2 yn+ p(p+1)(p+2)/3!  3 yn+…
It is called Newton’s backward interpolation formulae.

Choice of Newton’s Interpolation formulae:

 Newton’s forward interpolation formulae is used for interpolating the values of y near the
beginning of a set of tabulated values and extrapolating values of y a little backward of y0.
 Newton’s backward interpolation formulae is used for interpolating the values of y near the end
of a set of tabulated values and also extrapolating values of y a little ahead of yn.

Example#1. The table gives the distances in nautical miles of the visible horizon for the given heights in
feet above the earth’s surface :

x=height 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

y=distance 10.63 13.03 15.04 16.81 18.42 19.90 21.27

Find the values of y when (i) x= 218 ft. (ii) x= 410 ft.

Sol. The difference table is

x y ∆ ∆2 ∆3 ∆4

100 10.63
2.4
150 13.03 -0.39
2.01 0.15
x0=200 15.04 -0.24 -0.07
1.77 0.08
250 16.81 -0.16 -0.05
1.61 0.03

Page no: 17 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

300 18.42 -0.13 -0.01

1.48 0.02
350 19.90 -0.11
1.37
xn=400 21.27
(i) If we take x0=200, then y0=15.04, ∆y0=1.77, ∆2y0=-0.16, ∆3y0=0.03, ∆4y0=-0.01.

Since x=218, step length h=50 and p=(x-x0)/h =18/50 = 0.36.

By Newton’s forward interpolation formula, we have

y(218) = y0 + p ∆y0 + p(p-1)/2! ∆2 y0+ p(p-1)(p-2)/3! ∆3 y0+ p(p-1)(p-2)(p-3)/4! ∆4 y0

= 15.04 + 0.36 (1.77) + 0.36(0.36-1)/2 (-0.16)+ 0.36(0.36-1)(0.36-2)/6 (0.03)

+ 0.36(0.36-1)(0.36-2)(0.36-3)/24 (-0.01)

=15.04+0.6372+0.0184+0.0018+ 0.00041 = 15.69741

≈ 15.7 nautical miles.

(ii) If we take xn=400, then yn=21.27,  yn=1.37,  2yn=-0.11,  3yn=0.02,  4yn=-0.01.

Since x=410, step length h=50 and p=(x-xn)/h =10/50 = 0.2.

By Newton’s backward interpolation formula, we have

y(410) = yn + p  yn + p(p+1)/2!  2 yn+ p(p+1)(p+2)/3!  3 yn+ p(p+1)(p+2)(p+3)/4!  4 yn

= 21.27 + 0.2 (1.37) + 0.2(0.2+1)/2 (-0.11) + 0.2(0.2+1)(0.2+2)/6 (0.02)

+ 0.2(0.2+1)(0.2+2)(0.2+3)/24 (-0.01)

=21.27+0.274-0.0132+0.0017- 0.0007 = 21.5318

≈ 21.53 nautical miles.

Page no: 18 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Interpolation with unequal intervals:

The disadvantage for the previous interpolation formulas is that, they are used only for equal
intervals. The following are the interpolation with unequal intervals;
1) Lagrange’s formula for unequal intervals,
2) Newton’s divided difference formula.

Lagrange’s interpolation formula: If y = f(x) takes the values y0, y1, y2, …, yn corresponding to x0, x1,
x2, …, xn, then
(x  x 1 )(x  x 2 ) (x  x n ) (x  x 0 )(x  x 2 ) (x  x n )
f(x)  y0  y1  
(x 0  x 1 )(x 0  x 2 ) (x 0  x n ) (x 1  x 0 )(x 1  x 2 ) (x 1  x n )
(x  x 0 )(x  x 1 ) (x  x n 1 )

(x n  x 0 )(x n  x 1 ) (x n  x n 1 )
yn ,

which is known as Lagrange’s formula.

Divided Differences: If (x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn) are given points, then the first divided differences

y  y0
for the argument x0, x1 is defined by
[x 0 , x 1 ]  1
x1  x 0
.

y  y1 y  y2 y  y n 1
Similarly
[x 1 , x 2 ]  2 , [x 2 , x 3 ]  3 ,, [x n 1 , x n ]  n
x 2  x1 x3  x2 x n  x n 1
.

[x , x ]  [x 0 , x 1 ]
The second divided differences for x0, x1, x2 is
[x 0 , x 1 , x 2 ]  1 2
x2  x0
.

[x , x , x ]  [x 0 , x 1 , x 2 ]
The third divided differences for x0, x1, x2 , x3 is
[x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ]  1 2 3
x3  x0
.

And so on, the nth divided differences for x0, x1, x2, …, xn is
[x , x ,, x n ]  [x 0 , x 1 ,, x n -1 ]
[x 0 , x 1 , x 2 ,, x n ]  1 2
xn  x0
.

All the divided differences systematically set out in a table called divided difference table.

Value Value 1st 2nd 3rd divided 4th divided 5th divided
of x of y divided divided difference difference difference
difference difference

x0 y0
[x0,x1]

Page no: 19 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

x1 y1 [x0,x1,x2]
[x1,x2] [x0,x1,x2,x3]
x2 y2 [x1,x2,x3] [x0,x1,x2,x3,x4]
[x2,x3] [x1,x2,x3,x4] [x0,x1,x2,x3,x4,x5]
x3 y3 [x2,x3,x4] [x1,x2,x3,x4,x5]
[x3,x4] [x2,x3,x4,x5]
x4 y4 [x3,x4,x5]
[x4,x5]
x5 y5

Newton’s divided difference formula: If y = f(x) takes the values y0, y1, y2, …, yn corresponding to x0,
x1, x2, …, xn, then
f(x) = y0+(x-x0)[x0, x1] + (x-x0)(x-x1)[x0, x1, x2] + …+ (x-x0)(x-x1)…(x-xn-1)[x0, x1, x2, …, xn],
which is known as Newton’s general interpolation formula with divided differences.

Example#1. Given the values

x: 5 7 11 13 17
f(x): 150 392 1452 2366 5202
Evaluate f(9), using
(i) Lagranges formula
(ii) Newton’s divided difference formula.
Sol. Let y = f(x), then from the given data, we have
x0 = 5, x1 = 7, x2 = 11, x3 = 13, x4 = 17 and y0 = 150, y1 = 392, y2 = 1452, y3 = 2366, y4 = 5202.
(i) By Lagrnge’s interpolation formula
(x  x 1 )(x  x 2 )( x  x3 )(x  x 4 ) (x  x 0 )(x  x 2 )( x  x3 )(x  x 4 )
f(x)  y0 
(x 0  x 1 )(x 0  x 2 )( x0  x3 )(x 0  x n ) (x 1  x 0 )(x 1  x 2 )( x1  x3 )(x 1  x n )
y1

(x  x 0 )(x  x 1 )( x  x3 )(x  x 4 ) (x  x 0 )(x  x 1 )( x  x 2 )(x  x 4 )

 y2 
(x 2  x 0 )(x 2  x 1 )( x 2  x3 )(x 2  x 4 ) (x 3  x 0 )(x 3  x 1 )( x3  x 2 )(x 3  x 4 )
y3

(x  x 0 )(x  x 1 )( x  x 2 )(x  x 3 )

(x 4  x 0 )(x 4  x 1 )( x 4  x 2 )(x 4  x 3 )
y4.

(9  7)(9  11)(9  13)(9  17) (9  5)(9  11)(9  13)(9  17)

f(9)   150   392
(5  7)(5  11)(5  13)(5  17) (7  5)(7  11)(7  13)(7  17)
(9  5)(9  7)(9  13)(9  17) (9  5)(9  7)(9  11)(9  17)
  1452   2366
(11  8)(11  7)(11  13)(11  17) (13  5)(13  7)(13  11)(13  17)
(9  5)(9  7)(9  11)(9  13)
  5202        810.
50 3136 3872 2366 578
(17  5)(17  7)(17  11)(17  13) 3 15 3 3 5
(ii) The divided difference table is

Page no: 20 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Value Value 1st 2nd 3rd divided 4th divided

of x of y divided divided difference difference
difference difference

5 150
121
7 392 24
265 1
11 1452 32 0
457 1
13 2366 42
709
17 5202
By Newton divided difference formula
f(x) = y0+(x-x0)[x0, x1] + (x-x0)(x-x1)[x0, x1, x2] +(x-x0)(x-x1)(x-x2)[x0, x1, x2,x3]
+ (x-x0)(x-x1)(x-x2)(x-x3)[x0, x1, x2,x3,x4].
f(9) = 150 + (9 – 5)×121 + (9 – 5) (9 – 7)×24 + (9 – 5)(9 – 7)(9 – 11)×1
+ (9 – 5)(9 – 7)(9 – 11)(9 – 13)×0
= 150 + 484 + 192 – 16 + 0
= 810.

*************************************************************************

Page no: 21 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
https://qp.rgpvnotes.in .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
[email protected]