ABSTRACT

A major stage in the research process is data collection. It is one of the vital elements that
determines the credibility and the success of a research endeavors of a project. Within the
schedule of research exercise that starts with the identification of the problem and its nature
the strategy to take to finding a solution to the problem, a decision must be taken to arrive at
finding a solution to the problem. Academic research, having agreed on the laid down
standards and stages that must be taken before findings and conclusions can be made, has
data collection and analysis is a vital path that must be followed to achieve the research
objective or objectives. It is here that the data necessary to assist the researcher grasp with the
nature of problem before he or her make an informed decisions are gathered. These laid down
sets of activities to be carried out are varied and must be followed in order to attain the goal
that the research set out to achieve with the research exercise. What data is, what type of data
exists, the collect tools, their strength and weaknesses are examined

INTRODUCTION

Data collection method, the process of measuring information of interest in an established

systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes (Kabir, 2016) is a needed activity that requires skill and ability of the
researcher. The meaning of the data collection given here lines up with the definition of
Research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of a hypothetical
position about a presumed relationship between two or more natural phenomena (Oduko,
1995). The process which is needed to discover new knowledge and verify existing
knowledge claims (Wikipedia)calls for a deliberately designed method that enables a step-by-
step guide to data collection technique for academic research (Taherdoost, 2021). 

The goal of all data collection is to capture quality evidence (about a matter) and translate
them to rich data analysis and allow for the building of convincing and credible questions that
have been asked (Kabir, 2016). To achieve this objective, Kabir (2016) stressed that special
attention and devotion must be given to data collection methods so that the integrity and the
aim of the research can be maintained and achieved. This means, alongside data design for
the study, plenty and quality time should be spent in data collection since insufficient and
inaccurate data collection can prevent assuring the accuracy of the finding. Kabir concluded
that the researcher should always be aware that, in Academic research, one can have the best

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research design in the world, but if you cannot collect required data, you won't be able to
complete the project (Kabir, 2016).

Definition of Terms - Methods, Types and categories are used interchangeably to mean the
same thing. They are used to refer to either qualitative data or quantitative data.

TYPES OF RESEARCH 

The preponderance of view is that, in academic research, data can be categorised into two
namely Qualitative and quantitative (Taherdoost 2021, Kabir 2016, etc.) They are regarded as
the basic and applied research (Gounder, 2012). However, although these are mostly used
separately in Research according to research category, there has been a widespread debate in
recent time within many of the social sciences regarding the relative merits of qualitative and
quantitative strategies (Gounder, 2012). Gounder noted that the difference in the debate is
due to the worldview of the people. “The positions taken by individual researcher vary
considerably, from those who see the two strategies as entirely separate and based on
alternative view of the world to those who are happy to mix these two strategies within their
research projects. In exploring the distinction between qualitative and quantitative forms, one
need to consider the different ontological and epistemological questions as well as positivism,
interpretivism and paradigms.”

Note: ontological being the study of metaphysics dealing with nature, epistemological, the
theory of knowledge, especially with regards to its method, validity and scope, and the
distinction between justified belief and opinion. Positivism being only that which can be
scientifically verified or capable of logical or mathematical proof; interpretivism being a
philosophical position and research method that analyses events in the society or culture as
they occur and paradigms being a typical example or pattern of something or a model (oxford
language and Google dictionary).

QUALITATIVE DATA 

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality. It is non-

numerical, descriptive, applies to reasoning and uses words. Its aim is to the meaning, feeling
and describes the situation (Gounder, 2012). Since they are not numerical but nominal and
descriptive, they answer to the question of "how and why" in research and as such;
unstructured approaches such as interviews can be used for data collection (Taherdoost,

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2021). One of the strengths of qualitative research is that they are good for further exploring
the effects and unintended consequences of a program (Kabir 2016). According to Kabir,
qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing
information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in
people's perception of their well being" (Kabir, 2016), a point Gounder(2012).noted as well
since qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is 'lived' or 'felt' or
'undergone'... Qualitative research, then has the aim of understanding experience as nearly
possible as its participants live it out (Sherman and Webb (1988) as cited by Gounder, 2012)

Similarly, MacDonald, Headlam, 1986).Stated that, qualitative research attempts to gain an

understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for actions and establish how people
interpret them. The method provides insight into the setting of a problem, generating ideas
and/or hypotheses andGounder (2012) added that the insider view create room to find out
missed issues (such as subtleties and complexities) by scientific and more positivistic
inquiries, suggest possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes. While
qualitative data can be suitable to achieve further information to explore and determine new
effects and consequences on research to enhance quantitative results, implementation
depends on spending considerable amount of cost and time and the results may not be
generalizable (Taherdoost, 2021). 

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative data research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here, a

process is expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities (Gounder, 2012).
Quantitative data is numerical and can be mathematically computed (Kabir, 2018). Being
numeric in value, quantitative data can be discrete or continuous (Esan, Okafor, 1995).
Unlike continuous data that can accommodate fractions and decimals, discrete data is either
whole, positive or zero. Quantitative data collection methods can also be assessed on scale of
either nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio (Kabir, 2016). Nominal (being something in name
or form only), ordinal (indicating order or rank in series), interval (space of time or between
event) and ratio (the relationship in number, in quantity or degree between two or more things
(Webster). This enable the data collected to be mathematically computed.

Quantitative Data Method can enable precision, through quantitative and reliable
measurement, control through sampling and design, allows for sophisticated analyses through

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statistical technique and replicable (Gounder, 2012), and Taherdoost (2012) added that rating
scales assign a numerical to the points or categories to evaluate them, in more complex
methods dealing with finding out dispositions of people towards individuals, phenomenon or
object.Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity for the investigation and
explanation of similarities and expected differences (Kabir, 2016).Gounder (2012) added that
large samples are required and the logistical difficulties inherent in gathering large samples
also tend to be more expensive; stressing further that by the short and rigid structure it is not
the most flexible method of research especially when handled improperly, they could be
vulnerable to error. 

(Pix 1 gotten from Centre for Local Economic Strategies (CLES) providing key features of each of the research
methods)

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DATA SOURCES

Generally, data collection sources are divided into two main categories namely: Primary and
Secondary source although most of the researchers call them data. The secondary data are
sources because, despite some of them being treated before, they are being consulted again to
get fresh data from them. The primary data collection source is also called raw data
(Wikipedia) probably because they have not been refined through reviews and analysis.

(See PIX 2withsources through which data can be generated for both the qualitative and quantitative research)

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Primary Data Collection sources are data that are yet to be examined, treated, reviewed,
modified, and published; and so are not influenced. Different approaches are taken based on
the Researcher's specific purpose, aim, and objective of the research exercise. The validity,
reliability, and authenticity of the data are more in primary data in comparison to Secondary
data type (Kabir, 2016). They are obtained from a representative sample by means of sample
surveys Esan, Okafor. 1995).

Pix 3 is a comparison of advantages and disadvantages of Primary Data and Secondary data sources

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Using primary sources helps to gain high-quality data which can improve results, and you can
add further data when required during the research procedure (Taherdoost. 2021). Primary
Data source can be used for such research activities as experiment, interviews, surveys, and
questionnaires (Kabir, 2016; Taherdoost, 2021).Some of the sources of primary data as
contained in Pix 2 are Questionnaires, interviews, observation, surveys, experiments, dairies,
activity sampling techniques, process analysis, etc. 

Secondary Data collection source 

Secondary data is the data that have been already collected by someone other than the
primary user and are readily available from other sources (Wikipedia). Esan. Okafar (1995)
said they are obtainable from data collection agencies, engaged in routine data collection for
research and planning. They are gathered from published sources meaning that the data is
already gathered by someone else for another reason and can be used for other purposes in
research as well (Taherdoost. 2021). Kabir (2016), giving an example of secondary source
said, the literature review in any research is based on secondary data. Books, records,
biographies. Newspapers published censuses, data archives internet articles, Databases, etc.
are materials for Secondary data.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

There are several data collection methods available for a researcher to use and select from.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts

for the purpose of gathering information from respondents (Kabir, 2016). These forms are
suitable to gather both qualitative and quantitative data. Although they are not the most
common methods used in Qualitative research, they are useful in case of facing large samples
in a study (Taherdoost, 2021). Questionnaires have advantages over other surveys in that they
are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys
(Kabir, 2016). Although the preparation and administration of questionnaires are not hard,
specific points in these processes should be required (Pandey & Pandey, 2015) as cited by
Taherdoost, 2021).

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THINGS TO NOTE QUESTION CONSTRUCTION

A distinction can be made between questionnaires with questions that can be measured in
separate variables, and questionnaires with questions aggregated into either a scale or index
(Kabir, 2016). Furthermore, as Kabir pointed out, Scale having to do with preference,
behavior or facts and index dealing with latent traits and attitudes. Researchers should be
strategic in generating the question. A distinction is made between open-minded and closed-
ended questions. An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his or her answer,
whereas a closed-ended question has {the) respondent to pick an answer from a given
number of options. The response option for a closed-ended question and mutually exclusive

To achieve the best response rates, which is one of the shortcoming of questionnaire, Kabir
(2016). Advised that questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive,
from factual and behavioral, and from the more general to the more specific. Other possible
rules which should be followed in constructing questionnaires are:

1. Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different
subpopulations if the population of interest.

2. Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different
answers, think of having an 'open' answer category after list of possible answers.

3. Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item (Kabir, 2016).

4. Navigate respondents clearly to avoid any difficulty and motivate participants through
answering questions, do not use more than one question (double-barreled) in one item,
utilize positive sentences and avoid directing the respondent to any answer using
objective questions including clues, suggestion, and hints (Taherdoost, 2021). 

Just like every data collection method has positives and negatives, questionnaire has these
advantages: large amount of information can be collected from large of people within a short
time and in relative cost-effective way, the results can be scientifically and objectively
analysed than other research surveys, it can be used to create new theories or test existing
hypothesis (Kabir, 2016). Limited responses, lack of personal contact, greater possibility of
wrong answers and may be useless in many problems (Pandey, Pandey, 2015).

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(See Pix 4 showing path to go through with regards to Questionnaires gotten from Taherdoost

INTERVIEW

Interview is a two-way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information (Pandey
& Pandey, 2015). There are different ways to record interviews including paper-based, self-
reports, and tape-record interviews, etc. It can also be noted that they are useful to gain both
qualitative and quantitative data using open-ended and close-ended questions (Taherdoost,
2021).In an interview, a rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Not only is physical distance between them annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is also
removed; and a free flow of ideas to and fro takes place. Bothe create their respective
impression upon each other (Pandey & Pandey 2015).Although like questionnaire, there are a
good number of differences as represented in Pix 6

Three 3 formats that interview can take in research are structured interviews, semi structured
and unstructured. In the structured interview, the interviewee face same set of standardized
questions which are pre-prepared before the interview; the semi - structured interviews is
formal, conducted with a guide and the interviewer ask questions. considering the guidance.
In the last category, that is informal, there is no specific structure, no guide and are conducted
in casual conversations (Taherdoost, 2021) 

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Pix 6a showing Interview Process gotten from Taherdoost on process of interview

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(See Pix 6b highlighting added information and interview)

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The casual and informal nature of the interview creates room to probe further to discover
problem origin and attitude (Pandey & Pandey, 1986). Pandey & Pandey added that it has
flexibility, sincerity, frankness, truthfulness. Concerning the demerits of Interview
techniques, Kabir (2916) noted this:

  Interviewing is not the perfect method for all types of research. It does have its
disadvantages. First, there can be complications with the planning of the interview.
Not only is recruiting people for the interview hard, due to the typically personal
natural of the interview, planning where to meet them and when can be difficult.
Participants can cancel or change the meeting place at the last minute. During actual
interview, a possible weakness is missing the information. This can arise from the
immense multitasking that they must do… some researchers report more missing data
in interview research than survey, therefore, it can be difficult to compare
populations.

Pix 7 comparing and contrasting Questionnaire and interview and pix8 showing interview processes from
Pandey and Pandey

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OBSERVATION

This is most used technique of evaluation research. It is used for evaluating cognitive and
non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes,
values, towards either life problems or situations (Pandey & Pandey, 2015). It is a technique
of evaluation in which behaviors are observed in a natural situation (Younge, Pandey &
Pandey 2015). In these techniques, first data is gathered through the observation of events,
behaviors, interactions, processes, etc. directly to obtain an understanding of the concepts
(Taherdoost, 2021). Taherdoost further noted that this method can both be qualitative and
quantitative data. The Qualitative data is gathered as a description of events in the setting.
The quantitative data can be obtained by using the duration or frequency of the particular
subject.

Unlike Questionnaire and interview methods where people may write answers as they think
(and) which may be different from what they do, these restrictions are missing in
observation… the artificiality and formality if questionnaires and interviews is replaced by
reality and informality in observation (Pandey &Pandey). In the citation of Jahoda, Pandey &
Pandey listed some of the characteristics of Observation data collection method to be: 

1. It serves a formulated research purpose.

2. It is planned systematically rather than occurringhaphazardly.

3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general propositions.

4. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event ir a problem.

5. It is an objective technique of data collection and is both subjective and objective

technique. 

In terms of the advantages of the Observational method, researchers who prefer more security
from the beginning might consider a systematic observation (Kabir, 2016). Since the
researcher operates in a natural habitat, the natural setting and the natural atmosphere is
strength of observation method (Pandey & Pandey & Pandey 2015). Also, once you have
devised your instrument, large samples can be covered (Kabir, 2016).

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Observational methods require a length of time for the imitations exercise. This is a
limitation. It is time consuming and not economical and can be sometimes unreliable due to
the misrepresenting of the qualitative data measurement (Taherdoost 2021). It is equally
costly and energy consuming (Pandey & Pandey, 2016). This writer grew with a set of
anthropologists from Sweden that took residence in his village for over 5 years to research in
the tradition of his people.

Pix 9 showing different observation methods and advantages from Kabir, 2016

SURVEY

Surveys are a popular method of collecting primary data. The broad area of survey research
encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents
(MacDonald & Headlam 1986). It is an appropriate method to determine feelings, opinions,
and thoughts. The aim of the survey can be both globally and specifically (Taherdoost 2021).
Today, survey research is used by a variety of different groups (Kabir, 2016). Groups such as
psychologists and sociologists as well as the media to evaluate and assess developments.
Media, for instance, use surveys in evaluating political candidates, public health officials,

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professional organizations, advertising, and marketing (Kabir, 2916). In addition, outlining
the uses of Survey Kabir (2016) noted that surveys provide a measuring of a population's
characteristics, self-reported and observed behavior, awareness of programs, attitudes or
opinions, and needs. 

In undertaking a survey, it is important to understand who you want to survey, going to

select, what you want to ask them and how you are going to organize the task (MacDonald &
Headlam, 1986).

MacDonald & Headlam (1986) proceeded with some sets of questions - can the population be
counted in each population? Do respondents have language issues? Who will be filling the
survey information? What about the sampling frame, is it accurate? What about the response
rate, will there be a problem? There are also the question issues to be decided since
sometimes the nature of what you want to ask respondents will determine the type of survey
you select (Kabir 2016). What types of questions can be asked? Are you going to be asking
personal questions? How complex will the questions be? Will screening the questions to
know whether the respondents are qualified to answer your question of interest be needed?
Can question sequence be controlled? (Kabir, 2016). 

(See Pix 10 on the survey process steps for emphasis gotten from Taherdoost)

DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis is the next stage in the series of activities taken before finding out the outcome
or outcomes. Kaul, as quoted by Pandey and Pandey (1986) define data analysis as studying
the organized material in order to discover inherent facts. The data are studied from as many

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angles as possible to explore the new facts. This definition is key since the entire exercise
research efforts is a quest to unearth possible new fact or facts that lies beneath the body of
existing knowledge. Data analysis is like all other activities in the data collection process. It
embraces a whole range of activities of both the quantitative and qualitative type (Pandey &
Pandey 1986).

Some of the functions the researcher needs to do and which he must have the ability to is
being able to analyze available data especially as it relates the problem statement and
hypothesis (Pandey & Pandey, 1986). These are necessary for both the qualitative and
quantitative data. In summary, the usual tendency in behavioral research that may quality
analyses and statistical methods and techniques are employed (Pandey & Pandey, 1986)

CONCLUSION 

Data, which other name is information, is necessary to take an informed decision on any
subject matter of human endeavour that require attention. This is much is most needed in any
research exercise.  Research is an endeavor/attempt to discover, develop and verify
knowledge. It is an intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of ever changing in
purpose and form and always researching to truth (Pandey - Pandey, 2015). There is exercise
of Academic Research needs data more than anyone else.

Data remains the engine house of Academic research. It exists hidden somewhere in the body
of knowledge. It has to be searched out and help shield light on a given problem. Getting it
must follow a certain tested and approved process for the findings to meet the common
standard agreed upon. 

We believe that we continue in this voyage of knowledge particularly in the field of

Academic Research, we shall improve and move up from this first attempt at researching 

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