Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Development and performance analysis of top lit updraft: natural draft

gasifier stoves with various feed stocks
Arkbom Hailu a, b, c, *
a
Sustainable Energy Center of Excellence, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, P.O. Box 16417, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
b
Nuclear Technology Center of Excellence, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, P.O. Box 16417, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
c
Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, P.O. Box 16417, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The performance of an Ethiopian-designed and built-in gasifier stove was studied and evaluated. The water
Performance analysis of gasifier stove boiling test (WBT) findings are reported. This test was conducted in a controlled setting utilizing eucalyptus,
WBT (Water boiling test) bamboo, and sawdust-cow dung briquettes as test feedstocks, in accordance with WBT's 4.2.3 standard process
Different feed stock
and test manuals. Based on moisture content, the net calorific values of eucalyptus, bamboo, and sawdust-cow
dung briquettes were calculated and determined to be 15.77 MJ/kg, 14.70 MJ/kg, and 15.35 MJ/kg, respec-
tively. The efficiency of this stove was calculated utilizing those three feedstocks. As a result, the gasifier stove's
efficiency having eucalyptus, sawdust-cow dung briquette, and bamboo as feedstock were 32.30
0.3%, 31.5

0.5%, and 26.25
0.25%, respectively. This proportion did not include the ultimate charcoal production, but
when this yield was employed as an energy input for additional charcoal burners, it increased to 53
2%. The
relationship between gasifier stove charcoal production and total efficiency is negatively related, with a linear
equation of Y ¼ - 0.7956Xþ 22.766 and an R-squared value of 0.92. When compared to local stoves and foreign
gasifier stoves, whose efficiency is in the range of 10 %–39% this efficiency rating was exceptional due to the fact
that space between the internal and external cylinder help the secondary air to preheat before combustion and
also the interior hallow cylinder help the primary air to move evenly in the vertical circular pattern for proper
gasification, it will also help the gases that are produced during gasification process to move to the top part for
combustion, indicating that this study can be fostered for prospective use.

1. Introduction Improved cooking stoves, such as the gasifier stove, have been shown
to reduce the amount of fuel used in the kitchen while also reducing
Biomass fuels are the world's fourth main energy source, accounting pollutants (Adane, Alene, and Mereta 2021). Gasification stoves are also
for 13% of the total energy supply (Waldheim and WALDHEIM, 2018), known as improved stoves since they use less biomass and emit less
with a particularly high share in developing nations. In developing na- pollutants than standard open three-stone stoves. Most governmental and
tions like Ethiopia, where biomass combustion accounts for 91% of its non-governmental groups in Ethiopia are concentrating their efforts on
primary energy output (Mondal et al., 2018), biomass combustion sup- improving charcoal and wood injera stoves, rather than developing
plies basic energy requirements for cooking and heating rural families, as gasification stoves.
well as processes in a range of traditional industries (Yurnaidi and Kim One of the most significant characteristics of this gasifier stove is that
2018) (D. Sakthivadivel, P. Ganesh Kumar, G. Praveen Kumar, P. Raman, it collects incomplete combustion volatile gases that would otherwise
Ranko Goic, 2020). In Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the options to satisfy escape during the carbonization process or charcoal production and burn
the household energy demand is to sustainably use fuelwood for cooking them with primary air that enters through a hole in the middle of the
(Hafner et al., 2020). By a ratio of two to three, improved design can innermost cylinder's wall from the bottom to the top, the hole being
increase the efficiency of biomass utilized for cooking (Bhattacharya larger on the top for the combustion of volatile gases, and secondary
2003). preheated air that enters between the outer wall of the combustion

* Corresponding author. ;
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10163
Received 2 November 2021; Received in revised form 14 January 2022; Accepted 28 July 2022
2405-8440/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

chamber and the inner wall of the outer cylinder. This stove has two These stoves are currently being widely pushed because to their
advantages: first, it will utilize incomplete gas as a source of energy since ability to achieve a fuel economy of up to 31% when compared to an
it will totally burn the gas using secondary air, and second, it will prevent open fire system. It can also help to enhance the cooking environment by
gases from polluting the environment owing to incomplete combustion, decreasing indoor air pollution and other issues like burns and over-
as shown in Figure 1. It will also enable the production of charcoal and heating (Yayeh et al. 2021).
the avoidance of indoor air pollution (Gitau et al., 2019).
Traditional biomass sources such as wood fuel, agricultural residue, 1.2. Benefits of improved stove
charcoal, and cow dung have been Ethiopia 's primary energy source in
the past and present, and those feed stocks are mostly utilized for injera The advantages of a better cook stove are divided into two categories:
baking, thus using this technology for injera baking is important (Adem those that benefit the household and those that benefit the environment.
et al., 2019). The majority of this energy resource is used inefficiently, so Internal benefits include lower smoke levels and interior air pollution,
as a consequence, the biomass resource is used in large quantities. As a cost and time savings in obtaining fuel, and reduced biomass consump-
result, natural forest loss has become a significant concern, with forest tion, as well as the potential to use animal dung as fertilizer instead of
cover falling from 40% to less than 12% in less than a century (Babiso fuel. External benefits include reduced demand on timber and energy
Badesso, Bajigo Madalcho, and Mesene Mena 2020). In addition to this resources, lower GHG emissions, and community skill development and
depletion, collecting wood from the forest takes a long time for most employment creation during the manufacture of better cook stoves
individuals who engage in this activity, particularly women. As the (Anhalt and Holanda 2009) (Raman et al. 2014).
percentage of forest cover decreases as a result of population growth,
1.3. Gasification
which is linked to consumption, fuel scarcity will force the use of crop
residues and animal dung as fuel, which would otherwise be used as
The process of transforming solid or liquid feed-stock into an useable
animal feed, and for the restoration of soil fertility, It will result in a 7%
gaseous fuel or chemical feed-stock that may be burned to produce en-
fall in agriculture GDP (Zenebe G. 2007). This might result in a signifi-
ergy or utilized to manufacture value-added chemicals is known as
cant drop in agricultural output at a time when the industry is projected
gasification (Basu 2010). Even while gasification and combustion are
to produce more, as indicated in the schematic Figure 2 below (United
both thermochemical processes, they differ significantly. Gasification
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 2019).
stores energy in chemical bonds in the resultant gas; combustion releases
that energy by breaking those bonds. Gasification introduces hydrogen
1.1. Stove development in Ethiopia into the feedstock while eliminating carbon, producing gases with a
higher hydrogen-to-carbon (H/C) ratio, whereas combustion oxidizes the
The primary goal of any energy conversion system's engineering hydrogen and carbon into H2O and CO2, respectively (Basu 2010)
study is to obtain the needed kinds of energy with the highest possible (Waldheim, IEA and Waldheim Consulting, 2018).
efficiency utilizing existing technology. Any energy conversion system
that does not know how much energy can be taken from prospective 1.4. Gasifier cook stove
sources and how much energy can be saved for the environment is not
economically viable (Geremew et al., 2014) (Mamuye et al. 2018). 1.4.1. Technical features
Open three stone wood stove is a traditional stove that is extensively Gasifier-based cooking systems have numerous enticing features,
used for cooking and baking across Ethiopia, particularly in rural homes. including high performance, clean combustion, a uninterrupted and
The stove's conversion efficiency ranges from 6 to 12 percent, see steady flame, ease of flame management, and perhaps long-term atten-
(Figure 3 a). It wastes more than 90% of biomass energy; over 95% of the tion-free operation (Raman et al. 2014).
population relies on biomass for their energy needs, and roughly half of
that energy is consumed for cooking injera, largely on this traditional 1.4.2. Working principle
three stone fire stove (Tadesse 2020). Millions of tons of biomass fuels are Gasification is the sub-stoichiometric combustion of biomass that
wasted each year due to its inefficient features and dominance in the produces a combination of flammable gases such as CO, H2, and traces of
home sector. Aside from that, the smoke produced during its use is CH4 as well as incombustible gases such as CO2 and N2. A gasifier is made
harmful to one's health. Mirt and Gonze can save up to 33% and 20% of out of a container into which fuel and a little amount of air are supplied.
the wood biomass consumed by the typical open three stone stove, The heat required for gasification is produced by partial combustion of
respectively (Amare 2015) (Fekadu et al. 2019). When compared to the fuel (Basu 2010).
Gonze, the Mirt stove can conserve 15% more biomass (Amare 2015), see Pyrolysis of carbonaceous fuels and char gasification are both used in
(Figure 3 b and c). biomass gasification. During the pyrolysis process, volatile components

Figure 1. (a) Traditional carbonization process (b) Gasifier stove.

2
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of unsustainable biomass utilization.

Figure 3. Cooking stove (a) three stone open fire and injera baking stove (b) mirt (c) gonze in Ethiopia.

from the biomass are released at high temperatures, leaving char behind. 1.5. Current trends of gasifier stove
The volatile components and some of the char react with oxygen to
generate carbon dioxide, producing heat (Basu 2010). Gasifiers can be A micro gasifier stove, the ACS IES-15, with a similar design feature to
either natural or forced draft. In the forced draft gasifier, the air needed this one, except the stove did not include an internal hollow cylinder with
for the combustion of fuel is supplied by an external source like a fan or a a punctured, wall and bottom disk, obtained a thermal efficiency of 36.7
blower while in the natural draft gasifier; the draft is created due to the
0.4 percent utilizing coconut shell as a feed stock (Sakthivadivel et al.,
pressure difference between the heated air near the flame and the cooler 2019). Another study indicated that coconut shell has a thermal effi-
air in the surrounding as illustrated on Figure 4. ciency of 36.7
1 percent, Prosopis Juliflora has a thermal efficiency of

Figure 4. Two types of gasifiers (a) forced draft (b) natural draft.

3
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

36
1 percent, and wood pellets have a thermal efficiency of 38.5
1 The gasifier stove is a natural one that did not require any form of
percent (Sakthivadivel and Iniyan 2017). (Osei et al., 2020) achieved a energy to drive the air into the gasifier stove, unlike the other type of
thermal efficiency of 30.5–38.1 percent by applying WBT version 4.2.3 gasifier stoves that depend on electricity that is used to drive the air into
and using rice husk as fuel. the gasifier stove. This gasifier was made out of mild steel sheet metal
The efficiency of the stove can be increased by repurposing the heat and has a bulk fuel capacity of about 0.0005 m3 (500gm) for a good
lost from the combustion chamber's surface, and in this article, the heat gasification process. In this performance test, we used feed stocks in this
on the combustion chamber's outer surface is used to heat up the sec- range but this does not mean the internal fuel cylinder capacity is 0.0005
ondary heat, which is critical to the volatile gas's combustion process. m3. The fuel cylinder is twice the size of this value, which means the fuel
The heat lost from the combustion chamber's surface can be repur- to be gasified was filled to half the height of the fuel cylinder for a good
posed to increase the stove's efficiency (Kaushik et al. 2016), and in this gasification process. The stove was made up of two concentric tubes of
article, the heat on the combustion chamber's outer surface is used to different sizes, known as the outer cylinder and fuel cylinder (as shown in
heat up the secondary heat, which is essential to the volatile gas's com- Figure 5. The fuel cylinder is sealed at the bottom, and inside it, there is a
bustion process effectiveness. hollow cylinder with a perforated wall and bottom disk with dispersed
An updraft forced gasifier built and manufactured to produce gas at hole to allow primary air and support fuel, and finally there is a top
an equivalent ratio of 0.5 using a mixed feedstock of rice husk-sawdust support that will be placed on top of the outer cylinder to hold the pot.
had a thermal efficiency of 17.6 % while using a bluff body B, upper All of the stove's components are self-contained and is built without
burner type (Susastriawan et al., 2021). When compared to traditional the use of temporary or permanent connectors. The gasifier stove has an
stoves, in a paper by (Okino et al., 2021), has obtained a thermal effi- overall height of 32 cm and a diameter of 19 cm. The presence of a central
ciency of 35.5
2.5% using Senna spectabilis as a feed stock, followed by column for air in this stove distinguishes it from previously produced Top
Eucalyptus grandis 25.7
1.7%, and finally Pinus caribaea 19.0
1.2%. Lit- Updraft Natural Draft (TLUD-ND) gasifier stoves. The air column is
The thermal efficiency of a forced-up draft gasifier with a feed stock drilled on the surface, as shown in the right-hand side of the left bottom
holding capacity of 1.5 kg of rice husk, a complete cooking time of 1 h, Figure 5 (a), to allow more primary air radially into the fuel at different
and dimensions of 60 cm high and a diameter of 16cm was evaluated to stages to compensate for air clotting that might occur while running with
find out its thermal efficiency. A thermal efficiency of 34 % for RHGS tiny sized fuel as we travel up the fuel column. This prevents the flame
(Rice Husk Gas Stove), with fuel consumption rate of 1.5 kg h1, com- gasification from becoming air-starved owing to fuel particle inter-
bustion zone velocity of 1.46 cm/min, time to boil 3 L of water, 19 min, locking. Furthermore, near the top of the central air column, closely
and 32.41% char was produced (Punin 2020). When analyzing the Rice spaced comparatively bigger holes were bored to transmit additional hot
Husk Gasifier stove with different five parameters, the correlation of post-gasification secondary air. The inclusion of two hot secondary air
charcoal output vs thermal efficiency is inversely connected in this paper, entrance ports is intended to provide sufficient air while keeping the
which is similar to this article finding on (see Fig 20) (Punin 2020). stove short and minimizing heat loss (see Figure 5).
An article with thermal performance evaluation of an improved
biomass cookstove for domestic application obtained an average thermal 2.2. Feed stocks
efficiency of approximately 33% while boiling 7.5L of water (Barpa-
tragohain et al. 2021). A natural draft gasifier with rock type of pyrolysis The initial step of the experiment was to gather different feedstocks for
stove, has obtained over all thermal efficiency of 45.6% and a bio char the water boiling tests in order to complete the tasks in a consistent manner.
produced from this stove was used for amendment of soil and it was burnt According to this, eucalyptus logs that had been utilized for building but
at very high temperature (Hailu 2020). A natural up draft gasifier with were no longer needed, residual bamboo left over from local chair and table
height of 34 com and 16cm diameter and 2m chimney height obtained an builders, and manually produced briquette from eucalyptus sawdust and
overall efficiency of 38.6 (Shaisundaram et al., 2021). cow dung were all cut into appropriate sizes, see (Figure 6, Figure 7 and
Based on the above findings, this study aims to build a natural up Figure 8). Following the collection of the materials, a precise digital
draft gasifier stove that can achieve an overall efficiency of more than 45 weighing scale was utilized to weigh the water and feedstock, see (Figure 9
percent without the use of a fan or blower for the primary and secondary b and c). The waste or by products were chosen to examine how well this
air. The size of the stove, which is the most important factor, will be gasifier performs with a low-cost feed stock while also assisting us in
determined by the quantity of biomass holding capacity and the distance removing a waste or by product in a sustainable energy usage way. The feed
between the feed stock and the stove bottom component, which will be stock supplies used in the study were readily available in the nearby area.
determined by the amount of heat lost. An internal hallow cylinder that A mixture of saw dust with cow dung (MSCD) was in the proportion of
is perforated is included to maximize the effectiveness of the combustion 72.28% and 27.72% respectively.
process as well as the gasification process. The hole on the bottom of the
cylinder is small, but it grows larger as it progresses to the top, which 2.3. Test protocol
will perfectly facilitate the internal gasification as well as combustion
process. Additionally, secondary air will enter the gasifier stove through There are three sorts of tests that may be used to assess a stove's
the space between the external cylinder and the internal gasifier performance. These tests are classified as follows, depending on the na-
chamber. The heat that escapes from the surface of the gasifier chamber ture of the tests:
via convection and conduction heats the secondary air, resulting in a
good combustion process on the gasifier chamber's outer top part. All of 1) Water boiling Test (WBT)
this thinking will provide a solid foundation for enhancing the stove's 2) Control Cooking Test (CCT) and
overall efficiency. 3) Kitchen Performance Test (KPT)

2. Materials and methods In the current experiment however, only WBT is conducted, since the
main objective of this experiment is determining the performance of the
2.1. Stove specification stove using different feedstocks and comparing it with other stoves.

The gasifier stoves are made of sheet metals using simple mechanical 1) Water boiling test (WBT):
works and consist of fuel chamber to fill the biomass residue for burning,
air inlets for partial combustion and pot stand for supporting the cooking It is a laboratory-based test that is carried out by a qualified technician in
utensils. a controlled setting to assess the stove's performance and many parameters

4
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 5. Fabricated gasifier (a) disassembled part, top and side view (b) assembled part (c) sectional view.

Figure 6. Eucalyptus feed stock (a) used eucapyptus log from construction (b) wood shop (c) sliced eucalyptus log.

that influence it. It is a valuable tool for fine-tuning the stove design to the accuracy, see (Figure 9 b and c). For the various data acquisition tasks,
needs of the user (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013). The only things needed for the following equipment was required:
this experiment are a gasifier, feed stocks with its heating value, fire starting
material, water, a pot, and a temperature monitoring equipment. We may ➢ Digital stopwatch, used to record the time of each different activities
determine the stove's thermal efficiency using the data from those materials (i.e., boiling) during the tests.
and the relevant thermodynamics principles and formulas. ➢ Digital thermometer indicator (VICTOR 70 Digital Multi-meter)
range: 0  C–800  C as shown in Figure 9 (a) below with 1/10  C
2.4. Testing equipment accuracy with model of K thermocouple wire for measuring the
ambient temperature, boiling water temperature and the external
The data gathering technology used to evaluate the gasifier stove was body surface temperature of the gasifier stove.
extremely sensitive, with digital weight balances being utilized to ensure ➢ Electronic balance, with accuracy of 1gram, and capacity of 620 gm
and 4000gm as show in Figure 9 b and c. These devices were used to

Figure 7. Left over bamboo, (a) bamboo chair (b) bamboo leftover (c) chopped bamboo.

5
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 8. Preparation for MSCD (a) eucalyptus sawdust from wood shop (b) mixing cow dung with water (c) mixing saw dust with cow dung.

Figure 9. Equipment's for the water boiling tests (a) victor 70 digital multi-Meter (b) 620 max digital weight balance (c) 4000gm max weight balance.

Figure 10. Work flow chart.

6
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

measure the weight of those different feed stocks and the weight of 3.1. Weight of water, biomass and charcoal
water in the pot respectively.
➢ Aluminum pots, plastic bottle to carry the water from the water tap to The weight of water, biomass (as a feed stock), and ultimately the
the pot. charcoal generated after full gasification are all required parameters for
➢ Thick heat resistance glove made from Cattle skin, kerosene and calculating Overall efficiency. The digital weight balances were used for
match, fire starter. this measuring assignment, as illustrated on Figure 9 (b and c).
➢ Furnace to measure the moisture content; help to find the calorific
value of feed stock. 3.2. Temperature data of the water
➢ Closed cane, to extinguish the charcoal produced in the gasifier using
air starvation techniques. And plastic bag to hold charcoal for Temperature data was gathered every 5 min for each of the different
weighing. testes. These temperature readings were taken in order to determine the
water's highest and lowest temperatures. Apart from that, a temperature
2.5. Data gathering procedures profile is drawn as illustrated in Fig 13.

The following schematic diagram depicts the overall working flow of

3.3. Test setup for WBT
this research, Fig 10. The tests are repeated a number of times in the
fourth phase using various feed supplies. To accomplish so, the data
The first condition for a water boiling test is that it must be conducted
collecting technique and equipment were both identical, allowing the
in a controlled setting with constant sun intensity and wind speed over a
experiments to be compared.
period of time (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013). Aside from that, the
The research was fully experimental, as demonstrated by the work
temperature in the region must remain consistent.
flow charts in Fig 10. Therefore, the techniques employed in this study
The experiment was carried out in front of a material lab where no
were mostly focused on data gathering during the tests. The data ob-
combustible materials were present. And, the location was a controlled
tained for performance calculations may be divided into three categories.
setting with no variations in wind speed, ambient temperature, or sun
intensity. After the materials have been measured (weight of water and
3. Lower heating value of the feed stocks
feed stock, water, and air temperature), the wood can be fired using
kerosene and match, fire starter, as indicated in Fig 11 (a) below.
The moisture content (MC) on dry basis of biomass is the quantity of
By doing so, the test was proceeded after placing the pot on top of the
water in the material dry weight, expressed as the percentage of the
gasifier burner at various times on different feed stocks. The tests were
materials dry weight (Reeb 1999) (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013). MC of
repeated fifteen times in this performance evaluation, Fig 11 (b) depicts
the fuel sample is established using the oven-drying method, one of the
the general test setup for the water boiling test. The temperature of water
methods covered in ASTM D4442. After weighing, the item is put in an
was measured at 5-minute intervals using a Victor 70C digital multi-
oven set to 103 þ 2  C (214 F–221 F) and held there until no weight
meter with a combined K-type thermocouple thermometer.
change is detected after 4 h of weighing. In 12–48 h, a 25 mm (1in)
In this test, the thermocouple must be placed in the middle of the pot
diameter timber piece will attain a consistent weight (Reeb 1999)
with its tip 50 mm above the bottom of the pot. As a result, we shall
(Simpson 1997).
measure the temperature of the water rather than the temperature of the
The moisture content of each feed stock was measured using a con-
pot bottom (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013). When performing this test,
ventional technique. The samples were placed in an oven set at 102  C at
take all necessary precautions, such as wearing thick heat-resistant gloves
2:00 a.m. the next morning, after 24 h, the weight was measured again
and avoiding combustible materials near the stove.
after it had completely dried, and the weight difference between these
two measurements was the number of moisture content on those feed
stocks, as shown in Table 1. 3.4. Technical calculations
The lower heating value for thermal efficiency calculation can be
determined using the aforementioned moisture content value of those The ratio of the energy used in the boiling process to the caloric
feed stock and their higher heating value (HHV) from literature (Parikh content in the fuel used is described as stove performance by using water
et al. 2005). boiling test (WBT). The thermodynamic consideration underpins the idea
of efficiency. The efficiency of advice for a given operation is the ratio of
the energy output to the input energy, according with second rule of
thermodynamics (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013) (Mohammadreza
Rasoulkhani and Mohammad Hossein Abbaspour-Fard 2018) (Abasiryu
Table 1. Moisture contents of the samples. et al. 2015). Heat is created in a biomass-fired cook stove by partial
Sample Weight Percentage Average Moisture Average combustion of the biomass. Some of the heat created is transmitted to the
type differences of Moisture, moisture content Mcdb (%) vessel by radiation and convection from the fire bed and exhaust gasses
(Moisture M2cwb (%) percentage on dry which is used to boil water (D-Lab 2017). The remaining heat is lost to
content) Mcwb (%) basis,
the environment through evaporation, distance from fuel to pot,
(gm) M3cdb (%)
convective loss from wind, unburned volatile gases, and radiation from
Eucalyptus 1.3 8.44 7.84 9.22 8.51
pot, cool combustion air or fuel, radiation from stove, conduction
1.2 7.64 8.28
through stove, wet wood stove, and pot contents (Zube 2010).
0.9 7.44 8.04
The energy utilized in the boiling process, or the energy that enters
Bamboo 0.3 7.32 8.74 7.89 9.59
the pot, has two observable effects: increasing the water's temperature
0.3 10.00 11.11 to its boiling point, and evaporating the water. The boiling efficiency
0.4 8.89 9.76 could be calculated by calculating the total energy required in raising
Mixture of 1.2 7.69 7.60 8.33 8.23 the water temperature from its beginning temperature to boiling point,
Sawdust 1.4 7.87 8.54 and also in evaporating a known amount of water (PCIA & Global
with Cow
dung
1.4 7.25 7.82 Alliance 2013). In the efficiency calculation, the lower calorific value
of the fuel is utilized. The total energy provided can be calculated by

7
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 11. (a) Firing of the feed stock in the gasifier stove (b) Test set up for water boiling test.

measuring the total amount of fuel used during the test period (see Fig mw, i ¼ mass of water initially in cooking vessel, gm
14) and utilizing the net calorific value or LHV (lower heating value) mchar ¼ mass of charcoal (gm).
(see Table 2). Cpw ¼ specific heat of water (4.186 kJ/kg oC).
The following calculation, similar to cooking efficiency, is used to mw, evap ¼ mass of water evaporated, gm
determine the thermal efficiency of the gasifier stove. The total input f cd (Wdry) ¼ mass of equivalent dry fuel consumed, gm.
power to the water, as shown in the calculation, is the sum of the energy Te ¼ temperature of boiling water, oC
used to increase the water temperature to its ultimate temperature and Ti ¼ initial temperature of water in pot, oC
the energy used to evaporated water. This value is divided to the lower MC ¼ Moisture content of a fuel percentage (Wet fuel – dry fuel)/100.
heating value of an equivalent dry fuel burned (Berrueta et al. 2008) L ¼ latent heat of evaporation at 100  C and 105 Pa, 2260 kJ/kg
(Abasiryu et al. 2015) (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013) (Kaushik et al. (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013),
2016). LHVf ¼ Lower heating value (net calorific value) of the fuel, MJ/kg)
    see Table 2.
mwi *Cpw *ðTe  Ti Þ þ mwevp *L LHVchar ¼ Lower heating value of charcoal, 28 MJ/kg (Berrueta et al.
ηth ¼ (1)
fcd LHVf 2008) (Abasiryu et al. 2015).
   
mwi *Cpw *ðTe  Ti Þ þ mwevp *L Using the moisture content on the dry basis and higher heating value
η¼ (2) (HHV) of those feed stocks from literature, the lower heating value can be
fac
calculated for thermal efficiency as well as overall efficiency calculation
    (Parikh et al. 2005) (Gebreegziabher et al. 2013). Three samples were
mwi *Cpw *ðTe  Ti Þ þ mwevp *L
η¼ used for each of the three feed stocks in a moisture content test, as shown
fcd :LHVf  Emoist  mchar *LHVchar
in Fig 12. As a result, the average moisture content value of those samples
The dry fuel (fcd) and Emoist can be calculated using Equation (3) and was used to calculate the LHV. According to this, the average moisture
Equation (4) respectively content, percentage of each feed stock was less than 9 %, as indicated in
Table 1, which is more suitable for any gasification process.
fcd ¼ fuel mass wet ð1  MCÞ (3) In order to calculate the moisture content on dry basis the following
formula is used (Simpson 1997) (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013).
Emoist ¼ fuel mass wet:MC ð4:186ðTe  TiÞ þ 2260Þ (4)
 
Wwet  Wdry
where: Mcdb ¼ *100 (5)
Wdry

ηth ¼ Thermal Efficiency (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013) (Abasiryu where:
et al. 2015),
η ¼ Overall Efficiency (Mohammadreza Rasoulkhani and Mohammad Mcdb ¼ Moisture content on dry Basis.
Hossein Abbaspour-Fard 2018). Wwet ¼ Wet weight (Initial Weight), gm.
fac ¼ energy value in the wood excluding energy in char (Shai- Wdry ¼ Dry weight (Oven dry), gm.
sundaram et al., 2021).

Table 2. Higher and lower heating values of feed stocks.

Feed Stocks Fuel Ratio Higher Heating Value Mcdb Moisture contents Mcwb Moisture contents Lower Heating
(HHV) MJ/kg on dry basis (%) on wet basis (%) Value (LHV)4 MJ/kg
Eucalyptus 1 18.640 8.51 7.84 15.772
Bamboo 1 17.657 9.59 8.75 14.698
MSCD Dung 0.277 17.16 18.13 8.23 7.60 15.349
Eucalyptus Saw dust 0.723 18.50

8
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 12. (a) Furnace for drying the samples (b) Three samples (bamboo, eucalyptus and MSCD).

Figure 13. Temperature profile of water boiling test (a) using eucalyptus as a feed stock (b) using bamboo as a feed stock (c) using mixture of sawdust and cow dung.

And, the moisture content on the wet basis can calculated using the The net heating values of wood
ratio of moisture with the initial weight. It can also be derived from
moisture content on dry basis, and it can be calculated as follow (PCIA & LHVf ¼ 18; 648  210*Mcdb (7)
Global Alliance 2013). LHVf ¼ is the lower heating value of moist wood (kJ/kg) and Mcdb ¼
    is the moisture content of wood on dried basis (wt. %) (Gebreegziabher
Wwet  Wdry Mcdb
Mcwb ¼ *100 ¼ *100 (6) et al. 2013) or (Gebreegziabher et al. 2013), using Eq. (5)
Wwet 1 þ Mcdb
LHVf ¼ ð1  McwbÞ* ½HHV  LT25 * ðMcdb þ 9HÞ (8)
where.

Mcwb ¼ Moisture content on wet basis. LHVf ¼ Lower Heating Value of the fuel (MJ/kg).
Mcdb ¼ Moisture content on dry basis out of 100%

9
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 14. Feed stocks utilized for water boiling and charcoals production.

H ¼ gravimetric fraction of hydrogen in the fuel (16 % typical value 4.1. Lower heating value of the feedstocks
for wood) (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013).
L T25 ¼ Latent heat of water at constant pressure and 25  C (¼ 2.44 The MC of the three feed stocks is shown in Table 1 below, with a
MJ/kg) or. moisture content of 7–9% on average, for the wet basis and dry basis
using Equation (6) and Equation (5) respectively.
LHV – Lower Heating Value is reduced (also called net heating value). We can simply compute the LHV of those feed stocks using Eq. (7) or
This is the theoretical maximum amount of energy that can be recovered using all of the moisture content values from Table 1 and value of HHV
from the burning of a moisture-free fuel if the combustion products are from literature (Parikh et al. 2005) (Kumar and Chandrashekar 2014)
cooled to room temperature, but the water generated by the reaction of (Rusch et al., 2021) (Szymajda and Łaska 2019) (Szymajda et al. 2021),
the fuel-bound hydrogen stays in the gas phase. LHV differs from HHV by using Eq. (8) as shown in Table 2.
1.32 MJ/kg in the case of wood fuels (PCIA & Global Alliance 2013).
4.2. Temperature profile
Wchar
% Yield of Charcoal ¼ (9)
Wfeedstock
The entire time taken for those three tests was determined by the
flame characteristics of the gasification process; for example, a 40-minute
fcd flame stayed in the first test with eucalyptus, the other tests with bamboo
Sfc ¼ (10)
Pci  Pcf and MSCD (Mixture of Sawdust and Cow Dung) waited only 30 min with
flame.
where;
The quantity of eucalyptus, bamboo, and a combination of saw dust
W char ¼ Total Weight of Charcoal. and cow dung feed stock utilized ranged from 536 - 558 gm, 409–501.25
W feedstock ¼ Total weight of feed stock. gm, and 400–425 gm (eucalyptus sawdust to cow dung ratio was
Sfc ¼ Specific fuel consumption. 72.27%–27.73%), respectively. The maximum temperature for euca-
Pci ¼ weight of Pot with water before test (grams). lyptus was 94.2  C–94.4  C, which lasted 15 min, 84  C–86  C for
Pcf ¼ weight of pot with water after test (grams). bamboo, and 88.5  C–94.4  C for saw dust and cow dung, which lasted
fcd ¼ equivalent dry wood consumed (grams). just 5 min.

4. Results and discussion 4.3. Utilized feedstock, charcoal produced and amount of water
evaporated
The first consideration in the construction of this gasifier stove is to
optimize the high of the stove to ensure that the flame high from the When using ecaluptus as a feed stock, the gasification process is
feed stock to the pot would burn in such a way that heat loss to the started by closing the primary air inlet gate, resulting in a complete py-
external environment is minimal. The second one is, the secondary air, rolysis reaction that is extinguished when the feed stock has been
which runs from the bottom of the outer cylinder to the top of the inner completely converted to charcoal. Whereas other feed stocks are started
cylinder to combust the volatile gas that comes due to the gasification by half-opening the primary air inlet gate. In addition, unlike the other
process inside the inner cylinder, will be heated up before combustion two feed stocks, eucalyptus feed stock did not result in intermittent fires.
by the heat emitted by the inner cylinder owing to the gasification The quantity of wet feed stock used for water boiling is displayed on Fig
process. And, the last one is the inner hollow cylinder that have a 14; it was calculated by subtracting the charcoal generated from the total
perforated wall (with maximum diameter as it goes from the bottom to feed stock used, and it is presented at the bottom of the stacked column
the top) and floor are the design consideration that improves the stove's below the charcoal figure. One thing to note is that bamboo charcoal
performance. output was higher than the other feed stocks.

10
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 15. Water evaporated from and remains in the pot.

Table 3. Parameter for thermal calculation and thermal efficiency of the stove.

Parameters Units Eucalyptus Bamboo Mixture of Sawdust & Cow Dung

S.N
ST-E1 ST-E2 ST-E3 ST-B1 ST-B2 ST-B3 ST-SCD1 ST-SCD2 ST-SCD3
0
1 Initial Temp of water C 21.8 21.7 22.8 19.3 19.4 24.8 21.6 19.2 20.3
0
2 Final Temp of water C 94.2 94.4 94.4 85 86 84.6 92.4 91.2 94.4
3 Biomass used for water boiling gm 452.8 461.9 460.1 400 407.8 392.1 333.7 324.5 341.6
4 Initial volume of water gm 2500 2500.1 2499.9 2499.9 2500.5 2500.5 2500.5 2498.3 2499.1
5 Moisture content % 7.84 7.84 7.84 8.74 8.74 8.74 7.60 7.60 7.60
6 Equivalent dry fuel burned gm 417.3 425.7 424.0 365.0 372.1 357.8 308.3 299.8 315.6
7 Water vaporized gm 614.5 630.6 615.4 318.9 317.7 327.9 324.8 309.6 343.5
8 Specific heat of water kJ/kg0C 4.186 4.186 4.186 4.186 4.186 4.186 4.186 4.186 4.186
9 Latent heat of evaporation of water kJ/kg 2260 2260 2260 2260 2260 2260 2260 2260 2260
10 Lower heating value kJ/kg 15772 15772 15772 14696 14696 14696 15349 15349 15349
11 Thermal Efficiency* % 32.61 32.56 32.00 26.25 26. 52 26.00 31.17 31.56 32.02
*
Thermal Efficiency is calculated using Equation (1)

Figure 16. Thermal efficiency of the gasifier stove using different feed stocks.
11
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Table 4. Percentage Yield of Charcoals and Specific fuel Consumption.

Parameters Units ST-E1 ST-E2 ST-E3 ST-B1 ST-B2 ST-B3 ST-SCD1 ST-SCD2 ST-SCD3
S. N
1 Initial weight of feed stocks gm 536.0 556.9 555.3 498.0 501.3 501.2 421.0 400.5 409.3
2 Final weight of feed stocks gm 83.2 95.0 95.2 103.0 103.5 109.2 87.3 76.0 67.7
3 Percentage yield of charcoal* % 15.52 17.6 17.14 20.68 18.65 21.79 20.74 18.98 16.54
4 Specific fuel consumption** 0.469 0.431 0.444 0.647 0.717 0.579 0.537 0.591 0.614
*
Percentage yield of charcoal using Eq. (9).
**
Using Equation (10)

During the test, the quantity of water evaporated using bamboo waste (Berrueta et al. 2008), (Abasiryu et al. 2015) and finally by making all
and MSCD briquette was almost same, but it was much less than the other value similar to the one that was used for thermal efficiency of the
amount of water evaporated using eucalyptus feedstock, as indicated at stove using eucalyptus feed stokes in Eq. (2), we obtained the values
the bottom front side of Fig 15 's column diagram. The largest amount of which is described on Fig 17.
water evaporated during this experiment was 630.56 gm and the lowest
amount was 309.56 gm out of a total of 2500 gm using eucalyptus slice 4.6. Charcoal production versus thermal efficiency
log and bamboo residues as feed stocks.
The percentage yield of charcoal was determined using the weight of
4.4. Thermal efficiency the charcoal produced during gasification divided by the weight of the
original feed stock, see Eq. (9). And, the specific fuel consumption is
For the thermal efficiency using Eq. (1), after gasification, the ulti- calculated using Eq. (10), which is the ratio of dry fuel calculated having
mate by product (charcoal) in the gasifier was not considered as it is Eq. (3) and quantity of evaporated water as shown it is in Fig 15, all the
illustrated on Table 3, i.e., the energy in the charcoal, but this must be results are explicitly shown in Table 4.
considered in order to determine the overall thermal efficiency. Eq. (2) The charcoal generated by the gasifier stove is shown in Fig 18. To get
will be used to compute the exact value of the gasifier over all conversion a good amount of charcoal, we need to get the charcoal out of the gasifier
efficiency. The thermal efficiency of the stove is ranges from 26% to 33% stove as soon as the flames goes down and put it inside the closing cane.
as it shown in Fig 16. Otherwise, the charcoal will burn and react with the oxygen in the air,
resulting in the formation of ash.
4.5. Overall thermal efficiency The percentage yield of bamboo tree charcoal was higher than that of
eucalyptus and MSCD briquettes, as shown in Fig 19, but the thermal
In contrast to thermal efficiency, the quantity of energy in the end efficiency of the gasifier stove was lower with this feed stock, which can
product of the feed stocks (charcoal) is taken into account in the total be compensated on the overall thermal efficiency while using this
overall thermal efficiency calculation. Only, overall thermal efficiency of bamboo charcoal on other charcoal stoves.
the eucalyptus gasifier stock was included in our calculations. When the relationship between the percentage yield of charcoal and
Based on the lower heating value of eucalyptus charcoal, the overall thermal efficiency is linearized, it can be expressed with the linear
thermal efficiency of the gasifier stove can be calculated using Eq. (2). equation Y ¼ - 0.7956Xþ 22.766 and the radius of curvature R2 ¼ 0.92,
Using the amount of charcoal produced by eucalyptus feed stocks from indicating that the linear equation and the real graph are extremely close,
Table 4 and higher heating value of eucalyptus charcoal 28 MJ/kg as shown in Fig 20. In other words, depending on thermal efficiency, this

Figure 17. Overall thermal efficiency of the gasifier when eucalyptus is used.

12
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 18. Charcoal produced using the gasifier stove after gasification process.

linear equation may be used to calculate the percentage of charcoal charcoal cook stove to compare thermal efficiency. When comparing the
yields. overall efficiency of those three stoves, the formula utilized is compa-
The main benefit of this association is that feed stocks with low rable. In comparison to the Novel Biomass stove by (Shaisundaram et al.,
thermal efficiency and a high percentage of charcoal production can be 2021), Improved cook stove (ICS) by (Mohammadreza Rasoulkhani and
applied in charcoal burners for further energy use. While the total overall Mohammad Hossein Abbaspour-Fard 2018) and metal charcoal stove by
efficiency is determined, this will compensate for the decreases in their (Abasiryu et al. 2015), the over efficiency as well as the thermal effi-
thermal efficiency. ciency of this Top-lit up draft, Natural Draft gasifier has a surprising
result, as shown in Table 5. The reason for this was a proper removal of
4.7. Comparisons with other stoves the charcoal at the end of the gasification process in addition of the
optimal design of the stove. As the flame was switched off, the charcoal
This gasifier stove was compared to two other gasifier stoves to see was collected from the gasifier, and the process of air starvation was
how they differed in terms of overall efficiency, as well as one other correctly carried out, ensuring that the ash was not production.

Figure 19. Percentage yield of charcoal.

13
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Figure 20. Percentage yield of charcoal versus thermal efficiency.

Table 5. Comparison of the research parameter with other research.

Parameters Units Own Research (Shaisundaram (Mohammadreza Rasoulkhani and (Abasiryu et al. 2015)
S.N et al., 2021) Mohammad Hossein Abbaspour-Fard 2018)

Gasifier Stove Novel Biomass Stove ICS (Improved Cook Stove), Metal charcoal stove
Natural Draft Natural Draft
0
1 Initial Temp of water C 21.7 25 23 27
0
2 Final Temp of water C 94.4 99 96.6 99
3 Biomass used for water boiling gm 461.9 500 350 600
4 Moisture Content % 7.84 15 5 -
5 Equivalent dry fuel burned gm 425.7 425 332. 5 -
6 Initial volume of water ml 2500.1 1300 3000 2000
7 Water vaporized ml 630.6 1300 - 100
8 Specific heat of water kJ/kg0C 4.186 4.186 4.186 4.186
9 Latent heat of evaporation of water kJ/kg 2260 2260 2260 2260
10 Lower heating value kJ/kg 15772 20,000 17540 27600
11 Amount of char remaining gm 95 200 - -
12 Lower heating value of charcoal kJ/kg 28,000 30,000 - -
13 Over all Efficiency % 55.18 38.6 34.6 20.02

*Over all Efficiency is calculated using Equation (2)

The charcoal generated throughout the procedure, particularly the 5. Conclusion

eucalyptus charcoal, was comparable to charcoal available on the local
market. This will allow us to use that high-calorie carbonized wood in This gasifier stove had two advantages: it could be used as a good-
other charcoal stoves, maximizing the efficiency of the process. performing cooking stove by capturing the energy released during the
The dimensions of those gasifier stoves are comparable; for example, carbonization process, and it could also be used as a carbonizing ma-
the Novel biomass and Improve cook stoves stand 30 cm tall and have a chine, converting the feedstock into appropriated charcoal that could be
diameter of 20–25 cm, while the Gasifier Stove Natural Draft stands 36 used directly or converted into briquettes using a pressing machine. This
cm tall and has a diameter of 19 cm. The only reason for the increase in also eliminates the unburden gas emitted during the carbonization pro-
overall and thermal efficiency is the design of this stove, which includes cess, helping to maintain a stable climate.
an additional secondary cylinder that directs secondary air from the Eucalyptus feed stocks were shown to be a more suitable feedstock in
bottom of the stove to the top, allowing time for the secondary air to heat the investigation. Thus, it burnt for around 40–45 min with a gentle, non-
up before reaching the top point of combustion, and a second reason is stop flame. This was not the only reason; the thermal efficiency of these
the interior hallow cylinder, which we don't see in the other two gasifier feed stocks was greater 32.30
0.30%, and the amount of smoke pro-
stoves. duced was virtually non-existent when compared to the other two feed
The gasifier cylinder's interior hollow cylinder will allow primary air stocks. The greatest temperature reached with this feed stock was 94.4

to be distributed to each point section. Also, once the gasification process C. The percentage production of charcoal of this gasifier stove is indi-
has begun, the gas produced at each section of the gasifier cylinder has rectly connected to the thermal efficiency, Y ¼ -0.7956Xþ 22.766, which
the opportunity to easily move up for combustion. is a more convenient correlation ship for those who use a charcoal stove

14
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

parallel with this stove, based on data received from nine stove tests. Barpatragohain, Raktimjyoti, Bharali, Niyarjyoti, Dutta, Partha Pratim, 2021. Thermal
Performance Evaluation of an Improved Biomass Cookstove for of an Improved
Considering the lower heating value of charcoal, the total overall thermal
Biomass Cookstove. Springer Singapore.
efficiency was 53
2%. Basu, Prabir, 2010. Biomass gasification and pyrolysis. Biomass Gasification and
In comparison to other contemporary gasifier technologies, the Pyrolysis.
overall efficiency of this gasifier is amazing, and when compared to the Berrueta, Víctor M., Edwards, Rufus D., Masera, Omar R., 2008. Energy performance of
wood-burning cookstoves in michoacan, Mexico. Renew. Energy 33 (5), 859–870.
development of cooking stoves in Ethiopia, the performance of this Bhattacharya, S.C., 2003. Biomass-Fired Gasifier Stove CGS3: Design, Construction and
gasifier is among the best. Finally, heat losses on the stove bodies are Operation Manual, 1–36. http://www.gasifyer.com/gasifier_stove_manual.pdf.
significant, i.e., around 70% of the energy contained in the feed stock was D-Lab, 2017. Handbook for Biomass Cookstove Research, Design, and Development.
https://www.cleancookingalliance.org/resources/517.html.
wasted on the stove and pot, with the remaining energy recovered as Fekadu, Miftah, Tsegaye Bekele, Feleke, Sisay, 2019. “Problems of Mirt , and Potentials of
charcoal. Only 29
3% of the energy in the feed stock transfer for boiling Improved Gonzie and Traditional Open Cook Stoves in Biomass Consumption and
of water excluding the energy content in the char. This is evident because End Use Emission in Rural Wooden Houses of Southern Ethiopia” 3.
Gebreegziabher, Tesfaldet, Olajire, Adetoyese, Wai, Chi, 2013. Optimum biomass drying
a significant quantity of energy was lost as heat through various heat for combustion – a modeling approach optimum biomass drying for combustion e A
transfer mechanisms. As a consequence, significant heat was generated modeling approach. Energy 53, 67–73. April 2018.
on the surface of the gasifier stove, indicating that the stove requires a Geremew, Kumlachew, Gedefaw, Molla, Dagnew, Zewdu, Jara, Dube, 2014. Current Level
and Correlates of Traditional Cooking Energy Sources Utilization in Urban Settings in
strong body insulating material to improve its performance. the Context of Climate Change and Health, Northwest Ethiopia: A Case of Debre
Markos Town. BioMed Research International, 2014.
Delcaration Gitau, K.J., Mutune, J., Sundberg, C., Mendum, R., Njenga, M., 2019. Factors influencing
the adoption of Biochar-producing gasifier cookstoves by households in rural Kenya.
Energy for Sustainable Development 52, 63–71.
Author contribution statement PCIA & Global Alliance, 2013. The water boiling test version 4.2.3; cookstove emissions
and efficiency in a controlled laboratory setting. Global Alliances for Clean
Cookstoves 52, 2 (January 2013). http://www.aprovecho.org/lab/pubs/testing.
Arkbom Hailu: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed
Hafner, Johannes M., G€ otz Uckert, Harry K., Hoffmann, Todd S., Rosenstock, Stefan
the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed, mate- Sieber, Kimaro, Anthony A., 2020. Efficiency of three-stone fire and improved
rials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper. cooking stoves using on-farm and off-farm fuels in semi-arid Tanzania. Energy for
Sustainable Development 59, 199–207.
Hailu, Getachew, 2020. “Performance Evaluation and Characteristics Co-product of
Funding statement Energy Efficient Institutional Bio-Char Rocket Stove”, vol.4, pp. 41–62. December.
Kaushik, S.C., Manikandan, S., Ranjana, Hans., 2016. Energy and exergy analysis of an
annular thermoelectric heat pump. J. Electron. Mater. 45 (7), 3400–3409.
This work is supported financially by Mekelle University EiT - M as
Kumar, Ritesh, Chandrashekar, N., 2014. Fuel properties and combustion characteristics
part of the EnPe Project (NORAD's Master Program in the Energy and of some promising bamboo species in India. J. For. Res. 25 (2), 471–476.
Petroleum Sector) at the Department of Mechanical Engineering. Mamuye, Fikadu, Lemma, Bekele, Woldeamanuel, Teshale, 2018. Emissions and fuel use
performance of two improved stoves and determinants of their adoption in dodola ,
Southeastern Ethiopia. Sustainable Environment Research 28 (1), 32–38.
Data availability statement Mondal, Md Alam Hossain, Bryan, Elizabeth, Ringler, Claudia, Mekonnen, Dawit,
Rosegrant, Mark, 2018. Ethiopian energy status and demand scenarios: prospects to
improve energy efficiency and mitigate GHG emissions. Energy 149 (February),
Data included in article/supplementary material/referenced in 161–172.
article. Okino, Jasper, Komakech, Allan John, Wanyama, Joshua, Herbert, Ssegane, Olomo, Elly,
Omara, Timothy, 2021. “Performance Characteristics of a Cooking Stove Improved
with Sawdust as an Insulation Material” 2021.
Declaration of interest statement Osei, Isaac, Kemausuor, Francis, Commeh, Michael Kweku, Akowuah, Joseph Oppong,
Owusu-Takyi, Lovans, 2020. Design, fabrication and evaluation of non-continuous
The authors declare no conflict of interest. inverted downdraft gasifier stove utilizing rice husk as feedstock. Scientific African 8,
e00414.
Parikh, Jigisha, Channiwala, S.A., Ghosal, G.K., 2005. “A Correlation for Calculating HHV
Additional information from Proximate Analysis of Solid Fuels” 84: 487–94.
Punin, Weera, 2020. Environmental effects evaluation of the thermal efficiency and a cost
analysis of a new rice husk gas cookstove for the rural areas of northern Thailand.
No additional information is available for this paper. Energy Sources, Part A Recovery, Util. Environ. Eff. 1–13, 00 (00).
Raman, Perumal, Ram, Narasimhan K., Gupta, Ruchi, 2014. Development , design and
Acknowledgements performance analysis of a forced draft clean combustion cookstove powered by a
thermo electric generator with multi-utility options. Energy 69, 813–825.
Rasoulkhani, Mohammadreza, Ebrahimi-Nik, Mohammadali, Hossein Abbaspour-
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Mulu Bayray and Mr. Fard, Abbas Rohani Mohammad, 2018. Comparative Evaluation of the Performance
Mussie Tesfaye a staff member of Mekelle University EiT-M, Mechanical of an Improved Biomass Cook Stove and the Traditional Stoves of Iran. Pdf.
Reeb, Jim, 1999. Moisture Content by the Oven-Dry Method for Industrial Testing Weight
Engineering Department, for their assistance. of Water Weight of Wood MC -, 66–74.

Rusch, Fernando, de Abreu Neto, Raul, de Moraes Lúcio, Danielle, Hillig, Everton, 2021.
References Energy properties of bamboo biomass and mate Co-products. SN Appl. Sci. 3 (6).
Sakthivadivel, D., Iniyan, S., 2017. Combustion characteristics of biomass fuels in a fixed
bed micro-gasifier cook stove. J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 31 (2), 995–1002.
Abasiryu, T., Ayuba, A., Zira, A.E., 2015. Performance evaluation of some locally
Sakthivadivel, D., Ganesh Kumar, P., Vigneswaran, V.S., Meikandan, M., Iniyan, S., 2019.
fabricated cookstoves in mubi, adamawa state, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of
Performance study of an advanced micro-gasifier stove with coconut shell. European
Technology 35 (1), 48.
Journal of Sustainable Development Research 3 (4), 1–8.
Adane, Molla, Mesafint, Alene, Getu Degu, Tiku Mereta, Seid, 2021. Biomass-fuelled
Sakthivadivel, D., Ganesh Kumar, P., Praveen Kumar, G., Raman, P., Goic, Ranko,
improved cookstove intervention to prevent household air pollution in northwest
Iniyan, S., 2020. A Study on the Performance and CO2 Mitigation Potential of an
Ethiopia: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 26 (1),
Advanced Micro-gasifier Cookstoves for Sustainable Development. Springer
1–15.
Singapore.
Adem, Kamil Dino, Demiss, Alemu Ambie, Puig Arnavat, Maria, , Ulrik Birk Henriksen,
Shaisundaram, V.S., Chandrasekaran, M., Sujith, S., Kumar, K J Praveen,
Ahrenfeldt, Jesper, Thomsen, Tobias Pape, 2019. First injera baking biomass gasifier
Shanmugam, Mohanraj, 2021. Materials today: proceedings design and analysis of
stove to reduce indoor air pollution, and fuel use. AIMS Energy 7 (2), 227–245.
Novel biomass stove. Mater. Today Proc. xxxx.
Amare, Dagninet, 2015. Enhancing biomass energy efficiency in rural households of
Simpson, William T., 1997. Chapter 12: Drying and Control of Moisture Content and
Ethiopia. J. Energy Nat. Resour. 4 (2), 27.
Dimensional Changes.
Anhalt, J€
orgdieter, Holanda, Sulamita, 2009. Implementation of a Dissemination Strategy
Susastriawan, A.A.P., Purwanto, Y., Sidharta, B.W., Wahyu, G., Trisna, T., Setiawan, R.A.,
for Efficient Cook Stoves in Northeast Brazil. no. 10604030: 29. https://www.reeep.o
2021. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences Producer Gas Stove :
rg/projects/implementation-dissemination-strategy-efficient-cook-stoves-northeast
Design , Fabrication , and Evaluation of Thermal Performance, xxxx. Journal of King
-brazil.
Saud University - Engineering Sciences.
Babiso Badesso, Barana, Aklilu Bajigo, Madalcho, Merkineh Mesene, Mena, 2020. Trends
Szymajda, Aneta, Łaska, Gra_zyna, 2019. The effect of moisture and ash on the calorific
in forest cover change and degradation in duguna fango, Southern Ethiopia. Cogent
value of cow dung biomass. Proceedings 16 (1), 4.
Environmental Science 6 (1).

15
A. Hailu Heliyon 8 (2022) e10163

Szymajda, Aneta, Łaska, Gra_zyna, Joka, Magdalena, 2021. Assessment of cow dung Yayeh, Tiruwork, Guadie, Awoke, Gatew, Shetie, 2021. Adoption and fuel use efficiency
pellets as a renewable solid fuel in direct combustion technologies. Energies 14 (4). of mirt stove in dilla district, Southern Ethiopia. Cleaner Engineering and Technology
Tadesse, Mulugeta, 2020. The developmental patterns of injera baking stoves: review 4, 100207.
on the efficiency, and energy consumption in Ethiopia. Int. J. Mech. Eng. 7 (1), Yurnaidi, Zulfikar, Kim, Suduk, 2018. Reducing biomass utilization in the Ethiopia energy
7–16. system: a national modeling analysis. Energies 11 (7).
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2019. Sustainability of Biogas and Zenebe, G., 2007. Household Fuel Consumption and Resource Use in Rural-Urban
Solid Biomass Value Chains in Ethiopia, pp. 19–35. Ethiopia. PhD Thesis Wageningen University. http://www.efdinitiative.org/publi
Waldheim, Lars, IEA BIOENERGY, and Waldheim CONSULTING, 2018. Gasification of cations/household-fuel-consumption-and-resource-use-rural-urban-ethiopia.
Waste for Energy Carriers. A Review. IEA Bioenergy. Task 33. Zube, Daniel Joseph, 2010. Heat Transfer Efficiency of Biomass Cookstoves, p. 156.

16