Network Management and Administration

Code:3360703

UNIT – I
Exploring Directory Services and Remote Access
1.A Directory Service (May-2015)
• A network service that identifies all resources on a network and
makes them accessible to users and applications.
• Here resources mean e-mail addresses, computers, and peripheral
devices such as printers.
• A directory service is the collection of software and processes that
store information about your enterprise, subscribers, or both.
• A directory service or name service, maps the names of network
resources to their respective network addresses.
• With the help of name service type of directory, a user does not
have to remember the physical address of a network resource. You
can locate the resource by simply providing a name.
• Each resource on the network is considered an object on the
directory server. Information about a particular resource is stored
as attributes of that object.

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1.A Directory Service (May-2015)
• An example of a directory service is the Domain Name System (DNS),
which is provided by DNS servers.
• A DNS server stores the mappings of computer host names and other
forms of domain name to IP addresses.
• Ideally, the directory service should make the physical
network topology and protocols transparent so that a user on a network
can access any resource without knowing where or how it is physically
connected.
• There are a number of directory services that are used widely.
• Two of the most important ones are LDAP, which is used primarily for e-
mail addresses, and Netware Directory Service (NDS), which is used
on Novell Netware networks.
• Virtually all directory services are based on the X.500 ITU standard,
although the standard is so large and complex that no vendor complies
with it fully.

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1b. Types of Directory Service and
Directories access protocol
1. Novell e Directory Services
2. Windows NT Domains
3. MS Active Directory
4. X.500 Directory Access Protocol
5. Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

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1. Novell directory service (NDS)
• Novell directory service (NDS) is a popular software product for
managing access to computer resources and keeping track of the users
of a network.
• Using NDS, a network administrator can set-up a database of users
and manage them using a directory with an easy-to-use graphical user
interface.
• Users of computer at remote location can be added, updated and
managed centrally.
• Application can be distributed electronically and maintained centrally.
• NDS can be installed to run under Windows NT, Sun-Microsystems’s
Solaris and UNIX and as well as under Novelle’s own Netware.
• So, it can be used to control a multi-platform network.
• It also called edirectory.

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 2. Windows NT Domain
• Windows NT Directory Services, or NTDS, is the directory services used by
Microsoft Windows NT to locate, manage, and organize network
resources.
• The Windows NT domain model breaks an organization into chunks called
domains; all these domains are part of an organization.
• The domains are usually organized geographically, which helps minimize
domain-to-domain communication requirements across WAN links,
although you’re free to organize domains as you wish.
• Each domain is controlled by a primary domain controller (PDC), which
might have one or more backup domaincontrollers (BDCs) to kick in if the
PDC fails.

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 2. Windows NT Domain
• Windows NT Directory Services, or NTDS, is the directory services used by
Microsoft Windows NT to locate, manage, and organize network
resources.
• The Windows NT domain model breaks an organization into chunks called
domains; all these domains are part of an organization.
• The domains are usually organized geographically, which helps minimize
domain-to-domain communication requirements across WAN links,
although you’re free to organize domains as you wish.
• Each domain is controlled by a primary domain controller (PDC), which
might have one or more backup domaincontrollers (BDCs) to kick in if the
PDC fails.

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 3. MS Active Directory
• For smaller networks Windows NT domains work relatively well but they
can become difficult to manage for larger networks.
• In addition to this the system is not nearly as comprehensive as
eDirectory.
• To overcome all the above problem Microsoft developed a directory
service called Active Directory, which is a comprehensive directory service
that runs on Windows 2000 Server and later.
• Active Directory is fully compatible with LDAP (versions 2 and 3) and also
with the Domain Name System (DNS) used on the Internet.
• Active Directory is an integral part of the windows 2000 architecture.
• Such as Novell Directory Services (NDS), Active Directory is a centralized
and standardized system that automates network management of user
data, security, and distributed resources.

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 3. MS Active Directory
• It also enables interoperation with other directories.
• Active Directory is designed especially for distributed networking
environments.
• Active Directory uses a peer approach to domain controllers; all domain
controllers are full participants at all times.
• Active Directory is built on a structure that allows “trees of trees,” which is
called a forest.

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 3. MS Active Directory
• Features of Active Directory
• Support for the X.500 standard for global directories.
• The capability for secure extension of network operations to the Web.
• A hierarchical organization that provides a single point of access for
system administration (for example management of user accounts, clients,
servers, and applications) to reduce redundancy and errors.
• An object-oriented storage organization, which allows easier access to
information.
• Support for the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) to enable
inter-directory operability.
• Designed to be both backward compatible and forward compatible.

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 4. X.500 DIRECTORY ACCESS
PROTOCOL
• The X.500 directory service is a global directory service.
• Its components cooperate to manage information about objects such a
countries, organizations, people, machines, and so on in a worldwide
scope.
• It provides the capability to look up information by name and to browse
and search for information.
• The information is held in a directory information base (DIB). Entries
in the DIB are arranged in a tree structure called the directory
information tree (DIT).
• Each entry is a named object and consists of a set of attributes.
• Each attribute has a defined attribute type and one or more values.
• The directory schema defines the mandatory and optional attributes
for each class of object (called the object class).
• The X.500 namespace is hierarchical. An entry is unambiguously
identified by a distinguished name (DN).

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 4. X.500 DIRECTORY ACCESS
PROTOCOL
• A distinguished name is the concatenation of selected attributes from
each entry, called the relative distinguished name (RDN), in the tree
along a path leading from the root down to the named entry.
• Users of the X.500 directory may (subject to access control) modify
the entries and attributes in the DIB.
• The X.500 directory tree starts with a root, just like the other directory
trees, and
• then breaks down into country (C), organization (O), organizational unit
(OU), and common name (CN) fields.
• To specify an X.500 address fully, you provide five fields, as in the
following:
• CN=user name, OU=department, OU=division, O=organization, C=country
• For example, you might configure the fields as follows:
• CN=Prashant Viradiya, OU=Networking Books, OU= NMA Books, O=GTP
Publication, C=India

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 5. LDAP - Lightweight Directory Access
Protocol (May-2015)
• LDAP a subset of X.500 was introduced to address the complexity
problems involved with full X.500 DAP.
• LDAP provides 90 percent of the power of X.500, but at only 10 percent of
the processing cost.
• LDAP runs over TCP/IP and uses a client/server model.
• Its organization is much the same as that of X.500, but with fewer fields
and fewer functions.
• LDAP is a set of protocols for accessing information directories.
• Because it's a simpler version of X.500, LDAP is sometimes called X.500-
lite.
• LDAP provides a common language that client applications and servers use
to communicate with one another.
• LDAP-based applications can easily search, add, delete and modify
directory entries.

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5. Domain, Tree and Forest
(May-2015, Dec- 2015)

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 5. Domain, Tree and Forest
(May-2015, Dec- 2015)
• Domain
• Domain is base element or building block of Active Directory.
• Active Directory is made up of one or more domain so domains are
fundamental units of AD.
• A domain is defined as a logical group of network objects (computers, users,
devices) that share the same Active Directory database.
• Domain is a sub-network comprised of a group of clients and servers under
the control of one security database.
• Dividing LANs into domains improves performance and security.
• Here all resources are under the control of a single computer system.
• Domains are Physically Implemented on Domain Controllers (DC).
• Microsoft.com
• Domains provide border for Replication Traffic
• System Policies
• Administration

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 5. Domain, Tree and Forest
(May-2015, Dec- 2015)
• A tree is a group of domains that have the same DNS name; for
example, abc.com (the top
domain), sales.abc.com and support.abc.com (the child domains).

• An Active Directory tree is a collection of domains within a Microsoft

Active Directory network.
• The term refers to the fact that each domain has exactly one parent,
leading to a hierarchical tree structure.
• A tree may consist of a single domain or multiple domains.
• A domain added to a tree becomes a child of the tree root domain.
• The domain to which a child domain is attached is called a parent domain.

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 5. Domain, Tree and Forest
(May-2015, Dec- 2015)

• A group of Active Directory trees is known as a forest.

• A forest is a collection of trees that share a common global
catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory
configuration.
• Forest is a collection of trees, which can be treated as one
administrative unit by the user designated as Enterprise
Administrator (EA), and Active Directory automatically
manages trusts between domains.
• For security purposes, organizations have set up multiple
forests, but trusts between forests must be managed
manually by the administrator.

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5. Domain, Tree and Forest
(May-2015, Dec- 2015)

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 1.2 Active Directory Architecture
We can break down the architecture of Active
Directory services into several primary
architectural components as described below.
• Objects
• Attributes
• Schema

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 1.2 Active Directory Architecture
• Objects
• Active Directory objects are the entities that
make up a network.
• Here objects represent the various resources on a
network, such as users, user groups, servers,
printers, and applications.
• An object is a collection of attributes that defines
the resource, and then it gives a name, list its
capabilities and it also specify who should be
permitted to use it.
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1.2 Active Directory Architecture

Fig. 1 Active Directory Objects

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 1.2 Active Directory Architecture
• Attributes
• An attributes describes an object means it stores information about
an objects.
• For Example, name and passwords are example of user objects.
• Here different objects will have a different set of attributes that
define them.
• But different objects may also share their attributes.
• For Example, a printer and Windows 2000 Professional Workstation
may both have an IP address as an attribute.
• Schema
• Active Directory Schema defines what are the types of objects that
can be created in the directory.
• It also defines how those objects are related to one another, and
what the mandatory and optional attributes of each object are.

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 1.2.1 Object Types
• 1.2.1 Object Types
• In Active Directory, There are two types of
objects as listed below
• Container Objects
• Leaf Objects

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 1.2.1 Object Types
1. Container Objects
• The term "container" refers to one of two things:
• An object of the container structural class.
• An object that has child objects.
• For example, an organizational unit is a container
object, although its class is organizational Unit,
not container.
• A container object is simply an object that stores
other objects.

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 1.2.1 Object Types
2. Leaf Objects
• A leaf object is an object that has no child
objects.
• Leaf objects are objects such as
• Users and
• Computers which cannot contain other objects.
• So a leaf object stands alone and cannot store
other objects.

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 1.2.2 Object Naming
• Every object in the active directory database is
uniquely identified by a name that can be expressed in
several forms.
• So Active Directory uses the Lightweight Directory
Access Protocol (LDAP) to supply the naming
convention for objects.
• There are two basic concepts available that are
• 1)Distinguished Names(DN) and
• 2)Common Names.
• Distinguished Names are the complete "path" through
the hierarchical tree structure to a specific object.

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 1.2.2 Object Naming
• The following are the components that make up a Distinguished Name:
• OU - Organizational Unit.
• This attribute is used to divide a namespace based on organizational
structure.
• An OU usually is associated with an Active Directory container or folder.
• DC - Domain Component.
• A distinguished name that uses DC attributes will have one DC for every
domain level below root.
• Another way of thinking of this would be that there would be a DC
attribute for every item separated by a dot in the domain name.
• CN - Common Name.
• This attribute represents the object itself within the directory service.
• Here is an example of a distinguished name:
CN=Chirag Patel, CN=Users, DC=KDPPatan,DC=COM

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 1.2.3 Canonical Names
• Most Active Directory Applications refer to objects by using
their canonical names.
• A Canonical Name is a DN in which the domain name
comes first, followed by the names of the object’s parent
containers working down from the root of the domain and
separated by forward slashes, followed by the object’s RDN.
• Example:
• KDPPatan.com/Computer Department/Staff/Chirag Patel
• In this example, Chirag Patel is a user object in the Staff
container, which is in the Computer Department container,
which is in the KDPPatan.com domain.
• A canonical name is the properly denoted host name of a
computer or network server.

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 1.2.4 LDAP Notation (Dec-2015)
• The same DN can also be expressed in LDAP notation,
which would looks like as below:
• CN= Chirag Patel, OU=Staff, OU = Computer
Department, DC= KDPPatan, DC= com
• It is also possible to express an LDAP name in a URL
format, as defined in RFC 1959, which looks like as
below:
• LDAP: //KDPPatan.com/cn= Chirag Patel, ou = Staff, ou
= Computer Department, dc = KDPPatan, dc = com
• This notation enables users to access Active Directory
information using a standard web browser.
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 1.2.5 Globally Unique Identifiers
• Active Directory uses GUIDs internally to identify objects.
• For example, the GUID is one of an object's properties that
are published in the global catalog.
• It is a 128-bit numbers assigned by the Directory System
Agent when the object is created.
• It is used to identify a particular component, application,
file, database entry, and/or user.
• For instance, a website may generate a GUID and assign it
to a user’s browser to record and track the session.
• The GUID cannot be altered or removed.
• It is stored in an attribute, objectGUID, which is a required
attribute for every object.

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 1.2.6 User Principle Names (UPN)
• Distinguished names are used by applications and services when
they communicate with Active Directory, but they are not easy for
user to understand, type or remember.
• So in Active Directory each user object has a User Principal Name
(UPN).
• Format of UPN is as below
• <User>@ <DNS-domain-name>
• This has the same format as your email address:
• Like [email protected]
• If you have a user named Chirag under Active Directory domain
Domain01.local, the UPN will be [email protected]
• In AD you can create custom UPNs too, which means you can also
add [email protected] or [email protected] as UPN for above
mentioned object.
• The UPN is independent of the user object’s DN, so a user object
can be moved or renamed without affecting the user login name.
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 1.2.7 Domain, Forest and Tree
• Domain is base element or building block of Active Directory.
• Active Directory is made up of one or more domain so domains are
fundamental units of AD.
• A domain is defined as a logical group of network objects
(computers, users, devices) that share the same Active Directory
database.
• Domain is a sub-network comprised of a group of clients and
servers under the control of one security database.
• Dividing LANs into domains improves performance and security.
• Here all resources are under the control of a single computer
system.
• Domains are Physically Implemented on Domain Controllers (DC).

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 1.3 Remote Network Access
• Definitions
• Remote access is the ability to get access to a computer or a network from
a remote distance.
• For instance:
• Allowing staff to log in to your customer database from home.
• Setting up a project workspace where clients can share and view files.
• Allowing employees to send and receive email from any computer.
• Remote Network Access involves setting up a virtual private network
(VPN) connection between the remote computer using VPN client
software and a special gateway router that allows access to the university
network over the Internet.
• This requires a high-speed connection to the Internet via an Internet
Service Provider.
• Access is granted to users by login, using an account name and password
combination.

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 1.3.1 Need of Remote Network
• Before implementing any remote access system, you must define clearly
the types of remote access required by the users in the company.
• The following are some examples of remote access needs:
• Easy remote access to e-mail and to files stored in e-mail
• It is required to stored private or shared files on the LAN.
• Remote access to a centralized application, such as an accounting system
or a sales order system
• Remote access to groupware programs or custom applications
• Internet access
• Intranet/extranet access, including any hosted web-based applications on
those systems
• Remote access to any of the previous features from a fixed location, such
as a remote sales office
• Home users get access to the Internet through remote access to an
Internet service provider

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 1.3.2 PSTN
• What Does PSTN Stand For?
• PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. This network
is also referred to as the Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS).
• Before the PSTN, two telephones needed to be connected over a
copper wire in order to make a phone call. Because of the small
number of connections, very few people could actually call each
other.
• Soon enough, there was a demand for the PSTN. A copper wire
connected individual landline telephones to a local telephone
exchange, creating the PSTN.
• When two telephones are connected, analog voice data is
transmitted over the copper wires of the PSTN.
• The voice data is then converted into electrical signals which are
eventually routed in the switching centers. Finally, a connection is
made and communication is possible.

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1.3.2 PSTN

Fig. PSTN
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 1.3.3 ISDN
• In telecommunications technology, the abbreviation ISDN stands for
the technical term "Integrated Services Digital Network" and refers
to a digital standard for telephone networks.
• ISDN is an international communications standard for sending
voice, video, and data over digital telephone lines or normal
telephone wires.
• ISDN supports data transfer rates of 64 Kbps (64,000 bits per
second).
• There are two types of ISDN:
– Basic Rate Interface (BRI) -- consists of two 64-Kbps B-channels and
one D-channel for transmitting control information.
– Primary Rate Interface (PRI) -- consists of 23 B-channels and one D-
channel (U.S.) or 30 B-channels and one D-channel (Europe).
• The original version of ISDN employs baseband transmission.
• Another version, called B-ISDN, uses broadband transmission and is
able to support transmission rates of 1.5 Mbps.
• B-ISDN requires fiber optic cables and is not widely available.
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1.3.3 ISDN

Fig. ISDN
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 1.3.4 DSL (Dec- 2015)
• Consider DSL Internet, a Digital Subscriber Line, the big
brother to dial-up. DSL uses telephone wires to send
information. DSL providers provide Internet access without
special wires and cables.

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 1.3.4 DSL (Dec- 2015)
• Advantages of DSL:
• You can leave your Internet connection open
and still use the phone line for voice calls.
• The speed is much higher than a regular
modem
• DSL doesn't necessarily require new wiring; it
can use the phone line you already have.
• The company that offers DSL will usually
provide the modem as part of the installation.
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 1.3.4 DSL (Dec- 2015)
• Disadvantages:
• A DSL connection works better when you are
closer to the provider's central office. The
farther away you get from the central office,
the weaker the signal becomes.
• The connection is faster for receiving data
than it is for sending data over the Internet.
The service is not available everywhere.

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 1.3.5 CATV (Dec-2015)
• Definition:
• CATV is a shorthand term for Cable Television Service. Many
providers offer cable Internet service together with television to their
customers over the same CATV links.
• Community Antenna Television: a cable television system that
receives television broadcasts by antenna and relays them by cable to
paying subscribers in areas where direct reception is either poor or
not possible.
• Cable television - CATV is a broadcast distribution system that uses a
network of cables to deliver multiple types of media services
• CATV Connectors
• To hook up a television to CATV service, a coaxial cable must typically
be plugged into the TV. The same type of cable is used to connect
a cable modem to Internet service. These cables use a standard "F"
style connector often called a CATV connector, although these are
same connectors that were commonly used with analog TV setups
over the past few decades.
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1.3.5 CATV (Dec-2015)

Fig. Traditional cable TV network

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 1.4 Virtual Private Network (Dec-2015)
• Virtual
• Virtual means not real or in a different state of being.
• In a VPN, private communication between two or more devices is
achieved through a public network the Internet.
• Therefore, the communication is virtually but not physically there.
• Private
• Private means to keep something secret from the general public.
• Although those two devices are communicating with each other in
a public environment, there is no third party who can interrupt this
communication or receive any data that is exchanged between
them.
• Network
• A network consists of two or more devices that can freely and
electronically communicate with each other via cables and wire.

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 1.4 Virtual Private Network (Dec-2015)
• What is a VPN?
• VPN, Virtual Private Network, is defined as a network that uses
public network paths but maintains the security and protection of
private networks.
• It can transmit information over long distances effectively and
efficiently.
• Large corporations, educational institutions, and government
agencies use VPN technology to enable remote users to securely
connect to a private network.
• A VPN can connect multiple sites over a large distance just like a
Wide Area Network (WAN).
• The VPN uses strong encryption and restricted, private data access
which keeps the data secure from the other users of the underlying
network.
• The underlying network could often be a public network like the
Internet.
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1.4 Virtual Private Network (Dec-2015)

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 1.4.1 VPN Protocol
(May-2015, Dec-2015)
• A ‘VPN Protocol’ is the set of procedures a VPN service uses to keep you protected
online.
– Point-To-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
– Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)/ IP security (IPSec)
– Open VPN
– Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

Fig. Working of VPN Protocols

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 Point-To-Point Tunneling Protocol
(PPTP)
• It enable authorized remote users to connect to the VPN network
using their existing Internet connection and then log on to the VPN
using password authentication.
• They don’t need extra hardware and the features are often
available as inexpensive add-on software.
• Advantages
• Easy to setup.
• Virtually supported on every device with VPN support.
• Low overhead and thus good speeds.
• Disadvantages
• Low encryption at 128 bit.
• Relatively unstable. you might know that sometimes it does take
more than once to connect. And connections might drop randomly.
• Relatively easy to block by ISPs.

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 L2TP/IPSEC
• L2TP or Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol does not do any
encryption by itself.
• It simply does provide the routing tunnel.
• VPN providers generally use IPsec for encryption.
• L2TP is a protocol used to tunnel data communications
traffic between two sites over the Internet.
• L2TP is often used in tandem with IPSec to secure the
transfer of L2TP data packets over the Internet.
• Unlike PPTP, a VPN implementation using L2TP/IPSec
requires a shared key or the use of certificates.

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 L2TP/IPSEC
• Advantages
• Supported on most modern devices.
• Encryption at 256bit.
• Easy to setup on MAC and Windows as it is natively supported.
• No known major vulnerabilities.
• Disadvantages
• Higher encryption means more CPU, but in general that is not a
bigger issue for modern devices.
• Most challenging to configure on a Linux server.
• Higher encryption with double encapsulation results in B/W hit.
How much depends on your device and the VPN Server/Provider.
• Relatively easy to block by ISP.
• Slower than OpenVPN
• May be compromised by the NSA

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 OPENVPN
• OpenVPN is a fairly new open source application with a custom
encryption protocol based on SSL/TLS key exchanges.
• It is used to provide a strong and reliable VPN solution.
• Advantages
• Supports hardware acceleration with improves speeds.
• Highly configurable
• Very secure (probably even against the NSA)
• Can bypass firewalls
• Can use a wide range of encryption algorithms
• Disadvantages
• It needs third party software.
• It can be fiddly to set up.
• Support on mobile devices is improving, but is not as good as on
the desktop.

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 SSTP
• SSTP stands for Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol.
• It uses TLS 3.0 over TCP port 443 “HTTPS” at the
time of writing.
• This makes it secure and hard to block.
• It uses cryptography to secure communications
over the Internet.
• To successfully initiate a connection, an
authentication process involving certificates is
used.
• Certificates are cryptographic keys that are
stored on both the server and client.

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 SSTP
• Advantages
• High Encryption.
• Very secure (depends on cipher, but usually very strong
AES)
• Completely integrated into Windows (Windows Vista SP1,
Windows 7, Windows 8)
• Microsoft support
• Can bypass most firewalls
• Disadvantages
• Not supported by all VPN Providers.
• A Microsoft proprietary protocol, not available for public
inspection. Microsoft is known for its security issues and
cooperation with various government agencies.
• Limited support for Non-MSDevices.
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 1.4.2 Types of VPN
• Remote-access VPNs
• A remote-access VPN allows individual users to establish secure
connections with a remote computer network. Those users can
access the secure resources on that network as if they were directly
plugged in to the network's servers.
• There are two components required in a remote-access VPN. The
first is a network access server (NAS, usually pronounced "nazz"
conversationally), also called a media gateway or a remote-access
server (RAS). A NAS might be a dedicated server, or it might be one
of multiple software applications running on a shared server.
• The other required component of remote-access VPNs is client
software. In other words, employees who want to use the VPN
from their computers require software on those computers that can
establish and maintain a connection to the VPN.

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1. Remote-access VPNs

Fig. Remote-access VPN

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 2. Site-to-site VPNs
• A site-to-site VPN allows offices in multiple
fixed locations to establish secure connections
with each other over a public network such as
the Internet. Site-to-site VPN extends the
company's network, making computer
resources from one location available to
employees at other locations. An example of a
company that needs a site-to-site VPN is a
growing corporation with dozens of branch
offices around the world.
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2. Site-to-site VPNs

Fig. Site-to-site VPN 57

 1.4.3 VPN Clients
• A VPN client on one computer connects to a VPN
server on another computer by using encryption and
other security measures, so no one can see which type
of information is being exchanged.
• The different types of VPN Client available in market
are as below:
– Cisco VPN Client
– SSL VPN Client
– IPSec VPN Client
– Open VPN Client
• The Cisco Systems VPN Client was a software
application for connecting to a virtual private network

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 1.4.4 SSL VPN
• A Secure Sockets Layer Virtual Private Network (SSL VPN) is a kind
of VPN that runs on Secure Socket Layers technology and is
accessible via https over web browsers.
• It permits users to establish safe and secure remote access sessions
virtually
• from any Internet connected browser.
• Before a connection is established traditional VPN requires the
installation of IPSec client software on a client machine whereas SSL
VPN has no such requirement.
• Users are able to access confidential applications or shared files on
standard web browsers.
• The main benefit of SSL VPN technology is that because it is user-
based, not device-based, any authorized user can login from web-
enabled PCs for secure, remote access of confidential files.

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 Questions Asked In GTU
• May-2015 (Regular)
• 2 Marks Questions
• Define Tree
• Define Forest.
• 3 or 4 MARKS Questions
• Explain Directory Service
• Explain Light Weight Directory Access Protocol.
• List Virtual Private Network Protocol. Explain any
One Protocol
• Explain X.500 directory access protocol.
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 Questions Asked In GTU
• Dec-2015 (Remedial)
• 2 Marks Questions
• Explain X.500 – directory access protocol
• Write a full form of PSTN, ISDN, VPN & DHCP
• Explain LDAP notation
• Define forest, tree, and root
• 3 or 4 MARKS Questions
• Explain DSL in detail
• Explain CATV Architecture
• Explain VPN in detail
• List out VPN protocol and explain any one protocol

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