LESSON 4:

NEO-BEHAVIORISM
Facilitating Learner-centered Teaching By: Ferdinand Bulusan, Marcelo R. Raquepo, Marilyn L. Balmeo and Joselito C. Gutierrez By:
Rex Books Store 2019

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• distinguish behaviorism by Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner to Neo-Behaviorism by

Tolman and Bandura,
• relate the salient features of Tolman's purposive behaviorism and Bandura's social-cognitive theory
to actual teaching, and
• analyze detailed lesson plans using the principles of Tolman's purposive behaviorism and Bandura's
social-cognitive theory
THINK
As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill in the gap between behaviorism
and cognitive learning beliefs. It is called neo-behaviorism. Notable psychologists that contributed much in
the development of neo-behaviorism included Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura. The neo behaviorists
were more self-consciously trying to formalize the laws of behavior. They believed that some mediating
variables into the established stimulus-response theory contribute much to learning.
Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
Purposive learning encapsulates Edward Tolman's theory. He insisted that all behavior is directed
because of a purpose. Hence, all behaviors are focused on achieving some goals by cognition-an intervening
variable For Tolman, a behavior is never merely the result of mindless S-R connections, He further believed
that "mental processes are to be identified in terms of the behaviors to which they lead." In other words, his
intervening variables are tied to observable behaviors.
In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes for 17 days. The first group of rats was fed
(rewarded) every time they found their way out. The second group of rats was non-reinforced. The rats did
not receive any food from days 1 to 10 even if they have seen the end point. Later, it was observed that in
the first 10 days, the rats developed a cognitive map. Hence, from day 11 onward, they were motivated to
perform and look for the end point faster than the first group to find food because they were hungry.
From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a behavior because it has a
purpose or a goal. It has also led to the birth of latent learning a form of learning that occurs without any
visible reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. In addition, latent learning occurs
every time an organism sees a reason to perform or show it. For instance, a 4-year-old boy observed his
father in using the TV remote control. When he would be left alone and had the opportunity to turn on the
TV using the remote control, he could easily demonstrate the learning.
Another distinctive feature of the purposive behaviorism is the coining of the term "cognitive map."
According to Tolman, it is a mental illustration of the layout of the environment. It is believed that
everything in our cognitive map influences our interaction with the environment. Hence, making our
cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning.
Tolman's Other Salient Principles
1. Behavior is always purposive. By this, he meant that all behavior is ignited to accomplish a specific
goal. In its purest sense, a demonstration of learning is the outcome of possessing a purpose to show
it.
2. Behavior is cognitive. The expectations that underlie and guide behavior are cognitions. This means
that an organism is mindful of the connections between specific actions and certain outcomes
(cognitive map). Such mental map is developed by expanding the experiences, coupled with the
stimuli and rewards. Notably, Tolman considered a cognition as an abstraction or a theoretical
invention. He believed that cognitions should only be inferred from behavior, not through
introspection.
3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies. Tolman also underscored the role of
reinforcement in learning. As previously stated, learning, according to Tolman, deals with
connections between stimuli and expectancies or perceptions, representations, needs, and other
intervening variables. Because expectancies develop situations in which reinforcement is possible,
the role of reinforcement is primarily one of confirming expectancies. The more often an
expectancy in established, the more likely it is that the stimuli (signs) associated with it will become
linked with the relevant significate (expectancy).

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Under the social learning theory, learning occurs within the social context and by observing and
copying others' behavior or imitation (Akers & Jensen, 2006.). Albert Bandura is the proponent of this
theory, where modeling is a crucial component. Modeling refers to a change in one's behavior by observing
models (Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978). Historically, modeling was equated with imitation, but modeling is
a more inclusive concept (Mussen, 1983).
Bandura's theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because of the influence of cognition in
his theory. He is one among few behaviorists who believed that humans process information through.
cognition. The term self-efficacy has bridged social learning theory and cognitive psychology, Self efficacy
is defined as one's evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish or perform an action in a particular
context. Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as capable, or useful, in dealing with the world and
with other people.
The following are the fundamental principles of social learning theory:
1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior. This is in contrast to what other behaviorists
discussed earlier, for them, a change in behavior is always an indication of learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model. That model possesses characteristics (ie... intelligence,
physical aura, popularity, or talent) that a learner finds attractive and desirable Admiration plays
an essential role in imitating a particular behavior of the model. This explains why speech teachers
recite a crucial sound first, then guide the learners until they can recite the sound correctly by
themselves.
3. An observing person will always react to the one being imitated depending on whether the model
is rewarded or punished. If the model receives rewards, the imitator copies the behavior, and if the
former is punished, the latter will most likely avoid copying the behavior.
 4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different. Bandura made a demarcation line between
performing and acquiring a behavior. One can acquire the behavior by observing someone but may
opt not to perform it until the context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning. Social learning may occur successfully when
learners interact with their co-learners and models (Mourlam, 2013). Learning in isolation may
dampen self-efficacy. This means that copying behavior involves the guiding of one person's
behavior by another person, such as when an art instructor gives guidance and corrective feedback
to an art student who is attempting to draw a picture. With copying behavior, the final "copied"
response is reinforced and thereby strengthened.
6. Learning is self-regulated. Bandura noted that self-regulation occurs when individuals observe,
assess, and judge their behavior against their standards, and subsequently reward and punish them.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously. Vicarious learning is acquired from observing the
consequences of others behavior. For instance, when a model is given praises and rewards, the
observer may likely repeat the copied behavior because he or she feels the same satisfaction, too.
8. Learning may be reinforced by the model or by others. Compliments coming from the model may
strengthen the occurrence of the behavior. Similarly, when a person is praised by his or her peers
because of a change in behavior, he or she may show an increase in that behavior.
Components of Successful Modeling
1. Attention. To meaningfully perceive relevant behaviors, one should pay attention. At any given
moment, one can attend to many activities. The characteristics of the model and the observer
influence one's attention to models. This explains why teachers make use of bright colors or large
fonts in their instructional aids for modeling to snatch the attention of the learners
2. Retention. Paying attention to something should result in retention that requires cognitively
organizing, rehearsing, coding, and transforming modeled information for storage in memory
Rehearsal also serves a vital role in the retention of knowledge. This is a mental review of
information. Sometimes, the observer retains the information through association and cognitive
pattern. In a dance class, for instance, an observer counts 1-2-3-4 and 5 with corresponding steps
to store the dance steps in his or her memory. Rehearsal without coding and coding without
rehearsal are less effective.
3. Production. To strengthen learning through observation, one needs to translate the visual and
symbolic conceptions into observable behavior. Subsequent production of this behavior indicates
an increase in learning Bandura noted that observers refine their skills with practice, corrective
feedback, and reteaching. Sometimes, problems in producing modeled behaviors arise not only
because information is inadequately coded but also because learners experience difficulty
translating coded information in memory into overt action. For example, a child may have a basic
understanding of how to tie shoelaces but not be able to translate that knowledge into behavior.
Teachers who suspect that students are having trouble demonstrating what they have learned may
need to test students in different ways
4. Motivation. Influencing observational learning is motivation. Individuals perform actions they
believe will result in rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be responded to
negatively (Schunk, 1987). Persons also act based on their values, performing activities they value
and avoiding those they find unsatisfying, regardless of the consequences to themselves or others.
Motivation is a critical process of observational learning that teachers promote in various ways,
including making learning interesting, relating material to student interests, having students set
goals and monitor goal progress, providing feedback indicating increasing competence, and
stressing the value of learning
EXPERIENCE
Tolman advanced that learning is goal directed. This goal is specific, but for some children, it is
distant and might be viewed as too complicated. To ensure that all students achieve the overall goal, as a
teacher later, you may set short-term goals each day by saying, "Today we are going to work on these five
words. By the end of class time, I know that you will be able to spell these five words." Children should
view their daily goals as easier to attain than the weekly goal. To further ensure goal attainment, you will
make sure that the 15 words selected for mastery by Friday challenge the students but are no overly
burdensome.
Self-efficacy and learning through observation are from Bandura's social-cognitive theory. We can
merge these principles and apply them to teaching for instance, you may select certain students to solve a
board mathematical problem. When they are successful, the peer models help elevate observers' self
efficacy for performing well. Students in the class are more likely to perceive themselves as similar in terms
of competence to at least one of the models.
Using demonstration models or demo teaching is an effective way to facilitate student-centered
learnings. For instance, if you were a TLE teacher, you could teach your students how to insert a sleeve
into a garment through modeled demonstrations. You might begin by describing the process and then use
visual aids to portray the procedure. You could conclude the presentation by demonstrating the process at
a sewing machine.
Compliments in the form of feedback can increase self-efficacy while learning through modeling.
If you were a drama teacher, for instance, you could model various performance skills while working with
students as they practice a play. You might demonstrate desired voice inflections, mood, volume, and body
movements for each character in the play. As the students perform their parts, you may highlight their
strengths or give them a pat on their shoulders or a thumbs-up sign before telling them their points for
improvement.