CELL

MODIFICATIONS
STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-5
 IN THIS LESSON YOU WILL:

01 define cell modification; and

describe some cell modifications that lead

02 to adaptation to carry out specialized
functions (e.g., microvilli, root hair).
 CELL MODIFICATION
Cell Modification is the change in the
structure of a cell to carry out specialized
function. Enable the cell to perform
differently and the modification in the
structure occur after cell division.

Is a change in organism caused by

environmental factors
 CELL MODIFICATION

Cellular modification refers to the changes made by a cell to

adapt to adverse or varying environment changes. There are three
types of cell modification which are Apical Modifications (top),
Basal Modifications (bottom) and Lateral Modifications (sides).
 APICAL
01 MODIFICATION
➢ Is found on the apical surface of the cell

➢ It is specialized to carry out functions for

absorption, locomotion, and secretion.

➢ There are four types of apical

modification; the Cilia, Flagella, Microvilli,
and Pseudopods.
 Cilia
➢ Cilia are microtubule-based hair-like
organelles that extend from the
surface of almost all cell types of the
human body.

➢ A hair like structure attached to the

surface of the cell and has a wave-like
motion.
➢ Motile cilia generate nodal flow,
whereas immotile cilia that sense the
flow.
 Cilia
➢ Motile cilia capable of movement – examples
are can be found in the lining of our lungs in the
bronchus to remove microbes in the interior of
the lungs. An Egg cell assisted by motile cilia
moving to the fallopian tube or uterus during
menstruation.

➢ Non-motile cilia are also called primary cilia

which serve as sensory organelles. Found in
our nose and eyes.

➢ Can also be found in microorganisms that

functions for locomotion such as in
paramecium.
 Flagella
➢ Flagellum, plural flagella, hairlike
structure that acts primarily as an
organelle of locomotion or
movement in the cells of many living
organisms.
➢ A whip like modification that acts like a
propeller.

➢ Can be found in male sperms and

lower form of organisms like Euglena
 Microvilli
➢ Microvilli are nonmotile finger-like
protrusions from the apical surface of
epithelial cells that function to increase
the cell surface area and the
efficiency of absorption.

➢ Increase the rate of absorption in the

intestine, secretion, and cellular
adhesion.
 Pseudopods

➢ Are also known as false feet, enable the

organism to make temporary and
irregular lobes.

➢ Use for movement and engulf prey.

Pseudopods have two main functions: (1)
locomotion and (2) capture of prey or engulfing
of food.

➢ An example is an amoeba crawling by

extending the cytoplasm and the contraction
of the filaments.
 BASAL
02 MODIFICATION
➢ Are specialized structured found at the
basal surface of the cell.
➢ Facilitate stable adhesion of basal
cells to basement membrane.

➢ Cell modification found on the basal

surface of the cell basement membrane
gap junctions adhering junctions tight
junctions free surface of epithelial
tissue.
HEMIDESMOSOME

➢ An example of basal modification which

helps in attachment or cellular adhesion.

➢ Hemidesmosomes attach a cell to an

extracellular structures, such as the protein
fibers in the basement membrane.

➢ Hemidesmosomes are found in epithelial cells

connecting the basal epithelial cells to the
lamina lucida, which is part of the basal lamina.
Hemidesmosomes are also involved in
signaling pathways, such as keratinocyte
migration or carcinoma cell intrusion.
 LATERAL
03 MODIFICATION
➢ Also known as cell junctions, a specialized
structure that serves as intercellular
connection between two adjacent cells.

➢ Cell modification found on the basal surface of

the cell. Lateral Modification Tight Junction, Act
as barriers that regulate the movement of
water and solutes between epithelial layers
and Prevent leakage of extracellular fluid (ECF).

➢ Three types of lateral modification; Tight

junctions, Adhering junctions and Gap
junctions.
 Tight Junctions
➢ Held two adjacent cell tightly, prevents
leakage of materials between cells and
act as water seal.

➢ Tight junctions form the continuous

intercellular barrier between epithelial
cells, which is required to separate
tissue spaces and regulate selective
movement of solutes across the
epithelium.
 Adhering Junctions
➢ Fastens cell together and provides a
strong mechanical attachment to adjacent
cell. mediate the maturation and
maintenance of the contact.

➢ The Adherens junction performs multiple

functions including initiation and stabilization
of cell-cell adhesion, regulation of the actin
cytoskeleton, intracellular signaling and
transcriptional regulation.
 Gap Junctions
➢ Allows direct flow of
molecules between cells
and connect to cells directly
from the cytoplasm.

➢ Gap junctions are aggregates

of intercellular channels that
permit direct cell–cell
transfer of ions and small
molecules. Initially described
as low-resistance ion
pathways joining excitable
cells
01
PATIENT
You can describe the
topic of the section here
FURTHER
STUDY
 WHAT IS A SPECIALIZED
CELL?
➢ A specialized cell is a cell that has structure that
suits its function.

➢ Varying structures of cell also relates to their

different functions.

➢ Cells have different functions depending on their

cell types and activated genes they contain having
different structures.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ A waxy cuticle layer, a protective layer, that covers plant epidermal cells.
➢ Epidermal cells are important in forming boundary from the outside, keeping
plants from loosing water.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Epidermal cells are important in forming boundary from the outside, keeping
plants from loosing water.

➢ Many epidermal cells do not even contain chloroplasts for that its not its main
function.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Guard cells are specialized epidermal cells that have an important job in
controlling the opening and closing of the stomata. Are pores in the leaf.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Another specialized epidermal cells are trichomes. Are also called plant hair cells.

➢ Some of them are protective and can secrete toxic substance to get protected
against insects, an example is a sundew a carnivorous plant.

➢ Some act like light reflectors to help protect plants that leave in really hot areas.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Palisade Mesophyll these cells are really important for capturing light and so they
are specialized for this task, making them to have a lots of chloroplasts.

➢ Spongy Mesophyll makes up a loosely packed area with irregular shapes. They
have few chloroplasts as they don’t do as much photosynthesis like the Palisade
Mesophyll.
➢ The loose space in the Spongy Meso facilitates smooth gas exchange needed for
photosynthesis.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Are specialized cells responsible for transporting water in the xylem, or products
of photosynthesis in the phloem.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Are specialized cells containing hemoglobin in their cytoplasm which is a protein

that helps them carry oxygen.

➢ Has a disc shape maximizing surface area for carrying oxygen.

➢ Has no nucleus.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Some of them are classified as granulocytes, which means a special part of their
structure, they have granules in their cytoplasm that when released can aid in
destroying pathogens.

➢ Many white blood cells can have irregular shape with a structure that allows them
to engulf foreign particles.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Many muscle cells can have more mitochondria than many other body cell types
because of their need of ATP energy.

➢ Cardiac muscle have intercalated discs that joins them making to be in sync and
helps carry the signal to maintain the heartbeat.
 OTHER EXAMPLES OF
01 SPECIALIZED CELL?

➢ Neurons are the cells that can sense a stimulus and transmit signals. Can be a
meter long.

➢ Its structure is specialized for signal conduction. Dendrites receives impulses then
axons transmit the impulses to other neurons or other cell types in the body.
 HOW CELLS BECOME
SPECIALIZED?

➢ It started from a developing fertilized

egg the zygote dividing into multiples
cells.

➢ Specialized cells do specialized different

functions.
 HOW CELLS BECOME
01 SPECIALIZED?
➢ The blastocyst contains stem cells.
This stem cells in the blastocyst are
not differentiated yet or specialized
but will lead to the formation of any
type of body cells.

➢ They all, with a few exceptions

contain all of your DNA.
 HOW CELLS BECOME SPECIALIZED THROUGH
STEM CELLS?
01
➢ Stem cells are unspecialized cells with
self-renewal capacity. They can divide
through mitosis limitlessly to replenish
other cell types of multicellular
organisms throughout their life.

➢ After stem cell division, each newly

produced cell can either remain as a
stem cell or differentiate to form any
other cell type with more defined
functions, such as muscle cell, blood
cell, or neural cell.
 HOW CELLS BECOME
01 SPECIALIZED?

➢ Neurons, muscle cells and other

body cells don’t have different DNA;
instead, they use different parts of
the DNA.

➢ This happens when genes are

regulated, which means they can be
turned on and off.

➢ Stem cells will activate certain areas

of the DNA in their process of
differentiating.
 HOW CELLS BECOME
01 SPECIALIZED?

➢ Transcription factors are the major

key players. They are typically
proteins but not always.

➢ They determine which areas of the

DNA code will get transcribed into
mRNA, which eventually be used to
make specific protein, that will
impact what a cell will look like and
do.
 HOW CELLS BECOME
01 SPECIALIZED?

➢ Transcription factors have a major

role in determining which genes are
expressed in a cell.

➢ An example is a skin cell which have

a different areas of genes
expressed then a cell is going to be
a stomach cell as for an example.
 HOW CELLS BECOME
01 SPECIALIZED?

➢ Transcription factors have a major

role in determining which genes are
expressed in a cell.

➢ An example is a skin cell which have

a different areas of genes
expressed then a cell is going to be
a stomach cell as for an example.
 01 CUES IN STEM CELLS

➢ There are internal and external cues

for stem cells which can involve
these transcription factors.

➢ An example of internal cue could be

present in the cytoplasm of the
original starting zygote cell.
 01 CUES IN STEM CELLS

➢ External cues could involve cells

signaling from other cells next to it.

➢ External cues can even be

environmental effects like
temperature.

➢ So the stem cells are the

unspecialized, undifferentiated
cells that can become other cells
in your body.
 01 TYPES OF STEM CELLS

➢ Not all stem cells are found in the developing

embryo. It can also be found in your body like
your muscle, skin, liver, and bone marrow
which are often called somatic stem cells.

➢ The major difference between embryonic

and somatic stem cells is that embryonic
stem cells have the potential to differentiate
into all cell types of the body, as they are
pluripotent stem cells

➢ It is believed that somatic stem cells can

differentiate only into different cell types
present in the tissue of their origin.
01 TYPES OF STEM CELLS

Adult stem cells can undergo normal differentiation pathways to give rise to
specialized cells of the tissue wherein they are located. Some examples of
stem cell differentiation into specialized somatic cells are as follows:

Hematopoietic stem cells – differentiate into all types of blood cells, including red
blood cells (RBC), B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, neutrophils, basophiles,
eosinophils, monocytes, natural killer cells, and macrophages.

Mesenchymal stem cells – also known as bone marrow stromal stem cells,
differentiate into different cell types, including bone cells, cartilage cells, fat
cells, and stromal cells, that regulate blood production.
01 TYPES OF STEM CELLS

Neural stem cells – are present in the brain and can differentiate into three major
brain cell types namely neurons (nerve cells), astrocytes, and
oligodendrocytes.

Epithelial stem cells – are present in the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal
tract and can differentiate into different cell types, including absorptive cells,
goblet cells, and enteroendocrine cells.

Skin stem cells – are of two types: epidermal stem cells that are found in the
basal layer of the epidermis and can differentiate into keratinocytes; and
follicular stem cells that are found at the base of hair follicles and can
differentiate into both follicular cells and keratinocytes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gwAz_BtVuLA
QUESTIONS
1. Why is cell modification essential to
organisms?
2. Do Somatic Stem Cells can
potentially be Pluripotent?
3. Are you in favor of cell modification
in human beings?
4. How are cells differentiated or
specialized?
 END
THANK YOU