V.

V Sangha’s
RAO BAHADUR Y. MAHABALESWARAPPA
ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CONTONMENT, BELLARY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING
VI SEMSETER
SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB
(18CVL66)

NAME:
USN:
SEM:
SEC:
 CONTENTS
Page
Title
No.
Module 1
Chapter 1 Use of civil engineering software 1
Experiment 1 Analysis of beams 8
Experiment 2 Analysis of 2d frames 10
Experiment 3 Analysis of 3d frames 11
Experiment 4 Analysis of trusses 12
Module 2
Chapter 2 Microsoft project 13
Experiment 1 How to start the project? 19
Experiment 2 Creating a basic work breakdown structure 32
Experiment 3 Constructing AON & AOA network 48
Experiment 4 Adding more details to the WBS 62
Experiment 5 Resource creation and allocation 71
Remote sensing and geographical information
Chapter 3 92
system (GIS)
Module 3
Chapter 4 Microsoft excel 127
Experiment 1 Design of singly reinforced beam 128
Experiment 2 Design of doubly reinforced beam 129
Experiment 3 Design of One way slab 130
Experiment 4 Design of Two way slab 131
Experiment 5 Computation of earthwork 132
Experiment 6 Design of Horizontal curve by offset method 133
Experiment 7 Design of super elevation 134
 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
CHAPTER – 1: STAAD PRO
Introduction

STAAD Pro is comprehensive structural engineering software that

addresses all aspects of structural engineering including model development,
verification, analysis, design and review of results. It includes advanced dynamic
analysis and push over analysis for wind load and earthquake load.
STAAD Pro is comprehensive structural engineering software that
addresses all aspects of structural engineering including model development,
verification, analysis, design and review of results. It includes advanced dynamic
analysis and push over analysis for wind load and earthquake load.
Types of structure:
PLANE

SPACE

TRUSS

FLOOR

Getting started
In STAAD Pro we can analyze the structures in 2D and 3D, for the
convenience of modelling and defining the structure for analysis, STAAD uses
different templates for 2D and 3D structures. In STAAD we use the following
types of structures.
 Space structures

 Plane structures
 Floor structures
 Truss structures
All the structures are shown in the above figure. Space structures
consist of 3 dimensions and structure will have 6 degrees of freedom (6
D.O.F). i.e. 3 rotational and 3 translational.

The plane structures can be considered for any one plane. Forces are
considered parallel to the surface of plane or in the surface of the plane.

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 Eg. : In XY plane, Fx, Fy & Mz

For the design of horizontal members like slabs, floors etc. the floor
structure is used. It is a 2-D or 3-D structure in which horizontal movement
cannot be considered.
Starting the program

STAAD Pro can be started from the programs menu in windows or from
the desktop Icon. Every time we start the programme a new dialogue box
will pop up. The box consists of types of structure of space, plane, floor and
truss.
Select the appropriate structure to be worked out, file name and location
to be saved. The length and force units should be specified to be used in the
drawing. After this step the STAAD Pro interface appears.
In the central area there is a white space with some grids, this is the
drawing area showing the whole structure. We can model our structure and
assign the load in this interface. In the left part there are so many “tab” which
is called page control. Different processes of STAAD Pro like modelling,
analysis, post analysis, design can be accessed within these “tab”. To the
right there are different window available. Options for different tabs in page
control are accessed in this area. By default usually snap and grid settings is
shown in the window.

Grid
Perpendicular construction lines which can be used as an aid to
modelling the structure is called GRID or grid lines. Grid lines are usually
set to a default value by the program when it starts, but of course we can
change the density of grid lines in the snap/grid settings window. It is
recommended to draw only the required grid lines to draw our structure to
accurately model the structure without any confusion. We can change the
no: of grid lines in X, Y & Z directions and spacing in each axes. We can have
multiple grid systems in different names also.

Graphical User Interface

STAAD Pro has got a versatile Graphical User Interface (GUI)
integrated into the program for the easy modelling, post analysis and print
options. The interface is fully developed and well documented; various
editing commands are available within this GUI. Some of the features and
commonly used editing commands are discussed.
INSERT NODE: You can add nodes to the structure using this method.
 ADD BEAM: Add beam method is used to draw beam in structure. Beam
refers not only beams, but all the linear structures (beams, columns,
and truss members).

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  ADD SOLID: Used to draw solids in structure
 ADD PLATES, SURFACES: Add laminar surfaces to the model.
 TRANSLATIONAL REPEAT: Create an array in the specified axis at
desired spacing
 CIRCULAR REPEAT: Create a polar array around an axis at desired
spacing.
 MOVE: Move an entity from one place to other
 ROTATE: Rotate an entity around an axis
 MIRROR: Make a mirrored copy of a single or group objects.
 SPLIT BEAM: This method can be used to split a beam into number of
beams, three options are there
- Add new point at a given distance or to divide the beam at
a given proportion
- Add a midpoint to the beam
- Add a number of points

Structure wizard
Templates of some structures are come packed with STAAD Pro. and we
can use these templates by using structure wizard. We can select a template
and give the necessary details to model the structure easily. If unequal beams
are to be drawn, select the pick icon (…) on the side and give required data values.
Transfer model icon will transfer the model to the STAAD interface. You have
to specify the coordinates which the structure is to be placed then.

3-D rendering
You can view a 3-D rendering of the structure for a better
visualization of what you modelled. Loading arrangements can be also seen
and better understand to pull out errors if any. 3-D rendering can be view by
selecting viewà3-D Rendering

Assignment methods
Every attributes we define in STAAD should be assigned to the
corresponding members or nodes or plates for the analysis and design. For
example supports created must be assigned to nodes where supports are needed,
loads defined must be assigned as member load or nodal load wherever
applicable, the post analysis results we needed must be assigned for each
members and so that only results of that members are displayed in STAAD
Output.
There are 4 different assign methods commonly used in STAAD they
are:
- Assign to selected
- Assign to view

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 - Use cursor to assign
- Assign to edit list
 Assign to selected: Some of the beams or nodes are selected initially
and the property is assigned to that selected members
 Assign to view: property is assigned to all the relevant members in the
view.
 Use the cursor to assign: we can select our members by clicking on the
members
 Assign to edit list: node numbers or beam numbers are entered in the
text box separated with space in which properties are assigned to the
members in the list only.

Result
After analysis STAAD gives 3 options for the user. User can
 Stay in modelling mode – user can continue the modelling of
structure.
 Go to post processing mode – View the analysis results in graphical
format
 View output file – View the results of analysis in written format
- Post processing mode: This mode helps the user to
visualize the shear force, bending moment and other stress
resultant developed at the members, i.e. we can see the
SFD, BMD, Elastic curve etc of the whole structure or of
individual members.
- Output file: Each analysis carried out in STAAD will
produce a text document containing all the inputs,
outputs and other information that user selected when
modelling the structure. This is stored in a file named
“filename.anl”

STAAD editor
We can model, define attributes and assign it to the model using STAAD
GUI but there is a built in command line interface to these things. It is known
as STAAD EDITOR. STAAD Editor is a command line interface for developing
models and all other STAAD input by typing some commands collectively
called STAAD language. The STAAD Editor will produce a *.std file which is
recognized by the STAAD engine and it will create the model from that file.
Although the STAAD input can be created through the Modeling mode,
it is important to understand the command language. With the knowledge of
this language, it is easy to understand the problem and add or

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comment data as necessary. The general sequence in which the commands
should appear in an input file should ideally follow the same sequence in
which they are presented in this section. The commands are executed in the
sequence entered.
STAAD commands have a particular syntax in which the STAAD engine
can understand and failing to follow will give syntax error. Some common
syntax for the basic operations are described.
A sample STAAD editor commands to create and analyze a simple
overhanging beam is shown below.
STAAD PLANE
START JOB INFORMATION
ENGINEER DATE 07-Nov-10
END JOB INFORMATION
INPUT WIDTH 79
UNIT METER KN
JOINT COORDINATES
1 0 0 0; 3 6 0 0; 4 9 0 0; 5 3 0 0;
MEMBER INCIDENCES
1 1 5; 3 3 4; 4 5 3;
DEFINE MATERIAL START
ISOTROPIC CONCRETE
E 2.17185e+007
POISSON 0.17
DENSITY 23.5616
ALPHA 1e-005
DAMP 0.05
END DEFINE MATERIAL
CONSTANTS
MATERIAL CONCRETE ALL
MEMBER PROPERTY AMERICAN
1 3 4 PRIS YD 0.6 ZD 0.3
SUPPORTS
1 PINNED
3 FIXED BUT FX FZ MX MY MZ
LOAD 1
JOINT LOAD
4 FY -12
PERFORM ANALYSIS PRINT ALL
FINISH
 STAAD and FINISH — STAAD refers to the starting of STAAD input,
FINISH refers to the end of STAAD input. STAAD engine executes only
the commands between these two commands.

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  STAAD PLANE — All STAAD commands are started with the type of the
structure. In this it is a PLANE structure.
 START JOB INFORMATION, END JOB INFORMATION – Between these
it is job information constitutes the detail of model like date, engineer,
and other particulars.
 INPUT WIDTH – These commands may be used to specify the width(s)
of the lines of output file(s). This is a customization facility that may be
used to improve the presentation quality of the run documents.
 UNIT METER KN – Specifies the unit as meter and KN.
 JOINT CORDINATES – Below which it is Joint numbers and
coordinates. Syntax is as follows.

 MEMBER INCIDENCES – Below which it is member definitions.

Syntax is as follows.

DEFINE MATERIAL START – Definition of material begins here. Many

physical attributes of ISOTROPIC CONCRETE are defined between START and
FINISH.
 CONSTANTS – Assigning of materials and sections starts here.
CONCRETE is assigned to all members, member numbers (1 3 4)
followed by the type of sections (PRIS) and its size is given (YD .6 ZD
.3).
 SUPPORTS – Node number (3) followed by type of support (FIXED
BUT) and fixity if any (FX FZ MX MY MZ).
 LOAD – Follows the name of load case. Load type and its value
2 UNI GY -4 0 3
In above command 2 is the member number to which load is to
be given, UNI denotes UNIFORM LOAD, GY denotes load is in the

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 GLOBAL Y direction, -4 is the value of UDL, 0 3 is the length through
which load is assigned.
 PERFORM ANALYSIS – Analysis is carried out
 PRINT ALL — All analysis results for all members all printed on to
output file.

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Experiment No. 1
ANALYSIS OF BEAMS

Aim: To analyse the given continuous beams for the loading as shown in fig.

Data:

1.

2.

3.

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Software used: STAAD Pro V8i

Commands used: Structure wizard, assign property, assign material, assign

supports, create loads, assign loads, analyse etc.

Procedure:

 Open STAAD Pro New structure Space Add beam method.

 Enter the coordinates to create the required nodes.
 Click on ‘add beam’ and connect the beams between the generated
nodes.
 Assign the required property, material, support and loads to the beam.
 Perform analysis.
 Go to post processing mode and generate the required graphs.

OR

 Open STAAD Pro New structure Space Structure Wizard

 Enter the required inputs to obtain the specified Truss. Merge with
STAAD Pro.
 Assign the required member properties, material, supports and loads.
 Perform analysis.
 Go to post processing mode and generate the required graphs.

Result: The given continuous beams have been analysed and the required
SFD and BMD have been plotted using the software.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
Experiment No. 10
ANALYSIS OF FRAMES

Aim: To analyse the 2D frame for the given loading.

Data :

Software used: STAAD Pro V8i

Commands used: Structure wizard, assign property, assign material, assign
supports, create loads, assign loads, analyse etc.
Procedure:
 Open STAAD Pro New structure Space Add beam method.
 Enter the coordinates to create the required nodes.
 Click on ‘add beam’ and connect the beams between the generated
nodes.
 Assign the required property, material, support and loads to the
beam.
 Perform analysis.
 Go to post processing mode and generate the required graphs.
OR
 Open STAAD Pro New structure Space Structure Wizard
 Enter the required inputs to obtain the specified Truss. Merge with
STAAD Pro.
 Assign the required member properties, material, supports and
loads.
 Perform analysis.
 Go to post processing mode and generate the required graphs.

Result: The Frame has been analysed and the required graphs have been
plotted using the software.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
Experiment No. 11
ANALYSIS OF FRAMES

Aim: To analyse the 3D Multistoried frame for the given loading.

Data :

Software used: STAAD Pro V8i

Commands used: Structure wizard, assign property, assign material, assign

supports, create loads, assign loads, analyse etc.

Procedure:
 Open STAAD Pro New structure Space Add beam method.
 Enter the coordinates to create the required nodes.
 Click on ‘add beam’ and connect the beams between the generated
nodes.
 Assign the required property, material, support and loads to the beam.
 Perform analysis.
 Go to post processing mode and generate the required graphs.
OR
 Open STAAD Pro New structure Space Structure Wizard
 Enter the required inputs to obtain the specified Truss. Merge with
STAAD Pro.
 Assign the required member properties, material, supports and loads.
 Perform analysis.
 Go to post processing mode and generate the required graphs.
Result: The Frame has been analysed and the required graphs have
been plotted using the software.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
Experiment No. 4
ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES

Aim : To analyse the 2D truss for the given loading.

Data :

Software used: STAAD Pro V8i

Commands used: Structure wizard, assign property, assign material, assign

supports, create loads, assign loads, analyse etc.

Procedure:

 Open STAAD Pro New structure Space Structure Wizard

 Enter the required inputs to obtain the specified Truss. Merge with
STAAD Pro.
 Assign the required member properties, material, supports and
loads.
 Perform analysis.
 Go to post processing mode and generate the required graphs.

Result: The Truss has been analysed using the software and the forces have
been represented.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
CHAP TER – 2: MICROSOF T PROJECT
Introduction to CPM / PERT Techniques

CPM/PERT or Network Analysis as the technique is sometimes called,

developed along two parallel streams, one industrial and the other military.
CPM (Critical Path Method) was the discovery of M.R.Walker of E.I.Du Pont
de Nemours & Co. and J.E.Kelly of Remington Rand, circa 1957. The
computation was designed for the UNIVAC-I computer. The first test was
made in 1958, when CPM was applied to the construction of a new chemical
plant. In March 1959, the method was applied to maintenance shut-down at
the Du Pont works in Louisville, Kentucky. Unproductive time was reduced
from 125 to 93 hours.

PERT (Project Evaluation and Review Technique)

It was devised in 1958 for the POLARIS missile program by the Program
Evaluation Branch of the Special Projects office of the U.S.Navy, helped by the
Lockheed Missile Systems division and the Consultant firm of Booz-Allen &
Hamilton. The calculations were so arranged so that they could be carried
out on the IBM Naval Ordinance Research Computer (NORC) at Dahlgren,
Virginia.
The methods are essentially network-oriented techniques using the
same principle. PERT and CPM are basically time-oriented methods in the
sense that they both lead to determination of a time schedule for the project.
The significant difference between two approaches is that the time estimates
for the different activities in CPM were assumed to be deterministic while in
PERT these are described probabilistically. These techniques are referred as
project scheduling techniques. In CPM activities are shown as a network of
precedence relationships using activity-on-node network construction
– Single estimate of activity time
– Deterministic activity times

USED IN: Production management - for the jobs of repetitive in nature where
the activity time estimates can be predicted with considerable certainty due to
the existence of past experience. In PERT activities are shown as a network of
precedence relationships using activity-on-arrow network construction
– Multiple time estimates
– Probabilistic activity times

USED IN: Project management - for non-repetitive jobs (research and

development work), where the time and cost estimates tend to be quite

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
uncertain. This technique uses probabilistic time estimates. Benefits of
PERT/CPM
 Useful at many stages of project management.
 Mathematically simple
 Give critical path and slack time
 Provide project documentation
 Useful in monitoring costs

Limitations of PERT/CPM

 Clearly defined, independent and stable activities

 Specified precedence relationships
 Over emphasis on critical paths

Applications of CPM / PERT

These methods have been applied to a wide variety of problems in

industries and have found acceptance even in government organizati ons.
These include
 Construction of a dam or a canal system in a region
 Construction of a building or highway
 Maintenance or overhaul of airplanes or oil refinery
 Space flight
 Cost control of a project using PERT / COST
 Designing a prototype of a machine
 Development of supersonic planes

Basic Steps in PERT / CPM

Project scheduling by PERT / CPM consists of four main steps

1. Planning
Planning phase is started by splitting the total project in to small projects.
These smaller projects in turn are divided into activities and are analyzed by the
department or section.
 The relationship of each activity with respect to other activities are defined
and established and the corresponding responsibilities and the
authority are also stated.
 Thus the possibility of overlooking any task necessary for the completion
of the project is reduced substantially.
2. Scheduling
 The ultimate objective of the scheduling phase is to prepare a time chart
showing the start and finish times for each activity as well as its
relationship to other activities of the project.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
 Moreover the schedule must pinpoint the critical path activities which
require special attention if the project is to be completed in time.

 For non-critical activities, the schedule must show the amount of slack
or float times which can be used advantageously when such activities
are delayed or when limited resources are to be utilized effectively.
3. Allocation of resources
 Allocation of resources is performed to achieve the desired objective. A
resource is a physical variable such as labour, finance, equipmentand
space which will impose a limitation on time for the project.
 When resources are limited and conflicting, demands are made for the
same type of resources a systematic method for allocation of resources
become essential.
 Resource allocation usually incurs a compromise and the choice of this
compromise depends on the judgment of managers.
4. Controlling
The final phase in project management is controlling. Critical path methods
facilitate the application of the principle of management by expectation to
identify areas that are critical to the completion of the project.
 By having progress reports from time to time and updating the network
continuously, a better financial as well as technical control over the
project is exercised.
 Arrow diagrams and time charts are used for making periodic progress
reports. If required, a new course of action is determined for the remaining
portion of the project.

The Framework for PERT and CPM

Essentially, there are six steps which are common to both the
techniques. The procedure is listed below:
1. Define the Project and all of its significant activities or tasks. The Project
(made up of several tasks) should have only a single start activity and a
single finish activity.
2. Develop the relationships among the activities. Decide which activities
must precede and which must follow others.
3. Draw the "Network" connecting all the activities. Each Activity should
have unique event numbers. Dummy arrows are used where required
to avoid giving the same numbering to two activities.
4. Assign time and/or cost estimates to each activity
5. Compute the longest time path through the network. This is called the
critical path.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
Use the Network to help plan, schedule, and monitor and control the
project.
The Key Concept used by CPM/PERT is that a small set of activities,
which make up the longest path through the activity network control the
entire project. If these "critical" activities could be identified and assigned to
responsible persons, management resources could be optimally used by
concentrating on the few activities which determine the fate of the entire
project. Non-critical activities can be replanned, rescheduled and resources
for them can be reallocated flexibly, without affecting the whole project. Five
useful questions to ask when preparing an activity network are:
 Is this a Start Activity?
 Is this a Finish Activity?
 What Activity Precedes this?
 What Activity Follows this?
 What Activity is Concurrent with this?

Network Diagram Representation In a network representation of a

project certain definitions are used:

1. Activity Any individual operation which utilizes resources and has an end
and a beginning is called activity. An arrow is commonly used to represent an
activity with its head indicating the direction of progress in the project. These
are classified into four categories
1. Predecessor activity – Activities that must be completed
immediately prior to the start of another activity are called predecessor
activities.
2. Successor activity – Activities that cannot be started until one or
more of other activities are completed but immediately succeed them are
called successor activities.
3. Concurrent activity – Activities which can be accomplished
concurrently are known as concurrent activities. It may be noted that
an activity can be a predecessor or a successor to an event or it may be
concurrent with one or more of other activities.
4. Dummy activity – An activity which does not consume any kind of
resource but merely depicts the technological dependence is called a
dummy activity.

The dummy activity is inserted in the network to clarify the activity

pattern in the following two situations
 To make activities with common starting and finishing points
distinguishable

 To identify and maintain the proper precedence relationship between

activities that is not connected by events.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
For example, consider a situation where A and B are concurrent
activities. C is dependent on A and D is dependent on A and B both. Such a
situation can be handled by using a dummy activity as shown in the figure.

2. Event An event represents a point in time signifying the completion of some

activities and the beginning of new ones. This is usually represented by a
circle in a network which is also called a node or connector. The events are
classified in to three categories
1. Merge event – When more than one activity comes and joins an event
such an event is known as merge event.
2. Burst event – When more than one activity leaves an event such an
event is known as burst event.
3. Merge and Burst event – An activity may be merge and burst event at
the same time as with respect to some activities it can be a merge event
and with respect to some other activities it may be a burst event.

3. Sequencing The first prerequisite in the development of network is to

maintain the precedence relationships. In order to make a network, the
following points should be taken into considerations
 What job or jobs precede it?
 What job or jobs could run concurrently?
 What job or jobs follow it?
 What controls the start and finish of a job?

Since all further calculations are based on the network, it is necessary

that a network be drawn with full care.

Rules for Drawing Network Diagram

Rule 1 Each activity is represented by one and only one arrow in the network
Rule 2 No two activities can be identified by the same end events
Rule 3 In order to ensure the correct precedence relationship in the a rrow
diagram, following questions must be checked whenever any activity is added
to the network
 What activity must be completed immediately before this activity
can start?
 What activities must follow this activity?
 What activities must occur simultaneously with this activity?

In case of large network, it is essential that certain good habits be

practiced to draw an easy to follow network
 Try to avoid arrows which cross each other
 Use straight arrows

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
 Do not attempt to represent duration of activity by its arrow length
 Use arrows from left to right. Avoid mixing two directions, vertical
and standing arrows may be used if necessary.
 Use dummies freely in rough draft but final network should not
have any redundant dummies.
The network has only one entry point called start event and one point of
emergence called the end event.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
Experiment 1:

HOW TO START THE PROJECT?

1 Starting Project

In order to start Microsoft Project 2007 in CS/IS labs, click the

Windows Start menu item (in the left lower corner of computer screen), then
click All Programs menu item, select Microsoft Applications menu item, and
click on Microsoft Project 2007 icon. You should get the main window of
Project 2007, as shown below.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
2 Entering the Project Title
To enter a title for a project, navigate to File‐> Properties. As shown
below. Enter project title, Author & company.

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3 Entering the Project Start Date
To set a start date for the project. Navigate to Project ‐>Project
Information.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
4 Project Guide Wizard

To get the project guide Click on View ‐> Turn on Project Guide

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (18CVL66)
To get the project guide toolbar Click on View‐> Toolbars‐> Project Guide
or right‐click anywhere in the toolbar area at the top of the screen and choose
Project Guide.

When you click a link in the Project Guide, a wizard starts and walks
you through the process that’s suggested by the link. For example, if you
click the Tasks button on the Project Guide toolbar and then click the Define
the project link, a three‐step wizard walks you through starting a project.

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If you click the Resources button on the Project Guide taskbar and then
click Specify people and equipment for the project, the Project Guide helps you
set up resources for your project

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When you click the Track button on the Project Guide toolbar, you can
perform a variety of tasks that are associated with tracking your project,
including setting a baseline

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Experiment No 2:

CREATING A BASIC WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE (WBS)

1 Entering the List of Tasks

When you click the Task button on the Project Guide toolbar, you can
enter the List of Task for your project.

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2 Inserting a New Column on the Task Sheet
Select Insert‐>Column‐>WBS and then click OK.

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3 Creating a unique WBS Code

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Enter the code Prefix as ggg as shown below

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4 Entering a Task
Click on Tasks ‐> Double Click on task name field to show the task
information screen.

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5 Making a Milestone
A milestone is a task with zero duration; it is generally used for
tracking purposes.

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6 Entering Recurring Tasks
Navigate to Insert‐>Recurring Task

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7 Creating a Hierarchy of Tasks
Select a task that is to be indented and then click the indent as shown
below

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Experiment No 3:

CONSTRUCTING AON & AOA NETWORK

Enter the following tasks, in the hierarchy shown here. Do not enter
the numbers‐just the task names.

Task No Task Name Duration Predecessors

Column Column Column
Column 2 Column 4
0 1 3
1 1 SPM_Project_Team0
2 1.1 Project Initiation
3 1.1.1 Develop project charter 5 days
4 1.1.2 Develop Statement Of Work 7 days 3
Develop preliminary scope
5 1.1.3 3 days 4
development
Develop preliminary
6 1.1.4 4 days 5
architectural model
7 1.1.5 Project initiation complete 0 days 3, 4, 5, 6
8 1.2 Project plan
9 1.2.1 Develop scope management 1 day 2
plan
10 1.2.2 Develop change management 2 days 2
plan
11 1.2.3 Develop initial descriptive 10 days 9
budget
12 1.2.4 Develop schedule 2 days 9
Develop quality management
13 1.2.5 2 days 2
plan
Develop human resource
14 1.2.6 3 days 9
plan
Develop risk management
15 1.2.7 2 days 9
plan
16 1.2.8 Project plan complete 0 days 9 – 15
17 1.3 Project Execution
18 1.3.1 Release 1
19 1.3.1.1 Analysis phase 18 days 8
20 1.3.1.2 Design phase 15 days 19
21 1.3.1.3 Construction phase 12 days 20
22 1.3.1.4 Validation phase 12 days 21
23 1.3.1.5 Deployment phase 3 days 22
24 1.3.1.6 Closeout 1 day 23
25 1.3.1.7 Release 1 Complete 0 days 24
26 1.3.2 Release 2
27 1.3.2.1 Analysis phase 9 days 18
28 1.3.2.2 Design phase 7 days 27
29 1.3.2.3 Construction phase 6 days 28
30 1.3.2.4 Validation phase 6 days 29
31 1.3.2.5 Deployment phase 1 day 30
32 1.3.2.6 Closeout 1 day 31
33 1.3.2.7 Release 2 Complete 0 days 32
34 1.3.3 Execution complete 0 days
35 1.4 Project Closeout 1 day 17
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36 1.5 Project complete 0 days 35

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Steps to do the above task:

1. Enter the task name

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2. Creating WBS Column

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3. Creating Hierarchy of tasks

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4. Entering the duration of the task

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5. Gantt Diagram
Select View ‐> Gantt Diagram

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6. Network Diagram

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Experiment No 4:

ADDING MORE DETAILS TO THE WBS

1. Assigning Predecessors to Tasks

Double‐click the task that needs the predecessors. Select the
Predecessors & enter the ID for the task on which selected task is dependent
& then select the type of dependency needed.

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2. Gantt Diagram with relationships

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3. Network Diagram with relationships

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4. Double Click the task, select the advanced tab on the task information
screen, click the drop‐down arrow next to Constraint Type & select a
constraint type.

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5. Entering the Early Start and Early Finish Dates

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Experiment no 5:

RESOURCE CREATION AND ALLOCATION

1 Displaying the Resource Sheet

Navigate to View Resource Sheet.

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Or click on Project Guide Toolbar‐>Resources

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2 Adding Resource Attributes
Resource name is the title of resource to be used

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Max Units represents the maximum capacity for which resource is
available to accomplish the task.

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3. Entering Multiple Pay Rates

Double‐clicking the resource and displaying the Resource Information

Screen‐>Costs tab. Changing the rates for a given date range or specifying
another pay rate for another calendar

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4. Entering Equipment and Material Resources

Double‐Click an open row on resource sheet. Click a drop‐down box in

the Type Field and select Material

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5. Editing the Resource Calendar

You can add specific working times and days by double‐clicking the
resource, selecting the Working Time Tab in the new window that appears &
specifying the new work times.

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To change the work timings click on details button‐> select working
times as shown below

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6. Dealing With Over Allocated Resources

Navigate to View ‐>Resource Usage to determine whether a resource is

over allocated. Now, navigate to task‐>Double‐click on task name ‐>
Resources tab to assign resources to the task.

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EXAMPLES

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CHAPTER – 3: REMOTE SENSING AND
GEOGRAP HICAL INF ORM ATION SYSTEM (GIS)
Introduction
Now-a-days the field of Remote Sensing and GIS has become exciting
and glamorous with rapidly expanding opportunities. Many organizations
spend large amounts of money on these fields. Here the question arises why
these fields are so important in recent years. Two main reasons are there
behind this. 1) Now-a-days scientists, researchers, students, and even
common people are showing great interest for better understanding of our
environment. By environment we mean the geographic space of their study
area and the events that take place there. In other words, we have come to
realise that geographic space along with the data describing it, is part of our
everyday world; almost every decision we take is influenced or dictated by
some fact of geography. 2) Advancement in sophisticated space technology
(which can provide large volume of spatial data), along with declining costs of
computer hardware and software (which can handle these data) has made
Remote Sensing and G.I.S. affordable to not only complex environmental /
spatial situation but also affordable to an increasingly wider audience.

REMOTE SENSING
Meaning
Literally Remote Sensing means obtaining information about an object,
area or phenomenon without coming in direct contact with it. If we go by this
meaning of Remote Sensing, then a number of things would be coming under
Remote Sensor, e.g. Seismographs, fathometer etc. Without coming in direct
contact with the focus of earthquake, seismograph can measure the intensity of
earthquake. Likewise without coming in contact with the ocean floor,
fathometer can measure its depth. However, modern Remote Sensing means
acquiring information about earth’s land and water surfaces by using reflected
or emitted electromagnetic energy.

From the following definitions, we can have a better understanding about

Remote Sensing: According to White (1977), Remote Sensing includes all
methods of obtaining pictures or other forms of electromagnetic records of
Earth’s surface from a distance, and the treatment and processing of the picture
data… Remote Sensing then in the widest sense is concerned with detecting and
recording electromagnetic radiation from the target areas in the field of view
of the sensor instrument. This radiation may have originated directly from
separate components of the target area, it may be solar energy reflected from
them; or it may be reflections of energy transmitted to the target area from the
sensor itself.

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According to American Society of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing
imagery is acquired with a sensor other than (or in addition to) a conventional
camera through which a scene is recorded, such as electronic scanning, using
radiations outside the normal visual range of the film and camera- microwave,
radar, thermal, infra-red, ultraviolet, as well as multispectral, special techniques
are applied to process and interpret remote sensing imagery for the purpose of
producing conventional maps, thematic maps, resource surveys, etc. in the
fields of agriculture, archaeology, forestry, geography, geology and others.

According to the United Nations (95th Plenary meeting, 3rd December,

1986), Remote Sensing means sensing of earth’s surface from space by making
use of the properties of electromagnetic wave emitted, reflected or diffracted by
the sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural resource management,
land use and the protection of the environment.

According to James B.Campell (1996), Remote Sensing is the practice of

deriving information about the earth’s land and water surfaces using images
acquired from an overhead perspective, using electromagnetic radiation in one
or more regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, reflectedor emitted from
the earth’s surface.

So the stages of Remote Sensing include (Fig.1):

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 A source of electromagnetic radiation or EMR (Sun)
 Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the
earth, through atmosphere
 Interaction of EMR with earth’s surface.
 Transmission of energy from surface to Remote Sensor mounted
on a platform, through atmosphere
 Detection of energy by the sensor.
 Transmission pf sensor data to ground station
 Processing and analysis of the sensor data
 Final data output for various types of application

History of Remote Sensing

The knowledge about the history of Remote Sensing is necessary for better
understanding of the subject and its scope, and also for future development,
particularly for the welfare of human society. The development of remote
sensing over time can be broadly divided into following six phases.

Phase I (Up till 1920): Initial Phase

Man always inquisitive about the things across a forest or a mountain,
which he cannot see directly. So, since time immemorial man has always tried
to reach greater heights, such as tree tops, mountains etc. to observe
phenomena of his interest on the earth surface, viz. to decide habitat places,
farming and other day-to-day activities. This inquisitiveness to get a bird’s eye
view prompted man to take photographs of earth from elevated platforms. So,
the initial photographs of earth were captured from elevated platforms on the
surface of the earth. However, the actual beginning of Remote Sensing can be
traced back in 1958, when free balloons were used for photography by the
French Gaspard Felix Tournachon (known as Nadar) to photograph the
village of Petil Becetre near Paris. In 1860, a part of Boston and Massachusetts
were photographed from a captive balloon at1200 feet height in USA. In 1909
the first aerial photograph was taken from an aero plane, piloted by Wilbur
Write over Centocelli, Italy. World War I provided a boost in the use of aerial
photography. During that time, aerial photographs were used for two
purposes – spying and mapping.

Phase II (1920-1945): Development of Platforms and Sensors

Improvement in aero planes, cameras, films etc. resulted in the
development of aerial photography during this period. The proper planning of
flight for photographic purpose was also started. Topographical mapping was
the main thrust of the aerial photography. However, a number of scientists like
geologists, botanists, soil scientists, geographers began interpreting the
photographs to get information of their interest, especially for development of
natural resources. During this period photographic

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coverage were increased both on the large and medium scale. World War II gave
a real boost to photo interpretation technique, which was widely used for
military intelligence purposes. The mapping of strategic location, military targets
and assessments of damages could be done accurately.

Phase III (1945-50): Development of Teaching and Training

After World War II, much emphasis on teaching and training of this
technique was given due to previous experience of its wide use in different
spheres. Many courses on Remote Sensing were started in reputeduniversities
of United States and Western European countries. A commission on the
utilization of aerial photographs was set up by International Geographical Union
(IGU) in 1949. The members of the commission emphasized the need of
knowledge of those parts of world which were not earlier photographed and also
attention was given to cover more area by aerial photographs and techniques
essential for interpretation.

Phase IV (1950-60): Development of Instruments for Interpretation

In this phase, the techniques of photo interpretation became much more

an applied technique. A number of instruments was developed and introduced
for interpretation during this period, which may be termed as a landmark in the
progress of these techniques. It opened a new horizon for accurate and fast
analysis and also for monitoring the changes. Hence a considerable advanced
interpretation was made in many disciplines such as Geography, Geology,
Geophysics, Agriculture and Archaeology.

Phase V (1960-1985): Significant Phase

This phase is very significant in the history of Remote Sensing as artificial
satellites were launched in the space for acquiring information of earth surface.
Though two American satellites, i.e. Explorer I and II were launched in 1958 and
1959 respectively under Explorer and Discover Programme, they were not
important from Remote Sensing point of view. On 1st April, 1960, one satellite
of eight members of TIROS (Television and Infrared Observation Satellites)
family was launched as a research and development project. As TIROS’s name
suggested, the satellite carried two types of sensing devices – firstly, television,
camera etc. which took picture of the visible spectrum; and secondly, infrared
detectors which measured the non visible part of spectrum and provided
information of local and regional temperature of earth’s surface. The supply of
remotely sensed data of earth surface was greatly increased with the launching
of ERTS-I (Earth Resources Technology Satellite) on 23rd July, 1972. It was placed
in a sun- synchronous polar orbit about 600 miles above the earth surface. It
makes 14 revolutions in a day around the earth and its sensors were covering a

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series 160 kms. wide strip. Then it was followed by ERTS-2 in 1975. With the
launch of this satellite, the name of these satellites has been changed from
ERTS-1, 2 to LANDSAT-1, 2 respectively. Four other satellites in these series were
launched one after another in this phase, with improved cameras and sensors.
Beside this, many other satellites were launched in the space by European
and Asian Countries during this period.

Phase VI (1985 onwards): Recent Development Phase

In this period, Remote Sensing technique has been improved in two
ways. Firstly, there have been developments of sensors which can use
infrared and microwave spectrum other than visible spectrum to get
information about earth’s surface. Secondly, there have been very important
advances with respect to the platforms in which sensors are mounted.
Besides, satellites have been launched for specific purposes and with specific
capability. The ground resolution is continuously increasing till today. Hence,
interpretation and mapping is becoming very easy, accurate and purposive.
The European Radar satellite (ERS-I) launched in 1991 opened the avenue for
systematic global observation in the microwave region. The French Satellite
‘SPOT’ is producing the imagery to provide the three dimensional view under
stereoscope. The satellite – IKONOS, launched on 24th September, 1999 has 1
m. resolution in panchromatic and 4 m.resolution in multi-spectral cameras.
USA, France and India have planned a series of satellites, with improved
capability, so that the users are assured continuity of data.

Technical Components of Remote Sensing

Platforms
The base, on which remote sensors are placed to acquire information about
the Earth’s surface, is called platform. Platforms can be stationary like a
tripod (for field observation) and stationary balloons or mobile like aircrafts and
spacecrafts. The types of platforms depend upon the needs as well as constraints
of the observation mission. There are three main types of platforms, namely 1)
Ground borne, 2) Air borne and 3) Space borne.

Ground borne platforms: These platforms are used on the surface of the
Earth. Cherry arm configuration of Remote Sensing van and tripod are the two
commonly used ground borne platforms. They have the capability of viewing the
object from different angles and are mainly used for collecting the ground truth
or for laboratory simulation studies.

1. Air borne Platforms: These platforms are placed within the atmosphere
of the Earth and can be further classified into balloons and aircrafts.
a. Balloons: Balloons as platforms are not very expensive like aircrafts.

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They have a great variety of shapes, sizes and performance capabilities.
The balloons have low acceleration, require no power and exhibit low
vibrations. There are three main types of balloon systems, viz. free
balloons, Tethered balloons and Powered Balloons. Free balloons can
reach almost the top of the atmosphere; hence they can provide a
platform at intermediate altitude between those of aircraft and space
craft. Thousands of kilograms of scientific payloads can be lifted by
free balloons. Unless a mobile launching system is developed, the flights
can be carried out only from a fixed launching station. The free balloons
are dependent on meteorological conditions, particularly winds. The
flight trajectory cannot becontrolled. All these make extremely difficult
to predict whether the balloons will fly over the specific area of interest
or not. In India, at present, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,
Mumbai, has set up a National balloon facility at Hyderabad. Teethered
balloons are connected to the earth station by means of wires having
high tensional strength and high flexibility. The teethered line can carry
the antenna, power lines and gas tubes etc. when wind velocity is less
than 35 km. per hour at the altitude of 3000m., sphere type balloon is
used. When the wind velocity is less than 30 km per hour, natural shape
balloons are restricted to be placed. Tethered balloons have the
capability of keeping the equipment at a fixed position for a long time and
thus, useful for many remote sensing programmes. Powered balloons
require some means of propulsion to maintain or achieve station over a
designated geographic location. These can be remotely controlled and
guided along with a path or fly above a given area within certain
limitations.
b. Aircrafts: Aircrafts are commonly used as remote-sensing for
obtaining Aerial
Photographs. In India, four types of aircrafts are being used for
remote sensing operations. These are as follows:
DAKOTA: The ceiling height is 5.6 to 6.2 km and minimum speed
is 240 km./hr. AVRO: Ceiling height is 7.5 km and minimum speed is
600 km./hr.
CESSNA: Ceiling height is 9 km. and minimum speed is 350 km./hr.
CANBERRA: Ceiling height is 40 km and minimum speed is 560
km./hr.
The following special aircrafts are being used in abroad for remote
sensing operations in high altitude photography.
U-2: Ceiling height is 21 km. (for strategic photographic).
Minimum speed is 798 km./hr.

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ROCKELL X-15 (Research Craft): Ceiling height is 108 km. and speed
is 6620 km./hr. The advantages of using aircrafts as remote sensing
platform are: high resolution of data recorded, possibility of carrying
large pay loads, capability of imaging large area economica lly, accessibility
of remote areas, convenience of selecting different scales, adequate
control at all time etc. However, due to limitations of operating altitudes
and range, the aircraft finds its greatest applications in local or regional
programme rather than measurements on global scale. Besides all these,
aircrafts have been playing an important role in the development of
space borne remote sensing techniques. Testing of sensors and various
systems and sub systems involved in space borne remote sensing
programme is always undertaken in a well equipped aircraft.
3. Space borne platforms: Platforms in space, i.e. satellites are not affected by
the earth’s atmosphere. These platforms move freely in their orbits around
the earth. The entire earth or any part of the earth can be covered at
specified intervals. The coverage mainly depends on the orbit of the
satellite. It is through these space borne platforms, we get enormous
amount of remote sensing data and as a result Remote Sensing has gained
international popularity. According to the orbital mode, there are two
types of satellites – Geostationary or Earth synchronous and sun-
synchronous.

a. Geo-stationary Satellites: Geostationary satellites are the

satellites which revolve round the earth above the equator at the height
of about 36,000 to 41,000 km., in the direction of earth’s rotation. They
make one revolution in 24 hours, synchronous with the earth’s rotation
(Fig.2). As a result, it appears stationary with respect to earth. These
platforms always cover a specific area and give

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continuous coverage over the same area day and night. Their coverage
is limited to 70 N and 70 S latitudes and one satellite can view one third
globe. These are mainly used for communication and weather
monitoring. Some of these satellites are INSAT, METSAT and ERS series.
b. Sun-synchronous Satellites: Sun-synchronous satellites are the
satellites which revolved round the earth in north-south direction (pole
to pole) at the height of about 300 to 1000 km. (Fig.2) They pass over
places on earth having the same latitude twice in each orbit atthe
same local sun-time, hence are called sun-synchronous satellites.
Through these satellites, the entire globe is covered on regular basis
and gives repetitive coverage on periodic basis. All the remote sensing
resources satellites may be grouped in this category. Few of these
satellites are: LANDSAT, IRS, SPOT series and NOAA, SKYLAB, SPACE
SHUTTLE etc.

Remote Sensors
Remote sensors are the instruments which detect various objects on
the earth’s surface by measuring electromagnetic energy reflected or emitted
from them. The sensors are mounted on the platforms discussed above. Different
sensors record different wavelengths bands of electromagnetic energy coming
from the earth’s surface. As for example, an ordinary camera is the most
familiar type of remote sensor which uses visible portion of electromagnetic
radiation.

Classification of Sensors
Remote sensors can be classified in different ways as follows.
1. On the Basis of Source of Energy Used: On the basis of source of energy
used by the sensors, they can be classified into two types – Active
sensors and Passive sensors.
Active Sensors: Active sensors use their own source of energy and
earth surface is illuminated by this energy. Then a part of this energy is
reflected back which is received by the sensor to gather information about
the earth’s surface (Fig.3). When photographic camera uses its flash, it
acts as an active sensor. Radar and laser altimeter are active sensors.
Radar is composed of a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter emits a
wave, which strikes objects and is then reflected or echoed back to the
receiver. The properties of an active sensor are: 1) It uses both
transmitter and receiver units to produce imagery, hence it requires high
energy levels. 2) It mostly works in microwave regions of EMR spectrum,
which can penetrate clouds and is not affected by rain. 3) It is an all
weather, day-night system and independent of solar radiation. 4) The
RADAR signal does

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not detect colour information or temperature information, but it can detect
the roughness, slope and electrical conductivity of the objects under study.
Passive Sensors: Passive sensors do not have their own source of
energy. The earth surface is illuminated by sun/solar energy. The reflected
solar energy from the earth surface or the emittedelectromagnetic energy
by the earth surface itself is received by the sensor (Fig.3). Photographic
camera is a passive sensor when it is used in sun light, without using
its flash. The properties of a passive sensor are:
1) It is relatively simple both mechanically and electrically and it
does not have high power requirement.
2) The wavebands, where natural remittance or reflected levelsare
low, high detector sensitivities and wide radiation collection apertures are
necessary to obtain a reasonable signal level. Therefore, most passive
sensors are relatively wide band systems.
3) It depends upon good weather conditions.

2. On the Basis of Function of Sensors: On the basis of function of sensors,

they are divided into two main types - Framing System and Scanning
System.
a. Framing system: In framing system, two dimensional images are formed
at one single instant. Here, a lens is used to gather the light which is
passed through various filters and then focused on a flatphotosensitive
target. In ordinary camera, the target is film emulsion, whereas in
vidicon camera, the target is electrically charged plate.
b. Scanning System: In scanning system, a single detector / a number of
detectors with specific field of view, is used which sweeps across a
scene in a series of parallel lines and collect data for continuous cells
to produce an image. Multi Spectral Scanner, Microwave
Radiometer, Microwave Radar, Optical Scanners are few examples
of scanning system sensors.

On the Basis of Technical Components of the System:

The sensors can be classified into three categories on the basis
of technical components of the system and the capability of the
detection. These are:
1) Multispectral imaging sensor systems
2) Thermal remote sensing systems, and
3) Microwave radar sensing systems.
The multispectral or multiband imaging systems may use
conventional type cameras or may use a combination of both cameras

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and scanners for various bands of electromagnetic energy. As for
example, Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) sensor of Landsat uses both
photographic and scanning systems, which is similar to an ordinary
TV camera. The thermal system uses radiometers, photometers,
spectrometers, thermometers to detect the temperature changes
where microwave sensing systems use the antenna arrays for
collecting and detecting the energy from the terrain elements.

Function of Remote Sensing

A Source of EMR
Before discussing the source of EMR used for Remote Sensing purpose,
we should know what EMR or electromagnetic radiation is. EMR isthe dynamic
form of radiated energy that propagates as wave motion equalto the velocity
of light. The EMR is classified into different types on the basis of their
wavelength as follows:
Kind of waves Wavelength Range in micron
Cosmic Rays <0.0000001
Gamma Rays 0.0000001 to 0.0001
X-rays 0.001 to 0.01
Ultraviolet Light 0.01 to 0.4
Visible Light 0.4 to 0.7
Infra-red Light 0.7 to 1000
Microwaves 1000 to 10 6
Radio waves more than 10 6

Out of these above types of EMR, Remote Sensing mostly uses the

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visible (0.4 to 0.7 microns), the reflected IR and thermal IR (.7 to 14 microns)
and the microwave regions (1000 to 3000 microns).
There are mainly three sources of EMR used for remote sensing
purpose, which illuminate the object. Sun is the first and ma in source. The
sun’s radiation covers ultraviolet, visible, infrared and radio frequency
regions. The maximum radiation occurs around .55 microns. All objects on
earth surface also emit EMR. The wavelength of these EMR depends upon the
temperature and other characteristics of the object. Many common objects
emit EMR having wavelength between 0.85 and 0.95 µm. It is also possible to
produce EMR of a specific wavelength or band of wavelengths by the sensor
to illuminate the object. This is called active remote sensing while the first two
(EMR from the sun and self emitted radiance by the object) are called passive
remote sensing.

Transmission of Energy from the Source to the Surface of the Earth

While EMR is transmitted from the sun to the surface of the earth, it passes
through the atmosphere. Here, electromagnetic radiation is scattered and
absorbed by gases and dust particles. Besides the major atmospheric gaseous
components like molecular nitrogen and oxygen, other constituents like water
vapour, methane, hydrogen, helium and nitrogen compounds play important role
in modifying electromagnetic radiation. This affects image quality. Regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum in which the atmosphere is transparent are called
atmospheric windows. In other words, certain spectral regions of the
electromagnetic radiation pass through the atmosphere without much
attenuation are called atmospheric windows. The atmosphere is practically
transparent in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum and therefore,
many of the satellite based remote sensing sensors are designed to collect data in
this region. Some of the commonly used atmospheric windows are shown in
Figure 4. They are: 0.38-0.72 microns (visible), 0.72-3.00 microns (near infra-red
and middle infra-red), and 8.00-14.00 microns (thermal infra-red).

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Interaction of EMR with Earth’s Surface
The electromagnetic radiation when interact on the earth, either gets
reflected, absorbed, radiated or transmitted through the material. It depends
upon the nature of the object and the wavelength interacts with it. When the
object is smooth in comparison to the wavelength of the incident radiation,
it gets reflected in the forward direction called specular reflection. When the
surface is rough in comparison to the wavelength of the incident radiation, it
is reflected uniformly in all directions, which is termed as diffused reflection. It
may be noted that an object may appear rough in a particular wavelength region,
is smooth in another wavelength region. As for example fine sand, which appears
rough in the visible region, is smooth in the microwave region.

Transmission of Energy from Surface to Remote Sensor Mounted on the

Platform
While EMR is transmitted from the surface of the earth to the sensor,
it again passes through the atmosphere. Here, electromagnetic radiation is
modified again in the same way as it is transmitted from the sun to the surface
of the earth (discussed earlier).

Detection of the Energy by the sensor

The sensors like cameras or scanners mounted on platforms such as
aircraft or satellite identify object and discriminates it from other objects on
the basis of reflected/emitted electromagnetic energy received by it, which is
called signature. The basic assumption is that each individual has a unique
signature or finger print with which he can be identified. Likewise every object
has a unique signature on the sensor, by which it can be identified. In general, we
can say that any set of observable characteristics, which directlyor indirectly
leads to the identification of an object, is termed as signature. There are four
major characteristics of objects which facilitate discrimination – spectral,
spatial, temporal and polarization variations.
Spectral variations are the variations in the reflectance or emittance
of object as a function of wavelength. Colour of objects is manifestation of the
spectral variation in reflectance in the visible region. Vegetation looks green,
because it reflects the ‘green’ part of the incident light preferentially. When the
sensor uses wavelength region other than visible region, the objects do not
give its natural colour as signature. As for example vegetation looks red when
the sensor uses near infrared reflectance.
Spatial variations in the reflectance and emittance are attributes of the
shape, size and texture of objects. In the visible region of the spectrum, we are
quite familiar with spatial information provided by the shape, size etc. of an
object as seen in photograph. The photographs of a hot spring will give similar
shape and proportional to the size of actual hot spring. However,

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thermal scanner of a hot spring will give different look as per the temperature
distribution across the surface of the hot spring.
Temporal variations relate to the reflectivity or emissivity with time
e.g. the diurnal and seasonal variation. These variations play an important
role in the detection of agricultural crops as well as soils. Two crops having
similar spectral reflectance, but having different growing season can be
distinguished by remote sensor. In case of rocks, diurnal variations in the
emitted radiation (thermal infra-red region) have proved to be very
significant in their identification.
Polarisation variation relates to the orientation of the electric field
component of electromagnetic radiation. Objects can be distinguished from each
other by making use of the differences in the polarization of the reflected EMR.
Such observations have been particularly useful in microwave region.

Transmission and Processing of the Sensor Data Output

When sensors like cameras or multispectral scanners are mounted on
aircraft, the images are recorded on films or magnetic tapes. When the aircraft
lands, the films or tapes are physically transported to the laboratory for
further processing. In case of satellites, there is no such possibility of physical
retrieval of media containing data. In that case, the data is transmitted down
to a ground station where it is recorded on magnetic tapes. The ground station
therefore, needs to have an appropriate tracking antenna and communication
link with the satellite.
Then the data is corrected in different methods to remove distortions
caused due to motion of the platform relative to earth, platform attitude, earth
curvature, non-uniformity of illumination, variations in sensor
characteristics etc. This can be done either using electro-optical techniques or
more popularly by using computer and is called processing of data. Then the
output products are generated either in the form of photographs or in digital
form. Then the photographs are analysed visually and digital data is analysed
by computer software.

Remote Sensing Data Products and Their Interpretation

Data products
The main interest of social scientists and applied scientists is the data
produced by Remote Sensing technique. The Remote Sensing data are of two
types – pictorial and digital. These data products are described in the
following paragraphs:
1. Digital Data Products: The digital data products give information in the
form of array of small cells having quantitative values which is the function
of the electromagnetic energy radiated from all objects within

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the field of view. A digital data product is called digital image. A digital image
is a two dimensional array of pixels (picture elements). Each pixel
represents an area on the earth’s surface and has an intensity value
(represented by a digital number) and a location address (referenced by
its row and column number). The intensity value represents the measured
solar radiance in a given wavelength band reflected from the ground. The
location address is a one-to-one correspondence between the column-row
address of a pixel and the geographical coordinates (e.g. latitude and
longitude) of the imaged location. The digital image isa vast matrix of
numbers and is very often stored in a magnetic tape and in particular in
a computer compatible tapes (CCT). The digital data can be converted into
photographic image.
2. Pictorial Data Products: The pictorial data products give information
of objects on the earth surface in the form of photographs or images. The
pictorial products provided by aircrafts are called aerial photographs.
These are generally taken by sophisticated cameras which use visible
portion of electromagnetic energy. Therefore, aerial photographs give the
exact view / picture of objects on the earth surface on reduced scale. The
aerial photographs may be black and white or may be coloured, it
depends upon the camera used in aircraft. The pictorial data products
provided by satellites are called satellite images. These images are generally
taken by sensors which use both visible and invisible portion of
electromagnetic energy. The satellite images can be black and white or can
be coloured. The black and white pictures or images are produced from each
band of digital data. For a particular band, black and white image is
generated by assigning different shades of grey (white to black) to its digital
data. Likewise unicolour images (blue, green, red etc.) can be generated by
assigning different shades of blue / green/ red to a particular band data.
When any three bands are combined, it gives multi coloured imagery. If
images are taken in blue, green and red bands (visible portion of
electromagnetic energy) respectively, they can be combined to give natural
colour image. If images are taken in green, red (visible portion of
electromagnetic energy) and infrared band (invisible portion of
electromagnetic energy) and blue, green and red colours are assigned to
them respectively and then they are combined together, it will produce
a False Colour Composite (FCC) image. The FCC image does not give the
exact picture / view of the earth’s surface like aerial photographs. The lay
person cannot visualize anything from FCC image. Only an expert can
interpret it.

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Data Interpretation
In the foregoing paragraphs, we have studied two major types of
Remote Sensing data products, viz. pictorial and digital. The pictorial data
products, such as aerial photographs and satellite imageries are interpreted
visually. Likewise, digital data products or digital images are interpreted
mathematically by using computer software. So, there are two ways of Remote
Sensing data interpretation – 1) Visual Interpretation and 2) Digital
Interpretation.
Visual Interpretation: Both aerial photographs and satellite imageries
are interpreted visually. Photogrammetry is the science which study
interpretation of aerial photographs. To interpret aerial photographs, a
number of sophisticated instruments such as pocket stereoscope, mirror
stereoscope, plotter is used in photogrammetry for measuring area, height,
slopes of different parts of earth photographed and also for plotting different
objects / themes from aerial photographs. With the development of science
and technology, satellite imageries become more and more popular gradually.
Satellite image interpretation is an art of examining images for the purpose
of identifying objects and judging their significance. Interpreters study remote
sensing image logically and attempt to identify, measure and evaluate the
significance of natural and cultural features. Image interpretation technique
requires extensive training and is labour intensive. Information extraction from
imageries is based on the characteristics of image features, such as size, shape,
tone, texture, shadow, pattern, association etc. Though this approach is simple
and straight forward, it has following short comings: i) The range of gray values
product on a film or print is limited in comparison to what can be recorded in
digital form, ii) Human eye can recognize limited number of colour tones, so
full advantage of radiometric resolution cannot be used, iii) Visual interpretation
poses serious limitation when we want to combine data from various sources.

Digital Interpretation: Digital interpretation facilitates quantitative

analysis of digital data with the help of computers to extract information
about the earth surface. Digital interpretation is popularly known as ‘Image
Processing’. Image processing deals with image correction, image
enhancement and information extraction. Image correction means to correct
the errors in digital image. Errors are resulted due to two reasons. When
errors are resulted due to defect in sensor (as for example if one of the
detector out of ‘n’ number of detectors does not work), it is called radiometric
error. When errors are resulted due to earth rotation, space craft velocity,
atmosphere attenuation etc., it is called geometric error. Both radiometric and
geometric errors / noise in images are reduced through different techniques
with the help of computer. Image Enhancement deals with manipulation of
data for improving its quality for interpretation.

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Sometimes digital image lacks adequate contrast, as a result different objects
cannot be recognized properly. So, the image requires contrast improvement.
Through different image enhancement technique contrast is improved in
digital image. After image correction / rectification, and contrast
enhancement, information’s are extracted from the digital image, which is the
ultimate goal of an interpreter. In Information Extraction, spectral values of
pixels are analysed through computer to identify / classify objects on the
earth surface. In other words, spectrally homogenous pixels in the image are
grouped together and differentiated from other groups. In this way, different
features of earth are recognised and classified. The field knowledge and other
sources of information also help in recognition and classification processes.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

Meaning
The expansion of GIS is Geographic Information System which
consists of three words, viz. Geographic, Information and System. Here the
word ‘Geographic’ deals with spatial objects or features which can be
referenced or related to a specific location on the earth surface. The object
may be physical / natural or may be cultural / man made. Likewise the word
‘Information’ deals with the large volume of data about a particular object on
the earth surface. The data includes a set of qualitative and quantitative
aspects which the real world objects acquire. The term ‘System’ is used to
represent systems approach where the complex environment (consists of a
large number, of objects / features on the earth surface and their complex
characteristics) is broken down into their component parts for easy
understanding and handling, but is considered to form an integrated whole
for managing and decision making. Now-a-days this is possible in a very short
span of time with the development of sophisticated computer hardware and
software. Therefore, GIS is a computer based information system which
attaches a variety of qualities and characteristics to geographical location
(Fig.5)and helps in planning and decision making. A Geographic Information
System (GIS) may be defined in different manners. International Training
Centre (ITC), Holland defined Geographic Information System (GIS) as a
computerised system that facilitates the phases of data

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entry, data analysis and data presentation especially in cases when we are
dealing with geo referenced data.
Indian Society of Geomatics (ISG) and Indian Space Application Centre
(ISRO) defined GIS as a system which provides a computerised mechanism for
integrating various geo-information data sets and analysing them in order to
generate information relevant to planning needs in a context. According to
Centre for Spatial Database Management and Solutions (CSDMS), GIS is a
computer based tool for mapping and analysing things that exist and events that
happen one earth.

Burrough (1986) defined GIS as a set of tools for collecting, storing,

retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world
for a particular set of purpose.
Arnoff (1989) defined GIS as a computer based system that provides
four sets of capabilities to handle geo referenced data, viz. data input, data
management (data storage and retrieval), manipulation analysis and data
output.

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From the above definitions, we can conclude that a GIS user expects
support from the system to enter geo referenced data to analyse it in various
ways and to produce output (maps and other) from the data. GIS draws on
concepts and ideas from many different disciplines, such as cartography,
cognitive science, computer science, engineering, environmental sciences,
geodesy, landscape architecture, law, photogrammetry, public policy, remote
sensing, statistics and surveying. So, it involves not only the study of the
fundamental issues arising from the creation, handling, storage and use of
geographic information, but it also examines the impacts of GIS on individuals
and society and the influences of society on GIS.

Development of GIS
Keeping long tradition of map making as background, G.I.S. has been
developed during mid 20 th century with the development of computer
science. The data analysis of geographic locations was being done by
computers in government organizations and universities in U.S.A. during
1950s and 1960s. The first true operational G.I.S. was developed by Dr. Roger
Tomlinson, Department of Forestry and Rural Development , Canada. It was
called as Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to
store analyse and manipulate land related data. Dr. Roger Tomlison was also
known as the ‘Father of G.I.S’. In 1964, a laboratory of Computer Graphics and
Spatial Analysis was established at the Harvard Graduate School of Design by
Howard T. Fisher. This organization developed a number of important
theoretical concepts of spatial data handling and in 1970s it distributed
seminal software code and system such as ‘SYMAP’, ‘GRID’ and ‘ODYSSEY’.
This inspired subsequent commercial development. By early 1980s, M & S
computing (later Intergraph) and Environmental Systems Research Institute
(ESRI) emerged as commercial vendors of G.I.S. software. ESRI released ARC/
Info and ARC View software in 1981 and 1992 respectively. By the end of 20th
Century, the development of ARC View enabled viewing G.I.S. data through
internet and eliminated many of the hardware and licensing expenses of
software packages. Since then a number of organisations and universities
have been doing research in the field of
G.I.S. and developing user friendly softwares . Now there is a growing number
of free, open source G.I.S. packages which run in a wide range of operating
systems and perform specific tasks.

Requirements for GIS Operation

GIS primarily deals with geographic data to be analysed, manipulated
and managed in an organized manner through computers to solve real world

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problems. So, GIS operation requires two things – computer system and
geographic data.

Computer System
It includes both hardware and software. GIS runs through computer
system ranging from portable personal computers (PCs) to multi-user super
computers which are programmed by wide variety of software languages. In all
ranges, there are number things that are essential for effective GIS operation.
These include: 1)a processor with sufficient power to run the software,
2)sufficient memory for the storage of large volume of data, 3)a good quality,
high resolution colour graphic screen and 4)data input and output devices (for
example digitizers, scanners, keyboard, printers and plotters).
There are a wide range of software packages for GIS analysis, each with
its own advantages and disadvantages. Even those lists are too long to be
mentioned here, the important ones are different versions of ARC View, ARC
Info, Map Info., ARC GIS, and Auto Cad Map etc.

Data for GIS

A GIS without data is like a car without fuel. Without fuel, a car cannot
move, likewise without data a GIS will not produce anything. Data for GIS
can be obtained from different sources like aerial photographs, satellite
imageries, digital data, conventional maps, Census, Meteorological
department, field data (surveys/GPS) etc. These data obtained from various
sources can be classified into two types – spatial data which describes
location and attribute data which specifies the characteristics at that location.
Spatial data tells us, “Where the object is?” Attribute data tells us “What the
object is?” or “How much the object is?” In other words, it tells the
characteristics at that location.
Spatial Data The spatial data or real world features are very complex.
So, spatial data is simplified before they are entered into the computer. The
common way of doing this is to break down all geographic features into three
basic entity types – points, lines and areas. Points are ‘one dimensional’
objects, used to represent features that are very small, e.g. a post box, an electric
pole, a well or tube well etc. Only latitudinal and longitudinal values or a
coordinate reference can be given to these features to explain their location.
Lines are two dimensional objects and are used to represent linear features, for
example roads and rivers. Lines are also usedto represent linear features that
do not exist in reality, such as administrative boundaries and international
boundaries. Areas are three dimensional objects and are represented by closed
set of lines and are usedto define features such as agricultural fields, forest
areas, administrative areas etc. Area entities are often referred to as polygons.

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The representation of real world features using the point, line and area
entity types appears relatively simple. However, the appropriate entity to
represent real world features is often difficult and it depends upon the scale of
the map. On a world map, cities are represented by points. It only gives
information about number of cities shown on the world map. At national or
regional scale, the ‘point’ entity to represent cities is consideredtoo simple,
as it tells us nothing about the real size of the city. In this case, cities are
represented by ‘area’ entity. At the local scale, ‘area’ entity to represent cities
would be considered too simple. In this case, cities are represented by mixture of
‘point’, ‘lines’ and ‘areas’ as entities. Points may be used to represent features
such as electric poles, post boxes etc. Likewise lines and areas may be used to
represent road networks and residential blocks respectively. So, the decision
makers decide the ‘entities’ through which different features of real world
would be represented.
Attribute Data As it is mentioned earlier, attribute data tells the
characteristics of different objects / features on the earth surface. These are
descriptions, measurements or classification of geographic features.
Attribute data can be both qualitative (like land use type, soil type, name of
the city/river etc.) and quantitative (like elevation, temperature, pressure of
a particular place, crop yield per acre etc.). So, the attribute can be both
numeric and textual. The examples of attribute data of different spatial
features like point (well), line (river), area (village) are shown in box 1. The
attribute data are generally in tabular form.

Function of GIS
After having knowledge about computer system and having different types
of data (spatial and attribute), let us see how GIS functions. Function of GIS
is explained in following steps:

Data Entry
Both spatial and attribute data are entered into computer system by
different input devices like scanner, digitizer, key board, mouse etc.
Scanner, digitizer, mouse are used for entering spatial data. The attribute data
available as reports, tables etc. are entered through key board. As the data is
drawn from different sources, they have different scales, projections,
referencing system etc. Therefore, there is a need to standardise the database
to common standard. GIS software enables this operation by ‘geo referencing’
or ‘rubber sheeting’ method. This means stretching of maps in different
directions so as to match with known coordinates.

Storing of Data
The different spatial entities which represent different features of real
world can be stored in two different formats in the computer – in raster

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format and in vector format. The knowledge of these formats in which spatial
data are stored, is required for decision makers as it affects the accuracy of
data, their analysis, storing capacity of computer etc.
In raster format, the entire study area is divided into regular grid or
square cells organized into rows and columns. Individual cells are used forstoring
point, line and area entities. The point data are stored in individual cells. The
line data are stored by linking cells into lines. The area units are stored by
grouping cells into polygons. Figure 6 shows how different fea tures are
represented by three different entity types and stored in raster format. The size
of the grid cell is very important as it influences the accuracy of spatial features.
Figure 7 shows how the spatial character of the real worldroad network
changes as the cell size of the raster format is altered.

In vector format, points, lines and area entities are stored by using
coordinate system. A point is stored by single (x,y) coordinate pair (Fig. 6). A
line entity is stored by connecting a series of points into chains. Likewise,
aerial entity is stored by connecting a series of points into polygons. The
number of points used to show spatial features is important in vector format,
because it influences the accuracy of spatial features. Figure 7

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shows how spatial character of the real world road network changes when
the number of points in the vector format is changed.
The raster and vector format have their own advantages and
disadvantages. Raster data led themselves for use with remotely sensed data,
because digital remote sensing data are already presented in raster format.
Compared with the raster GIS, some of the vector GIS operations are more
accurate. For example, estimates of area based on polygons are more accurate
than counts of raster cells, because raster cell boundary are not accurate and
contain part of an adjacent feature. Vector format allows complex data to be
stored in a minimum space. The raster data though voluminous, is more
amendable for many spatial analyses. Now-a-days advantages can be taken
from both the formats by conversing raster data to vector data and vice versa.
The attribute is stored in table form as shown in Table 1, 2 and 3. Then
they are linked to their respective spatial data. For raster data, the attribute data
of a particular feature is linked to cells forming that feature. For vector data,
the attributes are linked to the point, line or polygon as the case may be. There
are a number of ways in which the attribute data can be organised. The relational
database model is the most popular. Consider ‘table 1’ which gives
information about different tube wells. The entire table is called a ‘relation’.
Each row has the relation, which corresponds to the information about a given
tube well, is called record. Each column which gives different information of
the tube well is called a ‘field’ or ‘attribute’.

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Table 1: Attribute Data of ‘Point’ Entity (Tube Wells)
Tube Depth of Chlorine Water
Year Of
Well water content of water extracted per
Construction
code table (m) (mg/ litre) day (litre)
1 1991 20 150 1500
2 1985 10 120 1600
3 2000 25 200 1450
.
.
.
.
N 2002 15 100 2000

Table 2: Attribute Data of ‘Line’ Entity (Roads)

Road Year Of Type of No. of buses Heavy traffic
Code Construction Road plying / day hour
1 1981 Metalled 500 8 am – 11 am
2 1985 Metalled 550 9 am – 12 noon
3 1977 Unmetalled 200 7 am – 8 am
.
.
.
.
N 1975 Unmetalled 150 8 am – 9 am

Table 3: Attribute Data of ‘Area’ Entity (Forest)

Code of Tree Type Occurrence of No. Of
Forest of Forest Tribal
Patches Density Species Fires (Since 1990) Living
1 70 Sal 50 60
2 60 Mangrove 65 50
3 25 Bamboo 70 45
.
.
.
.
N 45 Mixed 25 70

Data Analysis
Different types of spatial data analysis can be performed by GIS, viz.
performing queries, proximity analysis, network analysis, overlay operations,
model building etc.
Since GIS stores both spatial and non spatial data and links them together,
it can perform different types of queries. For example by joining the spatial
data (map showing tube well location in Figure 6 ) and its attributes (shown in
table1) and then by performing queries, one can see on map, the water of which
tube wells having chlorine content more than 200 mg/litre. Likewise one can
see on map (by joining road map shown in Figure

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
7 and its attributes given in Table 2) , the roads constructed before 1980
which need to be repaired. In the same way, which area of a given forest
having more than 60 per cent tree density, can be shown on the map (By
joining map of the forest shown in Figure 6 and its attribute table given in
Table 3)
Proximity analysis can be done through buffering, i.e. identifying a zone
of interest around a point, line or polygon. For example, 10 m. aroundon tube
well can be marked for planting flower plants; or 50 m. along national
highways (both sides) can be buffered for planting trees. A specified distance
around the forest can be buffered as no habitation zone.
Network analysis is another important analysis done through GIS. For
example optimum bus routing can be determined by examining the entire
field or attribute data (given in table 2) linked to road map / spatial data.
Overlay operation can be done through GIS by overlaying / integrating
a number of thematic maps. Overlay operation allows creation of a new layer
of spatial data by integrating the data from different layers. For example, a
particular land use class having saline soils, slope less than 20%, drainage
density less than 10 m. per squre km. can be created from four different
thematic maps, viz. land use map, soil map, topographic map and water
resource map (Fig. 5).
Model building capability of GIS is very helpful for decision makers.
It is usually referred to as ‘what if’ analysis. For example, if a certain amount
of water is released from a Dam, how much area would be inundated?

Conclusions
Remote sensing and GIS are integral to each other. The development of
Remote Sensing is of no use without the development of GIS and vice versa.
Remote Sensing has the capability of providing large amount of data of the
whole earth and also very frequently. GIS has the capabilities of analyzing a
large amount of data within no time. These voluminous data would have
become useless without the development of GIS. Manual handling of one
time remote sensing data would take years together, by the time a number
of multi date data would have piled for analysis. Likewise capability of GIS
would have no use without the development of Remote Sensing technology,
which provides voluminous data.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)

CHAP TER –4: MICROSOF T EXCEL

Introduction
Microsoft Excel is a general-purpose electronic spreadsheet used to
organize, calculate, and analyze data. The task we can complete with Excel
ranges from preparing a simple family budget, preparing a purchase order,
create an elaborate 3-D chart, or managing a complex accounting ledger for
a medium size business.
Microsoft Excel is a full-featured spreadsheet program that allows us to
organize data, complete calculations, make decisions, graph data, anddevelop
professional reports.

The three major parts of Excel are:

Worksheets – Worksheets allow us to enter, calculate,
manipulate and analyze data such as numbers and text.
Charts – Charts pictorially represent data. Excel can draw two-
dimensional and three dimensional column charts, pie charts and other
types of charts.
Databases – Databases manage data. For example, once we enter
data onto a worksheet, Excel can sort the data, search for specific data,
and select data that meets required criteria.

Getting started
 To initially get Excel started, click on the “Start” button, select
“Programs” from the Start
 Menu then clicks on Microsoft Excel.
 We can create a shortcut that will cause Excel to start automatically
when we turn on
 Our computer or we can put a shortcut on the desktop.

Application in Civil engineering

The level of mathematical and statistical skills required for civil
engineering professionals varies with type of work and the sub discipline. MS
excel can be used to solve various numerical problems in civil engineering
which otherwise are time consuming. The type of problems can range from
simple calculation of super elevation or calculation of shear force and bending
moment to complicated multi-storeyed building design.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No. 118
Design of singly reinforced beam

Aim : To design a beam for the data given below, using MS Excel.

Data :

b 200 mm
D 450 mm
Fck 20 N/mm2
Fy 415 N/mm2
Clear cover 20 mm
Bar dia 12 mm
Mu 37.5 kN-m
Xu max/d 0.48

Software used: MS Excel

Commands used: Copy, paste, merge cells, fonts, mathematical formulae,

symbols, etc.

Procedure:

 Open a new file in MS excels.

 Enter the input values, such as beam C/S, Fck, Fy, etc.
 Calculate effective depth of the beam, Xu max and then find Mu
max and check if Mu > Mu max.
 Compute the area of the steel,

𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑀𝑢
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = (0.6 ) [1 − √1 − (4.6 )]𝑏𝑑.
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑐𝑘∗𝑏𝑑 2

𝐴𝑠𝑡
 Calculate the number of bars, 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷 2
4
 Check for Ast min and Ast max.

DEPT. CIVIL ENGG.; RYMEC; BALLARI Page 118

Result: The given beam has been designed using the software.
SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No. 119

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No. 120
Design of doubly reinforced beam

Aim: To design a beam for the data given below, using MS Excel.

Data:

b 300 mm
D 600 mm
Fck 20 N/mm2
Fy 250 N/mm2
Clear cover (d’) 50 mm
Bar dia 32 mm
Mu 570 kN-m
fsc 0.82 fy
Xu max/d 0.48

Software used: MS Excel

Commands used: Copy, paste, merge cells, fonts, mathematical formulae,

symbols, etc.

Procedure:

 Open new files in MS excel.

 Enter the input values, such as beam C/S, Fck, Fy, etc.
 Calculate effective depth of the beam, Xu max and then find Mu
max and check if Mu < Mu max.
𝑀𝑢−𝑀𝑢 max
 Compute the area of compression steel, 𝐴𝑠𝑐 =
𝑓𝑠𝑐(𝑑−𝑑 ′)

 Compute the area of tension steel Ast = Ast1 + Ast2.

𝑋𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
[ (0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘.𝑏𝑑 ) ( )]
 𝐴𝑠𝑡1 = 𝑑
0.82𝑓𝑦
𝑓𝑠𝑐∗𝐴𝑠𝑐
 𝐴𝑠𝑡2 = 0.82𝑓𝑦
𝐴𝑠𝑡

 Calculate the number of bars, 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷 2

4
 Check for Ast min and Ast max.

Page 120
Result: The given beam has been designed using the software
SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No. 121

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No. 122
Design of One way slab

Aim : To design a ONE WAY SLAB for the data given below, using MS Excel.

Data :

lx 3m
ly 7m
Fck 20N/MM 2
Fy 415N/MM 2
Clear cover 20MM
Bar dia 10MM
Xu max/d 0.48

Software used: MS Excel

Commands used: Copy, paste, merge cells, fonts, mathematical formulae,

symbols, etc.

Procedure:

 Open a new file in MS excels.

 Enter the input values, such as beam C/S, Fck, Fy, etc.
 Calculate effective depth of the beam, Xu max and then find Mu
max and check if Mu > Mu max.
 calculate Mu=wl2/8
 Compute the area of the steel,

𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑀𝑢
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = (0.6 ) [1 − √1 − (4.6 )]𝑏𝑑.
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑐𝑘∗𝑏𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠𝑡

 Calculate the number of bars, 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷 2

4
 Check for Ast min and Ast max.

Result: The given beam has been designed using the software.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No. 123
Design of Two way slab

Aim : To design a ONE WAY SLAB for the data given below, using MS Excel.

Data :

lx 4m
ly 5m
Fck 20N/MM 2
Fy 415N/MM 2
Clear cover 20MM
Bar dia 10MM
Xu max/d 0.48

Software used: MS Excel

Commands used: Copy, paste, merge cells, fonts, mathematical formulae,

symbols, etc.

Procedure:

 Open a new file in MS excels.

 Enter the input values, such as beam C/S, Fck, Fy, etc.
 Calculate effective depth of the beam, Xu max and then find Mu
max and check if Mu > Mu max.
 calculate Mux=αxW(lx)2
 calculate Muy=αyW(lx)2
 Compute the area of the steel,

𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑀𝑢
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = (0.6 ) [1 − √1 − (4.6 )]𝑏𝑑.
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑐𝑘∗𝑏𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠𝑡

 Calculate the number of bars, 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷 2

4
 Check for Ast min and Ast max.

Result: The given beam has been designed using the software.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No. 124
Computation of earthwork

Aim: To compute the earthwork for filling, for the data given below, using MS
Excel.

Data: Reduced levels of ground along the centre line of a proposed road from
chainage 0 to 200 m are given below. The formation level at the 40 m chainage
is 102.75. The formation of road from chainage 0 to 80 has a rising gradient of 1
in 40 and from 80 to 200 m it is falling gradient of 1 in 100. The formation
width of road at top is 12.0 m and the side slope of banking is 2:1. Obtain the
volume of earth work.

Software used: MS Excel

Commands used: Copy, paste, merge cells, fonts, mathematical formulae,

etc.

Procedure:

 Open a new file in MS excels.

 Enter the input values, such as rising gradient, falling gradient,
side slope (z) and top width (b).
 Calculate the required data in the format of table shown below

Chai RL of RL of Ht Mea Cent Sid Total length Quantity

nage Groun form- (m) n ral e section b/w Fillin Cut
(m) d (m) ation Heig Area Are al Area two g ting
(m) ht (m2) a (m2) areas (m3) (m3)
(m) (m2) (m)
(c) (RLg) (RLf) (RLg (d) (bd) (zd2 (A) (l) If(d>
– ) =(bd+z =0,
RLf) d2) (A*l) )
0 101.5
20 100.9
40 101.5
60 102
80 102.85
100 101.65
120 101.95
140 100.7
160 101.25
180 99.9
200 100.6

Result: The earthwork has been computed using the software.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No.125
Design of Horizontal curve by offset method

Aim: To design a horizontal curve by offset method and plot the curve, for
the data given below, using MS Excel.

Data:

Interval for 7.5 m

ordinates
Length of long 60 m
chord (L)
Radius of curve (R) 180 m

Software used: MS Excel

Commands used: Copy, paste, merge cells, fonts, mathematical formulae,

chart, etc.

Procedure:

 Open a new file in MS excels.

 Enter the input values such as Interval for ordinates, Length of
long chord (L), Radius of curve (R).
 Calculate the required data in the format of table shown below

Distance x Mid ordinate, O o Distance -x

from mid 𝐿 2 from mid point
point 𝑂𝑜 = √(𝑅2 − 𝑥2) − √[𝑅 2 − ( ) ]
2

x (m) (m) -x (m)

0.00 0.00
7.50 -7.50
15.00 -15.00
22.50 -22.50
30 -30

Result: The horizontal curve has been designed and the required graph has
been plotted using the software.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATION LAB MANUAL (15CVL67)
Experiment No. 7
Design of super elevation

Aim: To design a super elevation (e), for the data given below, using MS
Excel.

Data:

Design speed (V) 70 kmph =

(70*1000)/3600 m/s
Radius of curve (R) 100 m

Software used: MS Excel

Commands used: Copy, paste, merge cells, fonts, mathematical formulae,

etc.

Procedure:

 Open a new file in MS excels.

 Enter the input values such as Design speed (V) and radius of
the curve (R).
 Calculate the required data in the format of table shown below
0.75𝑉2
 Calculate e for 75% of design speed, i.e. 𝑒1 = 𝑔𝑅
𝑉2
 For the given design speed calculate max e, 𝑒 = 𝑔𝑅

 Find allowable speed Va , for max ‘e’ and frictional coefficient ‘f’ =
0.15
 𝑉𝑎 = √0.22𝑔𝑅

Results:

 The super elevation has been designed using the software.

 The Design speed is than the allowable speed.
 Control measures are recommended / not recommended.
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