Science

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

LESSON 9.2
Organic Compounds and Functional Groups
Table of Contents
Introduction 1

Learning Competency 2

Learning Objectives 2

Warm-Up 2

Learn about It 4
Properties of Organic Compounds 5
Classi cation of Organic Compounds 6
Common Functional Groups and Their Uses 9
Alkanes 10
Straight-chain and Branched-chain Alkanes 12
Some Examples of Alkanes 13
Alkenes 14
Some Examples of Alkenes 15
Alkynes 16
Some Examples of Alkynes 17
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 18
Some Examples of Aromatic Hydrocarbons 19
Alcohols 21
Aldehydes 22
Ketones 24
Carboxylic Acids 25
Esters 27
Ethers 28
Amines 30

Key Points 31

Check Your Understanding 32

Photo Credits 35

Bibliography 36
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Lesson 9.2
Organic Compounds
and Functional Groups

Large quantities of organic compounds are present in natural gas and petroleum products.

Introduction
Daily living would be impossible without the presence of organic compounds. Moreover,
since there are millions of varieties of organic compounds, it would be challenging to study
these compounds without classifying them. However, are all carbon-containing
compounds considered organic compounds?

1
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Learning Competency
At the end of this lesson, the given DepEd learning competency should be met
by the students:
● Recognize the general classes and uses of organic compounds
(S9MT-IIh-18).

Learning Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
● Differentiate organic from inorganic compounds.
● Recognize general properties of organic compounds.
● Recognize the general classes of organic compounds.

Warm-Up

The Boat Is Sinking! Group Yourselves Based on … Functionality?!

The following are organic compounds we often use in everyday life. Their Lewis structure
is described in the third column. Match the structures drawn below to each of these
compounds. Write your answer in the fourth column.

Organic Description of Its

Uses Structure
Compound Lewis Structure

major component of straight-chain made

propane liquefied petroleum up of three carbon
gas atoms

2
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

straight-chain made
major component of
octane up of eight carbon
gasoline
atoms

has a hydroxide
major component of
isopropyl alcohol group at a middle
rubbing alcohol
carbon

major component of has a hydroxide

ethanol liquors and alcoholic group (OH) at one
beverages end

also known as
formalin, used for one carbon atom
formaldehyde embalming or doubly bonded to an
preserving biological oxygen atom
samples

precursor for a two-carbon atom

perfumes, flavorings, with one carbon
acetaldehyde
and synthetic atom doubly bonded
rubbers to an oxygen atom

used as a food
preservative and has a hydroxide
flavoring agent, group (OH–) and a
lactic acid
produced by carboxylic acid group
fermentation of (COOH)
sugar from yogurt

found in kamias and has two carboxylic

oxalic acid is generally used as acid groups (COOH)
bleach for wood

3
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

From the Lewis structures, look at similarities and differences. Group the molecules based
on similar structures. How many groups did you get?

Learn about It

Organic compounds contain carbon and other elements. However, not all carbon-containing
compounds are considered organic compounds. For example, in its carbonate ion (CO3-2)
form, carbon bonds ionically with metals such as calcium and forms an inorganic compound
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Provided below is the list of all inorganic compounds with
carbon in it.

Table 9.2.1. Inorganic compounds containing carbon

Name Chemical Formula

carbon monoxide CO

carbon dioxide CO2

carbon tetrachloride CCl4

carbides C4-

carbonates CO32-

4
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

cyanides CN-

allotropes of carbon C60

Organic compounds consist of hydrocarbons as their base elements. Hydrocarbons are

compounds made up of only carbon and hydrogen atoms. The study of these compounds'
structure, composition, properties, and chemical reactions is called organic chemistry.

Properties of Organic Compounds

Organic compounds can be naturally occurring or man-made. They contain covalent bonds.
These covalent bonds make organic compounds poor conductors of electricity. In general,
organic compounds have low melting and boiling points and high flammability.

The volatility and viscosity of organic compounds may also differ depending on the
functional groups attached to them. Volatility refers to the ability of a compound to
become vapor, while viscosity refers to the ability of a liquid to resist flowing. The size of
the molecule extremely affects these two properties, as molecules in short chains tend to be
very volatile and less viscous, while molecules in long chains like to be in liquid form and are
very viscous.

Fig. 1. Perfume and honey show the volatility and viscosity of organic compounds.

An application of knowledge in the volatility of organic compounds is fractional distillation.

This is used when mixtures of liquids have narrow differences in their boiling point. This
technique is also widely used in the refinery of petroleum products or extraction of essential
oils from plants.

5
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 2. Fractional distillation of petroleum products

Classification of Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are grouped into different families and can be classified based on the
functional groups they contain.

Essential Question
What is a functional group?

A functional group is an atom (or a group of atoms) that is mainly responsible for a
molecule's characteristic behavior and properties. Thus, compounds belonging to the same
functional group share common properties. Table 9.2 shows some of the common families
of organic compounds and their corresponding functional groups.

6
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Organic compounds belonging to the same family have the same functional group. They
have similar properties, and there is a gradual change in their physical properties as more
carbon atoms are added to their chain.

Table 9.2.2. Organic compounds and their functional groups

Example
Organic
Functional Group
Compound
Name Structure Use

none fuel for

alkanes (contains single butane cigarette
C-C bonds) lighters

ethylene helps in
alkenes
(ethene) ripening fruits

acetylene
alkynes used in torches
(ethyne)

aromatics naphthalene mothballs

alcohols ethanol disinfectant

dissolves
ketones acetone adhesives and
paints

7
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

preservative
aldehydes formaldehyde used in
embalming

solvent for
ethers diethyl ether
waxes and oils

carboxylic
lactic acid found in yogurt
acid

gives
ester ethyl acetate pineapple’s
scent

8
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

used in oil
amine ethylamine
refining

softener for
amide formamide
fibers

thiol butanethiol cotton defoliant

alkyl halide ethyl chloride pain killer

Common Functional Groups and Their Uses

All organic compounds are derived from hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are compounds
made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons that contain only carbon and
hydrogen atoms only are called pure hydrocarbons. There are three main hydrocarbon

9
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

classifications: alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes. These three differ in the types of bonds
present in them.

Aside from hydrogen and carbon atoms, organic compounds can also contain other
elements. Other classes of organic compounds include oxygen and nitrogen atoms.
Oxygen-containing organic compounds are also classified based on their bond with carbon
atoms.

Alkanes
Alkanes are a group of hydrocarbon compounds that contain carbon-carbon single (C-C)
bonds and carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds only. Alkanes have a general formula of CnH2n+2
where n is the number of carbon atoms (n = 1, 2, 3, …). Their names end in –ane. Since
alkanes are the only hydrocarbons that contain purely single bonds throughout their
structures, they are classified as saturated hydrocarbons.

Alkanes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as toluene and
chloroform. They are also less dense than water. The physical state of alkanes at room
temperature varies depending on the number of carbon atoms. Those with one to four
carbon atoms are gases, five to seventeen carbon atoms are generally liquid, while those
beyond seventeen are solids.

Fig. 3. Propane, an alkane made up of three carbon atoms,

is usually found as a gaseous component of LPG tanks.

10
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 4. Hexane, an alkane made up of six hydrocarbons, usually exists in liquid form
and is usually used in liquid-liquid extraction procedures.

Generally, alkanes have low melting and boiling points. As more carbon atoms are added to
the alkane chain, there is an increase in melting and boiling points, viscosity, and
flammability decrease.

Alkanes are also known to be generally unreactive. These compounds consist only of single
carbon-carbon bonds and carbon-hydrogen bonds, which are strong and hard to break.
However, they are known to react with oxygen in a process known as combustion. A
hydrocarbon reacts with gaseous oxygen molecules during combustion to form gaseous
carbon dioxide and liquid water. For example, propane, a three-carbon alkane with the
formula C3H8, reacts with five molecules of oxygen gas and forms three molecules of CO2
and four molecules of water, as shown below.

This reaction produces a tremendous amount of heat, which can be used to power up
electrical devices and heat industrial and residential houses. This unique property of
hydrocarbons makes them excellent petroleum products.

11
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Straight-chain and Branched-chain Alkanes

Alkanes may come into two forms: straight-chain and branched-chain. Straight-chain
alkanes can be seen as a continuous row of carbons, where all carbons are connected to
another carbon by single bonds. Each carbon satisfies the octet and forms four bonds.
Hydrogen atoms bond to these carbon atoms to fulfill the octet requirement. An example of
a linear alkane is butane, a four-carbon alkane whose structure is shown below.

Fig. 5. Lewis structure of butane, C4H10

On the other hand, branched-chain alkanes are composed of a parent chain and
substituents. The parent chain is defined as the longest straight-chain alkane present in the
hydrocarbon structure. Substituents are alkyl groups attached to one or more non-terminal
carbon atoms belonging to the parent chain. An example of a branched alkane is
isopropane, whose structure is given below.

Fig. 6. Lewis structure of isobutane, C4H10. Each carbon atom is numbered.

The chain formed by carbon atoms 1, 2, and 3 is the parent chain (encircled in red),
ー
while the methyl group ( CH3) is the substituent.

12
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Some Examples of Alkanes

Alkanes are usually found in natural gas, petroleum deposits, and coal. Methane (CH4), also
known as natural gas, is an alkane. It is a colorless and odorless gas, and is mostly used as
fuel for heating homes, cooking, and electricity generation. Methane is commonly found
together with other fossil fuels like coal and oil. While it provides a great amount of energy
for industrial use, it is also considered a greenhouse gas, with a global warming potential of
21 (which means that it can trap heat 21 times greater than carbon dioxide). Below is an
example of a space-filling model where atoms are drawn like balls. Black balls represent
carbon atoms, while white balls represent hydrogen atoms.

(a) (b)

Fig. 7. (a) Natural gas drilling station in Russia and (b) methane molecule

Another example of an alkane is propane (C3H8), which is used in barbeque and camp
stoves, and liquefied petroleum gas. It is also commonly called bottled gas. Aside from its
commercial use, propane is also used to power heating and refrigeration appliances.

13
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

(a) (b)

Fig. 8. (a) Camp stove powered by bottled gas and (b) propane molecule

Butane (C4H10), like the other two alkanes mentioned above, is a colorless and flammable
gaseous compound. It immediately turns into liquid under 0oC and typical atmospheric
pressure and is mostly used in disposable lighters and LPG.

(a) (b)

Fig. 9. (a) Cigarette lighter and (b) butane molecule

Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbon compounds that contain carbon-carbon double (C=C) bond. They
are also known as olefins. They have a general formula of CnH2n, where n is the number of
carbon atoms (n = 2, 3, 4, …). The number of hydrogen atoms is twice the number of carbon

14
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

atoms. Their names end in –ene. Because of the presence of a carbon-carbon double bond,
alkenes are considered unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Just like alkanes, alkenes are generally insoluble and less dense in water. The physical state
of alkenes at room temperature varies depending on the number of carbon atoms. Those
with two to four carbon atoms are gases, five to sixteen carbon atoms are generally liquid,
while those beyond sixteen are solids. The alkenes' boiling point and melting point increase
as more carbon atoms are added to their chain.

They are also highly flammable and very reactive. Their reactivity is brought by the presence
of the carbon-carbon double bond. Alkenes are way more reactive than alkanes. They
decolorize strongly colored reagents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and liquid
bromine (Br2).

Some Examples of Alkenes

Alkenes serve an important role in most biological molecules. Linoleic acid (C18H32O2), also
known as omega-6 fatty acid, is an alkene. These fatty acids also naturally exist in plants.
Though mammals cannot synthesize their own linoleic acid, it still serves as an important
biomolecule for their nutrition as they use it as a starting material in producing
prostaglandins.

Fig. 10. Linoleic acids are abundant in plant glycosides.

Another example of an alkene is leukotriene (C30H47N3O9S). These molecules are found in

white blood cells and are responsible for the constriction of smooth muscles. Scientists are

15
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

finding ways to inhibit this alkene as high concentrations of synthesized leukotriene can
cause constriction of the lungs, which ultimately results in asthma.

Fig. 11. Leukotriene C causes smooth muscles to constrict. When asthmatic people take in
allergens like pollens, their leukotriene level increases, thus resulting in constriction of the
lungs.

One of the most popular biomolecules which contain an alkene group is β-carotene
(C40H56). This molecule, which is abundant in yellowish vegetables, serves as a precursor to
the synthesis of vitamin A. When vitamin A undergoes an enzymatic reaction, a series of
reactions follows in the retina, enabling our eyes to sense vision in bright, dim, and colored
light.

Fig. 12. β-carotene

Alkynes
Alkynes are a group of hydrocarbon compounds containing carbon-carbon triple (C≡C)
bond. They have a general formula of CnH2n–2 where n is the number of carbon atoms (n = 2,

16
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

3, 4, …). Their names end in –yne. The presence of a carbon-carbon triple bond in an alkene
makes it an unsaturated hydrocarbon.

Alkynes are insoluble in water and are slightly soluble in some organic solvents. Like alkanes
and alkenes, alkynes' physical states at room temperature vary depending on the number of
carbon atoms. Those with two to four carbon atoms are gases, five to seventeen carbon
atoms are generally liquid, while those beyond seventeen are solids. They also show an
increase in boiling point and melting point as the number of its carbon atoms increases.

Most are less dense than water, and some are explosives. Some are used in pharmacy,
manufacturing plastics, and artificial ripening of fruits.

Some Examples of Alkynes

Alkynes are very rare hydrocarbons, yet they are still useful to metal works and pharmacy.
Ethyne (C2H2), also known as acetylene, is an alkyne. Like typical small alkanes, ethyne exists
as a colorless and flammable gas. During the 20th century, acetylene was widely used in
torches for metal works, and portable lamps and lanterns (water and calcium carbide were
used to produce acetylene in these devices), producing bright flame.

Fig. 13. Acetylene is still widely used in metal works.

Another example of an alkyne is methylpentynol (C6H10O). First synthesized by Bayer in

1913, this sedative is used as an over-the-counter drug for people who experience insomnia.
The presence of triple bonds in medicines like methylpentynol makes the compound more
active and easily absorbed by the body.

17
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 14. This British Schering Limited methylpentynol is an over-the-counter sedative.

One unique compound which contains alkyne is ichthyotherol (C14H14O2). Poison dart frogs
naturally secrete this compound. Local tribes in the Amazon smudge this poison to their
arrows; victims who were targeted by these arrows experience convulsions due to the
poison.

Fig. 15. Poison dart frogs secrete ichthyotherol.

Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons are classified as unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons. They are also
called arenes. It has the benzene ring as its functional group. A benzene is a six-carbon ring
compound having three alternating double bonds. It contains a hybrid bonding which
results from the alternate single and double bonds. The bond strength is half-way between
a single and double carbon-carbon bond.

18
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 16. Two ways to draw the benzene ring

All three double bonds found in the ring can actually move around; this movement of
electrons in benzene is called resonance. This makes the benzene ring structure highly
stable and unreactive.

The name of aromatic hydrocarbons usually ends with -benzene. The simplest aromatic
hydrocarbon is benzene (C6H6).

Aromatic hydrocarbons are known for their aromatic or fragrant smell. Primary sources of
aromatic compounds include petroleum and coal tar. Fragrant oils also contain aromatic
hydrocarbons.

Aromatic compounds are insoluble in water. They are used as solvents in organic reactions.

Some Examples of Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Aromatic hydrocarbons have great applications to industrial and pharmaceutical processes,
but most also pose great risks to health. Xylene (C8H10) is a colorless gas with a sweet smell.
It can either come together with petroleum products or methanol. This compound is often
used as a solvent in paints and rubbers; its traces can also be found in cigarette smoke and
burned gasoline. Exposure to xylene can weaken the nervous system and result in
headaches and dizziness.

19
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 17. Xylene is widely used as a solvent for paints.

Another example of an arene is naphthalene (C10H8). Like xylene, it is likely to be found in

processes where the burning of fuel occurs (e.g., car exhaust, forest fire, cigarette smoke).
Naphthalene is widely used in mothballs, as it repels insects when it sublimes. Inhalation of
high levels of naphthalene can pose serious health risks as it is linked to hemolytic anemia.

Fig. 18. Naphthalene, commonly known as mothball, is used as a pest repellent.

Quinine (C20H24N2O2) is also a highly publicized arene as it is often recommended by doctors

to treat leg cramps. It has also been widely used to treat malaria. Even though quinine has
important medical use, researchers have also linked the compound to decreased platelet
count, cardiac problems, and kidney failures.

20
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 19. Quinine has been used for a long time as a muscle relief to leg cramps.

Alcohols
ー
Alcohols contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have the hydroxyl ( OH) functional
group.

Fig. 20. Propanol, an example of an alcohol

At room temperature and pressure, alcohols exist as volatile liquids, though they still have
higher boiling points than typical hydrocarbons as (1) they can form hydrogen bonds,
and (2) they have higher polarizability due to the rich electrons of oxygen. They are also
soluble in water as long as the molecule has less than five carbon atoms.

Ethanol is a typical example of alcohol. It is used in alcoholic drinks. Ethanol is commonly

produced by fermenting fruits, vegetables, and grains. During fermentation,
microorganisms like yeast act on glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce ethanol and
carbon dioxide.

21
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 21. Ethanol is used as the main ingredient in alcoholic drinks and as solvent in
perfumes.

It is also widely used as a solvent for organic chemicals because it dissolves many insoluble
substances in water. Since it is volatile, it is used in paints, deodorants, perfumes, and
cologne.

Alcohols also undergo combustion reactions. Therefore, they can be used to fuel cars. Some
race cars run on methanol. Methanol is considered a clean fuel. It is less volatile than
petrol. It is also less likely to explode in case of an accident.

Did You Know?

Methanol and ethanol have been extensively used as alternative fuel
sources in other countries. Racing cars have been fueled with the less
expensive methanol, although ethanol is less environmentally toxic and
more energy-producing.

Aldehydes
Aldehydes have carbonyl plus a hydrogen atom as their functional group. A carbonyl group
consists of carbon and an oxygen atom connected by a double bond. The carbonyl group in
aldehydes is always found at the end of the carbon chain.

The general formula of aldehydes is RCHO. R can be a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group.

22
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 22. Ethanal, an example of an aldehyde

Generally, the boiling point of aldehydes increases together with their molecular size.
Aldehydes with less than five carbon atoms are soluble in water. Solubility in water
decreases as more carbon atoms are added to the chain of an aldehyde.

The simplest aldehyde is formaldehyde (IUPAC name: methanal). This compound is a

colorless gas at room temperature, which produces formalin when mixed with water.
Formalin is used in preserving biological specimens.

Fig. 23. Biological specimens that need to be preserved are placed in formalin.

Aldehydes have high chemical reactivity. They can combine with other molecules to
produce several types of common plastics.

Other examples of aldehydes also include sugars and other natural and synthetic hormones
and compounds such as retinal. Retinal is a derivative of vitamin A, which is important in
vision.

23
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 24. The structure of retinal

Ketones
Just like aldehydes, ketones also have carbonyl as their functional group. In fact, ketones
are derivatives of aldehydes. Compared to aldehydes with one R group attached to their
carbonyl group, ketones have two R groups linked in their carbon atom. Hence, the carbonyl
group in ketones is always found in the middle of a carbon chain.

The general formula of ketones is RCOR. R can represent an alkyl group or an aryl group.

Fig. 25. Propanone, an example of a ketone

Like alcohols and aldehydes, ketones get higher boiling points when their molecular size
increases. Small ketones (those with less than five carbon atoms) are soluble in water due to
the polarity brought by the oxygen atom. In general, ketones are less reactive than
aldehydes.

The most common ketone is acetone (IUPAC name: propanone). Acetone is primarily used
as a solvent for organic compounds such as plastics and synthetic fibers. It is also used as a
major component in nail polish removers and paint thinners.

24
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Fig. 26. Acetone is the main component in nail polish removers.

Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids are a group of hydrocarbons that contain the carboxyl (-COOH) functional
group. They are produced by oxidizing primary alcohols or aldehydes using potassium
dichromate.

Fig. 27. Ethanoic acid, an example of a carboxylic acid

Carboxylic acids normally produce cyclic dimers after forming hydrogen bonds with each
other. Because of this, carboxylic acids generally have higher boiling points than alcohols.
For example, three-carbon alcohol, propanol, has a boiling point of 97 oC, while its carboxylic
acid counterpart, propanoic acid, has a boiling point of 141 oC.

Fig. 28. A methanoic acid cyclic dimer

25
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

As the name suggests, carboxylic acids are also weak acids, making them soluble in water
(given the condition that the molecule is composed of less than five carbons). When a
carboxylic acid loses the hydrogen (attached to oxygen) and replaces it with a metal ion, the
whole molecule ultimately becomes soluble in water.

(a) (b)
Fig. 29. Structures of (a) pentanoic acid, which is insoluble in water and
(b) sodium pentanoate, which, on the other hand, is water-soluble

Vinegar is the common name of dilute ethanoic acid. The oxidation of ethanol produces
this. Vinegar is used as a condiment and as a preservative. It is also used as a household
cleaning agent.

Fig. 30. Ethanoic acid is also called acetic acid.

This compound gives vinegar its distinct sour taste and pungent smell.

Carboxylic acids can be found widely in nature. Amino acids, for example, is a kind of
carboxylic acid that contains both the amino group (-NH2) and the carboxyl group. Amino
acids are the basic building blocks of proteins.

Fig. 31. Some examples of amino acids

26
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Esters
Esters are a group of organic compounds produced from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid
reaction. This process is called esterification.

Fig. 32. The esterification process

Esters have the functional group -COO. They have the general formula R’COOR, in which R’
can represent hydrogen, an alkyl, or an aromatic hydrocarbon group, and R can be an alkyl
group or an aryl group.

Fig. 33. Ethyl ethanoate, an example of an ester

Esters, being sweet-smelling compounds, are responsible for the scent of most fruits and
flowers. As they are derivatives of carboxylic acids, esters are still expected to have higher
boiling points compared to hydrocarbons. This group of compounds is also volatile in
nature. The properties of esters make them suitable in producing artificial food flavorings
and as solvents for cosmetics and perfumes. Esters also naturally occur as animal fats
and vegetable oils, substances used in soap making.

27
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

(a) (b)

Fig. 34. (a) Roses contain citronellyl acetate, which give them their fragrant smell.
(b) In the process of soap making, naturally-containing esters like fats
or oils are boiled with sodium hydroxide to produce soap.

Did You Know?

Did you know that the process of making soap is called saponification? It
is the reverse process of esterification, as soaps are made up of negatively
charged carboxylate ions. The Filipino term for soap, sabon, is derived from
this process.

Ethers
An ether group is an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. Ethers have the
general formula ROR’. R and R’ can represent alkyl or aryl groups.

Fig. 35. Dimethyl ether, an example of an ether

Ethers exist as liquids at room temperature. They have slightly higher boiling points than
alkanes and are generally colorless. Ethers are also highly flammable; they can react with

28
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

molecular oxygen to produce peroxides (some can be explosive). On the other hand, they
are unreactive towards acids and bases, making them good solvents.

An example of ether is diethyl ether, which is commonly referred to as ether. This was the
first anesthetic used in surgeries. However, it was discovered to cause nausea and can be
flammable. Scientists have since used methyl propyl ether as an alternative to diethyl ether.

Fig. 36. Ethers are used as anesthetics.

Aside from its medical use, ethers are also widely used in the cosmetics industry. Methyl
phenyl ether (or methoxybenzene) produced by insects and plants is often used as a
precursor to fragrances due to its sweet smell, while polyethylene glycol (PEG) is used as a
thickening and binding agent in toothpastes and moisturizers.

Fig. 37. Methoxybenzene gives sweet notes to perfumes,

while PEG is used as a thickening agent in lotions.

29
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Did You Know?

Did you know that petroleum ether is actually NOT an ether? Petroleum
ether is composed of highly volatile, short-chain hydrocarbons. They are
called ether as a figurative description of their extreme lightness or high
volatility.

Amines
Amines are derivatives of ammonia, NH3. In amines, one or more hydrogen atoms are
replaced by a hydrocarbon group. R can be a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group.

Like alcohols, amines also have a higher boiling point compared to alkanes. Some amines
have distinct odors, like smaller ones that smell like fish and diamines (e.g., cadaverine,
putrescine) that smell like decaying bodies.

Compared to alcohols and ethers, amines are considered a stronger base. They form salts
when they react with acids. The salts produced in their reaction are generally colorless and
odorless solids soluble in water.

Amines are involved in the production of amino acids. They also form the basic units of
many vitamins, such as vitamin B1. Vitamin B1 is one of the B-complex vitamins which help
the body convert food into fuel. They also help the body metabolize fats and proteins.

Fig. 38. Amines are found in vitamins such as vitamin B1 (thiamine).

Common sources of vitamin B1 include fortified pieces of bread, milk, fish, and lean meat.

30
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Amines are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. Medicines based on amines include
morphine and pethidine. These drugs are commonly used as painkillers.

Fig. 39. Amines are used in the production of pharmaceutical drugs.

Key Points

● Organic compounds consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms as their base elements,
have low melting and boiling points, and have high flammability.
● A functional group is an atom (or a group of atoms) that is mainly responsible for a
molecule's characteristic behavior and properties.
● The following are the classifications of organic compounds based on their functional
groups:
○ Alkanes are a group of saturated hydrocarbon compounds that contain
carbon-carbon single (C-C) bonds and carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds only and
have a general formula of CnH2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms (n =
1, 2, 3, …).
○ Alkenes are a group of unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds that contain a
carbon-carbon double (C=C) bond. Also known as olefins, they have a general
formula of CnH2n, where n is the number of carbon atoms (n = 2, 3, 4, …).
○ Alkynes are a group of unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds that contains
carbon-carbon triple (C≡C) bond. They have a general formula of CnH2n–2,
where n is the number of carbon atoms (n = 2, 3, 4, …).

31
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

○ Aromatic hydrocarbons are classified as unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons.

They are also called arenes. It has the benzene ring as its functional group.
○ Alcohols contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have the hydroxyl
ー
( OH) functional group.
○ Aldehydes and ketones are collectively known as carbonyl compounds
because they contain a carbonyl functional group (C=O). Aldehydes have
carbonyl groups at the terminal carbon. Aldehydes has a general formula of
RCHO. Ketones have carbonyl groups at the middle of the carbon chain.
○ Carboxylic acids are a group of hydrocarbons that contain the carboxyl
(-COOH) functional group.
○ Esters have the functional group -COO. They are a group of organic
compounds produced from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid reaction.
○ An ether group is an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. Ethers
have the general formula ROR’.
○ Amines are groups of organic compounds derived from ammonia, NH3.

Check Your Understanding

A. Write T if the statement is correct and F if it is not.

________ 1. Alkane and alkynes are both saturated compounds.

________ 2. An ether contains a carboxyl group.

________ 3. β-carotene, which is rich in Vitamin A, is an amine.

________ 4. Organic compounds are good conductors of electricity.

________ 5. Alkanes react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

________ 6. The vinegar used in adobo is a carboxylic acid.

32
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

________ 7. An acid is formed during the combination of an alcohol and a

carboxylic acid.

________ 8. Amino acids are reduced in the body because of the

involvement of amines.

________ 9. Ester is the precursor of the natural fragrance and flavor of

many fruits.

________ 10. The benzene ring is also an alkene.

B. Determine the family of organic compounds based on its structure.

Structure Classification

1.

2.

3.

4.

33
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

C. Research examples for each functional group listed. Draw its Lewis structure on the
second column. Then, provide its use in the third column.

Functional Group Example Uses

ketones

alkyl halide

ester

34
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

amine

alcohol

Photo Credits

Fig. 2. Crude Oil Distillation by Psarianos, Theresa knott is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

Fig. 4. N-Hexane by Danny S.-001 by Danny S. is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons.

Fig. 14. Three tubes of 'Oblivon' capsules, England, 1953-1967 Wellcome L0058216.jpg by
Science Museum, London is licensed under CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

35
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Bibliography

“Alkynes: Introduction.” Wiley Information Services GmbH. Accessed April 24, 2022.
http://www.chemgapedia.de/vsengine/vlu/vsc/en/ch/2/vlu/alkine/alkineallg.vlu/Page/
vsc/en/ch/2/oc/stoffklassen/systematik_struktur/acyclische_verbindungen/ungesaetti
gte_kohlenwasserstoffe/monoene_monoine/alkine/vorkommen.vscml.html.

“Aromatic Compounds.” Virtual Chembook. Accessed April 24, 2022.

http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/505aromatics.html.

Bolton, Doug. 2016. “Scientists develop ‘wonder material’ carbine in bulk amounts for the
first time.” Accessed April 24, 2022.
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/scientists-develop-wonder-material-car
byne-in-bulk-amounts-for-the-first-time-a6983131.html.

Campbell, Mary. Biochemistry, 7th Edition. Belmont: Brooks/Cole, 2012.

Chang, Raymond. General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008.

McMurry, John. Organic Chemistry, 8th Edition. Belmont: Brooks/Cole, 2012.

Moreno, Luis F., María Victoria Alzate, Jesús A. Meneses and Mario L. Marín. Build Your
Model! Chemical Language and Building Molecular Models Using Plastic Drinking Straws.
Journal of Chemical Education. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00300. 2018.

Myers, Richard. The 100 Most Important Chemical Compounds: A Reference Guide. Westport:
Greenwood Press, 2007.

“Naphthalene General Fact Sheet.” National Pesticide Information Center. Accessed April 24,
2022. http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/naphgen.html.

36
 Science
●

Grade 9 • Unit 9: Introduction to Carbon Compounds

Patrick, G.L. Instant Notes: Organic Chemistry, 2nd ed. New York City: BIOS Scientific
Publishers, 2004.

“Positional Isomers.” OChemPal. Accessed April 24, 2022.

http://www.ochempal.org/index.php/alphabetical/o-p/positional-isomers/.

Reusch, William. “Amines.” Accessed April 24, 2022.

https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/virttxtjml/amine1.htm.

“Stop taking Quinine for night-time leg cramps.” Consumer Reports. Accessed April 24, 2022.
https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/2012/04/quinine-for-night-time-leg-cramps-no
-longer-recommended/index.htm.

Tan Yin Toon, et al. Chemistry Matters 2nd Edition. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education,
2013.

University of Pretoria. Study Guide/Solutions Manual to accompany: Organic Chemistry, 3rd

Edition. New York: McGraw Hill, 2011.

37