PHYSICAL SCIENCE

LECTURE GUIDE
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lecture Guide

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 2

QUARTER III

Big Bang and the Stellar Evolution 3

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 12

Chemical Structures

Chemical Changes

QUARTER IV

The Earth and the Universe

Laws of Physics

The Physics of Light

Understanding the Cosmos

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Lecture Guide

PREFACE
Dear students,

This lecture guide is intended for Senior High School students like you taking up Physical Science. This is a
compilation of all available resources online and is not intended to replace physical science books, but rather its
intention is to try to summarize the subject comprehensively, making it more approachable and easy to
understand.

Problem sets are also included in this lecture guide in order for you to have an idea what to expect in your
upcoming quizzes and exams. Problem sets are multiple choice type questionnaires of varying difficulty which
aims to allow you to assess your comprehension on certain topics. Specific number of problem sets will be asked
to be submitted prior to your quizzes. All answers on your problem set must be transferred to a bubble form to
be provided.

It is highly suggested for you to read books such as Chemistry: The Central Science by Theodore Brown, et. al.,
Conceptual Physical Science by Paul Hewitt, et. al., and An Introduction to Physical Science by James Shipman,
et. al. Online articles by Wikipedia and NASA are also helpful tools for added information. Other materials needed
during the class are posted on the link http://bit.ly/CruzPhySci.

Wishing you the best of luck!

Jim R. Cruz, RCh

Instructor, College of Science
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
2018

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BIG BANG AND THE STELLAR EVOLUTION

THE BIG BANG • NUCLEOSYNTHESIS • STELLAR EVOLUTION

THE BIG BANG

Big bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the
observable universe. This model describes how universe expanded
from a very high-density and high-temperature state and offers
comprehensive explanation for a broad range of phenomena,
including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave
background (CMB), large scale structure and Hubble's law (the
farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from
Earth).
Before, it is thought that the Milky Way galaxy is the whole universe
in itself. However, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered a separate
galaxy Andromeda farther away than the stars of the Milky Way. Further observations made Hubble identify and
measure the distances of other galaxies. He also discovered that galaxies are receding from one another, and
the farther the galaxy is, the greater the velocity it recedes.
The discoveries of Hubble, however, have major implications. First is that if time moves backward, there would
be a time that the universe was initially compressed in a very small point. The beginning point of this event is
called the Big Bang. Second implication is that the universe itself is not contained, but in and on itself is
expanding.
Galaxies recede from one another because the space between them is expanding. Astronomers thus follow an
alternate explanation for why the spectra of galaxies show redshifts. As light waves travel through expanding
space, the light waves themselves stretch out. This elongation of light waves due the expansion of space is called
the cosmological redshift. The farther away the galaxy, the longer its light has been traveling through expanding
space, and hence the greater the cosmological redshift.
In addition to the expansion of the universe, a second line of evidence
supporting the Big Bang theory is cosmic background radiation. In 1964,
scientists Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson used a simple radio receiver
to survey the heavens for radio signals. No matter which way they directed
their receiver, they detected microwaves with a wavelength of 7.35 cm
coming toward Earth. Theorists at Princeton, working around the same
time as Penzias and Wilson, showed that if the universe began in a primordial explosion as described by the Big
Bang, it would still be cooling off. Thus, the influx of microwave radiation that initially puzzled Penzias and Wilson
was found to be emitted by the cooling universe itself. This faint microwave radiation is now referred to as cosmic
background radiation and is taken as strong evidence of the Big Bang.
Measurements show that matter in the universe is about ~75% hydrogen and ~25% helium. Hydrogen is the
simplest of all elements, consisting of a single proton nucleus. It makes sense that hydrogen was the original
element. Helium, however, is a more complex element containing a nucleus of two protons and two neutrons.
We know helium is produced from the fusion of hydrogen in stars. But the number of stars is insufficient to
account for all the observed helium—not more than 10% of the observed helium could have originated in stars.
Most of the helium observed in the universe must have been created elsewhere. As described in the Big Bang
Helium box, the Big Bang model predicts that the early universe would have been favorable to the formation of

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helium, but not the formation of other elements. A more detailed analysis shows that the amount of helium
created just after the Big Bang should be about that which we observe in the universe today.
Since the Big Bang, 13.7 billion years ago, the universe has passed through many different phases or epochs.
Due to the extreme conditions and the violence of
its very early stages, it arguably saw more activity
and change during the first second than in all the
billions of years since.
From our current understanding of how the Big
Bang might have progressed, taking into account
theories about inflation, Grand Unification, etc, we
can put together an approximate timeline as
follows:
 Planck Epoch (or Planck Era), from zero to
approximately 10-43 seconds (1 Planck
Time)
General relativity proposes a gravitational
singularity before this time (although even
that may break down due to quantum effects), and it is hypothesized that the four fundamental forces
(electromagnetism, weak nuclear force, strong nuclear force and gravity) all have the same strength,
and are possibly even unified into one fundamental force, held together by a perfect symmetry. At this
point, the universe spans a region of only 10-35 meters (1 Planck Length), and has a temperature of over
1032°C (the Planck Temperature).
 Grand Unification Epoch, from 10–43 seconds to 10–36 seconds
The force of gravity separates from the other fundamental forces (which remain unified), and the earliest
elementary particles (and antiparticles) begin to be created.
 Inflationary Epoch, from 10–36 seconds to 10–32 seconds
Triggered by the separation of the strong nuclear force, the universe undergoes an extremely rapid
exponential expansion, known as cosmic inflation. The elementary particles remaining from the Grand
Unification Epoch (a hot, dense quark-gluon plasma, sometimes known as “quark soup”) become
distributed very thinly across the universe.
 Electroweak Epoch, from 10–36 seconds to 10–12 seconds
As the strong nuclear force separates from the other two, particle interactions create large numbers of
exotic particles, including W and Z bosons and Higgs bosons.
 Quark Epoch, from 10–12 seconds to 10–6 seconds
Quarks, electrons and neutrinos form in large numbers as the universe cools off to below 10 quadrillion
degrees, and the four fundamental forces assume their present forms. Quarks and antiquarks annihilate
each other upon contact, but, in a process known as baryogenesis, a surplus of quarks (about one for
every billion pairs) survives, which will ultimately combine to form matter.
 Hadron Epoch, from 10–6 seconds to 1 second
The temperature of the universe cools to about a trillion degrees, cool enough to allow quarks to
combine to form hadrons (like protons and neutrons). Electrons colliding with protons in the extreme
conditions of the Hadron Epoch fuse to form neutrons and give off massless neutrinos, which continue
to travel freely through space today, at or near to the speed of light. Some neutrons and neutrinos re-

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combine into new proton-electron pairs. The only rules governing all this apparently random combining
and re-combining are that the overall charge and energy (including mass-energy) be conserved.
 Lepton Epoch, from 1 second to 3 minutes:
After the majority (but not all) of hadrons and antihadrons annihilate each other at the end of the Hadron
Epoch, leptons (such as electrons) and antileptons (such as positrons) dominate the mass of the
universe. As electrons and positrons collide and annihilate each other, energy in the form of photons is
freed up, and colliding photons in turn create more electron-positron pairs.
 Nucleosynthesis, from 3 minutes to 20 minutes:
The temperature of the universe falls to the point (about a billion degrees) where atomic nuclei can
begin to form as protons and neutrons combine through nuclear fusion to form the nuclei of the simple
elements of hydrogen, helium and lithium. After about 20 minutes, the temperature and density of the
universe has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue.
 Photon Epoch (or Radiation Domination), from 3 minutes to 240,000 years:
During this long period of gradual cooling, the universe is filled with plasma, a hot, opaque soup of
atomic nuclei and electrons. After most of the leptons and antileptons had annihilated each other at the
end of the Lepton Epoch, the energy of the universe is dominated by photons, which continue to interact
frequently with the charged protons, electrons and nuclei.
 Recombination/Decoupling, from 240,000 to 300,000 years
As the temperature of the universe falls to around 3,000 degrees and its density also continues to fall,
ionized hydrogen and helium atoms capture electrons (known as “recombination”), thus neutralizing
their electric charge. With the electrons now bound to atoms, the universe finally becomes transparent
to light. It also releases the photons in the universe which have up till this time been interacting with
electrons and protons. By the end of this period, the universe consists of a fog of about 75% hydrogen
and 25% helium, with just traces of lithium.
 Dark Age (or Dark Era), from 300,000 to 150 million years:
The period after the formation of the first atoms and before the first stars is sometimes referred to as
the Dark Age. Although photons exist, the universe at this time is literally dark, with no stars having
formed to give off light. With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe has tailed off
dramatically, with very low energy levels and very large time scales. Little of note happens during this
period, and the universe is dominated by mysterious “dark matter”.
 Reionization, 150 million to 1 billion years:
The first quasars form from gravitational collapse, and the intense radiation they emit reionizes the
surrounding universe, the second of two major phase changes of hydrogen gas in the universe (the first
being the Recombination period). From this point on, most of the universe goes from being neutral back
to being composed of ionized plasma.
 Star and Galaxy Formation, 300 - 500 million years onwards:
Gravity amplifies slight irregularities in the density of the primordial gas and pockets of gas become
more and more dense, even as the universe continues to expand rapidly. These small, dense clouds of
cosmic gas start to collapse under their own gravity, becoming hot enough to trigger nuclear fusion
reactions between hydrogen atoms, creating the very first stars.
 Solar System Formation, 8.5 - 9 billion years:

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Our Sun is a late-generation star, incorporating the debris from many generations of earlier stars, and it
and the Solar System around it form roughly 4.5 to 5 billion years ago (8.5 to 9 billion years after the
Big Bang).
 Today, 13.7 billion years:
The expansion of the universe and recycling of star materials into new stars continues.

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons, primarily protons and
neutrons. The first nuclei were formed about three minutes after the Big Bang, through the process called Big
Bang nucleosynthesis. Seventeen minutes later the universe had cooled to a point at which these processes
ended, so only the fastest and simplest reactions occurred, leaving our universe containing about 75% hydrogen,
24% helium, and traces of other elements such as lithium and the hydrogen isotope deuterium. The universe
still has approximately the same composition today.
Heavier nuclei were created from these, by several processes. Stars formed, and began to fuse light elements
to heavier ones in their cores, giving off energy in the process, known as stellar nucleosynthesis. Fusion
processes create many of the lighter elements up to and including iron and nickel, and these elements are
ejected into space (the interstellar medium) when smaller stars shed their outer envelopes and become smaller
stars known as white dwarfs. The remains of their ejected mass form the planetary nebulae observable
throughout our galaxy.
 Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Big Bang nucleosynthesis occurred within the first three minutes of the beginning of the universe and is
responsible for much of the abundance of 1H, 2H, 3He and 4He. Although 4He continues to be produced
by stellar fusion and alpha decays and trace amounts of 1H continue to be produced by spallation and
certain types of radioactive decay, most of the mass of the isotopes in the universe are thought to have
been produced in the Big Bang. The nuclei of these elements, along with some 7Li and 7Be are
considered to have been formed between 100 and 300 seconds after the Big Bang when the primordial
quark–gluon plasma froze out to form protons and neutrons. Because of the very short period in which
nucleosynthesis occurred before it was stopped by expansion and cooling (about 20 minutes), no
elements heavier than beryllium (or possibly boron) could be formed. Elements formed during this time
were in the plasma state, and did not cool to the state of neutral atoms until much later.

 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the nuclear process by which new nuclei are produced. It occurs in stars during
stellar evolution. It is responsible for the galactic abundances of elements from carbon to iron. Stars are
thermonuclear furnaces in which H and He are fused into heavier nuclei by increasingly high
temperatures as the composition of the core evolves. Of particular importance is carbon because its
formation from He is a bottleneck in the entire process. Carbon is produced by the triple-alpha process
in all stars. Carbon is also the main element that causes the release of free neutrons within stars, giving

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rise to the s-process, in which the slow absorption of neutrons converts iron into elements heavier than
iron and nickel.

STELLAR EVOLUTION

The conditions inside a star that allow the formation of the higher mass elements can
be related to a pushing match between gravity and the energy released by the star.
Gravity creates a force that would cause a star to shrink and collapse, but the energy
released by nuclear reactions within the star flows outward, and produces thermal
pressure that opposes gravity. When these two forces are balanced, the star
maintains a particular size. But when there is some type of imbalance, the star (or
some part of it) will expand or contract in response to the stronger of the two forces.

As the clouds of H and He (called nebulas) collapsed, the atoms were speeding up as
they were pulled toward the center by gravity. This caused two things to happen. First,
the increase in the velocity of the atoms resulted in an increase in the temperature of
the material. At some point, the temperature became high enough so that the material
began to glow. Second, the atoms were becoming packed more tightly, increasing the
density, and the frequency of collisions between atoms. As this happened, the mass of H and He became more
spherical. At this stage the mass of H and He is called a protostar.

The temperature inside a star is not uniform. The central region (called the core) is the hottest, with the
temperature decreasing as you move out toward the surface of the star. At some point, the temperature became
high enough in the core of the protostar to form a phase of matter called a plasma. In a plasma, the electrons
become separated from the nuclei, so instead of individual atoms, you have a "sea" of nuclei and electrons. This
allows the nuclei of the atoms to interact with each other, which would not happen if each atom possessed its
own electron cloud.

The temperature and density continued to increase until they

reached what is called the "flash point." Up until this moment, all
the collisions between nuclei were like marbles bouncing off each
other. Each nucleus, having a positive charge, would only get so
close to another nucleus before being pushed away by the
electrostatic repulsion between both nuclei. Once the conditions
reached the flash point, some of these collisions occurred in a
manner (with the sufficient velocity and geometry) to allow the nuclei to get close enough to interact with each
other. This allowed the strong nuclear force (strong force) to bind these smaller nuclei together, forming a more
massive nucleus. This process is called fusion. In the process of fusing nuclei together, tremendous amounts of
energy are released, and this energy is what causes the star to "shine." The flash point conditions vary depending
on what types of nuclei are fusing. The lighter the nuclei (and therefore the smaller the electric charge), the lower
the flash point temperature and density are because there is less energy needed to bring the nuclei close enough
for the strong force to bind them (this will become more important later). So, with the original mixture of H and
He, the flash point that was reached first is that for H. When H undergoes fusion, the overall process involves

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four H nuclei (protons) coming together to form a He nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos, with the release
of energy. This energy takes the form of gamma rays, and the kinetic energy of the products. (The positrons
produced quickly annihilate with surrounding electrons to release more gamma rays.) In either form, the energy
goes into heating up the core. This can be referred to as "hydrogen burning".

There are a number of possible pathways for H fusion, but the primary reaction mechanisms are believed to be
the PROTON-PROTON CHAIN (p-p chain), or the CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE (CNO cycle). Which
mechanism is utilized depends on the conditions in the core of a particular star. The proton–proton chain
reaction is one of two known sets of nuclear fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. It
dominates in stars with masses less than or equal to that of the Sun's. The CNO cycle is one of the two known
sets of fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen to helium, the other being the proton–proton chain
reaction. Unlike the latter, the CNO cycle is a catalytic cycle. It is dominant in stars that are more than 1.3 times
as massive as the Sun.

Regardless of which process occurs, once fusion of H has begun in the core of the star, what is happening is that
H is being converted to He, and this is accompanied by a release of energy. During most of a star's lifetime this
is the primary fusion reaction that powers the star. The outward flow of energy (thermal pressure) released
balances the collapsing force of gravity, and this stabilizes the star's size.

As time passes the fusion process causes He to accumulate in the core. The increase
in the number of He nuclei begins to interfere with the H nuclei collisions and causes a
reduction in the rate of H fusion (sometimes called "helium poisoning"). This reduces
the thermal pressure, and the star will begin to contract.

The more massive He nuclei are drawn to the center of the core
by gravity. As the He nuclei move toward the center of the core, the temperature and
density in that region increases. With the formation of this central He core, the H fusion
continues. This occurs in a layer surrounding the He core, where the He concentration is
lower. This layer is referred to as a "shell." The rate of hydrogen burning is boosted due to
the increase in temperature of the He core.

The He core continues to contract under the influence of gravity and draw in the He forming in the hydrogen
shell. If the temperature reaches 100,000,000 K (which depends on the initial mass of the protostar), He burning
can begin. This is where the He nuclei are able to undergo fusion. This results in the formation of carbon nuclei

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through a series of reactions called the TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS.

The release of energy through the triple alpha process combines
with the increased energy produced in the H shell to boost the
thermal pressure of the core to the point where it overcomes
gravity, and the size of the overall star increases. The increase
in the surface area grows at a faster rate than the increase in
released energy, so the surface actually cools even though the
star is giving off more energy. This causes the star to glow red,
and the star is referred to as a red giant. (Just to give you an idea of size, when our sun reaches the red giant
stage, it will extend almost to where the earth is, having already vaporized Mercury and Venus.)

At this point the star has a central core of He being fused into C, surrounded
by a shell that has H being turned into He. As the C nuclei are produced,
they are pulled toward the center, just as the He nuclei were earlier, and a
C core is created. For an average-sized star, this is as far as it goes because
of the mass of the star. There is not enough gravitational force (due to the
lack of mass) in the star to allow the temperature and density to reach
levels where C nuclei can fuse into heavier nuclei.

If a star had sufficient mass, though, eventually enough C would

accumulate so that the temperature and density reach a point where C
nuclei could be fused into Neon nuclei. This carbon burning core would be
surrounded by two outer shells, the innermost burning He, and the
outermost burning H. This pattern of the central core collapsing and increasing temperature continues until a
further round of fusion occurs and more shells form. How many shells are eventually formed is dependent on
the initial mass of the collapsing nebula. This is because the main force that produces conditions suitable for
fusion to happen is gravity, and the mass of the star determines the force of gravity. If enough mass accumulates
in a forming core, gravity will be able to create enough force to raise the temperature and density to levels where
the next series of fusion reactions can take place. Therefore, the larger the mass of the protostar, the greater its
ability to form more shells during the lifetime of the star. This will also reduce the lifetime of the star since the
increases in temperature also increase the fusion rates in the core and the surrounding shells, thus using up
fuel even faster. Further cores/shells involve neon being converted to oxygen, oxygen fusing to silicon, and finally,
silicon going to Ni (this product is radioactive and decays to form iron). Stars that reach this stage are called red
supergiants. This is the limit to what a star can do (the reason why is mentioned later). In a fully developed star
the shells would look like this:

As the fusion process continues, the concentration of Fe increases in the core of the star, the core contracts,
and the temperature increases again. When the temperature reaches a point where Fe can undergo nuclear
reactions, the resulting reactions are different than the ones that have previously taken place. Fe nuclei are the

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most stable of all atomic nuclei. Because of this, when they undergo nuclear reactions, they don't release energy,
but absorb it. Therefore, there is no release of energy to balance the force of gravity. In fact, there is actually a
decrease in the internal pressure that works with gravity to make the collapse of the core more intense. In this
collapse, the Fe nuclei in the central portion of the core are broken down into alpha particles, protons, and
neutrons and are compressed even further. However, they cannot be infinitely compressed. Eventually, the outer
layers of material rebound off the compressed core and are thrown outward. This situation can be likened to a
rubber ball on the ground that is struck with a hammer. Initially the hammer can compress the rubber ball
because of its force, but eventually it is stopped by the density and pressure of the rubber ball reaching its limit,
and is thrown back violently by the recoiling rubber ball, which itself will bounce off the
surface because of this recoil. In the star, the outer layers of the core are like the
hammer, and the core is the rubber ball. Following the collapse of the inner core, the
outer layers of the star are pulled toward the center. This sets the stage for a
tremendous collision between the recoiling core layers and the collapsing outermost
layers. Under the extreme conditions of this collision, two things happen that lead to
the formation of the heaviest elements. First, the
temperature reaches levels that cannot be attained
by even the most massive stars. This gives the
nuclei present large kinetic energies, making them
very reactive. Second, because of the breaking
apart of the iron nuclei in the central core, there is
a high concentration of neutrons (called the neutron
flux) that are ejected from the core during the
supernova. These neutrons are captured by
surrounding nuclei, and then decay to a proton by emitting an electron and an
antineutrino. Each captured neutron will cause the atomic number of that nucleus to go up by one upon its decay.

With the large neutron flux created during a supernova, this neutron capture/decay sequence can be repeated
many times, adding protons to form increasingly more massive nuclei. These conditions exist for only a short
time, but long enough to form the highest mass nuclei.

Because of this "rebound explosion," all the outer layers of the star, enriched with the higher mass nuclei, are
blown off into space, and this material will later make its way into other nebulas to become incorporated into
other stars (where the same cycle of events will be repeated). Each cycle uses up more of the H and He from the
early universe and creates greater amounts of the higher mass elements.

PROBLEM SET (PS1)

Directions: On your bubble sheet for problem sets, please shade the letter of your choice. Avoid leaving stray
marks on your bubble sheet.
1. It is a process of combining subatomic particles to form elements.
a. Recombination
b. Combination
c. Nucleosynthesis
d. Nuclear Reaction
2. What is the most abundant element in the universe?
a. Oxygen
b. Nitrogen
c. Helium
d. Hydrogen

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3. This element may be found in the stars

a. Carbon
b. Livermorium
c. Moscovium
d. Roentgenium
4. Which of the following is the first stage of the Big Bang?
a. Recombination
b. Inflation
c. Big bang singularity
d. Nucleosynthesis
5. Which of these is true about the Big Bang model?
a. The singularity is an established, well-defined part of the model.
b. Cosmic expansion stopped at some point in time.
c. Part of its proof is the amounts of H and He we have in the universe today.
d. The Big Bang was a big explosion that threw matter into many different directions.
6. Which of the following best explains why light is elongated due to the expansion of space?
a. Doppler effect
b. Cosmic redshift
c. Bathochromic Shift
d. Radiation
7. Which of the following is not included in the triple alpha process?
28
a. 24 4
12𝑀𝑔 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 14𝑆𝑖
b. 31 4 35
15𝑃 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 17𝐶𝑙
c. 18𝐴𝑟 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 40
36 4
20𝐶𝑎
48
44 4
d. 22𝑇𝑖 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 24𝐶𝑟
8. If an element is used up by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called burning even though no actual
combustion occurs. Which of the following processes is likely to involve carbon burning?
a. Alpha ladder
b. CNO cycle
c. Triple-alpha process
d. Big bang nucleosynthesis
9. If the star produces less energy than the gravitational force, it will ______.
a. Expand
b. Collapse
c. Become heavier
d. Become lighter
10. A cloud of hydrogen and helium prior to the formation of a star is called ________.
a. Protostar
b. Red giant
c. Nebula
d. Neutrons

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ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

HISTORY OF THE ATOM • ATOMIC STRUCTURE • THE PERIODIC TABLE • MOLECULES
AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS • IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS • NAMING INORGANIC
COMPOUNDS • SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MAT TER

EARLIEST IDEA OF ATOMS

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers, the
scientists of their day. In the fifth century BC, Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was composed
of small, finite particles that they called atomos, a term derived from the Greek word for “indivisible.” They
thought of atoms as moving particles that differed in shape and size, and which could join together. Later,
Aristotle and others came to the conclusion that matter consisted of various combinations of the four
“elements”—fire, earth, air, and water—and could be infinitely divided. Interestingly, these philosophers thought
about atoms and “elements” as philosophical concepts, but apparently never considered performing
experiments to test their ideas.

The Aristotelian view of the composition of matter held sway for over two thousand years, until English
schoolteacher John Dalton helped to revolutionize chemistry with his hypothesis that the behavior of matter
could be explained using an atomic theory. First published in 1807, many of Dalton’s hypotheses about the
microscopic features of matter are still valid in modern atomic theory. Here are the postulates of Dalton’s atomic
theory.

1. Matter is composed of exceedingly small particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an
element that can participate in a chemical change.

2. An element consists of only one type of atom, which has a

mass that is characteristic of the element and is the same
for all atoms of that element. A macroscopic sample of an
element contains an incredibly large number of atoms, all of
which have identical chemical properties. Atoms of one
element differ in properties from atoms of all other
elements.

3. A compound consists of atoms of two or more elements combined in a small, whole-number ratio. In a
given compound, the numbers of atoms of each of its elements are always present in the same ratio.

5. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but are instead rearranged to yield
substances that are different from those present before the change.

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ATOMIC THEORY AFTER THE NINTEENTH CENTUR Y

In the late 1800s, a number of scientists interested in questions like these investigated the electrical discharges
that could be produced in low-pressure gases, with the most significant discovery made by English physicist J. J.
Thomson using a cathode ray tube. This apparatus consisted of a sealed glass tube from which almost all the
air had been removed; the tube contained two metal electrodes. When high voltage was applied across the
electrodes, a visible beam called a cathode ray appeared between them. This beam was deflected toward the
positive charge and away from the negative charge, and was produced in the same way with identical properties
when different metals were used for the electrodes. In similar experiments, the ray was simultaneously deflected
by an applied magnetic field, and measurements of the extent of deflection and the magnetic field strength
allowed Thomson to calculate the charge-to-mass ratio of the cathode ray particles. The results of these
measurements indicated that these particles were much lighter than atoms.

(a) J. J. Thomson produced a visible beam in a cathode ray tube. (b) This is an early cathode ray tube, invented in 1897 by Ferdinand
Braun. (c) In the cathode ray, the beam (shown in yellow) comes from the cathode and is accelerated past the anode toward a fluorescent
scale at the end of the tube. Simultaneous deflections by applied electric and magnetic fields permitted Thomson to calculate the mass-
to-charge ratio of the particles composing the cathode ray.

Based on his observations, here is what Thomson proposed and why:

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 The particles are attracted by positive (+) charges and repelled by negative (−) charges, so they must be
negatively charged (like charges repel and unlike charges attract);
 They are less massive than atoms and indistinguishable, regardless of the source material, so they must
be fundamental, subatomic constituents of all atoms.

In 1904, Thomson proposed the “plum pudding” model of atoms, which described a positively charged mass
with an equal amount of negative charge in the form of electrons embedded in it, since all atoms are electrically
neutral. A competing model was proposed in 1903 by Hantaro Nagaoka, who postulated a Saturn-like atom,
consisting of a positively charged sphere surrounded by a halo of electrons

Although controversial at the time, Thomson’s idea was gradually accepted, and his cathode ray particle is what
we now call an electron, a negatively charged, subatomic particle with a mass more than one thousand-times
less that of an atom. Irish physicist George Stoney, from “electric ion”, coined the term “electron” in 1891.

In 1909, American physicist Robert A. Millikan

via his “oil drop” experiments uncovered more
information about the electron. Millikan created
microscopic oil droplets, which could be
electrically charged by friction as they formed or
by using X-rays. These droplets initially fell due to
gravity, but their downward progress could be
slowed or even reversed by an electric field lower
in the apparatus. By adjusting the electric field
strength and making careful measurements and
appropriate calculations, Millikan was able to determine the charge on individual drops.

Looking at the charge data that Millikan gather 1.759×1011C, the charge of an oil droplet is always a multiple of
a specific charge, 1.6 × 10−19 C. Since the charge of an electron was now known due to Millikan’s research, and
the charge-to-mass ratio was already known due to Thomson’s research (1.759 × 1011 C/kg), it only required a
simple calculation to determine the mass of the electron as well.

1𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶 × = 9.107 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
1.759 × 1011 𝐶

The next major development in understanding the atom came from Ernest Rutherford, a physicist from New
Zealand. He performed a series of experiments using a beam of high-speed, positively charged alpha particles
(α) that were produced by the radioactive decay of radium; α particles consist of two protons and two neutrons
(you will learn more about radioactive decay in the chapter on nuclear chemistry). Rutherford and his colleagues
Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden aimed a beam of α particles, the source of which was embedded in a lead
block to absorb most of the radiation, at a very thin piece of gold foil and examined the resultant scattering of
the α particles using a luminescent screen that glowed briefly where hit by an α particle.

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Because most of the fast-moving α particles passed through the gold atoms undeflected, they must have traveled
through essentially empty space inside the atom. Alpha particles are positively charged, so deflections arose
when they encountered another positive charge (like charges repel each other). Rutherford drew two
conclusions:

1. The volume occupied by an atom must consist of a large amount of empty space.

2. A small, relatively heavy, positively charged body, the nucleus, must be at the center of each atom.

After many more experiments, Rutherford also discovered that the nuclei of other elements contain the hydrogen
nucleus as a “building block,” and he named this more fundamental particle the proton, the positively charged,
subatomic particle found in the nucleus. With one addition, which you will learn next, this nuclear model of the
atom, proposed over a century ago, is still used today.

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Properties of Subatomic Particles
Name Location Charge (C) Unit Charge Mass (amu) Mass (g)
electron outside nucleus −1.602×10−19 1− 0.00055 0.00091×10−24
proton nucleus 1.602×10−19 1+ 1.00727 1.67262×10−24
neutron nucleus 0 0 1.00866 1.67493×10−24
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number (Z). This is the defining trait of an element:
Its value determines the identity of the atom. A neutral atom must contain the same number of positive and
negative charges, so the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Therefore, the atomic number also
indicates the number of electrons in an atom. The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its
mass number (A). The number of neutrons is therefore the difference between the mass number and the atomic
number.

Atoms are electrically neutral if they contain the same number of positively charged protons and negatively
charged electrons. When the numbers of these subatomic particles are not equal, the atom is electrically charged
and is called an ion.

CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
A chemical symbol is an abbreviation that we use to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example,
the symbol for mercury is Hg.

ELEMENT SYMBOL DERIVATION MEANING

Antimony Sb Stibium Latin for “mark”
from Cyprium, Latin name for the island of Cyprus, the major
Copper Cu Cuprum
source of copper ore in the Roman Empire
Gold Au Aurum Latin for “gold”
Iron Fe Ferrum Latin for “iron”
Lead Pb Plumbum Latin for “heavy”
Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum Latin for “liquid silver”
Potassium K Kalium from the Arabic al-qili, “alkali”
Silver Ag Argentum Latin for “silver”
Sodium Na Natrium Latin for “sodium”
Tin Sn Stannum Latin for “tin”
German for “wolf stone” because it interfered with the smelting
Tungsten W Wolfram
of tin and was thought to devour the tin

ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of the same element but different in the number of protons, yielding different atomic masses.
Most common examples are the isotopes of hydrogen namely protium ( 1H), deuterium (2H), and tritium (3H).
Carbon has also an isotope, 14C, that is most commonly used in carbon dating, a technique used by archeologist
to determine the time of existence of artefacts. Isotopes are also used to cure cancers and make new materials
to name few of the wide ranging applications.

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ATOMIC MASS
Because each proton and each neutron contribute approximately one amu to the mass of an atom, and each
electron contributes far less, the atomic mass of a single atom is approximately equal to its mass number (a
whole number). However, the average masses of atoms of most elements are not whole numbers because most
elements exist naturally as mixtures of two or more isotopes.

The mass of an element shown in a periodic table or listed in a table of atomic masses is a weighted, average
mass of all the isotopes present in a naturally occurring sample of that element. This is equal to the sum of each
individual isotope’s mass multiplied by its fractional abundance.

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = ∑(𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒)

For example, the element boron is composed of two isotopes: About 19.9% of all boron atoms are 10B with a
mass of 10.0129 amu, and the remaining 80.1% are 11B with a mass of 11.0093 amu. The average atomic
mass for boron is calculated to be:

𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (0.199 × 10.0129𝑎𝑚𝑢) + (0.801 × 11.0093𝑎𝑚𝑢) = 10.81𝑎𝑚𝑢

BOARD WORK
1. A sample of magnesium is found to contain 78.70% of 24Mg atoms (mass 23.98 amu), 10.13% of 25Mg
atoms (mass 24.99 amu), and 11.17% of 26Mg atoms (mass 25.98 amu). Calculate the average mass
of Mg atom.
2. A meteorite found in central Indiana contains traces of the noble gas neon picked up from the solar
wind during the meteorite’s trip through the solar system. Analysis of a sample of the gas showed that
it consisted of 91.84% 20Ne (mass 19.9924 amu), 0.47% 21Ne (mass 20.9940 amu), and 7.69% 22Ne
(mass 21.9914 amu). What is the average mass of the neon in the solar wind?
3. Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 35Cl (mass 34.96885 amu) and 37Cl (mass 36.96590 amu), with
an average mass of 35.453 amu. What is the percent composition of Cl in terms of these two isotopes?
4. Naturally occurring copper consists of 63Cu (mass 62.9296 amu) and 65Cu (mass 64.9278 amu), with
an average mass of 63.546 amu. What is the percent composition of Cu in terms of these two isotopes?

THE PERIODIC TABLE

HISTORY

THE EARLY ELEMENTS

Around 330 BCE, a Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed that everything is made up of a mixture of one or more
roots as suggested by Sicilian philosopher Empedocles. The four roots were later renamed by Plato as earth,
water, air, and fire. Indian philosophers also share the similar ideas to that of the early Greeks.

ANTOINE LAVOISIER
Antoine Lavoisier, a French nobleman and chemist, published a list of 33 chemical elements, grouping them into
gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths.

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JOHANN WOLFGANG DÖBEREINER

Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner was a German chemist known for the early attempt to sort the elements into a
logical order based on their chemical properties. Johann once observed that strontium had properties similar
with those of calcium and barium, hence a ‘triad’. Further observations led him to identify other triads. He also
noted some quantifiable properties such as atomic weight and density of those in triads. He found out that the
second element in the triad has a mass equivalent to the arithmetic mean of the first and third element in it.
This became known later as the Law of Triads.

Elements and atomic masses

Triad name Element 2
Element 1 Element 3
Mean of 1 and 3
Mass Mass
Actual mass
Sodium
Lithium Potassium
Alkali-forming elements 23.02
6.94 39.10
22.99
Strontium
Alkaline-earth-forming elements Calcium Barium
88.7
40.1 137.3
87.6
Bromine
Chlorine Iodine
Salt-forming elements 80.470
35.470 126.470
78.383
Selenium
Sulfur Tellurium
Acid-forming elements 80.741
32.239 129.243
79.263
Cobalt
Iron Nickel
- 57.3
55.8 58.7
58.9

JOHN NEWLANDS
John Newlands is an English chemist who produced several papers from 1863 to 1866 noting that when
elements were listed in order of increasing atomic weight, similar physical and chemical properties recurred at
intervals of eight, similar to that of the octaves of music. This was known as the Law of Octaves. The law however
did not flourished as the Chemical Society refused to publish his works. Newlands was nonetheless able to draft
a table of the elements and used it to predict the existence of missing elements, such as germanium. The
Chemical Society only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries five years after they credited Mendeleev.

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DMITRI MENDELEEV
Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Mendeleev and German
chemist Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their periodic
tables in 1869 and 1870, respectively. Mendeleev's table was his
first published version; that of Meyer was an expanded version of
his (Meyer's) table of 1864 They both constructed their tables by
listing the elements in rows or columns in order of atomic weight
and starting a new row or column when the characteristics of the
elements began to repeat.

The recognition and acceptance afforded to Mendeleev's table

came from two decisions he made. The first was to leave gaps in
the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not
yet been discovered. Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so,
but he was the first to be recognized as using the trends in his
periodic table to predict the properties of those missing elements,
such as gallium and germanium. The second decision was to
occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as tellurium
and iodine, to better classify them into chemical families.

Mendeleev published in 1869, using atomic weight to organize the elements, information determinable to fair
precision in his time. Atomic weight worked well enough to allow Mendeleev to accurately predict the properties
of missing elements.

Following the discovery, in 1911, by Ernest Rutherford of the atomic nucleus, it was proposed that the integer
count of the nuclear charge is identical to the sequential place of each element in the periodic table. In 1913,
Henry Moseley using X-ray spectroscopy confirmed this proposal experimentally. Moseley determined the value
of the nuclear charge of each element, and showed that Mendeleev's ordering actually places the elements in
sequential order by nuclear charge. Nuclear charge is identical to proton count, and determines the value of the
atomic number (Z) of each element. Using atomic number gives a definitive, integer-based sequence for the
elements. Moseley predicted, in 1913, that the only elements still missing between aluminium (Z=13) and gold
(Z=79) were Z = 43, 61, 72, and 75, all of which were later discovered. The atomic number is the absolute
definition of an element, and gives a factual basis for the ordering of the periodic table. The periodic table is
used to predict the properties of new synthetic elements before they are produced and studied.

THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table, or periodic table of elements, is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by
their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties, whose structure shows periodic
trends. Generally, within one row (period) the elements are metals to the left, and non-metals to the right, with
the elements having similar chemical behaviours placed in the same column. Table rows are commonly called
periods and columns are called groups. Six groups have accepted names as well as assigned numbers: for
example, group 17 elements are the halogens; and group 18 are the noble gases. Also displayed are four simple
rectangular areas or blocks associated with the filling of different atomic orbitals.

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GROUPS
A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually have more significant periodic trends
than periods and blocks, explained below. Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain
group trends by proposing that elements within the same group generally have the same electron configurations
in their valence shell.

PERIODS
A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups generally have more significant periodic trends,
there are regions where horizontal trends are more significant than vertical group trends, such as the f-block,
where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements.

BLOCKS
Specific regions of the periodic table can be referred to as blocks in recognition of the sequence in which the
electron shells of the elements are filled. Each block is named according to the subshell in which the "last"
electron notionally resides.

METALS, METALLOIDS, AND NONMETALS

Metals are generally shiny, highly conducting solids that form alloys with one another and salt-like ionic
compounds with nonmetals (other than noble gases). A majority of nonmetals are coloured or colourless
insulating gases; nonmetals that form compounds with other nonmetals feature covalent bonding. In between
metals and nonmetals are metalloids, which have intermediate or mixed properties.

MOLECULES AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

MOLECULES AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS

Many elements in nature are in molecular form, in such way that there are two or more of the same type of atom
are bound together. For example, air consists of molecules that contain two oxygen atoms. We represent this by
the chemical formula O2. A molecule that is made up of two atoms is called a diatomic molecule. Naturally
occurring diatomic molecules are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the halogens.

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Compounds that are composed of molecules containing more than one type of atom are called molecular
compounds. A molecule of water, for example, is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, and
we represent this by the chemical formula H2O.

MOLECULAR AND EMPIRI CAL FORMULAS

Chemical formulas that indicate the actual number and types of atoms in the molecule are called molecular
formulas. Chemical formulas that only give the relative number of atoms of each type in a molecule are called
empirical formulas.

PICTURING MOLECULES

A molecular formula of a substance only summarizes its

composition, but not how the atoms are actually connected
together in a molecule. Structural formula of substances
allow us to see which atoms are attached to one another in a
molecule.

Atoms are represented by their chemical symbols and the lines are used to represent the bonds
that hold the atoms together. Structural formulas however does not depict the actual geometry
of molecules in 3D. Structural formulas can sometimes be written into perspective drawings, in
such manner that atoms with thick black bonds (wedges) are pointing away from the plane of
the molecules, and atoms connected with dashes (dashes) are behind the plane of the
molecule. The following models can represent a more three-dimensional sense of the shape of
atoms.

Ball-and-stick models of atoms show how atoms as spheres bonds as sticks. This allows to
accurately represent the angles at which atoms are attached to one another.

Space-filling models depict what molecules would look like if atoms were scaled up in size.
These models show the relative sizes of the atoms, however, the angles at which atoms were bonded were not
that as distinct as that of the ball-and-stick model.

IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

The nucleus of an atom remain unchanged in any chemical processes, but some
atoms can readily gain or lose electrons. As atoms loses electrons, they become
positively charged particles called cation. An atom gaining electrons on the other
hand would render it negatively charged called anion.

For sodium to be a cation, it initially has 11 protons and 11 electrons, yielding no

charge initially. However, for sodium, it will be easier for it to give off an electron,
causing the electrons to be reduced to 10, thus the charge of the atom becomes
+1. The net charge of atoms can be represented by a superscript after the
chemical symbol of the atom. Another example is when chlorine accepts electron
from, for example, sodium. Initially, chlorine atom has 17 electrons, since it has 17 protons and the net charge
is zero. As chlorine gains electron, the number of electrons increases to 18, thus the charge of the atom becomes
-1. Generally, atoms which has metallic properties generally gives off electrons to form cations, whereas
nonmetals tend to gain electrons to form anions.

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In addition, there are polyatomic ions such as NH4+ (ammonium ion) and SO4-2 (sulfate ion). These ions consists
of atoms joined as molecule but they have a net positive or negative charge.

PREDICTING IONIC CHARGES

Many atoms gain or lose electrons to end up with the same number of electrons as the noble gas closest to them
in the periodic table. The members of the noble-gas family are chemically very nonreactive and form very few
compounds. We might deduce that this is because their electron arrangements are very stable. Nearby elements
can obtain these same stable arrangements by losing or gaining electrons. For example, the loss of one electron
from an atom of sodium leaves it with the same number of electrons as the neutral neon atom (atomic number
10). Similarly, when chlorine gains an electron, it ends up with 18, the same number of electrons as in argon
(atomic number 18).

The periodic table is very useful for remembering the charges of ions, especially those of the elements on the
left and right sides of the table. The charges of these ions relate in a simple way to their positions in the table.
On the left side of the table, for example, the group 1A elements (the alkali metals) form 1 + ions, and the group
2A elements (the alkaline earths) form 2+ ions. On the other side of the table the group 7A elements (the
halogens) form 1- ions, and the group 6A elements form 2- ions. As we will see later in the text, many of the other
groups do not lend themselves to such simple rules.

IONIC COMPOUNDS

From the earlier example, we have sodium turning into Na + cation and chlorine turning into Cl- by giving off and
accepting electrons. However, matter of opposite charges do tend to attract, thus Na + and Cl- binds together to
form the compound sodium chloride NaCl. Such compounds bound together by attractive forces due to opposite
charges are called ionic compounds. Consequently, ionic compouds are generally combinations of metals and
nonmetals. In contrast, molecular compounds are generally composed of nonmetals only, such as H 2O.

NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

NAMING AND FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

CATIONS
1. Generally, cations formed from metal atoms have the same name as the metal itself.

Na+ sodium ion Zn2+ zinc ion

However, there are metals that can form more than one charge, such that of those in the transition
metals. To name these cations, a Roman numeral enclosed in parentheses following the name of the
metal indicates the positive charge.

Fe2+ iron(II) ion Fe3+ iron(III) ion

Cu+ copper(I) ion Cu2+ copper(II) ion

2. Another way to name these ions is by applying the suffix –ous or –ic following the root Latin name of
the metal.

Fe2+ ferrous ion Fe3+ ferric ion

Cu+ cuprous ion Cu2+ cupric ion

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3. Cations formed from nonmetal atoms have names with suffix –ium

NH4+ ammonium ion H3O+ hydronium ion

ANIONS
1. The names of monoatomic anions formed by replacing the end of the name of the element with the
suffix –ide.

H- hydride ion O-2 oxide ion

2. Some of the polyatomic anions containing oxygen have names ending in –ate or –ite. These anions
are called oxyanions. The ending -ate is used for the most common oxyanion of an element. The
ending –ite is used for an oxyanion that has the same charge but one O atom fewer
NO3- nitrate ion NO2- nitrite ion
SO4-2- sulfate ion SO3-2 sulfite ion

Prefixes are used when the series of oxyanions of an element extends to four members, as with the
halogens. The prefix per- indicates one more 0 atom than the oxyanion ending in -ate; the prefix hypo-
indicates one 0 atom fewer than the oxyanion ending in –ite
ClO4- perchlorate has one more O atom than chlorate
ClO3- chlorate common or representative oxyanion
ClO2- chlorite has one less O atom than chlorate
ClO- hypochlorite has one less O atom than chlorite

List of common oxyanions

3. Anions derived by adding H+ to an oxyanion are named by adding as a prefix the word hydrogen or
dihydrogen
CO3-2 carbonate HCO3- hydrogen carbonate
PO4 -3 phosphate H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate

Notice that every addition of hydronium ion reduces the negative charge of the parent anion by one. An
older method of naming these ions is using the prefix bi-. Thus HCO3- is commonly called bicarbonate
ion and HSO4- is sometimes called bisulfate ion.

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IONIC COMPOUNDS
The name of ionic compounds consist of the cation name followed by the anion name. In writing the chemical
formulas of ionic compounds, the subscripts are determined by the charges of the ions. Crossing charges allows
you to identify the number of cations and anions in a chemical formula.

Crossing charges to determine subscripts of ions

CaCl2 calcium chloride

Al(NO3)3 aluminum nitrate
Cu(ClO4)2 copper(II) perchlorate or cupric perchlorate

TRY WORKING WITH

1. K2SO4
2. Ba(OH)2
3. FeCl3
4. NH4Br
5. Cr2O3
6. Co(NO3)2
7. Potassium sulfide
8. Calcium hydrogen carbonate
9. Nickel(II) perchlorate
10. Magnesium sulfate
11. Silver sulfide
12. Lead(II) nitrate

NAMES AND FORMULAS OF ACIDS

Acids are important class of hydrogen-containing compounds, and they are named in a special way. For this
topic, acid is a substance whose molecules yield hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Chemical formulas
for acids usually begin with H followed by its respective anion. To maintain neutrality in molecule, there should
be enough number of H+ molecules to balance anion’s charge. Thus sulfate ion (SO4-2) requires two hydronium
ions to form H2SO4.

1. Acids containing anions whose names end in –ide are named by changing the –ide ending to –ic, adding
the prefix hydro- to this anion name, and then following with the word acid.

HCl hydrochloric acid

HF hydrofluoric acid

2. Acids containing anions whose names end in –ate or –ite are

named by changing –ate to –ic, and –ite to –ous , and then
adding the word acid. Prefixes in the anion name are retained
in the name of the acid. These rules are illustrated by the
oxyacids of chlorine.

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TRY WORKING WITH

1. HCN
2. HNO3
3. HNO2
4. H2SO4
5. H2SO3
6. Hydrobromic acid
7. Carbonic acid

NAMES AND FORMULAS OF BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

The procedures used for naming binary (two-element) molecular compounds are similar to those used for naming
ionic compounds:

1. The name of the element farther to the left in the periodic table is usually written first. An exception to
this rule occurs in the case of compounds that contain oxygen. Oxygen is always written last except
when combined with fluorine.
2. If both elements are in the same group in the periodic table, the one having the higher atomic number
is named first.
3. The name of the second element is given an -ide ending.
4. Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element.
The prefix mono- is never used with the first element. When the prefix ends
in a or o and the name of the second element begins with a vowel (such
as oxide), the a or o of the prefix is often dropped.

The following examples illustrate these rules:

Cl20 dichlorine monoxide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride
N 204 dinitrogen tetroxide
P4S10 tetraphosphorus decasulfide

TRY WORKING WITH

1. SO2
2. PCl5
3. N2O3
4. Silicon tetrabromide
5. Disulfur dichloride

SOME SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The study of compounds of carbon is called organic chemistry. Compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and
often with oxygen, nitrogen, or other elements, are called organic compounds. Presented here is a very brief
introduction to some of the simplest organic compounds to provide you a sense of what these molecules look
like and how they are named.

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ALKANES
Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. In the most basic class of
hydrocarbons, each carbon atom is bonded to four other atoms. These compounds are called alkanes. Some of
the alkanes are methane (CH4), ethane (CH3CH3), and propane (CH3CH2CH3), with structural formulas are as
follows:

We can make longer alkanes by adding additional carbon atoms to the skeleton of the molecules. Alkanes are
named specially unlike those of binary inorganic compounds. Alkanes ends with the suffix –ane. In addition,
alkanes with one carbon have the prefix meth-, eth- for those with two carbon, prop- for those with three, and
but- for those with four. Alkanes with five or more carbons follow the Greek prefixes.

SOME DERIVATIVES OF ALKANES

Other classes of organic compounds are obtained when hydrogen atoms of alkanes are replaced with functional
groups, which are specific groups of atoms. An alcohol, for example, is made by replacing an H atom with –OH
functional group. The name of the alcohol is derived from that of the alkane by adding the =ol suffix.

The prefix 1 in the name of 1-propanol indicates that the –OH is placed at the first carbon. If the –OH is placed
at the second carbon of propanol, its name would now be then 2-propanol.

PROBLEM SET (PS2)

Directions: On your bubble sheet for problem sets, please shade the letter of your choice. Avoid leaving stray
marks on your bubble sheet.
1. Which of the following statements of Dalton’s 2. He discovered the nucleus
atomic theory may not hold true any longer? a. Jimmy Neutron
a. Matter is composed of atoms b. Erwin Schrödinger
b. Elements are identical in properties c. James Webb
c. Elements combine in definite ratios to d. James Chadwick
form compounds 3. He proposed an opposing statement to the
d. Matter cannot be created nor idea of atomos coined by Democritus
destroyed a. Aristotle

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b. Alexander the Great c. NaH2CO3

c. John Dalton d. NaCO2
d. Robert Hooke 10. Which of the following does not exist as
4. Average mass of atoms is computed as diatomic molecule?
a. The arithmetic mean of the masses of a. Oxygen gas
the isotops b. Hydrogen gas
b. The sum of the masses of isotopes c. Helium gas
divided by the number of existing d. Nitrogen gas
isotopes 11. An alkane has 10 carbons. What should be its
c. The sum of the relative abundances of name?
isotopes multiplied to their respective a. Tencane
masses b. Decane
d. Atoms are weighed using analytical c. Sampucane
balance to determine the average d. Dodecane
mass of atoms 12. Isopropyl alcohol or 2-propanol is a component
5. The family of oxygen can be called as in typical household alcohols. What is its
a. Pnictogen chemical structure?
b. Chalcogen
c. Alkali Earth
d. Alkali
6. Which of the following elements would you a.
expect to have properties the same as that of
the nitrogen?
a. Sulfur
b.
b. Oxygen
c. Boron
d. Phosphorus
7. Why metals give off their electrons? c.
a. It is easier for them to achieve noble
gas configuration when giving off
electrons d.
13. What is the expected charge of aluminum ion?
b. It is easier for them to give off
a. +1
electrons because they have too
b. +2
much
c. +3
c. Metals do not give off electrons, but
d. +4
rather accept electrons
14. Which of the following is an f-block element?
d. For them, giving is an act of kindness
a. Strontium
8. Mg(OH)2 is among the components of Kremil
b. Bromine
S. How do you name the given compound?
c. Gold
a. Magnesium (II) dihydroxide
d. Uranium
b. Magnesium (II) hydroxide
15. If an element is in the p-block, which orbital
c. Magnesium hydroxide
does its valence electrons located?
d. Magnesium dihydroxide
a. S
9. Sodium bicarbonate is sometimes used in
b. P
baking processes. Which of the following is the
c. D
chemical formula for sodium bicarbonate?
d. F
a. NaHCO3
b. Na2CO3

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lecture Guide

16. Arranging elements shows repeating b. P-block

properties in every rows and columns. This c. D-block
phenomena is also called d. F-block
a. Periodicity 19. How many elements did Antoine Lavoisier
b. Repeatability published?
c. Recurring a. 3 / triads
d. Oscillating b. 13
17. If element X has a charge of +3, which family c. 23
does it typically belong? d. 33
a. Alkali 20. If a decane has its third carbon replaced with
b. Alkali earth –OH functional group, what would be its
c. Boron family name?
d. Pnictogen family a. 3-decane
18. Where do you usually observe elements with b. 3-decane alcohol
varying oxidation states? c. 3-decanol
a. S-block d. 3-ol-decane

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lecture Guide

CHEMICAL STRUCTURES
BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMICAL BONDING • INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
• MATERIALS • BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES

TOPIC I

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lecture Guide

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
MASS RELATIONSHIPS • CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS •
REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS • APPLICATIONS

TOPIC I

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lecture Guide

THE EARTH AND THE UNIVERSE

ANCIENT PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY • MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE

TOPIC I

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lecture Guide

LAWS OF PHYSICS
LAWS OF MOTION • LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION • MASS, MOMENTUM, AND
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

TOPIC I

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lecture Guide

THE PHYSICS OF LIGHT

OPTICS AND WAVE EFFECTS • QUANTUM MECHANICS

TOPIC I

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lecture Guide

UNDERSTANDING THE COSMOS

SPECIAL RELATIVITY • BEYOND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

TOPIC I

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Page 6 of 34