Introduction to

Semiconductors
 Semiconductor Basics
• Atoms
– Protons
– Neutrons
– Electrons
 Semiconductor Basics
• Electron shells: K, L, M, N, etc.
– Conductor
• 1 electron in outer shell (valence shell)
– Insulator
• 8 in valence shell (outer shell full)
– Semiconductor
• 4 in valence shell
 Semiconductor Basics
• Most common semiconductors
– Silicon (Si)
– Germanium (Ge)
 Semiconductor Basics
• Valence electrons have greatest energy
• Electrons have discrete energy levels that
correspond to orbits
 Semiconductor Basics
• Valence electrons have two energy levels
– Valence Band
• Lower energy level
– Conduction Band
• Higher energy level
 Semiconductor Basics
• Differences in energy levels provide
– Insulators
– Semiconductors
– Conductors
 Semiconductor Basics
• Energy gap between Valence and
Conduction Bands
 Semiconductor Basics
• Conductor has many “free” electrons
• These are called “conduction” electrons
• Energy Gap is between valence and
conduction band
 Semiconductor Basics
• Atomic Physics
– Energy expressed in electron volts (eV)
– 1 eV = 1.602  10–19 joules
• Energy gap
– Small for conductors
– Large for insulators
 Semiconductor Basics
• Silicon has 4 electrons in its valence shell
• 8 electrons fill the valence shell
• Silicon forms a lattice structure and
adjacent atoms “share” valence electrons
 Semiconductor Basics
• Electrons are shared so each valence
shell is filled (8 electrons)
• Valence shells full
– No “free” electrons at 0 K
 Conduction in Semiconductors
• At temperatures > °K
– Some electrons move into conduction band
• Electron-Hole pairs are formed
– Hole is vacancy left in lattice by an electron
that moves into conduction band
– Continuous recombination occurs
 Conduction in Semiconductors
• Electrons available for conduction
– Copper ≈ 1023
– Silicon ≈ 1010 (poor conductor)
– Germanium ≈ 1012 (poor conductor)
 Conduction in Semiconductors
• Hole: absence of an electron in the lattice
structure
– Electrons move from – to +
– Holes (absence of electrons) move from + to –
– Recombination
• When an electron fills a hole
Conduction in Semiconductors
 Conduction in Semiconductors
• As electrons move toward + terminal
– Recombine with holes from other electrons
– Electron current is mass movement of
electrons
– Hole current is mass movement of holes
created by displaced electrons
 Conduction in Semiconductors
• Effect of temperature
– Higher energy to electrons in valence band
– Creates more electrons in conduction band
– Increases conductivity and reduces resistance
– Semiconductors have a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC)
 Doping
• Adding impurities to semiconductor
– Creates more free electron/hole pairs
– Greatly increased conductivity
– Known as “doping”
 Doping
• Terminology
– Pure semiconductor known as intrinsic
– Doped semiconductor known as extrinsic
 Doping
• Creates n-type or p-type semiconductors
– Add a few ppm (parts per million) of doping
material
– n-type
• More free electrons than holes
– p-type
• More holes than free electrons
 Doping
• Creating n-type semiconductors
– Add (dope with) atoms with 5 valence electrons
– Pentavalent atoms
• Phosphorous (P)
• Arsenic (As)
• Antimony (Sb) – Group V on periodic table
 Doping
• Creating n-type semiconductors
– New, donor atoms become part of lattice
structure
– Extra electron available for conduction
 Doping
• Intrinsic semiconductors
– Equal number of holes and electrons
– Conduction equally by holes and electrons
– Very poor conductors (insulators)
 Doping
• n-type extrinsic semiconductor
– Free electrons greatly outnumber free holes
– Conduction primarily by electrons
– Electrons are the “majority” carriers
 Doping
• Conduction in an n-type semiconductor
 Doping
• Creating p-type semiconductors
– Add (dope with) atoms with 3 valence
electrons
– Trivalent atoms
• Boron (B)
• Aluminum (Al)
• Gallium (Ga) – Group III on periodic table
 Doping
• Creating p-type semiconductors
– New, acceptor atoms become part of lattice
structure
– Extra hole available for conduction
 Doping
• p-type extrinsic semiconductor
– Free holes greatly outnumber free electrons
– Conduction primarily by holes
– Holes are the “majority” carriers
– Electrons are the “minority” carriers
 The p-n Junction
• Abrupt transition from p-type to n-type
material
• Creation
– Must maintain lattice structure
– Use molten or diffusion process
 The p-n Junction
• Example
– Heat n-type material to high temperature
– Boron gas diffuses into material
– Only upper layer becomes p-type
– p-n junction created without disturbing lattice
structure
 The p-n Junction
• Joined p-type and n-type semiconductors
+++++++ p-type
+++++++
------------ junction
------------ n-type
• Diffusion across junction creates barrier
potential ++-+++-++ p-type
-++-++-++-
junction
+--+--+--+
---+----+--- n-type
 The p-n Junction
• Joined p-type and n-type semiconductors
+++++++ p-type
+++++++
------------ junction
------------
n-type
• Diffusion across junction creates barrier
potential ++-+++-++
p-type
-++-++-++-
+--+--+--+
---+----+--- junction

n-type
 The p-n Junction
• Depletion region
• Barrier voltage, VB
• Silicon
– VB ≈ 0.7 volts at 25C
 The p-n Junction
• Germanium
– VB ≈ 0.3 volts at 25C
• VB must be overcome for conduction
• External source must be used
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Basis of semiconductor devices
• Diode
– Unidirectional current
– Forward bias (overcome VB) – conducts easily
– Reverse bias – virtually no current
– p-type end is anode (A)
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Diode
– n-type end is cathode (K)
– Anode and cathode are from vacuum tube
terminology
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Diode symbol
– Arrow indicates direction of conventional current
for condition of forward bias (A +, K -)
– External voltage source required
– External resistance required to limit current

Anode (A) Cathode (K)

 The Biased p-n Junction
• Holes are majority carriers in p-type
• Electrons are majority carriers in n-type
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Reverse biased junction
– Positive (+) terminal draws n-type majority
carriers away from junction
– Negative (–) terminal draws p-type majority
carriers away from junction
– No majority carriers attracted toward junction
– Depletion region widens
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Electrons are minority carriers in p-type
• Holes are minority carriers in n-type
• Reverse biased junction
– Minority carriers drawn across junction
– Very few minority carriers
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Reverse biased current
– Saturation current, IS
– Nanoamp-to-microamp range for signal
diodes
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Reverse biased junction
– Positive terminal of source connected to
cathode (n-type material)
The Biased p-n Junction
 The Biased p-n Junction
• p-type
– Holes are majority carriers
• n-type
– Electrons are majority carriers
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Forward biased junction
– + terminal draws n-type majority carriers
toward junction
– – terminal draws p-type majority carriers
toward junction
– Minority carriers attracted away from junction
– Depletion region narrows
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Forward biased junction
– Majority carriers drawn across junction
– Current in n-type material is electron current
– Current in p-type material is hole current
– Current is referred to as Imajority or IF (for
forward current)
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Voltage across Forward biased diode ≈ VB
– Often referred to as VF (for forward voltage)
– VB ≈ 0.7 for Silicon and 0.3 for Germanium
• Forward biased current
– Majority and Minority current
– Minority current negligible
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Forward biased junction
– Positive terminal of source connected to
Anode (p-type material)
 The Biased p-n Junction
• Forward biased junction
– Conducts when E exceeds VB
– For E < VB very little current flows
– Total current = majority + minority current
– Diode current, IF ≈ majority current
– VF ≈ 0.7 volts for a silicon diode
 Other Considerations
• Junction Breakdown
– Caused by large reverse voltage
– Result is high reverse current
– Possible damage to diode
• Two mechanisms
– Avalanche Breakdown
– Zener Breakdown
 Other Considerations
• Avalanche Breakdown
– Minority carriers reach high velocity
– Knock electrons free
– Create additional electron-hole pairs
– Created pairs accelerated
• Creates more electrons
– “Avalanche” effect can damage diode
 Other Considerations
• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peak
Reverse Voltage (PRV) rating of diode
 Other Considerations
• Zener Breakdown
– Heavily doped n-type and p-type materials in
diode
– Narrows depletion region
– Increases electric field at junction
– Electrons torn from orbit
– Occurs at the Zener Voltage, VZ
 Other Considerations
• Zener Diodes
– Designed to use this effect
– An important type of diode
 Other Considerations
• Diode junction
p-type
+++++++
+ plate
+++++++ junction
– plate
------------ n-type
------------
 Other Considerations
• Like a capacitor
– Thickness of depletion region changes with
applied voltage
– Capacitance dependent on distance between
plates