Hindawi

Complexity
Volume 2022, Article ID 3304796, 21 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3304796

Review Article
Advancements and Future Prospects of Electric Vehicle
Technologies: A Comprehensive Review

M. S. Hossain ,1,2 Laveet Kumar ,3 Mamdouh El Haj Assad,4 and Reza Alayi 5

1
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
2
Institute for Energy Research, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro 76090, Sindh, Pakistan
4
Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering Department, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, UAE
5
Department of Mechanics, Germi Branch, Islamic Azad University, Germi, Iran

Correspondence should be addressed to M. S. Hossain; [email protected] and Reza Alayi; [email protected]

Received 19 March 2022; Revised 25 May 2022; Accepted 2 June 2022; Published 1 July 2022

Academic Editor: Xiaoqing Bai

Copyright © 2022 M. S. Hossain et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are one of the major problems that the world is facing nowadays. The transportation sector,
where vehicles run on oil, contributes a large amount of GHG. The development of electric vehicles to meet the allowed GHG
limits has recently been the main focus of research worldwide. Research in electric vehicles (EVs) has observed a tremendous
upsurge in recent years. However, reviews that analyze and present the demand and development of EVs comprehensively are still
inadequate, and this integrative review is an effort to fill that gap. This study has revealed many thought-provoking understandings
related to specific developments, specifically global demand and growth of EVs along with electricity and battery demand, current
technological developments in EVs, energy storage technologies, and charging strategies. It also details the next generation of EVs
and their technological advancements, such as wireless power transfer. The development of a smart city concept by EV
implementation added a new aspect to this review. The summary would be advantageous to both scholars and policymakers, as
there has been a lack of integrative reviews that assessed EVs’ global demand and development simultaneously and collectively.
This review concludes the intuitions for investors and policymakers to envisage electric mobility.

1. Introduction energy source of fossil fuel still commands the world’s road
transportation, but it is only a matter of time before EVs are
Electric vehicle (EV) adoption rates have been growing adopted; in the next decade, people will begin to rely on
around the world due to various favorable environments, electric vehicles.
such as no pollution, dependence on fossil fuel energy, ef- Although there is virtually no scope for greenhouse gas
ficiency, and less noise [1]. The current research into EVs is emissions in EVs, the benefits of transport electrification in
concerned with the means and productivity of expanding mitigating environmental changes become more apparent
transportation, reducing costs, and planning effective when the organization of EVs matches the DE (distributed
charging strategies. Regardless of whether it is a hybrid, a energies) carbonization of the intensity structure. Strategies
modular crossover, or one of a multitude of functional EVs, continue to improve electrical flexibility. The use of EVs
people’s interest will increase with falling costs. Moreover, usually begins with the formulation of many goals, followed
the development of EVs is based on current and future by specifications for receiving and charging vehicles. Electric
global demand, which is interconnected to electricity and vehicle approval plans typically include acquisition pro-
battery demand. Besides that, the productive development of grams to arouse interest in EVs and stand out from the
EVs depends on the improvement of global values, EV public charging infrastructure system. On the other hand,
policies, comprehensive frameworks, related peripherals, the technological development of showcases for EVs has led
and easy-to-use programming [2]. However, the primary to the creation of countless charging stations for EVs, with
2 Complexity

which the electric vehicle network (EV-grid integration) can transportation sector. Therefore, car manufacturers only
be connected. Newer charging stations can be divided into need to establish more apparent incentives to see increas-
private and nonprivate charging stations, which can stim- ingly effective results. In this particular case, there has re-
ulate medium charging (levels 1 and (2) and fast charging cently been a concentration of vehicles with selective fuel
(levels 3 and DC) [3]. The high tolls for EVs are private in and EVs. The International Energy Agency (IEA) is taking
moderately charged ports. However, future charging stations measures to reduce the similar outflow of carbon dioxide
are to be developed at commercial locations to make them (CO2eq), and many countries have made the introduction of
petrol stations for electric cars with extensive charging ports EVs on the market an important goal [14, 15].
[4]. Wireless innovation is at the center of the future ver- To overcome those difficulties, this study presents an
satility of electrical equipment. These progressive develop- innovative approach to EV development to provide an
ments cover the entire value chain of the project and the appropriate guideline for developing and nondeveloping
whole circular economy: research of managers, production countries. EVs coordinate various types of individual
and processing of crude oil, battery design, as well as the achievements and divide the overall field of EVs into several
production, use, and disposal (sorting, reuse, and reuse) of key areas, which can give increasingly important point-by-
the battery and the solution to overall savings and main- point data. Consider the benefit of answering the request: to
tainability [5]. Most of the current progress of the battery improve the charge coordination of using low-carbon or
depends on lithium particles, polymers of lithium particles, low-carbon energy. It is assumed that the strength structure
or nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride [6]. Naumanen representation of the use of DG (distributed generation)
et al. and their team reported on the method of solid lithium- assets will be further enhanced and combined with sus-
ion battery cars in China, the European Union, Japan, and tainable energy. The following article summarizes EV status,
the United States. They summarized the bulk of the use of the policies, future demand, and EV-related technology, spe-
national battery improvement system at the point of an cifically delving into next-generation EVs and their ap-
electric vehicle. China and the United States are the leading proaches. Nowadays, smart city development and
licensors and countries that monitor batteries [7]. However, maintenance are hot topics, and electric vehicles are playing
the developing countries can lean on them to maintain the an essential role in renewable energy growth. In this regard,
EV-related development and manufacturing R&D sectors. this study went through an impact-related discussion. Lastly,
Despite the advancement of battery-based innovations, the the study summarizes and explores some different methods
battery testing phase, the construction of measuring in- and their advantages and disadvantages. These discussions
struments, the disposal and reuse of batteries, and the will give a general framework for increasing EV growth in
conduct of assessments are significant [8]. There will be a the world.
change in the amount of CO2 emitted from the EV fleet’s However, it is important to see EV growth in the world.
well-to-wheel (WTW) greenhouse gas emissions as energy Figure 1 shows a summary of the global EV stock and EV
use and electricity generation carbon intensity both decrease sales market. The market share report shows that 3% of the
[9]. Thus, EVs could lead the decarbonization of the total newly sold vehicles are EVs. As indicated in the
transportation sector towards carbon neutrality. Navigant Research report, this number may exceed 7%, or
Besides that, smart cities are looking for new solutions to 6.6 million a year worldwide by 2020 [9]. The transportation
address some of the urban dilemmas (environmental, social, of EVs has developed rapidly in the last ten years; in 2018, the
and financial) caused by the grid network, development, and worldwide transportation volume of EVs was more than 5
the operation of underlying conditions (such as vehicles, million. This is an increase of 63% over the previous year. In
waste, energy). However, this cooperation is not always 2018, around 45% of EVs were produced in China, where the
recognizable and should be tested for the most considerable total number of EVs was 2.3 million, an increase of 39% over
advantage [10, 11]. The use of petroleum products in the the previous year. In any case, 24% of the world’s fleet is in
transport system causes atmospheric pollution due to the Europe, while the United States has 22%. On the other hand,
formation of particles and unnatural meteorological changes Norway is still a worldwide pioneer in the production of
caused by carbon dioxide and primary air pollutant emis- electric cars. About 49.10% of new electric car transactions in
sions. There are many mineral-filled vehicles in the world 2018 were almost twice as much as Iceland, an increase of
that can carry substances that deplete the ozone layer, which 17.50%, and six times as much as Iceland as Sweden, an
is one of the significant challenges facing the world [12, 13]. increase of 7.20% [16]. Most of the existing EVs have been
Consider that the benefit of answering the request is to manufactured in recent years, and more than 300 million
improve the charge coordination of using low-carbon or vehicles will be manufactured by the end of 2018. Of course,
low-carbon energy. Another essential aspect of EVs is the most of them are in China. In contrast, two-wheeler electric
charging of batteries. The charging speed of the battery vehicle sales are hundreds of times larger than anywhere in
depends on the type of EV and the main battery charge. In the world. Transactions with EVs are also increasing. In
most cases, the charger is divided into four levels, from level 2018, more than 460,000 cars are already on the world’s
1 to level 4. To complete the checkpoint, an accurate as- roads. In addition, 5 million passenger cars and slow EVs
sessment of the relevant conditions for the electric vehicle were sold in 2018. All low-speed electric vehicles (EVs) are in
must be made. Coordination between energy and land use China. Shared electric foot scooters, often known as “free-
and issues related to changes in global temperature and air floating” scooters, became extremely popular in major cities
pollution are fundamental prerequisites for the throughout the world in 2018 and early 2019. These foot
Complexity 3

Global Electric Car stock (2010-2020) EV market share

10000 50%
Number of Vehicles (Thousands)

Percentage of market share

8000 40%

6000 30%

4000 20%

2000 10%

0 0%
2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Iceland

Sweden

Netherlands

China

USA

UK
Finland
Norway
Figure 1: Global EV stock and EV sales market share in 2020. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [17].

scooter conspiracies are currently active in approximately hybrid EV (PHEV) is a type of HEV that can be powered by a
129 urban areas in the United States; 30 in Europe; 7 in Asia; grid. The difference between a PHEV and a mild hybrid
and 6 in Australia and New Zealand. electric vehicle (MHEV) is that a PHEV has a smaller fuel
Moreover, the structure and configuration of EVs can be engine and can be powered exclusively by a large battery
found in the next section. The development of EVs is based pack. An MHEV blends traditional internal combustion
on current and future global demand, which is inter- (ICE) with electric power. All BEVs and PHEVs are called
connected to electricity and battery demand. Besides that, EVs. Figure 2 illustrates the classification of EVs and power
the productive development of EVs depends on the im- sources for their wheels [17].
provement of global values, comprehensive frameworks, Figure 3 provides specific information about affordable
related peripherals, and easy-to-use programming [2]. There EVs produced by different manufacturers [20–33]. The
are several challenges to making EVs inexpensive in the figure also shows the estimated charging time required to
market, such as efficient charging to the battery, battery charge the car from 0% to 80% based on various charging
price, flexibility in charging stations, EV technology inno- principles. Here, the charging voltage in the first stage is
vation systems, EV sharing, and impacts related to EV and equivalent to 110–120 V, the charging voltage in the second
policy development. Thus, this review will provide signifi- stage is 220–240 V, and the charging voltage in the third
cant approaches to EV growth in the world, which are based stage or DC fast charging (DCFC) is 200–800 V. It can be
on technological advancement, identifying problems, and seen that the range of an electric vehicle is based on the
smart solutions. The following section summarizes the EV battery charge. However, at about 100 kilometers, in some
status, future EV material demand, and EV-related tech- vehicle models and some other models, the battery runs for
nology. We can see next-generation EVs and their ap- 200 to 400 kilometers. On the other hand, most of the
proaches. Nowadays, smart city development and current EV models run over 400 kilometers in China [34].
maintenance are some of the hot topics, and electric vehicles
are playing an essential role in renewable energy growth. In
this regard, the review went through an impact-related
3. The Demand of EVs
discussion. These discussions will give an overall dimension 3.1. Future Global Demand for EVs. To determine the base
to resolving EV growth and development in the world. metals in future energy-based transportation, the first step is
to create a situation where the number of EVs and future
2. Electric Vehicles (EVs) Status demand for subsequent metals can be estimated. Figure 4
shows an annual growth of three different types of EVs
EVs can be divided into two categories: hybrid EVs (HEV) (BEV, PHEV, and HEV) with historical (2010), and future
and each type of all-electric vehicle (AEV) [18, 19]. An AEV (2050) year scenarios, such as baseline (BS), Moderate (MS),
is only equipped with a motor controlled by the power and Stringent (SS) outcomes. The information used to
supply. AEV can also be divided into battery EV (BEV) and improve the situation is taken from the integrated model to
EV fuel cells (FCEV). A BEV is contained within an energy assess greenhouse effects (IMAGE), which was developed for
storage system (ESS) and a power control unit (PCU). The the database of the shared socioeconomics pathways (SSP).
difference between BEV and FCEV is that the PCU is An SSP is a long-term situation that enters the network due
connected to a hydrogen tank (HT) and fuel cells (FCs). to changes in the environment. They depend on five different
Thus, the FCEV does not require an external charging accounts, which translate into quantitative forecasts of three
system. However, BEV only relies on the external power major financial factors, namely population, currency flows,
supply of the network to load a storage unit. A plug-in and urbanization [35].
4 Complexity

Networks

BEV FCEV Charger BEV Charger FCEV Charger MHEV Charger Full-HEV Charger PHEV

Fuel Fuel
ESS Batteries HT Batteries Batteries Tank Batteries Tank
All Electric Vehicle

FC boost FCs Power FC boost Power

PCU Converter Converter Converter Converter
Electric Vehicle

Motor/ Motor/ Motor/ Motor/

Motor PCU Engine Engine ICE
Generator Generator Generator Generator
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Clutch Clutch

MHEV Full-HEV PHEV Transmission Transmission Transmission Transmission Transmission

Figure 2: Classifications of EVs.

According to the outcomes of improving the situation, the various types of individual achievements and divide the
absolute number of drivers in the basic situation is estimated overall field of EVs into several key areas, which can provide
to go from 1.13 billion in 2011 to 2.6 billion in 2050. Under increasingly important point-by-point data [36]. Due to the
moderate conditions, the number of station wagons is likely positive aspects of use and low pollution levels, EVs can
to increase to 2.55 billion by 2050, and to 2.25 billion. In promote the decarbonization of transportation, and the
difficult conditions, Figure 4 shows that in these three cases, growth of low-carbon emission urban areas has thus become
the supply of three EVs increased from year to year. one of the models to increase the enthusiasm of the auto-
mobile industry [37–39]. In any case, the future success of the
electric vehicle business depends to a great extent on inno-
3.2. Electricity Demand for EVs. The demand for EVs in the vation [40, 41]. Politicians in many countries, such as Sweden,
new political scenario is expected to reach only about 640 China, Malaysia, and South Korea, are serious about change
terawatt-hours (TWh), and the light-duty vehicle (LDV) is in the field of EVs and are developing strategies to support the
the largest pantograph of all EVs in 2030. Facts have proved technological innovation of EVs [42, 43]. However, tech-
that EVs are increasingly suitable for power supply systems, nological innovation in the field of EVs is an incredibly
so make sure that management does not prevent their use exciting topic. Figure 5 shows the analysis of the estimated
through mandatory electrical structures. It is estimated that improvement rate, where PE is the power electronics and EM
by 2030 globally, slow chargers that can be used to provide is the electric motor. The figure also shows the estimation
flexibility services to power systems will account for more steps to improve the domains (power electronics, battery,
than 60% of all electrical energy consumption. Meanwhile, electric motor as well as charging and discharging sub-
fast charging demand periods such as at night will seriously domains), which is the estimated density of the technological
affect the pile shape in the power structure [16]. improvement of each domain or subdomain in the EV field.
An improved version of the HNS model (Human,
3.3. Battery Demand for Electric Cars. The consumption of System, and Nature) is offered for the mechanical navigation
EVs and the relevant prerequisites for the production of of EVs. They considered the need for angles (H, N, and S),
batteries indicate that the automotive sector is more in- although they were balanced as another base for support.
terested in new materials. Overall, by 2030, interest in cobalt The model is converted to NHS to show versatility from N to
and lithium should increase in both cases. Generally, H, then switched to H to S. An increasingly accurate idea of
cathode science influences the ability to control investment the relationship between people, nature, and systems is that,
in metals, especially cobalt. It is necessary to increase the in practice, the frame within the circle of people is floating
reserves of cobalt and lithium to ensure the expected EV around, and two of them fall into the sphere of nature, as
absorption rate [35]. The scale of raw material interest shown in Figure 6. As shown in Figure 6, according to the
adjustment for EVs also indicates the increase in raw ma- previous model, each of the three representations has been
terial supply. Difficulties related to raw materials are mainly similarly adjusted, but according to their proposed model
associated with the growth of creativity, natural impact, and (NHS), case (a) is more supportable than (b), and (b) more
social issues. The identification and directness of raw ma- practical and therefore is better than (c). In the proposed
terials are essential tools to deal with some of these criticisms model, we need to consider nature, humans, and systems
by maintaining the actual harvesting of minerals [6, 16]. separately. Unlike humans, nature depends on us and will
remain without people as long as the structure depends on
4. EV-Related Technology both humans and nature. As a rule, support implies a
reasonable approach, which can limit negative environ-
4.1. Current EV Technology. The innovation of EVs has mental impacts, trying to maintain harmony between all
aroused great interest from experts, organizations, and three “columns.” The opinions of people and structures
strategic developers in many countries. EVs coordinate should be determined from a natural point of view [44].
Complexity 5

Fit Spark Model-3 i-MiEV e-Golf

Honda Honda Tesla Mitsubishi Volkswagen
132 km 132 km 354 km 180 km 201 km
20 kwh 19 kwh 50 kwh 16 kwh 35.8 kwh
Level 1 (15h) Level 1 (N/A) Level 1 (N/A) Level 1 (25h) Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (3h) Level 2 (7h) Level 2 (12h) Level 2 (6h) Level 2 (6h)
DCFC (N/A) DCFC (0.75h) DCFC (52/60h) DCFC (0.5h) DCFC (1h)

Battery EV Battery EV Battery EV Battery EV Battery EV

2014 2016 2017 2017 2017

2016 2017 2017

Battery EV Battery EV Battery EV
23 kwh 41 kwh 61 kwh
Level 1 (15h) Level 1 (16h) Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (3h) Level 2 (4.5h) Level 2 (3h)
DCFC (N/A) DCFC (2.67h) DCFC (N/A)
161 km 400 km 100 km
Ford Renault Renault
Focus Zoe Twizy

Leaf Mode S & X Kia Soul E-up Bolt

Nissan Tesla Kia Chevrolet Chevrolet
243 km 506 & 465 km 177 km 19 km 383 km
40 kwh 100 kwh 30 kwh 20 kwh 60 kwh
Level 1 (35h) Level 1 (96.7 & 89h) Level 1 (24h) Level 1 (N/A) Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (7.5h) Level 2 (10.7 & 9.5h) Level 2 (4.8h) Level 2 (7h) Level 2 (9.3h)
DCFC (0.5h) DCFC (1.33h) DCFC (0.75h) DCFC (0.5h) DCFC (1.33h)

Battery EV Battery EV Battery EV Battery EV Battery EV

2018 2018 2018 2018 2019

2018 2018 2018 2018

Battery and
Plug-in hybrid EV Plug-in hybrid EV Plug-in hybrid EV Pluf-in hybrid EV
8.8 kwh 18.4 kwh 25.5 kwh 33 kwh
Level 1 (5.5h) Level 1 (13h) Level 1 (12h) Level 1 (13-16h)
Level 2 (2.1h) Level 2 (4.5h) Level 2 (2.5h) Level 2 (5h)
DCFC (N/A) DCFC (0.33h) DCFC (N/A) DCFC (0.5h)
40 km 85 km 75 km 183 km
Toyota Chevrolet Honda BMW
Prius Prime Volt Clarity i3

Figure 3: The most popular electric vehicle currency positions are listed.

Human and financial factors are critical factors in (5) supercars, and
making progress. Countless people around the world have (6) electric bus and electric truck.
increased traffic. There are three types of EVs: HEV, FCEV,
and EV. According to [45], all PHEVs in a municipal fleet We are talking about EVs in highway road cars (level 2).
can be divided into six categories: These types of vehicles are modular EVs that are driven by at
least one electric motor and that use the energy that is
(1) electric bicycles and bicycles, regularly stored in battery-powered batteries. The use of
(2) street electric cars, petroleum products in the transport system causes atmo-
(3) high-speed urban EVs, spheric pollution due to the formation of particles and
unnatural meteorological changes caused by carbon dioxide
(4) low-speed electric cars,
6 Complexity

600

500

400

Million Vehicles
300

200

100

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

BEVs (BS) BEVs (MS) BEVs (SS)

PHEVs (BS) PHEVs (MS) PHEVs (SS)
HEVs (BS) HEVs (MS) HEVs (SS)

Figure 4: Annual growth of three different types of EVs stocks from 2010 to 2050 in three scenarios. Redrawn and taken permission from
Elsevier [35].

0.7 39
Battery-L-asid
Improvement
0.6 Battery-Ni rate (%)
Battery-Li-ion
Battery 38.50
0.5
34.31
Estimated density

Discharging
0.4 Charging & 30.13
Discharging 25.95
0.3 EM-Induction 21.75
EM-PM 17.56
0.2
EM 13.38
0.1 PE-Other 9.188
PE-Hybrid 5.000
0 PE 5

-0.1 Domain & Sub-domain Improvement

-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Predicted

PE Discharging
PE-Hybrid EM
PE-Other EM-Induction
Charging & Discharging EM-PM
Charging

Figure 5: The estimated technological improvement rates of domains and subdomains. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [36].

Nature Human System

Human Nature Human

System System Nature

Sustainable Unsustainable Unsustainable

Figure 6: Models for humans, structures, and nature (HNS): (a) Sustainable and (b and c) Unsustainable. Redrawn and taken permission
from Elsevier [44].
Complexity 7

and primary air pollutant emissions. Conventional vehicles and the energy stock of buildings (vehicle-to-building
on transport chassis have the most significant influence on (V2B)) function system compliance center [17, 50]. In the
dangerous atmospheric forms. There are many mineral- field of vehicles, some new results are proposed, which can
filled vehicles in the world that can carry substances that improve the availability and applicability of EVs in the most
deplete the ozone layer. modern power grids. The latest innovations include pro-
Human progress has resulted in present atmospheric prietary wireless power transfer (WPT), connected mobility
changes and ozone-depleting chemical emissions, which (CM), autonomous or autonomous EVs, and EVs’ economic
are the world’s major challenges [12, 13]. According to the saving, and life-saving power network. By using these in-
announcement issued by the European Commission, novations, the fate of the transportation sector is reversed.
transportation is the second most crucial factor in the Besides, how the future electrical transportation unit is
release of ozone-depleting substances. This is equivalent to firmly connected to the grid will affect the strength and
a quarter of the ozone layer in the European Union (EU). energy of the automotive industry’s innovation in creating
One of the primary ozone-depleting materials is CO2 gas, these titles. Figure 8 shows a classification, and Figure 9
and about 15% of the ozone-depleting elements (i.e., CO2) shows a proposed model for the future development of the
are emitted by light vehicles such as pickup trucks and EV network.
automobiles [46]. In recent years, some research projects
involving the integration of electric vehicles into low-
voltage grids have been carried out in Denmark, Norway, 4.1.3. Renewable Energy Sources. While researching the
and Sweden. Figure 7 depicts a model of a grid-connected impact of EV grid integration, it is difficult to overlook the
vehicle. The solar energy is connected to the home power work of environmentally friendly energy sources and the
supply for EV charging (during the daytime), which is significant impact of the combination of EVs and systems.
called a solar to a vehicle (S2V) power supply. This charging This section studies the effects of sustainable energy. In
process will reverse in the evening when the EV will dis- Knezovic et al. [52], the analysts considered the possibility
charge to home power by way of the vehicle-to-home and difficulty of coordinating inexhaustible energy sources
(V2H) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) processes. The issue of (for example, based on wind and sun) to provide energy for
local area network constraints for locating electric vehicles battery charging, and then started again from the per-
with sufficient power in low-voltage residential area net- spective of limiting greenhouse gas emissions. When
works has been researched [13, 47]. adaptable loads are used, the problem of reducing the
stability of the power structure due to the abuse of sus-
tainable energy has not yet been significantly resolved.
4.1.1. Flexible and Innovative System in the Car. The ad- PEVs can charge EVs in peak-off hours or when renewable
vantages of EVs connected to the network include two-way energy is available. Consider that the benefit of answering
dynamics. Therefore, this application (Dynamic Mobility the request is to improve the charge coordination of using
between EVs and PHEV) will become an important choice low-carbon or low-carbon energy. It is assumed that the
for the smart grid area [48]. In addition, it is often used as the strength structure representation of the use of DE (dis-
source of an energy crisis. An energy management mech- tributed energies) assets will be further improved and
anism is needed to promote the link between household combined with sustainable energy. There is a lack of co-
business taxes and fast car charging. The power control ordination between the host and the distributed generation
mechanism is fractioning in two directions. For example, it energy system (DESS) with sustainable energy, which can
works with an inverter to convert the direct current dis- be completed under the basic and maximum loads. At the
charged by the battery into alternating current for home use optimal time, additional energy is fed into the grid. From
and works with a rectifier (for example, when the current what is written, the work in this field basically meets the
direction is opposite) to charge the battery. However, electric broader prospects, which represents the study of the entire
vehicles can be the best option to supply the various utilities future interesting grid system and network [13].
because of their facilities and advantages [13, 49], such as the
following:
4.1.4. Smart Grid Structure. Currently, the construction of
(1) The charging station has large-scale loads compared the power grid does not meet the required flexibility. The
to residential loads. smart grid is a complex system that is connected to all grid
(2) In this situation, the transmission capacity has better networks. To exhibit all system screen characters for this
response speeds. application, various networks need to be effectively copied,
(3) The charging points are available and have high connected, and approved. However, the architect did not pay
flexibility. much attention to the plan of the grid network. The fol-
lowing are the main components of planning a keen system
[13, 17].
4.1.2. Future Development Model of Electric Vehicle Network
(EVGI). EVs can be used not only for transportation but (1) The substructure of the system must be adaptable
also as electrical loads (grid-to-vehicle (G2V)), the corre- and its components must be considered.
sponding energy stock of the grid (vehicle-to-grid (V2G)), (2) The structured grid model should be able to support
the energy stock of various EVs (vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)), future expansion.
8 Complexity

Renewable
Grid stability Energy Grid

Evening time Day time

S2V
EV/PEV EV/PEV
Discharging Household V2G
controller Electric vehicles
Electricity EVs
EVs Grid EVs Grid

Charge to EVs
V2H

Home Home
V2G
power power

Figure 7: The relationship between EVs and the grid.

Wireless power transfer is the latest

technique to charge / discharge the EVs
without any physical contac between source
and load. WPT transfers electrical energy
through electromagnetics.

Connected mobility (CM) is the concept of

communication between vehicle-to-vehicle, Wireless power transfer
vehicle to a roadside base station, passenger,
traffc signal, power grid, etc.
Connected mobility
Autonomous or self driving vehicles are the next
generation vehicles, which have the ability to
sense their surroundings and act upon it. It is a
driverless technology, where the vehicle itself Autonomous EVs
decides the travelling route, identifes road
conditions, operates the vehicle to reach the
destination set by the user.
EV shared economy
With the technological advancement in EV
technologies, a new concept of vehicle
ownership may evolve in the near future using Energy intennet
theshared economy or collaborative
consumption concept.

EVs may play a vital role in the development of

the energy internet (EI) technology. The EI
concept, frst introduced by Jeremy Rifkin, is to
unify the power, transportation, gas, and thermal
systems in a single platform.

Figure 8: Classification of EV network.

(3) When planning the structure, the structure and types of batteries used in EVs. Cars like the Nissan LeFeng
points of the programming/device/grid structures and Mitsubishi iMiev use lithium batteries as an indis-
should be considered. pensable source of energy. On the other hand, in half of the
(4) If the system update program is activated, it should EVs, such as the Toyota Prius, nickel-metal hydride batteries
be executed automatically. are used as primary resources [53]. The only source of energy
that is remembered in EVs is batteries. It should be mea-
sured satisfactorily in order to promote energy transfer
4.2. Energy Storage Technology. Battery innovation is the so- continuously. Before the battery is completely discharged, it
called hot topic related to electric cars. The junction point is can now confirm the additional charge generated by the
the anode, and the electrons move toward the cathode. At regeneration process, for example, decelerating. Experts
the same time, there is no electrical prevoltage during the note that the safe zone is about 20%, which means that the
movement of particles in the electrolyte. Lithium particles emission zone should not exceed 80%, although it is possible
(Li particles) and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) are two to determine the state of a slow regenerative charge.
Complexity 9

Communication flow

Swith, Router Energy Network

Communication

Power plants
Electrolyzer
Channel Boiler

Information Network
Thermal Network
Data processing Thermoelectic Fuel cell Vehicle
Optimal regulation coupler
Data collection
Intelligent control Power Network

Electic
Utility control center Vehicle
Transportation
distribution control Network
center, transmission
control center Renewable
Eenergy Power/
energy flow

Figure 9: Structure of energy internet. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [51].

Figure 10 shows an example of the EV battery charging 100% +

capacity.
For this reason, during the hour of charging the battery 20% SOC
[54], the stock increases by about 5%. If the highest state of

Reserve (Safety Margin)

charge (SOC) is 95% of the first SOC and the highest release

Battery Capacity

Over charge risk

80% not exceed
Operating range
rate is 20% of the first SOC, the battery size must be de-
termined so that the required limit is correctly reached. The
charge state is the current battery charge limit (upper limit),
and deep discharge is the battery level released as the upper
limit. Although the vehicle battery at the intersection is the
primary source of energy for the traction, the goal is that, as
with the device being measured, the limit of the required 95% SOC
battery should be a series of hybrid organized vehicles [13]. 0% –
Due to the fact that the internal combustion engine of a plug-
Figure 10: EV battery capacity.
in hybrid vehicle of this design distributes the required
energy for the pedaling force, the required limit for the
battery is small. In addition, batteries used in plug-in hybrid determine the charging of EVs. The power for moderate
vehicles must flexibly meet the activity requirements. When charging is approximately 3.3 kW and the power for fast DC
the car stops at a low speed, it behaves like an electric car charging is approximately 50 kW [55].
battery. In this sense, it is necessary to improve the battery to At the simplest level, it is necessary to use chargers to
limit its highest point, freeing its depth to a higher level. To power the battery from a conventional single-phase power
know the energy storage device, energy generation system, source or a level two AC charging station or to connect a
and energy sources for PEVs, the details of the approach can plug-in hybrid electric vehicle that is an integral part of the
be found in Figure 11. innovation of the complete vehicle. This innovation means
The energy storage (ES) system is a rapidly growing that, for example, in Europe, people can connect electricity
technology. ES gives attention to a solid-state storage system. from a conventional single-phase 230 V AC socket via ex-
This is indicative of the fast pace of development in the car ternal vehicle accessories and then convert internal devices
battery area, whereas technical performance has a vital role to DC to charge the battery. Charging is usually possible at
in economic development. A comparative study evaluates these locations with low voltage frames. On the other hand,
the capital costs of different energy storage technologies [54]. more and more people were demanding that the power of
The literature report shows that the energy storage capital the DC station be quickly charged to 50 kW, while the power
cost depends on several facts, such as cost per kilowatt, per organized for the Tesla compressor was 120 kW.
kilowatt-hour, and kilowatt-hour per cycle. For example, the
supercapacitors, li-ion, flywheels, and sodium sulfate storage
4.2.2. Charging Cage for Electric Cars. Another essential
costs are calculated by kilowatt, kilowatt-hour, and fuel cell,
aspect of EVs is the charging of batteries. The charging speed
and flow batteries costs are measured by kilowatt-hour per
of the battery depends on the type of charger used and the
period.
main battery charge. In most cases, the charger is divided
into four levels, from level 1 to level 4. In many EVs that use
4.2.1. Battery Charging Methods. Several structures can be power supplies from home devices, level 1 chargers are EVSE
used to charge EVs. The power level (kW), the electricity (Electric Vehicle Maintenance) devices compared to implicit
used, the accessories, and the battery types are factors that chargers that can be used in electric cars to charge fully for
10 Complexity

Energy storage devices

Battery Fly-wheel
Bearing
A battery is the most widespread Flywheels store energy in the angular

Vacuum chamber
energy storage device in power momentum of a highspeed
system applications with the ability rotating mass (rotor) in a high vaccum
Flywheel
to convert the stored chemical environment which enables
energy into electrical energy. them to minimize the windage losses
and protect the rotor assembly
Super-capacitor Motor/Generator

from external disturbances. Bearing

Supercapacitors (CS), also named
Hydraulic accumulator
ultra-capacitors, have a similar Weight
structure as conventional capacitors Hydraulic accumulators (HACCs) are
but store energy by means of an used to store and subsequently release
electrolyte solution between two hydraulic energy through a variable
solid conductors. displacement high pressure
pump/motor (P/M). Pump

Hydrogen storage Outlet

H2
Hydrogen Hydrogen energy is one of the most popular energies due to
storage its storable, transportable, and clean nature.
(a)

Energy generation systems

Fuel cell systems Photovoltaic cell systems

FC systems convert chemical Photovoltaic (PV) cells (or called +

U (DC) dc output

Heat Heat energy into electricity through solar cells) can convert sunlight –

-e -e

chemical reactions between directly into electricity. Sun

Phovoltaic (PV) Cell
Hydrogen in Oxygen in hydrogen (or hydrocarbon
such as methanol, natural
Water out
gas) and oxygen (from air) Regenerative
with the help of catalysts. braking systems
Battery

Regenerative braking systems can

Motor
provide energy for vehicles Drive Mode
Controller
Regeneration Mode

through recovering and storing

Motor/
the kinetic energy of the Generator

vehicle decelerating stage in the Transmission

energy storage devices.

(b)
Figure 11: Continued.
Complexity 11

Pure Electric vehicles (PEVs)

energy source

Single-source PEVs
Battery
The single-source PEVs only have a Chargers
single energy source to propel the Engine
vehicles, such as BEVs and FCEVs. Generator Inverter

Motor
Dual-source PEVs
1 2

The dual-source PEVs combine two

Engine

Generator
energy source in the vehicle
3 Traction
4
Power
propulsion system, and can overcome
Motor compound
devise
the shortcomings of utilizing a single
Dual Power
Power battery Electronics Controller energy source, such as battery
and SC, flywheel, HACC, FC.
Power Flow
Multi-source PEVs Direction

Mechanical Transmission
The multi-source PEVs consist of at
least three energy source in HSE Energy Source (Variable Frequency Drive)

the vehicle powertrain, such as 96V VFD

FC-battery-SC, FC-SC-PV cell,

battery-SC-PV cell and battery-FC-SC. HSP Energy Source

SC Multiple Inputs Power Convert

with Power Flow Controller

Electrical connection
Mechanical connection
(c)

Figure 11: Classification of (a) energy storage devices, (b) energy generation systems, and (c) PEVs energy sources.

7–9 hours. Tier 3 and Tier 4 chargers are chargers that use EVs should be limited during periods of maximum energy
advanced DC charging methods to charge EV batteries le- consumption. The following mode (controlled state of
gitimately. This kind of configuration is mostly used in charge) is considered as follows.
Singapore [56]. From the beginning, the battery pack and the bend of the
battery pack were chosen according to the type of day. If it is
possible to restore the possibility that the battery can hardly
4.2.3. Approximate Time to Charge the Battery. The Inde- be fully charged at night the next night, the total load at night
pendent State of Charging: In this state, 55% of the battery should be less than the estimated shutdown time, which
charge is completed during a period of low use (from 10 : 00 depends on the peak load the next day. The updated lithium
p.m. to 7 : 00 a.m.), and additionally, 45% is supplied from 7 : battery is suitable for charging EVs with a range of 170
00 a.m. to 10 : 00 a.m. In the subsequent express delivery, kilometers. The maximum battery charge of EVs is around
75% of the battery charge of the electric vehicle ends when 20 to 30 kWh. EV FC batteries can charge 80% of EVs in less
used less (from 10 : 00 p.m. to 7 : 00 a.m.), and the remaining than 30 minutes.
25% is made available between 7 : 00 a.m. and 10 : 00 p.m. In
this example, synchronous loading or first loading is con-
sidered one of the most effective strategies. The transaction 4.3. EVs Next-Generation
costs for energy, a measure of the energy consumption of a
battery in the state of charge (SOC), are regarded as the 4.3.1. EV and HEV Unit Design and Advanced Unit De-
parameters of this technology. In an uncontrolled state of velopment Guide. Therefore, the main models of EVs that
charge, 55% of the charging time of the battery is used compete with vehicles with an internal combustion engine
during periods of low usage (from 10 : 00 p.m. to 7 : 00 a.m.) (ICE) are battery EVs (BEV), hybrid EVs (HEV), fuel cell
and the remaining 45% at 7 : 00 a.m. (10 : 00 p.m.) provided vehicles (FC), fuel cell hybrid EVs (FCHEV), and hybrid
between them [12]. solar EVs (HSEV). Figure 13 shows the architectures, and
To complete the checkpoint, an accurate assessment of the related inspections of ICE vehicles and charging vehicles
the relevant conditions for the electric vehicle must be are summarized. The development of environmentally
characterized. The proposed charging time is shown in friendly advanced vehicles based on advanced electric
Figure 12. It should be noted that one of the primary driving technologies should focus on the following aspects:
problems with this strategy is that the charging of connected reduction of costs, an increase in productivity, and the
12 Complexity

80
15

12 60
EV Charging (%)

EVs (%)
9
40
6
20
3

0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (hr) Total available EV (%)
Controlled charging Type 1 (EV)
UnControlled charging Type 2 (EV)
Type 3 (EV)
(a) (b)

Figure 12: Charging schedule of EVs. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [13]. (a) Charging is limited during peak times.
(b) Charging process is completed before 6 a.m.

implementation of high power density [57]. The progress of vehicle (beneficiary or optional). The transmitter side is
the key authorizations that can improve the aforementioned installed on the street to get low repetitive power from the
engine performance can be summarized as [58–60]: network, convert it to high frequency (HF), and control the
It is impossible to determine the absolute superiority of transmitter circuit. The EMF generated by the transmitter is
one technology over another, and a technological decision combined with the receiver’s fluctuations (in the vehicle) to
must be made after analyzing a number of factors for a excite the HF voltage and flux in the auxiliary circuit. The
particular application. In this context, after protecting the optional HF power supply has been recertified to charge the
essential requirements for a specific EV or HEV vehicle vehicle’s energy storage structure (such as a battery). Fig-
(torque, power, speed, transmission specifications, etc.), the ure 15 also shows the close relationship between various
key features that need to be compared to choose the right innovations in terms of performance level, driving separa-
technology can be summarized as follows [58, 61]: tion, and repetitive work [51].
(a) space required for installation and allowable weight
of the machine (or specific power); 4.4. EV Smart City Development. The idea of a smart city
(b) special reliability requirements; dates back to 2009, proposed by IBM in the United States
[67]. The general definition emphasizes the use of infor-
(c) overall efficiency over the entire operating range; mation and communication technology (ICT) in vehicles,
(d) the normal speed of the torque; energy supply, and management personnel, open funds,
(e) overload capacity of the unit; and urban assets of management personnel, and administrative
(f ) the total cost includes material and production. departments in a new era to improve and change the eco-
logical productivity of cities [10]. Besides, this study also
plays a significant role, as the so-called “understanding” also
4.3.2. Technological Approach from WPT. The world has implies updating the management structure, in which the
started to discover the wireless power transfer (WPT) system monitoring, recovery, investment, and improvement mod-
for various applications such as electric cars, home appliances, ules are combined to provide a structured strategy [68, 69].
mobile phones, laptops, home appliances, medical devices, Smart cities are looking for new solutions to address
and electric vehicles. Figure 14 shows a classification scheme some of the urban dilemmas (environmental, social, and
for various wireless energy transmission technologies. WPT financial) caused by the network, development, and the
technology can be divided into four main categories: far-field, operation of underlying conditions (such as vehicles, waste,
near-field transmission [51, 62], mechanical force like mag- energy). However, this cooperation is not always recog-
netic gear, and acoustic gear [63–65]. Magnetic transmission nizable and should be tested for the most considerable
technology uses mechanical forces to convert energy. It was advantage [10, 11].
initially introduced to replace conventional connected devices Due to the enormous demand for energy and the sig-
and has proven itself for various applications, e.g., for the nificant impact on air pollution and other related external
fixed charging of EVs, driving electric cars, wind energy, and influences (such as social security costs), fast, competent,
low-performance medical devices [66]. and clean energy and transport structures are one of the
The inductive power transfer (IPT) and EV framework main problems that community governments usually face
are shown in Figure 15. The frame has two electrically [70]. For example, with regard to a cleaner and more efficient
separated sides: ground (transmitter, grid, or basic) and framework, transport policies have been adopted in many
Complexity 13

Feature ICE vehicle

Propulsion System ICE based
Energy storage Fuel tank
Energy source Mechanical Petrol
Energy source infrastructure Transmission Refueling station
Well-to-tank 88.0%
ICE
Tank-to-wheel 12.1%
Well-to-wheel 10.6%
Commercialized Yes
Smooth operation No
Emissions Very high
System complexity Very low
Bulky Yes

Feature EV
Propulsion System ED based
Energy storage Transmission Battery Ultra capacitor Flywheel
Energy source Electric
Energy source infrastructure M/G Charging station
Well-to-tank 37.0%
Tank-to-wheel Power Electronic 83%
Well-to-wheel converter 31.3%
Commercialized Yes
Smooth operation + – Yes
Emissions No
System complexity low
Bulky No

(a)

Transmission Transmission Transmission

M/G
ICE
Power Electronic M/G M/G
converter ICE
GENERATOR

GENERATOR Power Electronic

converter Power Electronic
ICE converter
+ – + –
+ –

Series HEV Parallel HEV Series-Parallel HEV

Feature
Plug-in HEV
Propulsion System
ICE & ED based
Transmission Energy storage
Fuel tank Battery Ultra capacitor Flywheel Transmission
Energy source
Petrol & electric
M/G Energy source infrastructure
Charging station & refueling station ICE
M/G
Power Electronic Well-to-tank
ICE
Depend on the specifc vehicle
converter Tank-to-wheel Power Electronic
Depend on the specifc vehicle converter
Well-to-wheel
M/G Depend on the specifc vehicle
+ – Commercialized
Partially + –
Smooth operation
Yes
Emissions
Low
System complexity
Complex HEV High Plug in HEV
Bulky
Yes
(b)
Figure 13: Continued.
14 Complexity

Fuel cell HEV Fuel cell HEV Solar HEV

M/G M/G
ICE
M/G
Power Electronic
Power Electronic
converter
converter Power Electronic
converter
DC/DC
DC/DC
converter
converter + –
B,UC
+ –

Hydrogen cylinder Hydrogen cylinder Solar panel

Feature FC
Propulsion System ED based
Energy storage Fuel tank Battery Ultra capacitor Flywheel
Energy source Hydrogen
Energy source infrastructure Hydrogen refner & refueling station
Well-to-tank 58.4%
Tank-to-wheel 46.6%
Well-to-wheel 27.2%
Commercialized No
Smooth operation Yes
Emissions Ultra low
System complexity Very high
Bulky No
(c)

Figure 13: ICE, EV, EC, and HEV architecture and characteristics. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [58]. (a) ICV vs. EV
architecture, (b) HEV architecture, (c) FC and HSVE architecture.

urban areas to reduce pollution [71], and research and As smart cities, smart infrastructure, and ICT-based
development differ from the traditional structure. Among management are also core components of smart industrial
these other options, electric cars are some of the most fa- parks. Figure 17 also shows the overall technical structure of
mous vehicles and deserve a lot of research. For example, the smart industrial parks, including smart infrastructure and
link already includes a method of charging EVs. When technologies that support efficient resource management in
presenting an overview of the smart tariff system, reference industrial parks, smart decision support tools that support
[50] discusses the use of EVs as a capacity. Fernandez et al. the evaluation and optimization of smart industrial parks.
[72] and Beer et al. [73] or its effect on the grid and its use as The stylish design of urban industrial symbols, supporting
a representative tool for maintaining sustainable energy in resources, and the optimal use of energy parks, as well as
references Baloglu and Demir [74] and Villar et al. [75]. smooth business models and design software packages ION,
support the implementation of smart industrial parks [69].

4.4.1. General SEMS Management Scheme. Given these

points, Figure 16 shows the overall design of the proposed 4.4.2. Overview of V2G, S2V, and V2I Structure
sustainable energy management system (SEMS) control sys-
tem. To ensure reliable mobility, the level with the least control (1) Vehicle to Grid. V2G provides intelligent network op-
level (excitation level) follows the usual method, which de- erations through DR (Demand Response) services between
pends on the PID (proportional integral derivative) and the EVs and the electricity grid. V2G here refers to the trans-
rule-based controller. On this floor, there are thermostatic mission of electricity and related data between transport and
radiator valves (TRV) in each flat, siphons, and valves that feed network systems, which implements the synergy between the
the thermosiphons, boilers, and storage, as well as switches two needed to achieve an intelligent city. Figure 18 shows a
connected to all other electrical resources [76]. possible block diagram of a V2G structure [77].
A technical basis of a smart city pilot project in China
shows in Figure 17. Government, business, and citizens are (2) Sun to Vehicle. EVs currently in use worldwide require
the main actors. Based on the infrastructure of information charging stations similar to those required for fuel-based
and communication technologies, intelligent management, vehicles. The use of a charging station powered by photo-
smart economy, smart citizens, and service are highlighted voltaic cells to charge solar energy is called S2V or EV-PV
in detail [69]. charging [78–80]. Figure 18 shows the smart grid concept
Complexity 15

Induction
Up to 400 mm
Magnetic 3 kHz–1 MHz
field
Magnetic resonant
Electromagnetic
Up to 400 mm
Magnetic gear Rotational fields 100 kHz–10 MHz
100–150 mm magnets Electric
150 Hz–300 Hz field Capacitive
Few centimeters
Several MHz
Mechanical WPT Near-field
technologies

Laser
Acoustic Sound waves Electromagnetic Microwave
70–300 mm Rariation
0.5–3 MHz Radio-wave
Tens of meters up to several kilometers
300 MHz–300 GHz
Acoustic
Far-field

Figure 14: Wireless power transfer (WPT) technology. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [51].

Rectifier/Power
Regulator Three-phase source
3Φ
AC / DC
conversion
– + Compensation

Battery

Compensation DC / AC AC / DC
conversion conversion

High Frequency

Figure 15: Inductive power transfer (IPT) system for EV charging.

Thermal power plant

Sm
art
tra
ns
mi
ssi
on
an
dd
Hydro power plant ist
rib
uti
on
Factories

Electric Vehicles

City & Buildings Nuclear power plant

s
ource es
ergy r

Smart house
ble en

Transportation
ne wa
Re

Solar power plant

Renewable energy resources

Wind power plant
Figure 16: Overall energy management system.
16 Complexity

Smart decision
support tool
Promote low-
carbon life styles

energy management
Smart Resource and

and business model

Smart Governance
Urban resource
management

Transform into
eco-city
Smart Cities Industrial claster
Regional sustainable
development
Smart Infrastructures Smart Infrastructures and technologies

5 No DSM

4
3
2 Demand
Sensors

1 resource
With energy efficiency
0
0 10 20 30 40
Smart devices

Energy monitoring and Cloud service and big Data visualization and Demand side
management data management management (DSM)
Figure 17: Example of smart infrastructures and smart technologies.
V2G

Nuclear

Solar
V2G
Wind V2G

Power generation Smart Grid V2G charger Plug in EV

controller

DC/DC S2V
converter
Solar charger Electric Vehicles
S2V

controller
Solar Grid Market
Inverter Supply Operator
Solar PV panel

Cellular
comms

RSU-1 RSU-2
V2I
V21

Controller
Station
OBU

Figure 18: Example of V2G, S2V, and V2I structure.

implemented by S2V. Although the concept and imple- (3) From Vehicles to Infrastructure. Communication V2I is
mentation of solar machines are quite old, Birnie mainly one of the latest technologies in the fields of communications
uses the term S2V in his work [81]. He suggests that during and automotive technology. In V2I, cars establish commu-
the day, passengers who use electric cars every day can be nication with the road unit for the exchange of information.
charged by solar panels in the parking lot. These solar Because of the different vehicle speeds, this architecture tends
systems, used as charging stations for EVs, can help balance to create a dynamic performance. Some of the main problems
the current and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, thereby solved with V2I technology are the increase in workload and
reducing carbon emissions. road safety while reducing the environmental impact [77].
 Table 1: Leading countries’ national EV battery improvement technology and GHG emission.
Development
Country Main aspect (finding)
topic
Complexity

Economical Technological Social Environmental

Improve stability, acceleration sensor, fault Ensure safety, display panel, intelligent
Operating
Low price, improved detection, wireless communication, wireless electric vehicle, liquid crystal display,
of EV
efficiency transmission, intelligent control; older: stable operation, USB interface, alarm
Forklift truck, electric scooter module, easy use; older: Improve safety
Braking energy Charge and discharge control; older: Battery Cruise/drive control, acceleration
Controlling of
recovery, vehicle service life, supercapacitor, electric braking, performance, driving safety, speed
EV
weight remote monitoring control; older: Travel distance
China Stability of battery, anti-collision, China greenhouse gas emissions 10% by
The battery
replacement battery, battery balancing, transportation sector in 2019 [82]
module of the — —
battery protection; older: Anti-theft, anti-
EV
explosion
Inductive charging, charging condition,
maximum load, charging efficiency, energy
Touch screen, charging schedule,
Charging of EV — transmission, charging pile, charged control;
parking lots/spaces
older: Mobile charging, charging power,
noncontact
Extend battery life,
Operating of EV — Self-locking
data collection
Transportation sector accounted for 29% of
Controlling of
— Smaller battery — total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2019
EV
USA [83]. Contribution of GHG emission
The battery
reduction of approx. 0.15% from 2005 to
module of the — — —
2019, respectively. [83]
EV
Charging of EV — — Older departure time
Safety device, reliable operation; older:
Operating of EV — —
easy maintenance
Controlling of Regenerative power generation, integrated Transport accounted for 27% EU-28
Development cost Driving experience, user experience
EV control; older: Battery power consumption greenhouse gas emissions in 2017 [84].
Europe The battery Contribution of GHG emission reduction of
Older: Service
module of the Battery balancing — approx. 0.035% from 2005 to 2017,
lifetime
EV respectively [84]
Vehicle network, mobile device; older:
Charging of EV — Battery condition; older: RFID tag
Mobile communication
Operating of EV — — —
Distance travel, cost
Controlling of
reduced battery life, — Japan’s transportation sector emitted 12.44%
EV
data collection of the country’s CO2 in FY2018 [85].
Japan
The battery Transport sector: 4.5 million tons (2.1%)
module of the — Housing battery Quick change decrease in FY2018 [86]
EV
Charging of EV — — —
17
18 Complexity

50,000

40,000

Articles published (2010-2023) 30,000

20,000

10,000

0
2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023
Electric Vehicle (EV) EV technology
EV battery EV CO2 emission
EV adoption EV sharing networks
EV environment impact EV health impact
EV policy EV safety
EV advantage & disadvantage EV with smart city
Figure 19: Number of published articles in EV technology, battery, CO2 emission, adoption, sharing network, environmental and health
impact, policy, safety, smart city development, advantage and disadvantage (the data source taken from ScienceDirect).

Figure 18 shows the block diagram of the overall in- charging rules, smart cities, robust adaptive frameworks, and
stallation of V2I. In this structure, only servers around the business structures, policy, CO2 emission reduction, and
domain need the Internet, where information can be pre- reduction to measure the impact on the environment,
pared and distributed as required. A global server with an health, and power grid are fundamental to ensuring the most
Internet office can be used in conjunction with all competent significant advantages from EVs with circulated benefit.
authorities and contains a database for storing all data Besides, Energy Internet will become an innovative network
recorded by vehicles in motion. The car is suitable for in the future and will use the latest energy frame panel to
continuously separating data about environmental and ve- compute the energy framework fully. This study introduces
hicle conditions, which must be systematically returned to all parts of the development structure of electric cars. After
the domain server. These can be completed through the incorporating the principles of EVs and their adoption
onboard unit (OBU), equipped with a camera, and installing globally, electric vehicles must be widely known in the
the sensor inside or inside the vehicle. The remote standard market. We carefully analyze the known electric car ap-
IEEE 802.11p (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing proach guidelines and many components so that future
(OFDM)) is used to implement the physical V2I layer (PHY) professionals can understand the solutions that will be
with multichannel ambiguity. OBU can display 2G, 3G, 4G, implemented. Also, the various parts of the current
or Wi-Fi to provide better usability in areas with little traffic. framework used to load the communication and EV sharing
networks have been carefully examined and improved, for
5. Contribution of EV Technology Improvement example, strengths, consistency, control, and coordination
and GHG Emission Reduction strength, including their benefits and drawbacks. This study
also suggests future research recommendations to overcome
Table 1 shows the leading countries’ national EV battery the tide. A letter on the future possibilities for electric cars
technology improvement systems and their contribution of shows that the exploration area needs to be reviewed.
GHG emissions. China and the United States are the leading
countries in the area of improving control over EVs.
6.2. Current Research Trends. Figure 19 shows the current
6. Conclusions, Current Research Trends, and research article trends and the number of published papers
Future Recommendation between 2010 and 2023 on EV-related topics. It can be
observed that the current research trends follow the study
6.1. Conclusion. It is expected that progress in the devel- topic, whereas EV technology is the top hot topic in these
opment of EVs and contributions to the overall resources research areas. There are 47498 plus articles published in
and facilities of renewable energy will improve the global 2021, and the current year’s published amount is about
reputation of electric cars. In this sense, additional tech- 34737. The second position is the EV environmental impact
nology improvements such as appropriate and reasonable topic. There are 4844 additional articles published between
Complexity 19

2020 and 2021, and till this year, 2022, about 10973 materials References
are already online. However, in the current year, publication
topics such as EV battery, EV safety, EV health impact, and [1] M. Rebecca, “The history of the electric car,” 2014, https://
EV sharing networks are 8621, 7838, 5219, and 2251 higher www.energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car.
[2] A. Arancibia and K. Strunz, “Modeling of an electric vehicle
than EV policy, EV CO2 emission, EV adoption, and EV
charging station for fast DC charging,” in Proceedings of the
with smart city 1429, 1300, 1150, and 50, respectively. On the
Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC) IEEE International,
other hand, the EV advantage and disadvantage number of
Greenville, SC, USA, March 2012.
articles are significantly low. It is concluded that in the recent [3] N. Karali et al., Vehicle-grid Integration, Lawrence Berkeley
years from 2010 ahead, there has been significant progress in National Laboratory, Califonia, CL, USA, 2017.
electric vehicle technology, which gives this subject the [4] W. Su, Smart Grid Operations Integrated with Plug-In Electric
conviction area of exploration. Vehicles and Renewable Energy Resources, North Carolina
State University, Raleigh, NC, USA, 2013.
[5] N. Lebedeva, F. Di Persio, and L. Boon-Brett, Lithium Ion
6.3. Future Recommendation. After reviewing the current Battery Value Chain and Related Opportunities for Europe,
research on electric vehicles (EVs) status, it is felt that the 2017.
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