NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: EDU 321

COURSE TITLE: PSYCOLOGY OF LEARNING

 COURSE
GUIDE

EDU 321
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Course Team Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan (Course Developer/Writer)

– NOUN
Dr Ogidan Rotimi (Course Editor) – NOUN

Dr. Ajufo Beatrice Ifeoma (Reviewer) – NOUN

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

Abuja Office
5, Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.noun.edu.ng

Published by
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2006

Reviewed 2015
ISBN: 978-058-770-5

All Rights Reserved

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CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction……………………………………....................... iv
The Course…………………………………………................ iv
What you will Learn in this Course………………………….. iv
Course Aims……………………………………………….…. v
Course Objectives………………………………………….… v
Working through this Course………………………………… vi
Course Materials……………………………………………… vi
Study Units…………………………………………………… vii
Presentation Schedule………………………………………… vii
Assessment…………………………………………………… vii
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAS)………………………… viii
Final Examination and Grading………………………………. viii
Course Marking Structure……………………………………. ix
How to Get the Most from this Course………………………. ix
Tutors and Tutorials………………………………………….. xi
Summary…………………………………………………….. xii

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INTRODUCTION

EDU 321: Psychology of Learning is a semester, two credit unit

foundation course. It is a core course for all students in Teacher
Education programmes. It is also suitable as a course of study for
anyone who wants to acquire some knowledge of Psychology of
Learning.

THE COURSE

This course will introduce you to what Psychologists refer to as

Learning.. Do not worry if you do not have extensive knowledge of
psychology. One of the aims of EDU 321: Psychology of Learning is to
give you a general background to psychology of learning and to
illustrate key areas in which it can be applied in a practical way during
the teaching-learning process in particular and in learning situations in
general. The course consists of 15 study units, which include definitions
of learning, what is meant by Human Learning, learning process, factors
affecting learning and their corresponding implications for human
learning, transfer of learning and important factors in human learning
that teachers must know. The course material has been developed to suit
not only distance learners in Nigeria by virtue of the fact that it has
practical examples from the local environment but to also suit distance
learners elsewhere given examples and illustrations of universal
dimension. The intention is to make use of local experiences and
situations including international illustrations to support the students
while studying and to ensure that the content remains current.

This Course Guide is a window into the course. It tells you briefly what
the course is about, what course materials you will be using and how
you can work your way through the materials. It suggests some general
guidelines for the amount of time you should spend on each study unit
of the course in order to complete it successfully. It also gives you some
guidance on your tutor marked assignments (TMAs). Detailed
information on TMAs is similarly made available. There are regular
tutorial classes that are linked to the course. You are advised to attend
these sessions at your study centre.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The overall aim of EDU 321: Psychology of Learning is to introduce
specific definitions of the concepts of learning, why you need to study
psychology of learning, major theories of learning, transfer of learning
and remembering and forgetting. During this course, you will learn
about schedules of reinforcement, some factors affecting learning, and
important factors in human learning that teachers must know.
Although there is little disagreement among psychologists as to the
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importance of learning and pervasiveness of learning in nearly all forms
of human activity, there is a marked difference between the ways they
look at learning and the ways the layman does. You will learn specific
definitions of the concept of learning. You will also learn what
psychologists refer to as human learning, theories of human learning
generated from psychological experiments on lower organisms.

You will understand what is meant by schedules of reinforcement, basic

ratios of reinforcement, motivation, and theories of motivation. You will
be given sufficient grounding to understand how interest in human
learning can be sustained and important factors that you must know
about human learning, which should provide you with the necessary
basis for further study.

COURSE AIMS

This course aims to give you an understanding of the concept of

learning, what is meant by human learning, theories of learning and their
implications for human learning. Schedule of reinforcement and their
implications for behaviour management, some factors affecting learning,
and how interest in learning can be sustained are also targets of this
course.

These aims will be achieved by:

a. Introducing you to the definitions of the concept of learning;

b. Explaining to you what psychologists mean by human learning;
c. Describing how psychologists develop theories of learning;
d. Enumerate classroom implications of transfer of learning;
e. Outlining basic ratios of reinforcement;
f. Explaining some factors affecting learning;
g. Describing how teachers can assist students in training their
minds;
h. Outlining important factors which teachers must know.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

To achieve the aims set out above, some carefully stated overall
objectives must be considered. In addition, each study unit also has
specific objectives. The study unit objectives are always included at the
beginning of a study unit; you should read them before you start
working through the study unit.

You may want to refer to the objectives during your study of each unit
to check on your progress. You should always look at the study unit
objectives after completing a study unit. In this way, you can be sure

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that you have done what was required of you by the study unit.

Set out below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole by
meeting these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the
course.

On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:

a. Define the concept of learning;

b. Explain what is meant by human learning;
c. Discuss the five stages of learning process;
d. Explain Thorndike’s theory of learning;
e. Describe Skinner’s Operant conditioning theory of learning;
f. Discuss Pavlov’s Classical conditioning theory of learning;
g. Explain Gestalt theory of learning;
h. Discuss the implications of theories of learning for human
learning;
i. Specify basic ratio of reinforcement;
j. Explain factors affecting learning;
k. Discuss how teachers can assist students in training their
memory.
l. Enumerate classroom implications of transfer of learning.

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read
books and other materials provided by the National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN). Each study unit contains Self-Assessment Exercises
(SAEs) and Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) and at each point in the
course you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes.
At the end of the course is a final examination. You will also find listed,
all the components of the course, what you have to do and how you
should allocate your time to each study unit in order to complete the
course successfully and on time.

COURSE MATERIALS

Major components of the course are:

1) Course Guide
2) Study Units
3) References
4) Presentation Schedule

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STUDY UNITS

The study units in this course are as follows:

Module 1

Unit 1 Learning Conceptual Clarification

Unit 2 Learning Process
Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning
Unit 4 Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
Unit 5 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism

Module 2

Unit 1 Skinner’s Operant conditioning

Unit 2 Applications of Operant conditioning
Unit 3 Some factors affecting learning
Unit 4 Additional theories of learning
Unit 5 Motivation

Module 3

Unit 1 Additional Theories of Motivation

Unit 2 Critique of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Unit 3 Observational learning
Unit 4 Transfer of Learning
Unit 5 Remembering and Forgetting

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

The presentation schedule included in your course material gives you

the important dates of this year for the completion of tutor-marked
assignments and for attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to
submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guard against
falling behind in your work.

ASSESSMENT

There are three aspects in the assessment of the course. First is a set of
Self – Assessment Exercises (SAEs), second is a set of tutor-marked
assignments (TMAs), and third is a written end of semester examination.

In tackling the assignments, you are expected to be sincere in attempting

the exercises; you are expected to apply the information, knowledge and
techniques gathered during the course. The assignments must be
submitted to your tutor against formal deadlines stated in the

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presentation schedule and the assignment file. The work you submit to
your tutor for assessment will make up 30% (undergraduate) and 40%
(post graduate) of your total course mark.

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written
examination of two hours’ duration. This examination will make up the
remaining 70% (undergraduate) and 60% (postgraduate) of your total
course mark.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAS)

There are TMAs in this course. You are encouraged to submit all
assignments. Assignment questions for the study units in this course are
stated within the study units. You will be able to complete your
assignments from the information and materials contained in your
reading, and study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level
academic programmes to demonstrate that you have read and researched
more widely than the required minimum. Using other references will
give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding
of the subject.

When you have completed each assignment, send it together with a

TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form to your tutor. Make sure that each
assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in the
presentation schedule and assignment file. If, for any reason, you cannot
complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is
due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be
granted after the due date unless in exceptional circumstances.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination for Psychology of Learning will be of two hours’

duration and it has a value of 50% of the total course grade. The
examination will consist of questions, which reflect the type of self-
testing, practice exercises and tutor-marked assignments (tutor-attended-
to problems) you have previous encountered all areas of the course will
be assessed.

Use the time between finishing the last study unit and sitting for the
examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to
review your self-tests, tutor-marked assignments and comments on them
before the examination. The final examination covers information from
all parts of the course.

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COURSE MARKING STRUCTURE

The following table lays out how the actual course marking is done.

Assessments 30% (Undergraduate) 40%

(Postgraduate)
Final Examination 70% (Undergraduate) 60%
(Postgraduate)
Total 100% of Course Marks

Table I: Course Marking Structure

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

In Open and Distance Learning (ODL), the study units replace the
University Lecturer. This is one of the great advantages of ODL. You
can read and work through specially designed study materials at your
own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as
reading the lecturer. In the same way that the lecturer might set you
some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your other
materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your
study units provide exercise, for you to do at appropriate points.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the study unit and how a particular
study unit is integrated with the other study units and the course as a
whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you
know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the
study unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study. When
you have finished the study unit, you must go back and check whether
you have achieved the objectives or not. If you make a habit of doing
this, you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course.

The main body of the study unit guides you through the required reading
from other sources. This will usually be either from a reading section or
some other sources. You will be directed when there is need for it.

Self – Assessment Exercises (SAEs) are interspersed throughout the

study units. Working through these SAEs will help you to achieve the
objectives of the study units and prepare you for the assignments and
examination.

You should do every SAE as you come to it in the study unit. There will
also be numerous examples given in the study units. Work through these
when you come to them too.

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The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If
you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor immediately. Remember
that your tutor’s job is to help you. When you need help, don’t hesitate
to call and ask your tutor to provide it.

1. Read this course guide thoroughly.

2. Organise a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for more

details. You should note that it is expected of you to devote at
least 2 hours per week for studying this course. The number of
hours to be devoted for intensive study stated above is outside
other need driven academic activities like self help, group
discussion and instructional facilitation. Note the time you are
expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to
the study units. Important information e.g. details of your
tutorials, and the date of the first day of the semester is available.
You need to gather together all these information in one place,
such as in your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you
choose to use, you should write in your own dates for working on
each unit.

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything

you can to stick to it. The major reason why students fail is that
they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties
with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late
for him to help you.

4. Turn to unit 1, read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

for a unit is given in the table of content at the beginning of each
unit. You will almost always read both the study unit you are
working on and one of the materials for further reading on your
desk at the same time.

6. Work through the Unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit, you will be instructed to read sections from
other sources. Use the unit to guide your reading.

7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your
assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet
the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the
examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date.

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8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.

9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s

objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
keep yourself on schedule.

10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

marking, do not wait until you get it back before starting on the
next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is
returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both
on the tutor-marked assignment form and also as written on the
assignment itself. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you
have any questions or problems.

11. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in the course guide).

TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are 15 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You

will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials
together with the name and phone number of your tutor as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group.

Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments. He will also
keep a close watch on your progress or any difficulties you might
encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must
mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due
date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by
your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e – mail, or

discussion board if you need help. The following might be
circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your
tutor if:

You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings. You have difficulty with the self – assessment exercises.

You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s

comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

xii
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is your only chance
to have a face-to-face academic contact with your tutor and to ask
questions on problems encountered in the course of your study. To gain
the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list
before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in
discussions actively.

SUMMARY

Upon completing this course, you will be required with basic knowledge
of Psychology of Learning, its theories and implications for human
learning. You will be able to answer questions like these ones.

1. What is learning?
2. How would you define human learning?
3. How many theories of learning can you identify?
4. As a teacher in training, why do you need to study psychology of
learning?
5. What are schedules of reinforcement?
6. How can we distinguish Skinner’s theory of learning from
Pavlov’s?
7. What is motivation?
8. What are the factors affecting learning?
9. What is Gestalt?
10. How can we apply the law of exercise in human learning?
11. What is law of effect?
12. How can we explain the weakness (es) of the Gestalt theory of
learning?
13. How can we describe observational learning?

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CONTENTS PAGE

MODULE 1………………………………………………………. 1

Unit 1 Learning Conceptual Clarification………………… 1

Unit 2 Learning Process…………………………………… 8
Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning………………………… 13
Unit 4 Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov……………… 17
Unit 5 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism…………….. 22

MODULE 2………………………………………………………… 26

Unit 1 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning …………………….. 26

Unit 2 Applications of Operant Conditioning………………. 32
Unit 3 Some Factors Affecting Learning…………………… 38
Unit
…. 4 Additional Theories of Learning…………………….. 42
Unit 5 Motivation…………………………………………… 49

MODULE 3………………………………………………………… 58

Unit 1 Additional Theories of Motivation…………………… 58

Unit 2 Critique of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs……………. 67
Unit 3 Observational Learning………………………………. 73
Unit 4 Transfer of Learning………………………………….. 78
Unit 5 Remembering and Forgetting…………….................... 83

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MODULE 1

Unit 1 Learning: Conceptual Clarification

Unit 2 Learning Process
Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning
Unit 4 Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
Unit 5 Thorndike’s Connectionism

UNIT 1 LEARNING: CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Description of Learning
3.2 Concept of Learning
3.3 Definitions of Learning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

By now, you have read through the course guide, which was sent to you
as part of your instructional package for the course. If you have not,
please ensure that you read the course guide before reading your study
materials as it provides a comprehensive outline of the materials you
will cover on a study unit to study unit basis, starting with the topic you
are about to study: learning: conceptual clarification. The study unit
guides you through several descriptions and definitions of learning
across the ages. Let us look at what you should learn in this study unit,
as specified in the study unit objectives below:

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the concept of learning;

 define learning with examples
 describe three things that cannot be regarded as learning.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Description of Learning

Learning is a psychological concept that cuts across psychology and

education. It occupies a very important place in our lives. Most of what
we do or do not do is influenced by what we learn and how we have
learnt it.

To the layman, ‘learning’ is, getting to know something he does not

know. Just like Oxiedien (1968:5) puts it, that ‘we learn what we are
taught (that is from a layman’s view). Let us look at the term learning
from this scenario. While a child is approaching a burning match stick,
he/she gets burnt and withdraws. The next the when he/she faces a
burning match stick, he/she wastes no time in withdrawing him/herself
away. He /she learns to avoid not only the burning match stick but also
all burning things.. When this happens, we say that the child has learnt
that if one touches a flame, one gets burnt. In this way, we say that
direct or indirect experience brings a change in the behaviour of an
individual which the term learning is all about. Learning broadly
speaking stands for all the changes and modifications in the behaviour
of the individual which he/she undergoes from birth till death.

Here we will look at some other descriptions of the concept of learning.

You will probably have come across the word ‘learning’ before, and you
may have your own idea of what learning is all about. There are a
number of misconceptions and misunderstandings as to what learning is
exactly, and for this reason we will consider why this is so and then
examine some additional descriptions of this subject area.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How would you describe learning? Make brief notes before moving on
to the next section?

Now let us go on with our descriptions of the concept of learning.

Learning is a part of almost every aspect of psychology, from

developmental psychology (how we acquire behaviours through the life
cycle) to social psychology (how we learn to interact with others) to
abnormal psychology (how we develop such behaviours as phobias and
depression).

Learning has evolved over the course of genetic history as a set of

adaptive mechanisms that allows us to acquire new behaviours and
modify old ones. In order to understand this most complex of human

2
behaviours, we need to have a clear understanding of what psychologists
refer to as learning. In addition, we need to know more about the basic
processes fundamental to all learning.

You are learning, as you read this study unit 1, listen to your
instructional facilitator and or guidance counsellor at the Study Centre
of your choice, and study for a test or examination. Learning is also
involved in many other aspects of life. You learn to ride a bicycle,
recognize a song, drive a car, smile when someone smiles at you, repairs
a stereo, and play football. In fact, learning influences behaviour to such
a great extent that it is one of the most important concepts psychologists
study.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

State one unique reason why psychologists study learning:

Let us now continue with our discussion.

3.2 Concept of Learning

Kohler (1925) in his book, ‘The Mentality of Apes’ (cited in Alhassan,

2000), explained learning as a perceptual process with the major
emphasis being on the study of relationships and how people learn to see
relationships among various items of experience. Learning of
relationships can be clearly seen in the phenomenon of insight.
Sometimes, pupils work for a long time on a problem or skill with little
apparent progress. All of a sudden, there will be a flash of understanding
(eureka) in which the pupil or student sees through the problem or re-
forms his responses into a more complex habit. This phenomenon was
first widely published by the famous German psychologist, Wolfgang
Kohler, who found that apes, when confronted with a different problem,
might act as if they were surveying the situation and would then go
directly to the goal object (banana) by putting two sticks together, or by
piling, one box on top of another. You will learn more about this
exciting problem solving situation in study unit 2 of Module II where we
shall discuss the Gestalt theory of learning.

Aristotle talked of learning as an association of ideas following the laws

of similarity, contrast, and continuity. He believed that people learn and
remember those things that are alike, that are striking because of their
difference, and that occur together, in space and time (Murphy, 1998).

Bugelski (1986:117) on his part, sees learning as the process of the

formation of relatively permanent neural circuits through the
simultaneous activity of the elements of the circuit-to-be; such activity is

3
of the nature of change in cell structures through growth in such a
manner as to facilitate the arousal of the entire circuit when a component
element is aroused or activated.

Lindgren (1991) posits that learning is a central process in

understanding human behaviour. Most aspects of human behaviour are
learned contrary to the widely held view at the turn of the century that
human behaviour is instinctive in nature. According to Lindgren, only
perhaps such behaviours as sucking of breasts and blinking of the eyes
are instinctive. Lindgren explains instinctual behaviour as inherited
patterns of complex responses which become less important as life
progresses up the evolutionary scale.

Learning may also be thought of as a process of problem-solving, a way

of thinking, creating and synthesizing.

I am sure our discussion is clear and understandable. Now, try your hand
on this question.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List any two (2) human behaviour that are inattentive in nature:
1.------------------------------------------------------------------------
2-------------------------------------------------------------------------

I am sure you are eager to know how psychologists defined learning and
human learning. We must therefore continue our discussion.

3.3 Definitions of Learning

Alhassan (1985:17) opines that learning is the totality of the acquisition

of factual information, the mastering of skills and means to aid further
study (understanding); the entire socialization process, the acquisition of
behaviour patterns, the styles of tackling problems of everyday life and
more. Learning is a dynamic process whereby, through interactive
experience, insights or cognitive structures of life spaces are changed
and so become more useful for future guidance.

Gagne (1970:3) attempts a definition of learning which seems to have a

wide appeal when he writes that learning even takes place when the
situation affects the learner in such a way that his/her performance
changes from a time before being in that situation to a time after being
in it. The change in performance is what leads to the conclusion that
learning has occurred. Thus, learning is a change in human disposition

4
or capability which can be retained, and which is not ascribable to the
process of growth. It is important for you to note that all changes in
performance that brought about by the environment may properly be
referred to as learning. This view of learning is identical to the definition
that says that learning is a modification in behaviour due to experience.

Kingsley and Garry (1957) defines learning as a process by which

behaviour changes through practice or training.

According to Woodworth (1945) “ any activity can be called learning as

far as it develops the individual – ( in any respect, good or bad) and
makes him alter behaviour and experiences different from what would
otherwise have been”.

Notwithstanding the above discourse, learning may not be easy to define

adequately. This may be so because we cannot see it directly. But when
we observe a child’s behaviour, we can conclude that some kind of
learning has occurred. Let us give an example. When a pre-schooler is
able to recite the alphabet from A – Z or the numerals, which he could
not do before, we can deduce that some learning has taken place. Liebert
(1997:114) stresses this point by stating that all animals, including
human beings, are able to profit from experience. Placed in new
situations for the first time, we are often clumsy and incompetent.
However, after some practice or the opportunity to watch others
perform, our own efforts usually improve dramatically. For many
activities at least, we too, can successfully accomplish things that had
previously been difficult and frustrating the process that is responsible
for this change is called learning.

I can see you are finding this discussion interesting. Let us continue.

Let us cite another example. When you look at the stages of a child’s
development, you can see that he first knows how to eat, then to sit, to
crawl about, to be able to stand, to walk, to run about, and to speak. The
child is now capable of doing some things which he could not do earlier
in his life. It may be said that in these respects, the child has learned
because ‘observed changes in behaviour are evidence of learning’
(Balogun, 2001:43). Many psychologists agree that learning is a general
term for relatively lasting or permanent change in performance or
behaviour caused or produced directly by experience.

Dinkmeyer (1985) defines learning as a change in behaviour resulting

from the interaction of the organism with its environment. Learning is
dependent upon activity or special training and in this sense, differs
from behavioural change which is solely due to maturation. Learning
then involves relatively permanent behavioural change which is as a

5
result of experience.

Learning is a ------------------- change in behaviour as a result of

experience. (Fill in the gap)

The above definitions of learning reveal several components that

deserve clarification.

First, learning involves change, be it good or bad.

Second, the change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. For

instance a temporary change in behaviour as a result of fatigue is
not considered learning.

Third, only change in behaviour acquired through experience is

considered learning. Therefore, a change in an individual’s thought
process or attitudes, if accompanied by no change in behaviour would
not be learning. Learning does not include the changes in behaviour on
account of maturation , disease or physical damages, drugs, fatigue etc.

Fourth, some form of experience is necessary for learning. Experience

may be acquired directly through practice or observation or indirectly
through reading.

Finally, learning is universal and continuous. It is not confined to our

schooling only. As a matter of fact, learning is a life – long process.
Every creature that lives learns. In human beings it is not limited to any
age, sex, race or culture.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Learning is a process which brings relatively permanent changes in

behaviour of a learner through experience or practice. It must be noted
carefully that here we have deliberately used the word “relatively
permanent change “ in place of absolutely permanent change in the
behaviour of the learner. It is true that learning brings about changes in
the behaviour of the learner, the skills we acquire, the habits we pick can
be unlearned, modified or replaced by some other set of similar or
differently acquired behaviour.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns descriptions and
definitions of learning from the perspectives of different
psychologists.
.
ii. The study units that follow shall build upon this introduction to
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 ensure clarity of concepts and understanding of the contents.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

1. What do you understand by the concept of learning?

2. Explain what you understand by human learning with examples.
3. Describe 3 things that cannot be regarded as learning.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (1985) the Role of Motivation in School Learning

Department of Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

Alhassan, A.B. (2000) Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

Balogun, R.T. (1981) A systems approach to education in Nigeria. In:

West African Journal of Education, XIL, 2.

Bugelski, B.R. (1986) the Psychology of Learning New York: Holt.

Dinkmeyer, D. (1985) Child Development: The Emerging Self.

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice – Hall.

Gagne, R. (1970) the Conditions of Learning New York: Holt, Rinehart

& Winston.

Klaussmier, H. (1962) Psychological Research and Classroom

Learning. New York: Appleton.

Kingsley, H. L & Garry, R., (1957) The Nature and Condition of

learning (2nd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice
- Hall.

Liebert, R.L. (1997) Developmental Psychology. London: Prentice –

Hall International.

Lindgren, H.C. (1991) Educational Psychology in the Classroom.

London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Murphy, G. (1998) Personality: A biosocial approach to origins and

structure. New York: Harper and Row.

O’Connor, K. (1993) Learning: An introduction London: Scott,

Foreman and Company.

7
Olaitan, S.O. (1992) Learning about learning. A builder’s bridge
between learning, people and society. In: B. Ipaye (ed.)

Education in Nigeria: Past, Present and Future. 1, 367 – 72. Macmillan

Nigeria.

Oxiedien, P. (1968) Learning difficulties in children New York: 1 U.P.

Travers, J. (1986) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Scranton,

Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company.

Woodworth, R. S., (1945) , Psychology, London : Methuen.

8
UNIT 2 LEARNING PROCESS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Learning Process
3.2 The Need for the Study of Psychology of Learning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 1, we discussed descriptions and definitions of learning.

The study unit also introduced you to other study units in this course
material. You can now describe and define learning from your own
understanding. You are about to start another interesting study unit
which is on how an individual acquires learning. In other words the
processes through which learning can take place. In this unit, we shall
also look at the need for the study of psychology of learning.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss the five stages of learning process

 explain the need for psychology of learning.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Learning Process

In order for learning to take place in the school, the teacher plays a
significant role in guiding the learner by motivating him towards
learning activity through which he can achieve a purposeful goal. To
achieve this, there are defined and clear processes of learning through
which the desired changes will take place. These include:

1. Sensation – This is the process of receiving, translating and

transmitting message from the environment to the brain. This
process normally goes through bodily senses of sight, hearing,
feeling, touching, smelling, tasting etc. These bodily senses are
9
 generally referred to as gateways to knowledge.
2. Perception – This is the process of organizing and interpreting
information received from the outside world. The sensitive
organs (eye, ear, nose, skin, tongue) by means of which the
learner becomes aware of the forces, objects or changes in the
world around him are called receptors. Perception is the internal
analysis of the sensation by the brain or the information
processing unit. Sensation and perception are closely interrelated.
Sensation causes the individual to turn his head, eyes or body in a
particular direction while perception maintains the length of
attention or consideration focused upon the direction of thing.
Thus perception is the process of extracting information instantly
and unconsciously from the environment.

3. Association – This is the third stage in learning process. It is the

ability of connecting one’s new experience with his previous
experience.

4. Generalization --. This is the fourth stage in learning which

involves the establishment of principles, theories, inferences,
laws, conclusions or rules which summarize some findings.

5. Application – This is the final stage in the learning process. It is

the process of using the established principles of learning to solve
problems in actual life situation

Our discussion is getting clearer and more understandable. I commend

your active participation. Now, try your hand on this question.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

“Sensation and Perception are two stages of learning process that are
closely interrelated “. Discuss.

Well done! Let us continue our discussion.

3.2 The Need for the Study of Psychology of Learning

The relevance of the study of psychology of learning can never be over-

emphasized. This is because since the main objective of the school as an
institution is to bring about desirable changes in the behaviour of the
learner through the process of learning, it demands therefore that all
those who will engage in bringing about these changes should
understand the approaches of learning in order to develop effective
teaching strategies.

10
The need for study of psychology of learning include the following:
 To understand Individual differences: There is the need to
understand the individual differences in learning among learners
so that the teaching methods selected by the teacher can care take
care of the individual differences existing among the learners.

 To master the concept of motivation: There is the need for the

teacher to master the concept of motivation developed by various
theorists of learning in order to understand the needs and motives
of the learners at different age levels and be able to organize
those activities which create interest and motivation in them.

 To understand the process of remembering and forgetting: The

teacher needs to understand the process of remembering and
forgetting so that he can utilize efficient methods to minimize the
percentage of forgetfulness.

 To help the learner to transfer skills: With the knowledge gained

from the study of psychology of learning, the teacher can help the
learners to transfer skills and information acquired in classroom
to life situations outside the school.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the stages involved in learning process
through which the desired changes can take place. You have also learnt
the relevance of the study of psychology of learning. We can now say
that the learning process and the need for the study of psychology of
learning are very clearly understood by you.

5.0 SUMMARY

There is a vital need for the study of psychology of learning most

especially by those who engage in imparting knowledge. This is because
the more they understand the fundamental principles of learning , the
more efficiently they become in guiding classroom teaching and
learning.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the five stages of learning process

2. As a teacher in training, why do you need to study psychology of
learning?

11
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (2000) Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

American Psychological Association (1984) Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduct. American Psychologist.

American Psychological Association (1984) Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduct American Psychologist.

Cunningham, C. (1985) Training and education approaches for parents

and children with special needs. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 58 (3), 285 – 305.

Freeney, D. (1987) Human Rights and Animal Welfare. American

Psychologist 42 (6), 593 – 599.

Filler, J.L. & Robert, W. (1960) Behaviour Genetics New York: Wiley.

McMahon, F. & McMahon, J. (1986) Psychology: The Hybrid Science

Chicago: The Dorsey Press.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998) Behavioural Learning Theories, Erudition

Publishing.

Ott, R. (1995) the natural wrongs about animal rights and animal
liberation. Journal of the American Veterinary Medicine
Association 15, 1023 – 1030.

12
UNIT 3 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Factors Affecting Learning
3.1.1 Factors Resident in the Learner
3.1.2 Factors Resident in the Teacher
3.1.3 Factors Resident in the Environment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 2, we discussed learning process and the need for the study
of psychology of learning. In this unit, we shall be looking at the factors
that affect learning. In the learning environment, there are three
variables namely: the learner, the teacher and environment.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

 discuss how the factors resident in the learner can affect learning
 explain in what ways the teacher’s personality can affect the way
a learner learns
 identify and discuss the environmental factors that can affect the
learner.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Factors Affecting Learning

In the learning environment, there are three variables involved – the

learner, the teacher and the environment. The learner occupies an
important place in teaching and learning because he is the one whose
behaviour must change to enable him live well in his society and with
others. The teacher as an individual personality is an important element
in the learning environment. One of the factors that affect the efficiency
of learning is the environment in which learning takes place. The
environment includes the learner’s home, school and the entire society.
13
3.1.1 Factors Resident in the Learner

 Hereditary factors : Whatever genetic factors that the learner

has inherited at conception becomes very crucial in the rate of
learning of the child.
 Physical factors :Visual and physical defects and ill health. It is
generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor
development. The health of the learner will likely affect his
ability to learn and his power to concentrate
 Nutrition : Malnutrition interferes with learning and physical
growth.
 Personality and self – concept : The learner’s self – worth and
personality have been found to affect learning.
 Maturation: Learning is directly dependent on maturation. No
learning can take place unless individual is matured enough to
learn. Some children can learn better at earlier age while other
take more time to learn the same content.
 Motivation: This refers to the drive to action. Motivation is the
heart of learning process. It generates the will in an individual to
do something.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the factors resident in the learner that can affect his/her
learning process?

3.1.2 Factors Resident in the Teacher

 Teacher’s personality: The teacher’s personality is an important

element in the success and failure of the learner. The way in
which his personality interacts with the personalities of the
students being taught helps to determine the kind of behaviour
which emerges from the learning situation. The teacher’s
personality is composite of his physical appearance, his mental
gcapacity, his emotional behaviour and his attitudes.
 Instructional factors: Availability of learning materials such as
well -equipped libraries, textbooks , audio-visual materials etc ,
the curriculum strategies, the teacher’s methodology of teaching
and mastery of subject matter are instructional factors that affect
learning in school.

14
3.1.3 Factors Resident in the Environment

 Family/Socio-economic background: The impact of mother,

father, other children , housemaids , uncles and aunties on the
learning of the child is enormous. Certain unpleasant events in
the family which are stored in the memory of the child
throughout life could affect the child’s learning process. Socio –
economic factors refer to the level of education of the parents,
where they reside ( urban or rural) etc.
 Physical environment: Unusual traumatic events such as
earthquake, thunderstorms, flood etc. may affect the learning of
the child in life. Whether at home or in school, the learning
conditions must be favourable and adequate if teaching is to
produce the desired results.
 Cultural background: An individual’s learning is mostly
affected by his/her cultural background and the opportunities
provided for informal and formal education.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Briefly explain how parental socio – economic status of a child can

affect his/her learning.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Effective teaching and learning are the results of an integrated

personality of the teacher, the learner and the environment .

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have looked at factors resident in the learner the teacher
and the environment and how these can affect learning.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Briefly discuss how the factors resident in the child can affect the
way the child learns

2. “The teacher’s personality is an important element in the success

and failure of the learner”. Discuss”

3. Identify and discuss the environmental factors that can affect

learning.

15
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Amao-Kehinde, A.O. (2000), Human Development and Learning,

Lagos, Obaroh & Ogbinaka Publishers Limited.

Sulaiman F. R. & Onabamiro, A. A (2009). Psychology, Child

Development(A Basic Text in Psychological Foundation of
Education), Ijebu-ode, Alamsek Press Ltd.

16
UNIT 4 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – IVAN PAVLOV

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Learning Theories
3.1.1 Behaviourist Theories
3.2 Classical Conditioning Theory
3.3 Educational Implication of Pavlov’s Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

From the work done in the previous units, you can define what learning
is all about. In this unit, you will get to know about behavioural
learning theory of Ivan Pavlov known as classical conditioning. You
will also get to know about its implications to classroom situation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define learning theories

 discuss the classical conditioning theory of Ivan Pavlov
 explain the educational implications of classical conditioning
theory
 list the Stimulus – Response (S-R) theories with reinforcement
and those without reinforcement.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Learning Theories

A theory is based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence. A theory

presents a concept or idea that is testable. It provides general
explanation for observations made over time. What goes on in the
process of learning? How does an individual learn a set of knowledge,

17
skills, habits, interests, attitudes and similar other things in life? Such
questions have always been a subject of enquiry and investigation before
psychologists and as a result a number of theories have come into being.

Learning theories are therefore conceptual frameworks that describe

how information is absorbed, processed and retained during learning. In
the broad sense, these theories may be classified into two major groups:
Behaviourist theories and cognitive theories.

3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning Theories

Behaviourist learning theories belong to the school of behaviourism.

Behaviourists believe that learning occurs through interaction with the
environment. They interpret learning in terms of association between
stimulus and response. They believe that our responses to
environmental stimuli shape our behaviours. Behaviourist learning
theories can be grouped into two namely:

(i) Stimulus – Response (S – R) theories with reinforcement

E.L. Thorndike’s theory of Connectionism
B.F. Skinner’s theory of Operant Condition
Clark L. Hull theory

(ii) Stimulus – Response (S – R) theories without reinforcement.

Ivan Pavlov conditioning theory
John B. Watson learning theory
Contiguity theory by E.R. Guthrie

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Outline the basic assumptions of behaviourists.

3.2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY – Ivan Pavlov

(1949 – 1936)

Pavlov was a Russian physiologist cum psychologist. He was well

known for the classical conditioning experiments and findings.
Classical conditioning is also known as Respondent Conditioning. The
term respondent implies that the learned response is elicited
involuntarily from the organism rather than produced by the organism in
a voluntary (or operant) manner. Classical conditioning is a learning
process that occurs through association between environmental stimulus
and a naturally occurring stimulus. For example, if a student frequently
encounters unpleasant stimuli in mathematics class such as unfriendly
teachers, difficult questions, and a lot of homework, he may learn to
dislike mathematics.

18
Pavlov was interested in the digestive system of dogs. He used a hungry
dog which he immobilized in a sound proof cage (rendering the dog
captive and inactive) several times when merely bell was rung, no
salivation was noticed in the dog. Neutral Stimulus (NS) – No Response
(NS).

The next thing Pavlov did was to present meat powder which is neutral
stimulus or unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog salivated which
was an unconditioned response (UCR). Next, he paired the ringing of
the bell and meat powder to the dog and the dog salivated. NS + UCS =
UCR.

After some time, Pavlov then withdrew the meat powder and presented
the bell alone. The dog salivated which is Conditioned Response (CR).
However after some time, Pavlov observed that the quantity of saliva
was reducing progressively as the number of presentation increased. At
a point, salivation stopped. This is called Extinction. This suggests that
there is a limit to which unconditioned response can be manipulated. To
make the dog recover from extinction, it must be presented with
Conditioned Response (CR)

Steps in the Process of Classical Conditioning

Step 1: Before conditioning

Before conditioning, the bell is a neutral stimulus. Neutral Stimulus
(NS) is a stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring
about the response of interest.

NS (bell) - No salivation
UCS (meat) - UCR (salivation)

Step 2: During Conditioning Procedure

During the conditioning procedure, the neutral stimulus (NS) is
presented. It is immediately followed by the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) to produce unconditioned response (UCR).

Step 3: Test of Conditioning

After the classical conditioning procedures, the neutral stimulus (NS)
becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). It alone can produce salivation.
At this point, the production of salivation is known as the conditioned
response (CR).
NS (bell)  CR (salivation)

19
3.3 Educational Implication of Pavlov’s Theory

Classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behaviour. Things

that make us happy, sad, angry etc. become associated with neutral
stimuli that gain our attention. For example, if a particular teacher
produces emotional feelings in you, those emotions are probably a result
of classical conditioning.

For instance, because of threatening tests, a student will feel a great deal
of fear or anxiety. And when he experiences the fear, he gets associated
with other things in the situation. Thus, the student’s fear gets tied up
with taking tests, with certain teachers and in extreme cases, with school
itself.

Similarly, when people experience positive effect, that emotion gets

conditioned to other factors in the situation. And then whenever those
other factors are present, the positive emotion can be triggered.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have seen that classical conditioning is a process in

which an organism learns to respond in a particular way to a stimulus
that previously did not bring about that response.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have looked at definition of theory, basic assumptions of

behaviourists, classification of behaviourist learning theories, classical
conditioning theory of Ivan Pavlov and educational implications of
classical conditioning.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What do you understand by learning theories?

2. Discuss the classical conditioning theory of Ivan Pavlov
3. Explain the educational implications of classical conditioning
theory.
4. List the Stimulus – Response (S – R) theories with reinforcement
and those without reinforcement.

20
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Dennis Child (2004) Psychology and the Teacher (7th Ed) New York,
Midas Printing International Ltd.

Elliot, S.N, Kratochwill T.R, Cook J.L & Travers, J.F (2000),
Educational Psychology (3rd Ed) USA, McGraw Hill.

Mangal, S.K (1998) General Psychology, New Delhi, Starling

Publishers Private Limited.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998) Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka,

Erudition Publishers.

Oladele, J.O. (2005) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th Ed),

Lagos, John-Lad Publishers Ltd.

21
UNIT 5 THORNDIKE’S THEORY OF
CONNECTIONISM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Theory of Connectionism of Thorndike
3.2 Three Major Laws of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning
3.3 Implications of Thorndike’s Theory to Adult Learner
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will read about the three major laws propounded by
Thorndike on Connectionism. His theory went beyond Pavlov by
showing that an act that is followed by a favourable effect is more likely
to be repeated in similar situations and an act that is followed by
unfavourable effect is less likely to be repeated.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

 discuss the three major laws of learning propounded by

Thorndike
 discuss the educational implications of Thorndike’s theory

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Edward Thorndike’s Theory

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 – 1949) believed that all learning is

explained by connections (or bonds) that are formed between stimuli
and responses. Using cats, dogs and chickens, he devised experiments in
which an animal was placed in a cage from which it could escape to
reach food. The food was visible but not accessible from the cage. On
the inside was a release mechanism which could be operated by the
animal.

22
When first placed in the box, the animal (the cat) exhibited a random
movement trying to escape to get food. Eventually, it operated the
release mechanism which allowed it to escape and obtain food. On
subsequent trials, the activity became less random and focused on the
part of the cage near the release mechanism. The time of escape
decreased until the animal eventually operated the release as soon as it
found itself in the cage. In this ‘trial and error’ fashion, the cat hit on
the release mechanism to get the food. From this work, Thorndike
derived three major laws of learning.

3.2 Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

Thorndike propounded the following laws of learning on the basis of his

theory.

The Law of Readiness

When organisms both human and animal are ready to act or learn to do
so is satisfying and not to do so is annoying or unsatisfying. Thorndike
believed that readiness is an important condition of learning because
satisfaction or frustration depends on an individual’s state of readiness.
Schools cannot force students to learn if they are not biologically and
psychologically prepared. They can learn only when they are ready.

The Law of Exercise

This law has two parts – use and disuse
The law of use states that all things being equal, the more frequently a
connection between a stimulus and a response is made, the stronger the
connection will be.

The law of disuse: The law of disuse states when a connection between
stimulus and response is not made over a period of time, the strength of
that connection is weakened.

In this way, law of use refers to the strengthening of connection with

practice while the law of disuse refers to weakening of connection when
the practice is discontinued. In brief, it can be said that law of exercise
as a whole emphases the need of repetition, practice and drill work in
the process of learning.

The Law of Effect

This law states that learning occurs only when responses are followed by
reward and satisfaction. On the other hand, if frustration or punishment
is experienced by the learner, the connection between stimulus and
response becomes weakened.

23
In simple words, it means that learning takes place properly when it
results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it. In a
situation where the learner meets with failure or gets no satisfaction, the
progress on the path of learning is blocked. In other words, this law
emphasizes the role of rewards and punishment in the process of
learning.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

With example, distinguish between the Law of Effect and the Law of
Exercise.

3.3 Classroom Implications of Thorndike’s Theory

1. Activities especially in the course material must be organized on

increasing difficulty order as well as presented in varied ways so
that novelty is maintained and learners progress without fear.

2. Guidance, praise and encouragement that give pleasure and

satisfaction should be provided to keep learners in the right path.

3. More and appropriate opportunities must be given to learners to

use and repeat knowledge they get in class

4. Review and drills are necessary to motivate and strengthen the

connections of S – R for longer period.

5. Examination, quizzes, discussions, assignments and the likes

must be provided for adequate exercise to enable and encourage
learners to observe law of exercise. A connection will be
strengthened with practice or forgotten without practice or use.

6. Experiences that will enable law of readiness to be practiced by

the learner should be provided by teachers and even through the
mechanism of motivation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

As a learner, what are the implications of the three major laws of

Thorndike’s theory to you?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In short, Thorndike’s theory of connectionism along with his major laws

of learning have contributed a lot in the field of learning. It has made
learning purposeful and goal-directed and has emphasized the

24
importance of motivation. It has given an impetus to the work of
practice, drill and exercise and highlighted the psychological importance
of rewards and praise in the field of learning.
5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about Thorndike’s theory of trial and error
learning which emphasizes that learning is caused by the formation of
connection between stimuli and responses. Three major laws of learners
propounded by Thorndike were discussed as well as their implications
of learning.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss Thorndike’s three major laws of learning

2. Discuss the classroom implications of Thorndike’s theory.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Elliot, S.N., Dratochiwill, T.R., Cook, J.L & Travers, J.F. (2000)
Educational Psychology (3rd Ed) USA, McGraw Hill.

Mangal, S.K (1998) General Psychology, New Delhi, Sterling

Publishers Private Limited.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998) Behaviourial Learning Theories, Awka,

Erudition Publishers.

Oladele, J.O. (2005), Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th Ed)

Lagos, John-lad Publishers Ltd.

25
MODULE 2

Unit 1 Skinner’s Theory of Instrumental or Operant Conditioning

Unit 2 Application of Operant Conditioning
Unit 3 Distinction between Classical Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning
Unit 4 Gestalt Theory of Learning
Unit 5 Motivation

UNIT 1 SKINNER’S THEORY OF INSTRUMENTAL OR

OPERANT CONDITIONING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Instrumental/Operant Conditioning Theory of B.F. Skinner
3.2 Forms of Reinforcement and Punishment
3.3 Schedule of Reinforcement
3.4 Classroom Implications of Instrumental Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you were taught Thorndike’s theory of

connectionism. In this unit, we shall be discussing about skinner’s
theory of instrumental or operant conditioning. Skinner revealed in his
theory that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes
in behaviour according to skinners, are the result of an individual’s
response to events (Stimuli) that occur in the environment. The
voluntary behaviour is either strengthened or weakened by the
immediate presence of a reward or punishment.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss Skinner’s Instrumental/Operant conditioning

26
 describe reinforcement and punishment
 enumerate the implications of Skinner’s theory.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 B.F. Skinner’s Theory of Instrumental or Operant

Conditioning

Instrumental conditioning theory of learning was formulated by B.F.

Skinner (1904 – 1990), who was an American Psychologist. Skinner
improved on the work of Thorndike. Skinner revolted against “no
stimulus, no response” mechanism in the evolution of behaviour. He
argued that in practical situations in our life, we cannot always wait for
things to happen in the environment. Man is not a victim of the
environment. He may often manipulate the things in the environment
with his own initiative. In his view, each learning experience is a
stimulus that produces a behaviour response.

Skinner was convinced of the importance of reinforcement. Skinner

developed an explanation of learning that stresses the consequences of
behaviour. What happens after we do something is all important. In
Operant conditioning, behaviour must occur before it can be reinforced.
Operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which the
consequences of behaviour lead to changes in the probability that the
behaviour will occur.

Skinner defined two types of responses – the one “elicited” by known

stimuli which he called “respondent behaviour” and the other emitted by
unknown stimuli which he called Operant behaviour. Examples of
respondent behaviour may include all reflexes such as jerking one’s
hand when jabbed with a pin, salivation in the presence of food. In
respondent behaviour the stimulus preceding the response is responsible
for causing the behaviour, the stimulus causing such behaviour is
unknown. In this case, the stimulus is not important but the
consequences of the behaviour hence operant behaviour is controlled by
the strength of its consequences instead of stimuli. Examples of such
behaviour include moving one’s hand, arms or legs arbitrarily, eating a
meal, writing a letter, standing up and walking about and similar other
everyday activities. Operant conditioning occurs when a response to a
stimulus is reinforced.

To establish his claims, Skinner conducted a series of experiments with

animals. Skinner constructed a box called Skinner box containing a lever
that releases a pellet of food. Skinner, in one of his experiments placed
a hungry rat in the above described box and if the rat presses the lever,
the food would drop for it. The lever in the box was mechanically
27
connected to a device that automatically records every attempt the rat
made.

In the box, the rat moved around tirelessly and each time the lever is
pressed, the food falls for the rat. The rat becomes persistent in pressing
the lever so that the food could fall. The food that comes down for the
rat reinforces its action. The pressing response is instrumental in
producing a reinforcer (food) which then acts as a stimulus for response
(lever pressing). In contrast, if the food is not accompanied with the
pressing of lever, the number of presses would fall gradually to the
lowest point.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. What are the two types of responses defined by Skinner?

ii. Mention two (2) examples of each of the responses mentioned
above.

3.2 Forms of Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the probability that a

behaviour will occur. On the other hand, punishment is a consequence
that decreases the probability that a behaviour will occur. In other
words, reinforcement will strengthen a behaviour while punishment will
weaken a behaviour.

There are two forms of reinforcement and punishment as shown below:

Reinforcement Punishment

Positive Negative Positive Negative

Reinforceme Reinforcemen Punishmen Punishmen
nt t t t

Both types of punishment

Both types of are used to decrease the
reinforcement are used to likelihood that a
increase the likelihood preceding behaviour will
that a preceding be repeated
behaviour

28
It is important to note that when something is added or presented, the
process of learning is called positive and when something is removed or
taken away, the process of learning is called negative.

Forms of Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive reinforcement Receiving something A student is praised
pleasant will increase for asking question.
behaviour occurrence Subsequently, the
student asks more
questions.
Negative Removing something A child who is tired of
reinforcement unpleasant will hearing his father’s
increase behaviour nagging will do his
occurrences. homework. He does
the homework to
remove the nagging .
Positive punishment Receiving something If a teacher frowned
unpleasant will when his student
decrease behaviour asked a question, the
occurrences student would be less
likely to ask question
again.
Negative punishment Removing something A misbehaving
pleasant will decrease student is removed
behaviour from the class.
occurrences.

Both positive and negative reinforcement functionally increase

behaviour. Negative reinforcement should not be confused with
punishment.

3.3 Schedules of Reinforcement

A reinforcer is a contingent event that increases the frequency of

behaviour. Reinforcers are more effective when they are given as soon
as possible after a student performs the target behaviour.

Schedule of reinforcement: A reinforcement schedule is simply a rule

which specifies how often and under what conditions a particular
response will be reinforced. Reinforcement may be given at continuous
or intermittent schedule.

Continuous reinforcement: In this reinforcement technique, every

correct response or behaviour is reinforced. For example, a student may

29
be rewarded for every correct answer he gives to the questions or
problems asked by his teacher.

Intermittent reinforcement: This involves sometimes withholding and at

other times providing reinforcement. In this type of reinforcement only
some of the correct responses are reinforced.
There are four types of schedule of reinforcement. They are as follows:

1. Fixed ratio schedule: This is when a behaviour is reinforced

after a set number (fixed) of responses have occurred. For
example, a student may be given a bar of chocolate for every ten
mathematical problems solved.

2. Variable ratio: This is a type of reinforcement schedule where

the number of responses needed for reinforcement varies from
one reinforcement to the next. The number of responses needed
to gain the reinforcement is not consistent. The individual does
not know when he is going to be rewarded and consequently he
remains motivated throughout the learning process in the wait of
reinforcement. For example, a student may be rewarded after 3,
5, 9 and 15 mathematical problems solved.

3. Fixed interval schedule: This is a kind of schedule in which the

time between reinforcement varies. The time period keeps
changing. For example, rather than waiting for a standard ten or
fifteen minutes, teachers ask for responses at different times
immediately later, and in the middle of the class.

3.4 Educational Implications

1. Clear detailed specific objective expected during and at the end

of each unit must be well stated

2. Reinforce positive behaviour and punish bad behaviour

immediately and consistently with minor punishment.

3. For the desirable behaviour in the learner to be demonstrated and

repeated, it must be immediately reinforced. The time lag
between reinforcing the demonstrated behaviour should not be
too long.
4. Use schedule of reinforcement, such as rewards to encourage
persistence.

5. Punish students’ behaviour, not their personal qualities.

6. Tell the students which behaviour is being punished.

30
4.0 CONCLUSION

In operant conditioning, we see that the consequences of behaviour

produce changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Theory. You also learnt about forms of reinforcement and punishment
and the educational implications of Skinner’s theory.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss Skinner’s instrumental or operant conditioning.

2. Define reinforcement and punishment
3. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Continuous reinforcement
(ii) Intermittent reinforcement
4. What are the contributions of Skinner’s theory to the learners?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alao, K.O. (2009) Advanced Psychology of Learning (EDU 722),

Lagos, National Open University of Nigeria.

Elliot, S.N., Kratochwill T.R., Cook J.L & Travers J.F. (2000)
Educational Psychology (3rd Ed), USA, McGraw Hill.

Oladele, J.O. (2005), Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th ed)

Lagos, John-lad Publishers Ltd.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka,

Erudition Publishers.

Santrock, J.W. (2008), Educational Psychology, (3rd ed) Boston,

McGraw Hill.

31
UNIT 2 APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life
3.2 Learned Helplessness and Depression
3.3 Modifying Human Behaviour
3.4 Testing New Drugs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 4, we discussed Skinner’s operant conditioning theory of

learning. You can now explain responses as operants. You can also
describe schedules of reinforcement. You are now in a position to
explain the implications of Skinner’s theory for the management of
classroom behaviour in particular and human behaviour generally. You
are about to study an extensive dimension of the usefulness of Skinner’s
theory of learning. It is a very stimulating study unit you are about to
begin. Let us look at what other content you should learn in this study
unit as specified in the study unit objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. List aspects of human behaviour that operant conditioning

affects.
2. Explain how one form of abnormal behaviour can be acquired
through operant processes.
3. Describe how Skinnerian approaches can be applied to parenting
and education.

32
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life

Operant conditioning affects many aspects of human behaviour. We

smile, help others, and go to work every morning because we are
reinforced for these behaviours. Welfare payments (as in the United
Kingdom, for instance) may reinforce some able-bodied adults for not
working, and politicians shake thousands of hands and kiss babies
because they are reinforced by the advantages of elective office. Operant
conditioning can be responsible for the development of abnormal
behaviours but can also be systematically used in very positive ways.
Let us consider one theory of how psychology is used to modify a
variety of behaviours, enhance the educational process, and develop new
drugs. Now try to answer this quiz:

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List any four (4) behaviours for which you or anyone around was
reinforced within the last one week:
i) ………………………………………………………………
ii) ………………………………………………………………
iii) ………………………………………………………………
iv) ………………………………………………………………

That’s nice of you. Let us continue our discussion.

3.2 Learned Helplessness and Depression

Martin Seligman (1985) has shown how one form of abnormal

behaviour, depression, can be acquired through operant processes. He
delivered electric shock to two dogs simultaneously. The Group A dog
could turn off the shock by pressing a button and thus had some control
over the situation. The Group B dog received the same shocks as the
Group A dog but had no control, it was helpless. Both groups were then
moved to a shuttle box.

Each dog was placed in one compartment, where a signal was followed
by shock. Group A dogs soon learned to jump the barrier when the
signal sounded in order to avoid the shock, but Group B dogs did not.
This raises a relevant question: Why? It was so because the Group B
dogs had previously learned that they had no control over the shock
thus did not try to make the avoidance response (Mineka & Hendersen,
1985). Seligman called this phenomenon learned helplessness. Other
studies have demonstrated that lacking operant control over the

33
environment can produce helplessness in humans as well (Kofta &
Sedek, 1989). The secretary who is repeatedly overruled by her boss
when she tries to be more efficient and by her family when she tries to
improve home life may eventually come to feel helpless more generally.
Such learned helplessness can be a major factor in depression.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Demonstrate you understand what we have discussed by listing any

three (3) situations in which you lacked operant control over any/some
situations/environments.
i) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
ii) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
iii ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

That’s good effort on your part. Let us continue our discussion.

3.3 Modifying Human Behaviour

The intentional application of Skinnerian principles in an effort to alter

human behaviour is called behaviour modification. Skinnerian
approaches have been applied to parenting, education, therapy, and the
development of new drugs.

Operant techniques can be helpful in correcting problem behaviour in

children. Clinnard (1984) explains that problem behaviour is behaviour
that digresses from what the majority approves of, or a variation of a
normal behaviour. Gardner (1988) explains that in a child, any
behaviour is generally viewed as what he does, how he relates to others,
what he accomplishes, what he reports about his emotional experiences,
how he approaches a learning task, how he performs in a competitive
situation and how he uses covert cognitive behaviours to influence other
behaviours. A problem behaviour is thus any consistent discrepancy
between what is expected of a child in academic and social areas and
what is done by him in these various areas.

Education at any level is expected to influence behaviour of those who

experience it. This applies to primary school children and other school
children. Igborghor (1981) writes that in the Nigerian school system,
problem behaviours have been manifested in various forms and to
varying levels of seriousness. These range from relatively simple
problems of lateness to school and disobedience to more serious ones as

34
stealing, fighting, truancy, rioting and extreme damage to lives and
property. Problem behaviours such as drug addiction, destructive
tendency, aggressiveness, restlessness, cheating which are common
among adolescents may affect their cognitive functioning.

In one study, frustrated parents whose children watched an average of

21 hours of TV per week agreed to a Skinnerian behavioural
programme. The child received 20 tokens per week; each could be
turned over to mummy or daddy in exchange for 30 minutes of TV
viewing time. If the children watched no more than the 10 allotted
hours, they received a gold token that could be exchanged for some
special reinforcer, like a trip to an amusement park or a party for friends.
The children cut their TV viewing time to 10 hours and kept it there
over a period of 8 months after they stopped receiving the tokens (Wolfe
et. al., 1984).

A second application of Skinnerian techniques has been programmed

instruction. Developed by Skinner in 1954, it applies operant
techniques to the teaching of various school subjects. One early device
presented addition problems and allowed a child to type the answers on
a keyboard. The machine reinforced correct responses by moving on to
the next problem. Such reinforcement is immediate and accurate to a
degree that can never be achieved by a teacher working with many
children at once. It is important for you to note that current computer
based instructional systems are the modern products of Skinner’s
genius.

Skinnerian approaches have also been applied to the modification of

abnormal behaviour. Hospitalized mental patients suffering from such
serious disorders as schizophrenia typically have few of the social skills
needed to obtain reinforcement in the world outside the institution.
Behavioural programmes called token economies teach them social
skills through operant techniques specific behaviours (for example,
keeping a neat room and going to meals on time) are identified as
appropriate reinforcers (for example, candy, movie attendance, and TV
privileges) are determined. When patients perform the desired
behaviours, they receive tokens, such as poker chips, that can later be
exchanged for the reinforcers they want.

3.4 Testing New Drugs

Before a new drug becomes available, we need some way to be certain

that it is safe and effective. Operant techniques can be used to teach an
animal a new behaviour. A drug is then administered to see how it
affects the behaviour. The effects of new tranquilizers and of

35
antipsychotic drugs – those that reduce the symptoms of psychotic
patients – have been evaluated in this way (Burke et. al., 1994; Wiley et.
al., 1994).

Similarly, the effects of withdrawal from narcotics have been assessed

(Higgins & Sellers, 1994), as has the interaction between narcotics and
the antidepressant drugs were used to treat clinical depression
(Kovera,1994).
Finally, Skinnerian techniques have been applied to show that cocaine
decreases response rates and reduces the consistency of behaviour
(Haaren, 1994)

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the application of operant

conditioning theory of learning in everyday life. You should also have
learned about learned helplessness and depression. In addition, you have
learnt how human behaviour could be modified as well as the process of
testing new drugs.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns operant

conditioning in everyday life.
ii. You have also learnt; learned helplessness and depression.
iii. In addition, you have learnt how human behaviour could be
modified.
iv. Finally, you have learnt the process of testing new drugs.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. (a) Explain the concept of behaviour modification.

(b) What do you understand by programmed instruction?

2. Briefly describe the application of operant conditioning in the

testing of new drugs.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Burke, T.F., Miller, L.G. & Moerschbaecher, J.M. (1994). Acute

effects of benzodiazepines on operant behaviour and in vivo
receptor binding in mice. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and
Behaviour 48 (1) 69 – 76.

Clinnard, M.B. (1984) Sociology of Deviant Behaviour New York Holt,

Rinehart & Winston.

36
Gardner, W.I. (1988) Children with Learning Behaviour Problems
Allyn and Bacon. Inc.

Haaren, S. (1994). Evolution and human emotions Psychological Inquiry

5 (2) 41 – 49.

Higgins, G. & Sellers, E. (1994). Antagonistic – precipitated opioid

withdrawal in rants. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour,
48 (1) 1 – 7.

Igborgbor, G.O. (1981) Comparison of values clarification and

Contingency Management echniques in the treatment of Truancy.

Nigerian Journal of Educational Psychology. 31, 176 – 189.

Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1989). Repeated failure: A source of

helplessness on a factor irrelevant to its emergency? Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General. 118 (1), 3 – 12.

Kovera, C.A. (1994). Behavioural and Neurochemical Mechanisms of

Opioid – antidepressant interactions. Pharmacology,
Biochemistry and Behaviour, 48 (1) 47 – 52.

Mineka, S. & Hendersen, R. (1985). Controllability and predictability in

acquired motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 495 529.

Seligman, M.E. (1985). Helplessness: on depression, development, and

death. San Francisco: Freeman.

Wiley, J.L., Compton, A.D. & Porter, J.H. (1994). Differential effects of
clozapine and pimozide on fixed-ratio responding during repeated
dosing. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour, 48 (1) 263 –
257.

Wolfe, D., Mendes, G. & Factor, D. (1984). A parent-administered

program to reduce children’s television viewing. Journal of
Applied Behaviour Analyssi, 17, 267 – 272.

37
UNIT 3 DISTINCTION BETWEEN CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING AND OPERANT
CONDITIONING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distinction between Classical Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning
3.2 Key Terms and Concepts in Classical Conditioning and
Operant Conditioning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

From the work done in the previous units, you can discuss what classical
conditioning and operant conditioning are all about. In this unit, you
will get to know about the differences that exist between the two types
of conditioning. You will get to know about the key terms and concepts
in the two theories of learning.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 list the differences between classical and operant conditioning

 explain the following terms:
(i) Discrimination
(ii) Extinction
(iii) Generalization
(iv) Conditioned Stimulus

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Distinction between Classical Conditioning and Operant

Conditioning

In classical conditioning, the organism is passive. It must wait for

something to happen before it can respond. The behaviour cannot be
emitted in the absence of a cause e.g. the dog waits for food to arrive

38
before salivating while in operant conditioning, the organism is active.
Operant behaviour is initiated on his own without a stimulus by the
organism. In other words, much emphasis is placed on the response
rather than the stimulus causing the response. For example, accidental
pressing of the lever by the rat.

In classical conditioning, reinforcement comes first, whereas in operant

conditioning, reinforcement comes after appropriate response is made.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of unconditioned stimulus
(food) and conditioned stimulus (bell) while in operant conditioning,
there is no pairing.

Classical conditioning is stimulus-oriented while operant conditioning is

response-oriented.

Operant conditioning is more flexible than classical conditioning

because responses that may be conditioned are not confined to natural or
innate responses but to a variety of responses.

In operant conditioning, the association is between the emitted

behaviour and the reinforcement upon which the behaviour is contingent
while the association is between a stimulus and elicited response in
classical conditioning.

In classical conditioning, the essence of learning is stimulus substitution

whereas in operant conditioning, the essence of learning is behaviour
modification.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In your own words, list three differences between classical conditioning

and operant conditioning.

3.3 Key Terms and Concepts in Classical Conditioning and

Operant Conditioning

Terms Definitions
Conditional Stimulus Stimulus that acquired the ability to
produce the response because it was paired
with the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response Response that is similar to unconditioned
response (UCR) but is produced by the
conditioned stimulus
Discrimination The ability to differentiate between similar
stimuli. In other words, it is the process by
which we learn not to respond to similar

39
 stimuli in the same way
Extinction The disappearance of a response due to the
removal of the reinforcer that maintained
the response. In other words, it is a process
by which conditioned responses are lost.
Generalisation Responding in the same way to two
different stimuli
Unconditioned Unlearned or inborn reaction to the
response (UCR) unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus that can produce response without
stimulus any learning
Classical conditioning Type of learning in which neutral
(conditioned) stimulus gradually gains the
ability to elicit a response because of its
pairing with a natural (unconditioned)
stimulus.
Operant conditioning Form of learning in which the
consequences of behaviour lead to
changes in the probability that the
behaviour will occur
Spontaneous recovery The reappearance of an apparently
extinguished conditioned response (CR)
after an interval when conditioned stimulus
is presented again.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

With examples, explain the following terms:

i. Generalization
ii. Extinction
iii. Discrimination

4.0 CONCLUSION

Although classical conditioning and operant conditioning are classified

and included in the category of conditioning, there still exist some
differences between them. For both theories, learning is the acquisition
of new behaviour through conditioning.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt about the distinction between classical

conditioning and operant conditioning. You also learnt about the key
terms and concepts in the two types of conditioning.

40
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. List the differences between classical conditioning and operant

conditioning
2. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Discrimination
(ii) Extinction
(iii) Generalization
(iv) Conditioned Stimulus

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Elliot, S.N., Kratochwill T.R., Cook J.L & Travers J.F. (2000)
Educational Psychology (3rd Ed), USA, McGraw Hill.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka,

Erudition Publishers.

Oladele, J.O. (2005), Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th ed)

Lagos, John-lad Publishers Ltd.

Santrock, J.W. (2008), Educational Psychology, (3rd ed) Boston,

McGraw Hill

Sulaiman F.R. & Onabamiro A.A. (2000) Psychology for Child

Development and Human Learning, Ijebu-Ode, Alamsek Press
Ltd.

41
UNIT 4 GESTALT THEORY OF LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Kohler’s Experiment
3.2 Critical Assessment of Gestalt’s Theory of Learning
3.3 Implications for Practice
3.4 Gestalt Therapy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 4 of Module I, we discussed Pavlov’s classical

conditioning theory of learning. You can also explain Pavlov’s altered
experiment. You are now well positioned to identify the differences
between classical conditioning and operant conditioning theories of
learning. You are about to study another stimulating theory of learning
known as Insightful or Cognitive learning theory. This theory is in
contrast with the stimulus – response learning which places emphasis on
piecemeal learning. Gestalt theory states that learning must be seen as a
whole where the learner organizes and understands what is learned. Let
us examine what other content you should learn in this study unit as
specified in the study unit objectives as stated hereunder.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

 discuss the Gestalt theory of learning.

 list main features of insightful learning.
 identify the weaknesses of Gestalt theory of learning.
 explain the implications of the theory for teaching - learning
situations.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Kohler’s Experiment

You no doubt have insights. For example, you are faced with a complex
new concept, perhaps in a mathematic course, and decide that you will
42
never fully understand it. You put the course material away and come
back to the problem hours later. After 10 minutes of renewed study, you
suddenly say ‘Aha!’ as the concept becomes clear. This is insightful
learning.

Helen Keller (1957:28) provides a classic example of insightful

learning: ‘Suddenly I felt a misty consciousness as of
something forgotten….’

One of the most famous examples of human insight was that of chemist
Frederick Kekule in 1865. Kekule had been trying to devise an overall
theory of the structure of organic molecules. One afternoon, he was
dozing before his fire and had a dream in which ‘atoms gambolled’
before his eyes, forming ‘long rows, sometimes more closely fitted
together; all turning and twisting in snakelike motion’. As the dream
continued, Kekule noted that ‘one of the snakes had seized hold of its
own tail, and the form whirled mockingly before my eyes. As if by a
flash of lightening, I awoke’ (quoted in Rothenberg, 1979:395 - 396).
In the vision of the snake biting its own tail, Kekule saw that important
organic and compounds consist of closed rings of atoms. He had made a
discovery fundamental to the understanding of organic chemistry.

The word ‘gestalt’ means a configuration, shape, or form. The

Gestatltists - Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler, Lamin, Combs and Snygg -
reject learning as the formation of a bond between stimulus and
response. They believe that learning occurs by insight: there is a sudden
reorganisation of the person’s field and he understands. These
psychologists argue that since all events in nature occur within some
field, it is the totality of the field, its properties and structure, that
explains all events happening within the field. It is important for you to
note that of all the experiments conducted by the Gestaltists, Kohler’s
seems most instructive and he is a basic reference in Gestaltists
psychology. Let us therefore consider a relevant question: What was his
theory about? You are anxious to know this. You would now. Let us
continue our discussion.

Kohler’s approach considers man’s inner processes as a ‘whole’ instead

of seeing them as tiny pieces like those of jigsaw puzzle. In addition,
Kohler and his fellow Gestaltists assume that our perception of the
whole world is of meaningful whole and that (this) is different from, and
more than, an accumulation of sensations, images or ideas. The
Gestaltists rejected the simple stimulus - response (S - R) connections
as the explanation of behaviour. The concept of organisation between
stimulus - response was introduced by the Gestaltists. It is important
for you to note that this means we learn, not by associating bits of
expressions but by forming new Gestaltists - by seeing new patterns and

43
by organising them into a meaningful whole in the total situation
(Alhassan, 2000).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Given our discussion, explain briefly what you have learnt in this study
unit.
………………………………………………………………………….

Well done. Let us continue our discussion.

Essentially, Kohler placed a hungry chimpanzee in a cage. Outside the

bars of the cage and just beyond its reach was a banana. The
chimpanzee (later called Sultan) made a few futile attempts to each
through the bars and gets the banana. Then the chimpanzee noticed a
stick lying on the floor of the cage. Picking up the stick, the animal
smoothly and without further hesitation reached out and took in the
banana. A relevant question arises: How would you explain the
problem - solving behaviour of Sultan? Let us continue our
discussion.

Kohler’s explanation was not Sultan had engaged in insightful

learning, which is characterised by sudden resolution or action after a
period study during which there is no action or apparent understanding.

How can insight learning be explained theoretically? A partial answer is

that it appears to involve two stages. The first is a process of problem
solving, a kind of mental trial and error, in which solutions are tried out
and rejected without any actual behaviour being displayed. The second
stage is storing the final solution in memory, where it is available for
retrieval later.

Are cognitive processes the best explanation for conditioning and

learning? Some psychologists clearly believe they are, but others are
not convinced. They argue that the proposed cognitive processes cannot
be directly observed and must be inferred. When cognitive
psychologists do not fully understand how a conditioned association
takes place, their critics argue, they propose constructs like expectancy,
prediction, and cognitive maps to fill the gaps in understanding. The
danger is that such constructs may be difficult to test empirically. This
theoretical battle represents a scientifically healthy difference of opinion
and promises to continue for many years to come.

Mukhejee (1978) reveals that Kohler explained this problem - solving

behaviour by saying that ‘insight’ came to the chimpanzee when the
problem was solved. Kohler argues that all problem solving depends

44
on insightful learning. Mukherjee (op. cit: 57) in analysing the
chimpanzee’s problem - solving behaviour states that:

a. There were several meaningful trials all of them being goal-

oriented (directed);
b. There were several turning away from the goal;
c. There was a pause after sighting the stick lying in a different
position from the chimpanzee and the banana; and
d. Then there was solution of the problem with the stick which was
used as an extension of arm.

The writer further states that such learning can be transferred to new
situations whereas there are many regressions in trial and error learning.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Demonstrate you understand our discussion by listing any three (3)

meaningful trials you made in the last 3 weeks towards the achievement
of an objective or objectives.
i)
ii)
iii)

That’s nice of you. Let us continue our discussion.

Kimble & Garmezy (1968) observes rather significantly that the

chimpanzee had previously learnt to use implements (such as sticks) to
draw to itself desirable objects. By implication, therefore, the insightful
solutions to problems may be the result of long experience with the
materials involved in any particular problem (situation).

Sperling (1979) writes that the chimpanzee seems to have combined a

memory image of drawing a banana into the cage with a synthetic image
madeup of a memory image of extending a rod out of the cage. Now
consider this quiz: what are the features of insightful learning? Think
about the answer to that question for 60 seconds. Now, let us continue
our discussion.

Oladele (1989) sees the following as the main features of insightful

learning:
i) Learning through insight depends upon the arrangement of the
problem situation. Insight will come easily if the essentials for
solution are arranged so that relationships can be perceived.
ii) Complex situations can only be tackled through insight - a higher
form of learning than trial and error.

45
iii) Insight, like other learning, depends upon the capacity of the
learner. Older children, for example, can learn things more easily
than younger children.

3.2 Critical Assessment of Gestalt’s Theory of Learning

While it may be said that insightful theory of learning concerns itself

with higher and problem - solving skills, it does not explain forms of
learning, for example, concept of learning. In addition, it is silent about
the notion of transfer of learning and about why insights come to some
individuals more quickly than others. Psychological evidence shows
that more intelligent persons seem to handle insightful learning more
readily than less intelligent individuals.

3.3 Implications for Practice

The teacher should realize the importance of instructional aids during

teaching – learning activities, hence he/she should make use of teaching
aids for a meaningful learning in the classroom

The teacher should be able to point out the inter relatedness of topics by
linking previous experiences with the import of the present lesson

Learners should be given ample opportunities in mental exercises since

learning is essentially a cognitive exercise.

Learner must be assisted to see the learning material as a whole and not
as disjointed pieces. Doing so would enable learners to solve learning
problems on their own.

Learning should essentially be made real using concrete materials and

practical examples. Abstracts presentation of facts should be avoided.
Teaching should progress from known to unknown, abstract to concrete
etc

3.4 Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt therapy was developed by Frederick Perls (1967, 1969), who

was trained in both psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology. The latter
emphasises that we act not on the basis of external reality but rather in
accord with our perceptions of that reality. We actively organise the
stimuli that make up the world into meaningful patterns or wholes
(gestalts) that are based on our expectations and needs. These gestalts
and perceptions more generally, are typically inaccurate even in normal
people because we see the world as society teaches us to see it (Recker,
1993).

46
When perceptions become abnormally in accurate, they can lead to
psychopathology. Accordingly, the emphasis in Gestalt therapy is on
creating a whole person by increasing perceptual accuracy and unifying
mind and body. The importance of immediate, individual experience is
stressed, and the therapist works hard to keep the client focused on
current experience (Polster & Polster, 1993).

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the Gestalt theory of learning as
presented by Kohler in his experiment with Sultan, the Chimpanzee.
You should also have learned the strength and weakness of Kohler’s
insightful theory of learning; and implications of the theory to the
teaching - learning process in particular and situations in general.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns Kohler’s

insightful theory of learning.
ii. You have also learnt the strength and weakness of the insightful
theory of learning.
iii. In addition, you have learnt the implications of the insightful
theory of learning for educational practice.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Briefly explain three (3) main features of insightful theory of learning.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.

Becker, E. (1993). Growing up rugged: Fritz Perls and Gestalt therapy.

In: Gestalt Journal, 16 (2), 27 - 44.

Keller, H. (1957). The story of my life Garden city, New York:

Doubleday.

Kimble, G. & Garmezy, M. (1968). Conditioning and Learning New

York: Appleton.

Mukherjee, M. (1978). Educational Psychology Calcutta, India: K. P.

Bask Pub. Coy.

47
Oladele, J.O. (1989). Guidance and Counselling: A Functional
Approach Lagos: Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Owoyele, J. W. (2014). Psychological Foundations of Education,

Human Development & Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Top best Books.

Perls, F.S. (1967). Group vs. individual therapy. ETC: A Review of

General Semantics, 34, 306 - 312.

Perls, F.S. (1969). Gestalt therapy verbatim. Highland, NY: Gestalt

Journal.

Polster, E. & Poster, M. (1993). Frederick Perls: Legacy and invitation.

Gestalt Journal, 16 (2), 23 - 25.

Rothenberg, A. (1979), the emerging goddess Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

Sperling, A. (1979). Psychology Made Simple London: Heinemann.

48
UNIT 5 MOTIVATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Motivation
3.2 Types of Motivation
3.3 Theories of Motivation
3.3.1 The Theory of Instinct
3.3.2 Homeostasis Theory of Physiological Needs
3.3.3 The Drive Theory
3.3.4 Theory of Intrinsic Motivation
3.3.5 The Theory of Achievement Motivation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, we were able to learn about Gestalt theory of learning
and the main features of insightful learning. In this unit, we are going to
learn about the driving force behind human behaviour known as
motivation. We shall also discuss some theories of motivation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

 explain the term motivation

 describe the two type of motivation
 list four instincts and their corresponding emotions according to
Mc Dou-gall (1932)
 state why the theory of Instinct fell into disrepute.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Motivation

Motivation is defined as the eagerness and willingness to do something.

It is the reason why an individual wants to do something. Motivation,
therefore is the driving force behind human behavior. It involves the
biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behavior.

49
Motivation is a general term for conditions that cause an individual to
begin an activity and pursue it with vigour and persistence.

Motivation is the energizing and maintenance of goal- directed human

behavior (Alhassan, 1983). In the opinion of Oladele (2005), motivation
is a process by which the learner’s internal energies are directed towards
various goal objects in his/her environment.These energies or arousals
push an individual in achieving his goals. Motives are the needs and
desires the goal – directed behavior attempts to satisfy. Why do you eat
when you feel hungry? Why are you reading this study unit? The brief
answer to these questions is motivation.

3.2 Types of Motivation

There are two types of motivation namely Intrinsic motivation and

Extrinsic motivation. The desire for food or sex arises from within us
(intrinsic), while the yearning to obtain recognition or approval is
influenced by the conditions in our environment (extrinsic).

Intrinsic Motivation refers to motivation that arises from within the

individual.We are motivated intrinsically when we do something
because we experience internal compelling force to do it. An example of
an intrinsically motivated student is one who reads simply because he
sees value in reading or one who solves Mathematics problems because
he readily perceives that it is somehow to his advantage to do so.

Extrinsic Motivation refers to motivation that arises from source

outside the individual. A student that is extrinsically motivated will
execute an action in order to obtain some reward or avoid some
sanctions. For example, a student who read hard for the examination did
so because of the desire to obtain better grade.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List any six (6) goal- directed behaviours you manifested in the last
seven (7) days
i.-------------------------------------------------------------------
ii -------------------------------------------------------------------
iii -------------------------------------------------------------------
iv --------------------------------------------------------------------
v --------------------------------------------------------------------
vi ------------------------------------------------------------------

That is nice of you. Let us continue our discussion.

50
3.3 Theories of Motivation

Theorists addressing motivational issues have faced three broad

questions:
1) What are the major motive systems and how do they motivate
behaviour?
2) How do these systems relate to each other?
3) What are the underlying psychological, environmental, and
physiological causes of motivated behaviour and how do they
interact?

Attempts to answer the above questions have resulted in a number of

theories such as:
a) The theory of instinct;
b) Homeostasis theory of physiological needs;
c) Drive theory;
d) Theory of intrinsic motivation;
e) Theory of Achievement motivation;
f) Theory of motivated behaviour; and
g) Hierarchy of needs theory.

In this study unit, we shall discuss some of the above theories while
others shall be discussed in the study units that follow:

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Having understood the meaning of motivation, which of the above listed

theories would you list as capable of explaining why you enroll in the
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) academic programme?
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All right. Let us continue our discussion.

3.4 The Theory of Instinct

Some behaviours are driven by instincts - innate, biological motives

that are expressed in a consistent way (Hadley, 1992; Tinbergen, 1989).

Nest building in birds is an innate behaviour pattern triggered by a

combination of internal and external events. Instinct is considered to be
a purposive, inherited, goal-seeking tendency (Alhassan, 2000).

51
Some theorists placed great emphasis upon one or two instincts, for
example, Freud on the sex instinct, while others advanced lists of
instincts. This theory implies that for every type of human behaviour
manifestation, there was an underlying instinct and an accompanying
emotion.

Mc Dougall (1932) listed various instincts and their corresponding

emotions. Let us give examples:

Instincts Emotions Instincts Emotions

Fight Fear Self-assertion Positive self -feeling

Food seeking Gusto Self-abasement Negative self-feeling

Curiosity Wonder

Pugnacity Anger Reproduction Lust

Affiliation Affection Gregariousness Companionship

Acquisition Feeling of ownership Repulsion Disgust

Laughter Amusement

Appeal Distress

The analysis of instincts will reveal that instincts are natural urges or
innate tendencies. They are therefore unlearned, independent of
schooling and individual experiences. They are universal in the entire
species, and usually aim at the safety and well-being and preservation of
species. You should note that instincts are not ready at birth; they have
their time for maturity and stimulation. Following Mc Dougall’s lead,
other psychologists added to the list of instincts, and some 14,000
instincts were invoked by various authors to explain the motivational
bases for human behaviour (Atkinson, 1964).

It is important for you to note that the theories soon fell into disrepute
because they could not explain the variability in human behaviour,
which was clearly influenced by learning (Tolman, 1932). The so-called
human instincts simply do not fit our definition of the term ‘instinct’.

Note also that instinct theory more generally survives today in the form
of ethnology, the study of the species - specific behaviours of animals
(including humans) in their natural settings. The primary emphasis of
ethnology is on the origins of behaviours in lower animals.

52
Ethnologists are interested in behaviour that is species specific
meowing in cats, barking in dogs - and behaviour that occurs in fixed
action patterns - behavioural sequences that occur in exactly the same
way each time because they are hand-wired into the nervous system.
Fixed action patterns are triggered by a releaser - specific stimulus that
elicits the behaviour. Flight without a practice in some birds is an
example.

Some ethnologists also point to fixed actions in human behaviour, such

as the smile of very early infancy that occurs without learning. We shall
discuss another theory of motivation in the next section of this study
unit.

3.5 Homeostasis Theory of Physiological Needs

At this point in our discussion, there is a necessity to distinguish

between needs and drives before attempting to expound on this theory.
If a rat (in an experiment) that has been deprived of food for several
hours is placed inside a box with several alleys leading to food, it will be
active. A well-fed rat placed in the same maze may move about a little,
but it will cover less ground than the hungry rat. After eating, the
hungry rat will no longer be restless and if returned to its cage, it is
likely to curl up and go to sleep. When the rat is hungry again, its
activity cycle will begin again.

In the example discussed above, we refer to the food-deprived state as a

state of need. The organism needs food, and when the rat has not eaten
for a while, chemical changes in its blood indicate its need. The need
for food is physiological but a state of physiological need has
psychological consequences. We call the psychological consequences
of a need a drive. Thus, the food need in the rat leads the rat through
processes we call hunger drive that is the drives to look for food.

While need and drive are parallel, they are not the same. Drive does not
necessarily get stronger as need gets stronger. A starved organism may
be so weakened by its goal need that drive is weakened. Men who have
fasted for a long time report that their hunger pangs (a subjective
representation of hunger drive) come and go, but of course, their need
for food persists.

The theory of homeostasis was propounded by Cannon (1932). What is

homeostasis? Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium or stability that the
body strives to sustain. Under the control of centers in the brain,
homeostatic mechanisms maintain a variety of physiological balances.
They ensure a constant internal body temperature of 98.60 even in very
hot and very cold environments (Weisinger et. al, 1993). They also

53
maintain proper blood concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, salt,
sugar, and other substances (Boldyner, 1993; Stellar, 1993). Let us cite
examples to make our discussion clearer.

We quench our thirst with a drink that makes us feel satisfied or

contended. Our experience of various needs satisfied from childhood
acquaints us with the learning of various primary goals, for example
food, sex, water, and environmental pressures. It is important for you to
note that this theory explains how needs generate primary drives
(hunger, thirst, and so on) but does not explain how and why human
beings are continually driven to seek more money, better job, and higher
standards of living, and so on.

3.6 Drive Theory

One of the most widely used concepts in theories of motivation is drive.

What is the meaning of drive? Do you have any idea? Let us continue.
A drive is a condition of arousal or tension that motivates behaviour
aimed at reducing that tension. Drive theories typically hypothesize that
a set of physiological survival drives motivate behaviour. These include
hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, and sex. Additional drives can be learned on
the basis of these physiological drives.

Although the drive concept was introduced by Robert Woodworth

(1918), it was Clark Hull (1943) who first used the term in a major
theory of motivation and learning. In his drive reduction theory, he gave
explanations on how the primary drives are transformed into secondary
drives and how the primary goals eventually lead to the secondary goals.
According to this theory, behaviour probability of response is
determined by the product of two factors:

1) drive strength - motivational factors depending on the internal

states and external incentives, for example, period of food
deprivation; and
2) habit strength - habit built up through practice, learned
mechanism, strength of the bond connecting the stimulus and
response, for example, the number of times the response is
reinforced, in the case of a hungry child, it is crying response
which is being reinforced by food or milk.

Then by means of simple stimulus substitution and stimulus

generalisation, a host of other stimuli is associated with the primary
goal, for example, presence of mother, fetching food, and so on. If the
child experiences frustration in trying to realise these primary goals,
‘conditioned fear’ or ‘anxiety’ in the child is generated. Anxiety is thus
a secondary drive. As learning goes on, the organism wants to be free

54
from stress situations caused by anxiety. He therefore, generates
secondary drives of acquisition or acquisitiveness, competitiveness, and
so on to realise secondary goals of job, education, wealth, home, and so
on. It is important for you to note that the drive theory has been more
acceptable to psychologists since the conditions that produce drive and
the definition of the particular drive state are more susceptible to
accurate measurement.

It is also important for you to note that individuals learn to progress

towards secondary goals, but the drive theory does not explain a number
of other details in human motivation. For instance, why does one
individual manifest more motivation than another when both are
aspiring for the same goal, say education? How can motivation be
increased by controlling the stimulus situation confronting them? Why
are certain activities self-motivating?

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1.(a) From your understanding of our discussion, briefly explain what

a drive is
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(b) Why do you think anxiety is a secondary drive?

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4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt that motivation is the motive, the urge or the
need for engaging in a particular task. It is the driving force behind
human behavior.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. You have learnt the meaning of the term motivation and types of
motivation
ii. In addition, you have learnt the theories of instincts and
homeostasis of physiological needs.
iii Finally, you have learnt about the drive theory.

55
6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Briefly explain the term motivation.

2. Describe the two type of motivation you know
3. List four (4) instincts and their corresponding emotions according
to Mc Dougall (1932)
4. State why the theory of instinct fell into disrepute.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (1983). Environment and education of the child In:

Early Childhood Education Report, Institute of Education,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 449 - 463.

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

Atkinson, J.(1964). An Introduction to Motivation Princeton, New

Jersey: Van Mostrand.

Boldyrev, A.A. (1993). Functional activity of Nasupt, ksupt - pump in

normal and pathological tissues. In: Molecular and
Chemical Neuropathology 19(1 - 2), 83 - 94.

Cannon, W. (1932). An explanation of hunger Cambridge. MA: The

University Press.

Hadley, J.L. (1992). The instincts revisited. In: Psychoanalytic Inquiry,

12 (3), 396 - 418.

Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. In: Psychological

Review, 50, 370 - 96.

Mc Dougall, W. (1932). The Energies of Men London: Methuen.

Oladele J.O.(2005) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology, Fifth

Edition, Lagos. Johns – Lad Publishers Ltd.

Stellar, E. (1993). Salt appetite: Its neuroendocrine basis. Acta

Neurobiological Experimentalist, 53 (3), 475 - 484.

Symonds, P.M. (1955). What education has to learn from psychology II.
Reward Teachers College Record, 57, 449 - 62.

Tinbergen, N. (1989). The study of instinct Oxford, England: Clavendon

Press.

56
Tolman, E.C. (1932). Introduction and removal of reward, and maze
performance in rats. University of California Publications of
Psychology, 4, 257 – 76

Travers, J. (1986). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Scranton,

Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company.

57
MODULE 3

Unit 1 Additional Theories of Motivation

Unit 2 Critique of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Unit 3 Observational Learning
Unit 4 Transfer of Learning
Unit 5 Remembering and Forgetting

UNIT 1 ADDITIONAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Theory of Achievement Motivation
3.2 Bruner’s Model of Motivated Behavior
3.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, we discussed some theories of motivation such as the

theory of instinct, homeostasis theory of physiological needs and the
drive theory. You are about to study other theories of motivation so as to
enhance your level of understanding of human behavior.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

 distinguish between achievement motivation and motivated

behavior
 describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 state how flexible the hierarchy of needs is.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Theory of Achievement Motivation

Consider the cases of two young business executives, Tata and Sapa.
Tata arrives at work promptly at 8.00 a.m. and seldom leaves before
58
4.00 p.m., always taking a loaded briefcase home with him. He works at
least one day each weekend, always arrives at meetings on time, and
often completes assigned work early. Sapa works the minimum hours
from 9 to 4 and takes long lunches. He is often late for meetings and
frequently requests extensions to complete assignments. David Mc
Clelland might suggest that the principal difference between these two
people is in their levels of achievement motivation or need for
achievement. A uniquely human drive, achievement motivation is a
striving to overcome challenges, improve oneself, attain excellence, and
accomplish more than others.

Mc Clelland and his associates hypothesise that achievement motivation

is an important determinant of goal attainment. So important did Mc
Clelland believe achievement motivation to be that he developed an
entire theory of this motive based in part on the earlier work of Henry
Murray (1938). Mc Clelland’s theory views achievement motivation as
a learned motive. There is considerable support for his hypothesis that
people differ greatly in need for achievement and that these differences
are reflected in a variety of behaviours (Elliot, 1994; Rebeta, 1993).

Moreover, the levels of achievement motivation that characterise a

society have considerable impact on its technological and economic
growth and on the overall success of that society as a culture (Mc
Clelland, 1961). One member of the original Mc Clelland group, John
Atkinson, went on to develop a more detailed theory of achievement
motivation.

In support of Hunt’s theory, Atkinson (1978) came up with his model of

achievement motivation. He identifies two factors that determine the
will of the individual to achieve, that is factors that intrinsically motivate
the individual to engage in an activity. These are:
a. probability of success (PS); and
b. incentive to success (IS).

To make our discussion clearer, let us cite an example: if we are faced

with a problematic task or situation we ask ourselves; what is the
probability that I will succeed in the task? Theoretically, PS and IS are
inversely related, that is, if the probability of success is low then the task
involved must carry with it a high incentive and vice versa. For
instance, in any society, a profession demanding a lot of expertise of a
very high degree is usually well paid, that is they carry with them a very
high incentive, and therefore the motivation to succeed in this profession
is very high.

Atkinson suggests that there are some people who are success oriented,
and there are some who have high degrees of anxiety about failure.

59
Results from experiments he conducted reveal that success-oriented
people tend to set personal goals of intermediate difficulty or middle
level difficulty (they have a fifty - fifty chance of success). Anxiety -
ridden people tend to set personal goals that are either too high or too
low. If these anxiety - ridden people will fail on the hard task, no one
can blame them, and they are sure to succeed on the easy task. It is
obvious therefore that there is a strong need in the individual to avoid
failure especially if they experience repeated frustrations because of
failure. This must be taken into account in arranging learning
experiences. Atkinson, like Hunt, suggests that the individual is
motivated to achieve when the task is presented at half-way level of
difficulty, that is, there is enough degree of probability that they will
succeed and that there is a corresponding degree of incentive attached to
it.

In the classroom, when the lesson is too easy, the children will get bored
and restless, and when the lesson is too difficult, they will feel frustrated
and disinterested. The optimal level of difficulty, therefore, should be
half way between the extremes of ease and difficulty for all the children
to exhibit their maximum tendency to achieve success in their learning
undertaking

SELF-ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE

1. Given our discussion, list three (3) things for which you have a
strong need to achieve:
i) …………………………………………………………………….
ii) …………………………………………………………………….
iii) …………………………………………………………………….

Well done. Let us continue our discussion.

3.2 Bruner’s Model of Motivated Behaviour

Relevant to the theory of intrinsic motivation is Bruner’s (1966) model

explaining motivated behaviour. He identifies three types of intrinsic
motivation that may make a child willing to learn:

i) Curiosity: Bruner believes that we come into the world

equipped with a curiosity drive. He feels that curiosity drive is of
biological relevance, that is, curiosity is necessary to the survival
of the species. Bruner suggests that young children are two often
curious, that they are unable to stick with anyone activity. Their
curiosity leads them to turn from one activity to another in rapid
succession, and it must therefore be channeled into a more
powerful intellectual pursuit.

60
ii) Drive to achieve competence: Children become interested in
what they are good at, and it is virtually impossible to motivate
them to engage in activities in which they have no degree of
competence.

iii) Reciprocity: Involves a need to work with others cooperatively,

and Bruner believes that society itself developed as a result of
this basic motivation.

3.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The instinct, drive, intrinsic motivation, achievement motivation and

model of motivated behaviour theories all assume that humans are
motivated in the same ways as lower animals. Abraham Maslow’s
theorised that some motivational forces are distinctly human. In
promoting this idea, Malsow became one of the founding fathers of the
Humanistic school of psychology, which emphasises that humans are
unique in the animal kingdom.

The humanistic view suggests that human beings are unique in the
animal kingdom; they are not merely the organisms standing on the
highest rung of the evolutionary ladder. Humans are uniquely capable
of having a self-concept, a perception of their own characteristics. In
addition, every individual is different, and this individuality is a central
determinant of human behaviour.

Behaviour is controlled not so much by the external environment as by

the subjective environment created by the individual’s biased
perceptions of what is going on around her. Each individual experiences
the world a bit differently, and it is this subjective, individualised world
that influences behaviour. Biology has a role, in that each person is
endowed with biological motivations that greatly affect behaviour.

Figure I: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Human needs are arranged in a

hierarchy. Basic needs must be satisfied before higher needs are
fulfilled (Maslow, 1970).

61
 Need
for
Growth self
needs actualisation

Aesthetic needs

Cognitive needs

Belongingness
and love needs

Deficiency Safety and

needs security needs

Psychological
needs

Maslow hypothesised that human behaviour is motivated by a number of

competing needs that can be arranged in a hierarchy. It is important for
you to note that this need hierarchy is a systematic listing of needs in
priority order, such that needs further up the hierarchy can be met only
after more basic needs have been satisfied. The more basic needs are
deficiency needs - needs that must be satisfied for survival. The needs
at the very top are growth needs - needs that enhance the person’s
psychological functioning (see Figure I). Let us now explain in more
detail the six basic needs:

1) Physiological needs
At the lowest level of the hierarchy are physiological needs such as
hunger, sex, maternal behaviour, and various sensory pleasures (that is
of the senses, for example taste). These needs are of remarkable
importance essentially because they are the most prepotent of all man’s
needs and, if unsatisfied, dominate all activity.

62
2) Safety needs
These are almost as dominating as the physiological needs. These are
illustrated by a child’s reaction to noise and light, and generally reflect
man’s need for a safe, orderly predictable world. It includes the need for
shelter, clothing, and freedom from fear of personal danger, many
parents in Nigeria satisfy the safety need for children. A substantial
percentage of parents do not. This generates a severe obligation for
other agencies of society particularly the school. Today in Nigeria,
both child and adult safety needs are often threatened by societal
violence, avoidable communal violence, and state-of-the-art armed
robbery incidence.

3) Belongingness and love needs

Travers (1986:206) writes that if the physiological and safety needs are
met, the need for love, affection, and belongingness emerges. The
individual begins to look to others for satisfaction, both to give and to
receive. The educational implications of this need seem obvious:
children must feel wanted and experience a sense of affection toward
and from the teacher. Remember that children need and want discipline
as much as they require love and affection.

4) Esteem needs
These are the needs of being worthwhile and capable of making a
contribution to society. Real self-respect is based upon achievement,
and the esteem needs founded upon actual achievement, manifest
themselves in a feeling of self-confidence and a corresponding desire for
recognition by others. Self-esteem is the need to maintain a perception
of oneself as a generally competent, strong, independent person. The
need for other esteem is the desire to have a good reputation and to
obtain recognition and status. Failure to satisfy the esteem needs is
likely to lead to feelings of incompetence, helplessness, and inferiority.
It is important for you to note that the lesson for educators seems
obvious: Teachers must insure that the task are such that pupils/students
can satisfactorily complete them, thus insuring goal achievement and a
growing confidence in self and recognition by peers.

5) Aesthetic needs
When all the deficiency needs are regularly satisfied, the growth needs,
including the cognitive needs for understanding and knowledge, and the
aesthetic needs for order and beauty, become dominant motivators. The
aesthetic needs are the needs in which one finally comes to a deep
understanding of the world and the purpose of life and feel a part of the
cosmos. Satisfaction of these needs moves the individual to a higher
state of psychological functioning and makes him a more effective
person.

63
6) Self-actualisation needs
The very highest need - the capstone of Maslow’s hierarchy - is the
need for self-actualisation. It is each individual’s need to advise all
higher capacities, fulfill his/her potentials, and become the best in which
one enjoys the experience of creativity and the joy of personal success.

The self-actualising person referred to by Maslow as the fully human

person, is constantly striving to achieve higher and higher levels of
personal growth. He/she is non-defensive, open to experience,
spontaneous, problem-oriented, and largely autonomous from the
environment (Mittelman, 1995). Maslow (1970) believed that a
person’s position on the hierarchy is likely to rise with age, but
estimated that less than 1 percent of the population ever achieve self-
actualisation. Travers (1986) similarly states that probably few, if any,
people ever experience self-actualisation but it is undoubtedly this need
that drives man to his greatest accomplishments, both personally and
socially.

SELF-ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE

1) Take a close, critical look at the Nigerian society. Do we have

self-actualised people (living or late) in Nigeria?

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Let us continue our discussion.

3.3 Flexibility of the Hierarchy

It is important for you to note that there is nothing inflexible about the
hierarchy. For instance, for some people, one need may assume much
greater significance than another (the esteem need may be less important
than the love need). For most people, partial need satisfaction is
apparent. This is to say that we are never completely satisfied in our
needs, such that as the individual determines that he has achieved
sufficient satisfaction in one need, then another need emerges.

We need to achieve a better understanding of how these needs can be

fulfilled in adolescents. Humanistic psychology, which assumes that
people are basically good so long as their basic needs are met, has a
better chance of doing so. Teachers and parents as well as others who
would be helpful to teenagers should become more aware of the
teachings of humanistic psychology.

64
Humanistic educators such as Sidney Simon (values clarification), Carl
Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and Lawrence Kohlberg (states of moral
development) presented teachers with a variety of techniques to clarify
the values and develop the moral base of their students. You should
note also that humanistic educators insisted that greater attention should
be placed on developing the affective domain or emotions and feelings
of a child, not just the cognitive domain, or intellect. Thus, the
emotions, the intellect, and the psychomotor - all need attention.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt about the theory of achievement
motivation and Bruner’s model of motivated behaviour. You should also
have learned the hierarchy of needs as propounded by Maslow. In
addition, you should have learned the flexibility of the hierarchy of
needs.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. In this study unit ,you have learnt about the Bruner’s model of
motivated behaviour
ii. You have also learnt the theory of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
and their educational implications.
iii. In addition, you have learnt flexibility of the hierarchy of needs.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Given our discussion, would you say Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs is rigid? Support your answer with a brief explanation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Atkinson, J. (1978). An Introduction to Motivation Princeton, New

Jersey: Van Mostrand.

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

Bruner’s J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction Cambridge,

Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Elliot, A.J. (1994). Goal setting, achievement orientation, and intrinsic

motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 66 (5), 968 - 980.
Hunt, E. (1965). Stimulation and analytical models of memory: In:
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 49 - 59.

65
Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and Personality New York: Harper and
Row.

Mc Clelland, D. (1961). Achieving Society: Characteristics of

entrepreneurs. Unpublished manuscript, Raddcliffee College,
Cambridge, MA.

Miller, Gallanter & Pribram (1960). Plans and the Structure of

Behaviour New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Mittelman, W. (1995). Openness: A final reply to Tobacyk. Journal of

Humanistic Psychology 42, 143 - 144

Murray, H. (1938). Explorations in personality New York: Oxford

University Press.

Rebeta, J.(1993). Variations in trait-anxiety and achievement

motivation of College students. Journal of Experimental
Education, 61 (3), 257 - 267.

Travers, J. (1986). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Scranton,

Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company.

66
UNIT 2 CRITIQUE OF MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Critique of Hierarchy of Needs
3.2 Cognitive Theory
3.3 Perception Motivates Behaviour
3.4 Evolutionary Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 5 of Module II, we discussed how interest in learning could

be sustained. You can also explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In
addition, you should also be able to state the flexible nature of the
hierarchy of needs. You are about to commence the study of a unit that
you would find refreshing. Let us examine what other content you
should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit objectives as
stated below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

 explain the strength and weakness of Maslow’s theory of

hierarchy of needs.
 describe cognitive theory of motivation.
 discuss how perception motivates behaviour.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Critique of Hierarchy of Needs

A point you must note is that Maslow’s theory has been very influential
both in practical applications and in generating research (Ebersole &
De-vore, 1995). In the world of business, it has provided a way of
understanding what motivates employees and has been used as a tool to
reduce turnover, increase productivity, and improve job satisfaction
(Aamodt et. al. 1993). Maslow’s need theory suggests that management
67
should work to gradually move each employee up the motivational
hierarchy toward self-actualisation - the full realisation of an
individual’s potential.

In addition, applications in education, nursing, consumer economics,

management training, and elder care are also common (Daniels, 1992;
Seeley, 1992; Umoren, 1992).

It is important for you to note that research support, on the other hand,
has been hard to come by. Complex constructs like self-actualisation
are difficult to define and measure, and what supportive research there is
has been widely crticised (Heylighen, 1992).

Equally as important is the repeated failure to confirm the priority

ordering of the need hierarchy (Wicken et al, 1993). When subjects are
asked to rank the needs in order of importance for them, the rankings
typically do not conform to Maslow’s hierarchy (Mills, 1985). Enduring
satisfaction of physiological and security needs does not necessarily
mean the person will go on to seek belongingness and love. In other
cases, those needs may be pursued even in the face of chronic hunger.

Now try this quiz:

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Given our discussion so far and your own personal experience list
out the hierarchy of needs according to your priority:

That’s okay. Let us continue our discussion.

Moreover, the age hypothesis has not been confirmed: Position on the
need hierarchy does not consistently increase with age (Goebel &
Brown, 1981). All the same, it is important for you to remember that
Maslow’s theory has been influential and is widely applied in practical
settings but has not been supported by research.

Piaget’s theory holds that intelligence is part of the biological adaptation

of the human being to the world. Through the process of assimilation
and accommodation, learners acquire and modify their cognitive
structures. These cognitive structures organise learner’s experiences and
make them meaningful.

Piaget viewed humans as biological organisms who must develop means

of fitting into their environment in order to survive. Intelligence is a
particular instance of biological adaptation and achievement which
allows the individual to interact effectively with the environment
(Glover et. al 1982).
68
The cognitive theory sees an organism as inherently active, and acting
on its environment rather than merely reacting to it. The organism is
ultimately involved in the construction and definition of its environment.

3.2 Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theories of motivation emphasise the role of thought

processes in initiating, maintaining, and guiding behaviour. We use
active, conscious, decision-making processes to determine both our
goals and the means by which we achieve them. In short, thought
motivates action (Fodo, 1994). Let us cite an example. When the scale
says you are 10 kilograms overweight, you think about the
consequences and decide to go on a diet.

The above are the cognitive processes, and your weight loss is thus
motivated by your cognitions. It is important for you to note that in this
theory, perception is a motivator and there is an important difference
between extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

The next section of this study unit discusses how perception motivates
behaviour.

3.3 Perception Motivates Behaviour

In cognitive theories, certain kinds of thought processes can be

motivational. Theorist Bernard Weiner (1980) focuses on the role of
perception, or cognitive interpretation, in behaviour. Action is
motivated by the person’s perception of causality - of what is causing
outcomes to occur. Weiner hypothesises three major dimensions of
perceived causality, which he calls locus, stability and controllability.

The locus of perceived causality may be either inside or outside the

person. When you perceive an internal locus, you see yourself as
causing success or failure. If you failed a test, for example, you might
conclude that you didn’t study hard. When you perceive an external
locus, you attribute the success or failure to forces outside yourself.
You might blame your test failure on the instructor’s poor instructional
approach/style.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. In your years of schooling, have you ever failed to test/exam? If

so, what would you say was responsible for that situation?
If not, what would you say was responsible for that situation?

That’s interesting. Let us continue our discussion.

69
The second dimension, stability, refers to your perception of the
consistency of the phenomenon in question. If you always do poorly on
exams of this type, you might perceive such failure as a stable
characteristic in your life. But if such failure is unusual, you are likely
to see it as an unstable characteristic.

Controllability is your perception of the extent to which you can

influence the outcome of the situation. You may feel that you can do
better on your next exam by studying harder (controllable outcome) or
that nothing you can do will improve your performance (uncontrollable
outcome).

But how do these cognitive dimensions affect motivation? You shall

soon know this.

These three cognitive dimensions affect motivation in a number of ways.

Locus affects your self-esteem, which may be increased or decreased.
Your perception of stability determines the extent to recur in the future.
And your concept of controllability can affect your perceptions of
other people.

If you feel that others are in control of a situation, you will like them
more if the outcome is positive than if it is negative. Some studies have
confirmed the utility of Weiner’s theory in understanding motivation
and associated achievement (Prussia et. al. 1993).

It is to be noted that Weiner’s cognitive theory of motivation is related

to a broader social psychological theory called attribution theory, which
deals with the perception of causal relationships in social situations.

Attribution theory came into being in 1958, when Fritz Heider

hypothesised that the perception of both social and non-social events
involves an ongoing quest for meaningful explanations of the causes of
these events. He distinguished between dispositional and situational
attributions and suggested that although some attributions are largely
based on logical analyses of events, others may reflect the person’s
psychological needs, expectations, and motivations.

3.4 Evolutionary Theory

From the evolutionary perspectives, motives are seen as mechanisms

that have evolved to ensure the survival and reproduction of the species.
As with other evolved features, the motivational systems of current
humans are those that best permitted our ancestors to adapt to their
environments.

70
The adaptive value of such physiological motives as hunger, thirst, pain,
and sex is easy to see. All are required for the survival of either the
individual or the species, and survival is basic to Darwinian theory.
Psychological feelings of hunger and thirst arise from bodily
mechanisms triggered by the deprivation of substances basic to life
itself. They cause behaviour that acts to replenish these essential
survival resources, whether it be hunting in the forest or driving to Mr.
Biggs.

Pain is also essential because it protects the body. The feeling, or even
the possibility, of pain is again triggered by specific, evolved
mechanisms and causes action to remove the source of pain. You
reflexively withdraw your hand from the hot stove and actively avoid
the bee that might sting you. Without the pain drive, the body would be
much more vulnerable to injury and death. The sex drive deals with the
survival of the species through reproduction. More complex social
motive systems also represent adaptations that solved specific
environmental problems over the course of evolutionary history
(Thornhill, 1992). Let us consider the example of the affiliation motive
- the need to seek out and interact with other people. The evolutionary
perspective hypothesises that this nearly universal human motive arose
because our ancestors found the company and help of others to be
essential to survival. Mutual protection from predators, aid in times of
illness, and help in obtaining food may all have been basic to the
development of the affiliation motive.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the strength and weakness of
hierarchy of needs. You should also have learned the cognitive theory
of motivation. In addition, you should have learned how perception
motivates behaviour.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns the strength and
weakness of the hierarchy of needs.
ii. You have also learnt cognitive theory of motivation.
iii. In addition, you have learnt how perception motivates behaviour.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Briefly explain three (3) strengths and two (2) weaknesses of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs.

71
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aamodt, M., Bryan, D. & Whitcomb, A. (1993). Predicting performance

with letters of recommendation. Public Personnel Management,
22 (1), 81 - 90.

Daniels, J. (1992). Empowering homeless children through school

counselling. Elementary School Guidance and Counselling, 27
(2), 104 - 112.

Ebersole, P. & De-vore, G. (1995). Self-actualisation, diversity, and

meaning in life. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, 10
(1), 37 - 51.

Fodor, J. (1994). Concepts: A potboiler. Cognition, 50 (1 - 3), 95 - 113.

Glover, J.L. & Dacey, R.S. (1982). Feeble mindedness: Its Causes and
Consequences. New York: Mc graw Hill.

Heylighen, F. (1992). A cognitive systematic reconstruction of

Maslow’s theory of self-actualisation. Behavioural Science, 37
(1), 39 - 58.

Mills, A.S. (1985). Participation motivations for outdoor recreation: A

test of Maslow’s theory. Journal of Leisure Research. 17 (3), 184
- 199.

Prussia, G.E., Kinicki, A.J. & Bracker, J.S. (1993). Psychological and
behavioural consequences of job loss: A covariance structure
analysis using Weiner’s (1985) attribution model. Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (3), 382 - 394.

Seeley, E. (1992). Human needs and consumer economics: The

implications of Maslow’s theory of motivation for consumer
expenditure patterns. Journal of Socio-economics, 21 (4), 303 -
324.

Thornhill, R. (1992). The evolutionary psychology of men’s coercive

sexuality. The Behavioural and Brain Sciences. 15 (2), 363 -
369.

Umoren, J.A. (1992). Maslow hierarchy of needs and OBRA (1987):

Toward need satisfaction by nursing home residents. Educational
Gerontology, 18 (6), 657 - 670.

Weiner, B. (1980). Human Motivation. New York: Holt, Rinehart &

Winston.
72
UNIT 2 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Baudura’s Observational Learning
3.2 Four Basic Processes
3.3 The Role of Reinforcement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 2 of Module III, we explained the strength and weakness of

Maslow’s theory of hierarchy of needs. You can also describe the
cognitive theory of motivation. In addition, you should also be able to
discuss how perception motivates behaviour. You are about to study a
unit that is stimulating and relevant. Let us examine what other content
you should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit
objectives as stated below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

 explain Bandura’s theory of observational learning.

 identify the four basic processes.
 describe the role of reinforcement.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Bandura’s Observational Learning

Have you ever fired a pistol? If not, if you were called upon to do so,
you probably would know how to hold it, aim it, and pull the trigger.
That’s because you have often seen guns being fired in movies and on
television. In the same way, you acquire a large repertoire of social and
other behavioural abilities by seeing your parents and others perform
these behaviours as you grow up. You are engaging in a cognitive
learning process that theorist Albert Bandura (1965:1992) calls
observational learning. Note that observation takes place when the

73
ability to perform a behaviour is acquired or modified by observing
others. Those performing the behaviour and being observed are called
models.

In a classic study of observational learning, Bandura (1965) showed

young boys and girls a short film depicting an adult model behaving
aggressively toward a Bobo doll, an inflated toy that bounces back
whenever it is knocked down.

Social Learning The Bobo Doll experiment, showing the model

beating up the doll in the film the children watched and then the children
imitating the model’s behaviour (Banduna, 1965)

After the film, the children were taken to a room containing a number of
toys, including a Bobo doll. Results showed that the children tended to
reproduce the model’s aggressive behaviour toward the doll rather than
engage in other types of behaviour.

It is important for you to note that a control group of children who did
not see the Bobo doll film did not display the modeled behaviour toward
the toy. The behaviour of the children in the experimental group could
not readily be accounted for by operant conditioning principles, since
they had not been reinforced for playing with the Bobo doll. The
modeled behaviour had been learned by observation alone. Let us ask a
relevant and timely question: What would happen if the children saw the
model actually being rewarded for her aggressive behaviour? A second
Bandura study answers that question: Modeling aggression increases
aggressive behaviour, and rewarding the model increases it even more.
(After Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1963). Alhassan (2000) also states that
after viewing actual television shows depicting realistic violence,
children are more willing to hurt another child than after watching non-
aggressive shows.

Individuals often acquire new forms of aggression through exposure to

the actions of other persons. Specifically, individuals frequently seem to
learn new ways of harming others through exposure to the actions of
parents, friends, actors in movies or characters in TV shows. Informal
evidence for the occurrence of such effects among adults is available
from several different sources. For example, it is often the case that
movies which depict or describe unusual violent crimes are followed by
a wave of similar events around the nation, particularly in urban centres
and large towns. In such instances, viewers seem to acquire new forms
of attacking others, and also learn that it is possible to ‘get away’ with
such actions.

74
Evidence for the occurrence of destructive modeling has been obtained
in many other experiments in which adult subjects exposed to live
(Baron, 1974a) or filmed aggressive models (Geen and Stonner, 1973)
have been observed to demonstrate higher levels of aggression than
subjects not exposed to such models. If adults can be influenced in this
manner by exposure to the aggressive actions of others, it might be
expected that children, with their weaker sense of morality and lack of
sophistication, would be affected to an even greater degree.

More recent research has gone even further, suggesting that after
viewing actual television shows depicting realistic violence, children are
more willing to hurt another child than after watching non-aggressive
shows (Liekert & Schewartzberg, 1987). We can conclude that the high
level of violence prevailing in many popular television shows has
adverse effects upon the persons who view them, though not all
experimental findings support this conclusion (Manning & Taylor,
1985). But the weight of existing evidence does seem to suggest that
exposure to televised violence may weaken children’s restraint against
attacking or harming others.

Studies suggest that even lower animals learn by observation. Children

that have observed chicken models pecking a key to obtain grain learn
the response themselves more quickly than chickens that did not
observed the model (Johnson, 1986). In the sections that follows in this
study unit, we shall discuss the basic processes involved in
observational learning, the role of reinforcement, and applications of
Bandura’s approach to the understanding of social behaviour. But
before that, try your hand on this quiz:

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. From your understanding of our discussion, what type of movies

and television programmes would you recommend for children
and adolescents in your community or neighbourhood? Briefly
explain your response.

That’s nice of you. Let us continue our discussion.

3.2 Four Basic Processes

Bandura (1965) explains instances of observational learning as

involving four basic processes:

i) Attention. You must attend to the model in order to learn by

observation.

75
ii) Retention. If you are to later use what you have learned, you must
store it in memory.

iii) Reproduction. You must be capable of reproducing the learned

response. For instance, watching Bruce Lee or Chucks Norris
expertly executing a series of Karate moves doesn’t mean that
you can reproduce them accurately.

iv) Motivation. You will reproduce observationally acquired

behaviours only if you are motivated to do so. You need to have
some expectation that making the response will be rewarding.
Dada picked up and fired the gun because his friend offered to
give him N1,000.00.

3.3 The Role of Reinforcement

It is important for you to note that observational learning can take place
without reinforcement. In fact, Bandura emphasises that reinforcement
seen as so essential in classical and operant conditioning theories is
totally unnecessary in an observational learning. How then does
learning occurs

Learning occurs by simply observing a model. The model performs the

behaviour, you observe it and ‘copy’ it into your behavioural repertoire.
You may display it immediately, as in the Bobo doll study, or not until
many years later, as when someone invites you to fire a gun at a target
range.

Although not necessarily for learning, reinforcement does have at least

two functions in Bandura’s approach:

1) First, it plays a role when the person actually performs the

behaviour. Bandura suggests that an observed behaviour may be
incorporated into an individual’s repertoire but never actually be
exhibited until reinforcement is available for that behaviour.
Unfortunately, watching people or cartoon characters fire guns
and beat each other up, activities that many children see everyday
in violent TV programmes, may also lead to observational
learning and perhaps later to violent behaviour when
reinforcement is available.

2) The second role of reinforcement is to enhance the learning

process. If, for example, the adult model is rewarded for a
particular response, the child is more likely to learn that response
rapidly than if the model is not rewarded or is actually punished.

76
4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, Bandura’s theory of observational learning was

discussed and the four basic processes involved in observational
learning were also discussed.

The role of reinforcement in observational learning was also explained.

5.0 SUMMARY

You were able to learn that in observational learning, learning occurs by

simply observing a model.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. List and explain the basic processes involved in observational

learning.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology: Zaria,
Nigeria. Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.

Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of model’s reinforcement contingencies

on the acquisition of initiative response. Journal of Personality &
Social Psychology, 1 (6), 589 - 595.

Bandura, A. (1992). Self-efficacy in changing societies Cambridge,

Eng.: Cambridge University Press.

Baron, R. (1974). Threatened retaliation from the victim as an inhibitor

of physical aggression. In: Journal of Experimental Research in
Personality, 7, 103 - 15.

Geen, S. & Stonner, T. (1973). Social Motivation. Annual Review of

Psychology, 42, 377 - 399.

Johnson, B. (1986). Observational Learning in Gallus gallus domesticus

with and without a specific model. Bulletin of the Psychonomic
Society. 24 (3), 237 - 239.

Mannings, S. & Taylor, D. (1985). Effects of viewed violence and

aggression: Stimulation and catharsis. In: Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 31, 180 - 8.

Ross, T. & Ross, M. (1963). The classroom, and observational learning.

In: Child Development pp. 387 - 399. New York. Wiley.
77
UNIT 4 TRANSFER OF LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Transfer of Learning
3.2 Types of Transfer of Learning
3.3 Theories of Transfer of Learning
3.4 Classroom Implication of Transfer of Learning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous units, you learnt about various theories of learning and
their implication to classroom situation. The significance of education is
to be able to use the knowledge acquired in a situation to solve a similar
problem under different environment. In this unit, you are therefore
going to learn how previously acquired knowledge can be used to solve
problems in new situation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain transfer of learning

 discuss three theories of transfer of learning
 enumerate five classroom implications of transfer of learning.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Transfer of Learning

We learn so many things and perform many tasks in our life. Sometimes
when we learn or perform a new task, we find that it has been influenced
by some of our previous learning or training. The learning of addition
and subtraction helps child in learning multiplication and division.
Learning of mathematics helps in solving the numerical problems in
physics and even in chemistry.

78
Similarly, if one has learnt to play tennis , one finds it easier to learn to
play Badminton. In this way, learning in one situation influences our
learning or performance in some other situation. This influence refers to
the carry- over of learning from one task to another.

Transfer of learning can be described as the application of previously

acquired knowledge or skills in the solving of problems in a new
situation. In other words, when experiences which have been acquired in
one learning situation can be used to solve problems in a new situation,
we can say transfer of learning has taken place.

Transfer of learning is important in psychology of learning because of

the following:

1) Most things we do are influenced by our earlier experiences.

2) School learning is based on the assumption that what is learnt in
school will be transferred to life situations outside the school.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

As a teacher in making, why do you think transfer of learning is an

important topic to be discussed?

3.2 Types of Transfer of Learning

There are three types of transfer of learning namely:

i) Positive Transfer
ii) Negative Transfer
iii) Zero Transfer

i) Positive Transfer: Transfer is said to be positive when

something previously learned benefits performance or learning in
a new situation. For instance learning addition will facilitate
solution of multiplication.

ii) Negative Transfer: Transfer is said to be negative when

something previously learnt hinders performance or learning in a
new situation. For instance, a child that has learnt to pronounce
BUT correctly now finds it difficult to pronounce PUT correctly.

iii) Zero Transfer: Transfer is zero when previous learning has no

effect on the learning or performance of new learning. In other
words, the initial learning has no effect on the subsequent or new
task. For instance, learning how to cook has no effect on learning
how to sing or drive.

79
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe positive and negative transfer of learning. Give at least three

examples of each from your own experiences.

3.3 Theories of Transfer of Learning

a) Theory of Mental Faculties

This theory was propounded by the Greek Philosophers, notable
among them was Aristotle. The basic tenet of the theory is that
human mind is sub – divided into several faculties like memory,
judgment, reasoning or thinking which are like the muscles of the
body which can be strengthened by physical exercise. The
essential requirement of the theory was to provide hard
intellectual work to the learner to train his mental faculties. This
theory had a great influence on the curriculum in the 19th century.
Subjects like Mathematics, Latin and Greek were regarded as
best subjects to train the various mental faculties of students.

b) Identical Elements Theory

Thorndike developed the theory of identical elements to explain
how transfer of learning occurs. This theory assumes that
elements presents in the original learning situation must also
present in the new learning. The identical elements may be facts,
methods or skills. After the student has mastered the additional
facts, he can use them for other problems in which the same facts
appear. After a student has mastered skill in using an index in one
book, the skill can be transferred to other indexes that are
organized in a similar way.

This theory therefore maintained that maximum transfer takes

place when two activities have common factors and the total
situation have important characteristics in common.

c) Theory of Generalization
The theory of generalization was developed by a psychologist
named Charles Judd. The assumption of the theory is that when
general principles are taught, they facilitate transfer rather than
specific solutions to problems. According to him, one way of
facilitating transfer is by teaching learners general principles
rather than specific solutions. He was of the opinion that teaching
should proceed from general to specifics. This theory believes in
Gestalt, an assertion which views learning from a whole or
complete form rather than in isolated form. For example, the
theory of generalization indicates that a learnt experience should
be useful in other day – to – day related activities.

80
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Out of these theories of transfer of learning that you have learnt , which
one do you consider least satisfactory or most satisfactory? Give reasons
for your choice.

3.4 Classroom Implications of Transfer of Learning

1) The extent of transfer in an academic subject depends on the

teaching method. Teachers are teaching for transfer, this implies
that almost every subject taught in the school has application to
other situations. For instance .Latin can be taught so as to
improve our knowledge of the English vocabulary. Equally,
Religion is taught to improve our moral life. There is therefore
the need for the teacher to emphasize the similarities or
relationship that exist between one subject – matter and the
other

2) The teacher should provide the opportunity for his/her students to

practice a subject – matter being discussed along with him/her.
When the learners are. allowed to take active part in teaching-
learning activities, they will be able to repeat the task at another
time.

3) The teacher should endeavor to develop positive attitudes

towards a learning task so that the students can be motivated to
like the task rather avoiding it.

4) The teacher should ensure that the topics in a subject are arranged
sequentially, i.e. the easier topics will be taught before the harder
ones.

5) The teacher should provide a variety of examples in his teaching.

The example can be drawn from life experiences so that the
students will be able to see the school as an integral part of the
society. This will help them to apply what they learn in school to
outside life.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt that transfer of learning is an important

aspect of teaching – learning since the ultimate goal of schooling is to
help students to transfer what they have learnt in school to everyday
settings of home, community and work place.

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5.0 SUMMARY

This unit dealt with the definition of the transfer of learning, types and
theories of transfer of learning. The classroom implications were also
discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1) What do you understand by transfer of learning?

2) Discuss three theories of transfer of learning that you know
3) Enumerate five classroom implications of transfer of learning.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alao, K.O. (2009) Advanced Psychology of Learning (EDU 722),

Lagos, National Open University of Nigeria.

Adesemowo, P.O, Sotonade, O.A.T & Okubanjo, A.O.(1998) The

Psychology of Meaningful Learning, Lagos, Elegant Publishing
Co. Ltd.

Owoyele , J.W. (2014) Psychology Foundations of Education, Human

Development & Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Top best Books.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka,

Erudition Publishers.

Sulaiman, F.R & Onabamiro, A.A. (2009) Psychology, Child

Development & Human Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Alamsek Press
Ltd.

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UNIT 5 REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Memory
3.2 Remembering
3.3 Forgetting
3.4 Classroom Implications of Theory of Remembering and
Forgetting
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we are going to learn about memory, remembering and

forgetting. This is because learning may turn into futile exercise if what
is learnt is not utilized soon or later. For the material learnt to be used, it
must remain in the mind stored up to for use when the need arises. The
ability or power of the mind to store the past experiences of learning and
utilize them at a later stage is known as ‘ Memory’. Without good
memory, man will not be able to retain previous learning hence, the
subject of remembering and forgetting is a general human problem.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define memory
 explain remembering and forgetting
 discuss the causes of forgetting
 discuss the classroom implication of remembering and forgetting

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Memory

Memory is regarded as a special ability of the our mind to conserve or

store what has been previously experienced or acquired through
learning and then at some later stage to enable us make use of it in the

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form of recall or recognition. In other words, memory is the ability to
acquire and retain information and recall it when needed.
Memory is fundamental for remembering and forgetting. It is the life
wire on which the study of remembering and forgetting rests. It is the
ability of an organism to store information from earlier learning process
and reproduce that information in answer to stimuli.

Types of Memory
The two common types of memory are Short -term and Long- term
memory.

Short -Term Memory involves the retention of information for a little

while before it is forgotten. It could be that the information was not well
stored in the memory. The retention of short - term memory can be
disturbed by other events that take place shortly after the learned
materials. For instance, name of a person just met remains in STM only
momentarily. Unless a conscious effort is made to pay proper attention
to the name by transferring it to LTM, It is quickly lost. It could be due
to lack of rehearsal, a result of emotional disturbance, lack of motivation
etc.

Long- Term Memory is an aspect whereby the information stored is

retained in the brain over a long period of time e.g. weeks, months etc.
Such information gets to the short term memory first before getting to
the long- term memory . Example is remembering our identifying data
like our name, father’s name, date of birth, date of marriage, etc,

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is Memory? Distinguish between short term memory and long

term memory.

3.2 Remembering

Remembering is the ability to recall, recognise or perform what has been

learnt in the past. Remembering therefore is the ability to recall stored
ideas or materials in the brain to the mind. It is clear that two things
happen to what we learnt; we either remember it or forget it.

Types of Remembering

Remembering can occur in many forms:

Recollection
This is the form of remembering which involves recollection or re-
establishment of earlier experiences on the basis of partial cues which

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enable an individual to remember the whole information. Some
textbooks refer to it as ‘reproduction’. Recollection brings into fore old
experiences on the basis of partial cues. For instance, looking at one’s
wedding ring reminds one of all that happened during the wedding
ceremony.

Recall
This is a simple form of remembering that does not involve complex
thinking or researching process. Recall is the ability of bringing back to
memory old experiences formally learnt in the past in a manner that
reflects the actual picture of those experiences. The attempt at recalling
correctly determines one’s retentive ability.

Recognition
Recognition is to recognize something, to acknowledge that it is
familiar. We recognize the faces of people, paintings and patterns of
physical arrangements which already have been registered in our
memory. This therefore shows that our ability to recognize will depend
on our past experience and how familiar that object is to us.

Relearning
This is to learn again what has been previously learnt. It is a situation
where a previously learnt material can be re -learnt very easily and
quickly. This is because it is easier for an individual to relearn material
that was previously learnt and forgotten.

3.3 Forgetting

Forgetting is the failure to retain what has been acquired or learnt. If an

individual fails to remember what he has learnt in the past, it means the
individual has forgotten. Forgetting therefore means the failure at any
time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so, or to perform an
action previously learned. Forgetting is the opposite side of
remembering and essentially a failure in the ability of reproducing.

Theories of Forgetting
There are many reasons why and how people forget what they have
learnt. These are:

1) The Trace Decay Theory: According to many psychologists,

time is the cause of much forgetting. What is learnt or
experienced is forgotten with the lapse of time. The cause of such
natural forgetting can be explained through a process known as
decay of the memory trace. This theory assumes that learning
results in neurological changes leaving certain types of memory
traces in the brain. With the passage of time through disuse,
these memory traces of learning impressions get weaker and

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 weaker and finally fades away. This means that the less we use or
revise our previous learning, the quicker it will fade.
2) The Interference Theory: The second major theory of forgetting
holds the mechanism of interference responsible for forgetting.
Interference here refers to the influence of a previous task on
learning a new one. This theory maintains that one may fail to
remember a piece of information because other pieces of
information are blocking or interfering with it. The interference
effects of things previously learnt and retained in our memory
with the things of our recent memory can work both ways,
backward and forward . The psychological term used for these
are two types of interference are retroactive inhibition and
proactive inhibition.

a) Retroactive inhibition :This is when the acquisition of new

learning works backward to impair the retention of the
previously learnt material. For instance, when a student
spends the next half learning French and then, without
pausing, and spends the next half hour learning Russian,
he or she will find either the French he/she has learnt
interferes with his/her ability to learn Russian or vice
versa.
b) Proactive inhibition : This is just the reverse of retroactive
inhibition. Here the old learning or experience retained in
the memory works forward to disrupt the memory of what
we acquire or learn afterwards , that is something learnt
before interferes with the retention of something learnt
later. Learning of A – interferes with the recall of B. For
example, learning a new formula may be hampered on
account of the previously learnt formulae in one’s
memory.

In both types of above inhibitions, it can be easily seen

that similar experiences when follow each other produce
more interference than experiences that are not similar.

3) The Repression Theory ( Motivated forgetting): The concept

of repression or motivated theory was developed by Sigmund
Freud as part of his psychoanalytic theory. According to this
theory, forgetting is a process whereby experiences that are
unpleasant and unpalatable are pushed into the unconscious . This
kind of forgetfulness is well motivated and intentional. Thus as a
result of repression we forget the things which we do not want to
remember. We forget about our dearest relatives and friends who
are dead and gone, names of people we do not like etc. Even
people under heavy emotional shock are seen to forget their

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 names, homes , wives and children.

4) Retrieval – Failure Theory: This theory emphasizes the

inability of the subject to get a memory from storage. Sometimes
we want to recall information but we cannot, due to non
availability of appropriate cues, Here , forgetting is very often a
temporary rather than a permanent phenomenon. Forgetting
occurs because of failure in the mechanism responsible for
remembering. In other words when cues that were present at the
time of learning are not available at the time of recall, retention
suffers. For instance , at times when we want to recall a friend’s
name, we forget to recall the name but later under different
conditions the name comes back more or less spontaneously. This
phenomenon is called TOT (tip-of-tongue) TOT shows how non-
availability of appropriate cues hinders retention.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. How can you relate types of remembering to classroom teaching?

ii. Distinguish between retroactive and proactive inhibition.

3.4 Classroom Implication of Theory of Remembering and

Forgetting

a) To combat the problem of disuse, the teacher should endeavor

that the students learn things well in the first place. This can be
achieved by making use of recitation, examples and text
questions to provide repeated exposure and frequent review
sessions.
b) To prevent distortion, the teacher should try to emphasize
meaningfulness and de-emphasize rote learning
c) In order to guide against repression which is a common feature in
learning process, the teacher should make is classroom and
teaching pleasant and enjoyable through the use of relevant and
adequate teaching aids.
d) Based on the explanation of motivated forgetting, students
should be taught things that are of interest and relevant to their
experience
e) Field trips and excursion seeing things practically and drawing
personal conclusion and discovery enhance retention and
information gathered tend to remain permanent.
f) The teacher should always associate the current learning with
practical examples.
g) The teacher should teach the use of mnemonic devices in order to
aid recall. This is a situation where an individual coins out
memory cues for himself. For example MR NIGER-D.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

Every individual requires a device to store information and this device is

referred to as memory. Information when encoded is expected to be
retrieved sooner or later and not just retrieved, but can be recalled,
recollected which are all aspects of remembering. A student that is
unable to remember is said to have forgotten what he has learnt. When
this occurs, the teacher needs to use some strategies while teaching. This
will improve memory.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about memory, why people usually forget
what they have learnt in the past and how the students can be assisted by
the teacher to remember or recall earlier learning.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1) Define memory
2) Explain remembering and forgetting
3) Discuss the causes of forgetting
4) Discuss the classroom implications of remembering and
forgetting

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adesemowo, P.O, Sotonade, O.A.T & Okubanjo, A.O.(1998). The

Psychology of Meaningful Learning, Lagos, Elegant Publishing
Co. Ltd.

Oladele J.O. (2005). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology, Fifth

Edition, Lagos Johns – Lad Publishers Ltd.

Owoyele , J.W. (2014). Psychology Foundations of Education, Human

Development & Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Top best Books.

Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka,

Erudition Publishers.

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