UG - B.A. - English - 112 53 - Introduction To Mass Communication - 9202

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V - Semester
112 53
INTRODUCTION TO MASS
COMMUNICATION
Reviewer
Dr. D. Baskaran Assistant Professor of English,
DDE, Alagappa University, Karaikudi
Author:
Dr Hemanta Kumar Joshi, Prof & Head, Dept. of Hindi Journalism, IIMC, JNU New Campus
Manjari Joshi, News Reader, Delhi Doordarshan and Freelance Journalist
Units: (1, 2, 3, 4.0-4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5-4.9, 5.0-5.6, 5.8-5.12, 6)
Amit Sharma, HOD, Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, IIMT College of Management, CCSU, Meerut
Units: (5.7, 8, 10.4, 11.3, 12.4, 13, 14)
Ravindra Dubey, Visiting Professor, Guru Govind Singh Indraprastha University and Delhi University
Units: (7.0-7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.5-7.9, 9, 10.0-10.1, 10.2, 10.3)
Prof.(Dr.) S.S. Jaswal, Registrar, HP, National, Law University, Shimla
Unit: (12.0-12.1, 12.2-12.3, 12.5-12.9)
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Introduction to Mass Communication
BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1: Mass Communication - Definition, Needs and Significance Unit 1: Overview of Mass
UNIT 2: Types - Theories Communication
UNIT 3: Nature and Function (Pages 1-14);
UNIT 4: Mass Media - Definition - Functions and Modes Unit 2: Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
(Pages 15-38);
Unit 3: Nature and Function of
Mass Communication
(Pages 39-43);
Unit 4: Overview of Mass Media
(Pages 44-57)
BLOCK II: JOURNALISM

UNIT 5: Types and Features Unit 5: Types and Features
UNIT 6: Journalism - Journalist Functions of Journalism
UNIT 7: News Paper Departments - Functions (Pages 58-76);
UNIT 8: News Agencies Unit 6: Journalism and Journalist
(Pages 77-94);
Unit 7: Introduction to Newspapers
(Pages 95-111);
Unit 8: Overview of News Agencies
(Pages 112-118)
BLOCK III: MASS MEDIA

UNIT 9: Broadcasting Journalism - Television and its Programmes Unit 9: Broadcasting Journalism
UNIT 10: Radio and its Programmes - Films (Pages 119-139);
UNIT 11: Mass Media - Uses and Misuses in Modern Society Unit 10: Radio and Films
UNIT 12: Mass Media - Government Control and Regulatory Measures (Pages 140-160);
Unit 11: Mass Media: Uses and
Misuses in Modern Society
(Pages 161-166);
Unit 12: Mass Media: Government
Control and Regulatory Measures
(Pages 167-184)
BLOCK IV: MASS COMMUNICATION

UNIT 13: Mass Communication - Training - Needs Unit 13: Training in Mass
UNIT 14: Future of Mass Communication Communication
(Pages 185-191);
Unit 14: Future of Mass
Communication
(Pages 192-198)
CONTENTS
BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF MASS COMMUNICATION 1-14
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Definition
1.3 Need and Significance
1.3.1 The Role of Mass Media
1.3.2 Use of Mass Communication
1.4 Themes and Issues of Mass Communication
1.4.1 Issues of Mass Communication
1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.9 Further Readings
UNIT 2 TYPES AND THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION 15-38
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Types of Mass Communication
2.3 Models of Mass Communication
2.3.1 Shannon and Weaver’s Model (1948)
2.3.2 Harold Lasswell’s Model (1948)
2.3.3 David Berlo’s Model (1960)
2.3.4 Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model (1953)
2.3.5 Charles E. Osgood’s Model (1954)
2.3.6 George Gerbner’s Model (1956)
2.3.7 Wilbur Schramm’s Model (1971)
2.3.8 Westley and MacLean’s Model (1957)
2.4 Theories of Mass Communication
2.4.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory
2.4.2 Psychological Difference Theory
2.4.3 Personal Influence Theory
2.4.4 Dependency Theory
2.4.5 Cultivation Theory
2.4.6 Agenda Setting Theory
2.4.7 The Theory of Culture Industry
2.4.8 Mass Society Theory
2.4.9 Political-Economical Media Theory
2.4.10 Development Communication Theory
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
UNIT 3 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF MASS COMMUNICATION 39-43
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Nature of Mass Communication
3.2.1 Function of Mass Communication
3.4 Summary
3.5 Key Words
UNIT 4 OVERVIEW OF MASS MEDIA 44-57
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Definition of Mass Media
4.3 Functions of Mass Media
4.3.1 Symbolic Function of the Mass Media
4.4 Modes of Mass Media
4.4.1 Print Media
4.4.2 Radio
4.4.3 Cinema
4.4.4 Television
4.4.5 New Media
4.6 Summary
4.7 Key Words
BLOCK II: JOURNALISM
UNIT 5 TYPES AND FEATURES OF JOURNALISM 58-76
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Definition and Nature
5.2.1 Origin and Nature of Journalism
5.3 Scope
5.4 Purpose of Journalism
5.5 Types of Journalism
5.5.1 Mainstream Journalism
5.5.2 Area-Specific Journalism
5.5.3 Magazine Journalism
5.5.4 Tabloid Journalism
5.5.5 Investigative Journalism
5.5.6 Advocacy Journalism
5.5.7 Interpretative Journalism
5.6 Current Trends in Journalism
5.6.1 Convergent Journalism
5.6.2 Online Journalism
5.6.3 Fashion Journalism
5.6.4 Celebrity Journalism
5.6.5 Sports Journalism
5.6.6 Citizen Journalism
5.6.7 Environmental Journalism
5.6.8 Business and Finance Journalism
5.6.9 Ambush Journalism
5.6.10 Churnalism
5.6.11 Gonzo Journalism
5.7 Features of Journalism
5.9 Summary
5.10 Key Words
UNIT 6 JOURNALISM AND JOURNALIST 77-94
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Functions of Journalism
6.3 Principles and Ethics of Journalism
6.3.1 Canons of Journalism
6.3.2 Ethical Standards
6.3.3 Press Councils and Ethics of Journalism
6.4 Functions of Journalists
6.4.1 Journalists as Communicators
6.4.2 Responsibilities of Journalists
6.4.3 Qualities of a Journalist
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
UNIT 7 INTRODUCTION TO NEWSPAPERS 95-111
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Definition and Types of News
7.2.1 Types of News
7.3 Value, Elements and Functions of News
7.3.1 Elements of News
7.3.2 Functions of News
7.4 Departments and Functions
7.4.1 Various Departments of an Organization
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
UNIT 8 OVERVIEW OF NEWS AGENCIES 112-118
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Features of News Agencies
8.2.1 Understanding the News Agencies
8.2.2 Difference from Newspapers
8.2.3 Ownership Pattern
8.2.4 Earning Structure
8.2.5 Organizational Structure
8.2.6 Functioning of News Agencies
8.4 Summary
8.5 Key Words
BLOCK III: MASS MEDIA
UNIT 9 BROADCASTING JOURNALISM 119-139
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Television and its Evolution
9.2.1 History of Television
9.3 Television Genres
9.3.1 News Related Programme
9.3.2 Entertainment Related Programme
9.3.3 Religious Programme
9.3.4 Emerging Trends
9.4 Television and its Programmes
9.6 Summary
9.7 Key Words
UNIT 10 RADIO AND FILMS 140-160
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Radio and its History
10.2.1 Emergence of Radio in India
10.3 Radio and its Programmes
10.3.1 Spoken Word Programmes
10.3.2 Outside Broadcast Production of News, Sporting and Mega Events
10.4 Films
10.4.1 Characteristics of Films
10.6 Summary
10.7 Key Words
UNIT 11 MASS MEDIA: USES AND MISUSES IN MODERN SOCIETY 161-166
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Advantages and Limitations of Mass Media
11.3 Uses and Misuses in Modern Society
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
UNIT 12 MASS MEDIA: GOVERNMENT CONTROL AND
REGULATORY MEASURES 167-184
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Government Control and Regulatory Measures
12.2.1 1800s: The Beginning of Press Regulation
12.2.2 The 1900s: British Period
12.2.3 Post-Independence Press Regulation
12.3 Press Council of India
12.3.1 Role of PCI in Maintaining Ethical Journalistic Standards
12.3.2 Powers of the Press Council
12.3.3 Working of the PCI
12.3.4 Protection of Confidential Sources of Information
12.3.5 Press and Registration Appellate Board
12.3.6 Guidelines and Policy Framing
12.4 Reasonable Restrictions on Media
12.4.1 Accountability of Media
12.6 Summary
12.7 Key Words
BLOCK IV: MASS COMMUNICATION
UNIT 13 TRAINING IN MASS COMMUNICATION 185-191
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Better Understanding of Mass Communication
13.2.1 Difference between Mass Communication and Journalism
13.2.2 Benefits of Learning Mass Communication
13.3 Training in Mass Communication
13.4 Need for Mass Communication
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
UNIT 14 FUTURE OF MASS COMMUNICATION 192-198
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Changing Face of Mass Communication
14.3 Evolution of Mass Communication
14.4 Emerging Trends of Mass Communication
14.6 Summary
14.7 Key Words
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
In the world of 21st century, defined by information technology and electronics,
NOTES
the power of media is for all of us to see. More and more people are getting
attracted to various forms of media. In fact, print, electronics and cyber journalism
are largely defining the styles, choices, attitudes, hopes and aspirations of the
masses. Under such a scenario, the studies in journalism and mass communication
are acquiring more and more importance.
The process of transmitting and sharing information through mass media to
broad segments of the population is mass communication. As these technologies
are used for the dissemination of information, which is part of journalism and
advertising, they are commonly understood to apply to different types of media.
Mass communication varies from other modes of communication, such as
interpersonal communication and organizational communication, as it relies on
unique tools that send data to multiple recipients. The delivery of messages to
several individuals at a time is generally called mass communication. But mass
communication can be interpreted, in a complete sense, as the mechanism of
comprehensive information circulation within regions and across the globe.
This book, Introduction to Mass Communication, is divided into fourteen
units that follow the self-instruction mode with each unit beginning with an Introduction
to the unit, followed by an outline of the Objectives. The detailed content is then
presented in a simple but structured manner interspersed with Check Your Progress
Questions to test the student’s understanding of the topic. A Summary along with
a list of Key Words and a set of Self Assessment Questions and Exercises is also
provided at the end of each unit for recapitulation.
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Overview of Mass
BLOCK - I Communication
INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION
NOTES
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF MASS
COMMUNICATION
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Definition
1.3 Need and Significance
1.4 Themes and Issues of Mass Communication
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The process of transmitting and sharing information through mass media to vast
segments of the population is mass communication. As these technologies are
used for the flow of information, which is part of journalism and advertising, they
are commonly understood to apply to different types of media.Mass communication
varies from other modes of communication, such as interpersonal communication
and organisational communication, as it relies on specific resources that send data
to multiple recipients.The study of mass communication is primarily concerned
with how the content of mass communication persuades the action, attitude, opinion,
or emotion of the people receiving the information or otherwise influences it. In
this unit, we will discuss the definition, need, and significance of mass communication.
It will also focus on the themes and issues of mass communication.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the meaning of mass communication
 Discuss the need and significance of mass communication
 Describe the themes and issues of mass communication Self-Instructional
Material 1
Overview of Mass
Communication 1.2 DEFINITION
Communication can be categorized into different types depending upon the level
NOTES at which it takes place, the direction it takes or by its very nature. Some of the
commonly referred to types of communication are intra-personal communication,
inter-personal communication, group communication, mass communication, etc.
Most of the times, the type of communication used by us is interpersonal. In this
process, an individual communicates his feelings, desires and opinions to the society.
It may be a one on one conversation or an individual speaking to the members of
a group. Intra-personal communication, on the other hand, is the communication
that one has with oneself, i.e., in the mind. In group communication, communication
takes place between three or more individuals. Mass communication is an extension
of group communication, but it also involves heterogeneous masses. The
homogeneity of the audiences makes interpersonal and group communication similar
to each other. People involved in such communication not only share the code of
communication, they by and large share thought process, culture and attitudes
too. The feedback process of these types of communication is also different as the
feedback is immediate in interpersonal and group communications, whereas the
feedback is delayed and more complex in mass communication as different types
of mass media are used for transmitting the messages to masses.
Mass communication is a one-way communication in the sense that it is
one-to-many kind of communication whereas interpersonal communication is one-
to-one communication. In mass communication or one-to-many type of
communication, the sender may think or pretend to know his/her audience but is
never sure to whom all he/she is communicating. The challenge of mass
communication alone has forced people concerned or involved in it to study the
nature, attitudes, demography, etc. of the audience as scientifically as possible.
The shift of journalism studies from language departments to independent
interdisciplinary discipline is a result of the complexities of mass communication.
1.3 NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE
The simplest definition of mass communication would be that it is a ‘public

communication transmitted electronically or mechanically’. In this way messages
are transmitted or sent to large, perhaps millions or billions of people spread across
the world. The ‘mass’ in mass communication refers to the group of people towards
whom this communication is directed.
Mass communication media are so closely intertwined with different aspects
of our lives that it becomes difficult to identify their functions for each one of us. In
order to find out how mass media functions in various societies, one must look
and find out how and why people listen to radio, watch television, read newspapers,
go to the movies or surf the Internet. In this way, it may be possible for us to
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collate various common functions of media among the individuals. It will also Overview of Mass
Communication
become easy to know how people use media for a variety of functions. The main
functions of mass media are given below:
 Inform
NOTES
 Educate
 Entertain
These are the basic functions of media. News and discussions may inform
you; radio and television programmes may educate you; films and television serials
and programmes may entertain you. Let us learn more about these functions of
media.
Those who write, direct or produce programmes are the people who give
us messages. Let us consider the example of a news bulletin on radio or television
or a news item in a newspaper. They inform us of some event or happening—‘A
new Prime Minister is taking oath of office today’; ‘The country has developed a
new breed of Biotech cotton’; ‘India has beaten Pakistan in cricket’; ‘25 persons
killed in a bomb blast in Mumbai’. All these inform us. These properly written
messages are given to us by the people who function as the communicators.
The social activists, doctors and experts from various fields of activity speak
to us on radio or television, or write in a newspaper about how to deal with social
evils, prevent a disease or how to save income tax, etc. Experts tell farmers on
radio or television about a new crop, seed or agricultural practice. In this manner
the farmers get educated. The commercial cinema, television serials and music
programmes entertain us and take us away from the hardships of our daily lives.
In analyzing the functions of mass communication, we should not be limited
to what people do with media, but what media do to the people: How they affect
opinions and attitudes, culture, habits, etc. This approach towards the study of
mass communication is more concerned about the effect of media and hence called
‘Effect Approach’. Media scholars and social scientists are concerned with both
the processes. Most commonly accepted functions of mass communication besides
the one that we discussed earlier are given here below:
 Surveillance of the environment: Media plays the role of watchman.
Some people use the expression ‘informer’. In fact, mass media functions
as the eyes, ears and voice of the audience. We believe in their reports
and make these a basis for shaping our attitudes, thoughts, and activities.
For example, the advertisements get us acquainted with new products
and services. They enable the customers to arrive at logical purchasing
decisions. At the level of the individual, the media’s surveillance of the
environment function
o enhances personal esteem,
o sets up a ground for social interaction,
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Overview of Mass o provides information and knowledge, and
Communication
o facilitates prestige and social status.
 Correlation: Lasswell states that one of the key functions played by
NOTES mass communication for the society is to associate the whole society’s
response to the environment, i.e., it facilitates the development of public
or mass opinion. Communication serves to generate consensus in a
society on major issues. For a healthy democracy an enlightened or
informed opinion is very necessary.
 Transmission of social inheritance: Presently media have acquired
the function of social inheritance transmission, which was being earlier
performed by the teachers, parents and the elders. These days, media
provide the basic frames of reference to the society. Social uprooting,
urbanization, and relative anonymity and the transmission from the
traditional social institutions such as clan and joint family have enhanced
the media’s role as the transmitter of values and knowledge. Today,
mass media have become an indispensable force to carry out the role of
socialization and transmission of social heritage.
 Dysfunctions associated with mass communication: The well known
communication expert, Lasswell, held that mass communication can be
harmful or dysfunctional as well as functional for the society. If the ruling
class or governments is autocratic and is apprehensive of the public
opinion, it can deny information and even mislead the subjects by using
misinformation and false propaganda. Dysfunction can also be born of
the inability to effectively sue the mass communication media or effectively
process the information.
Historians maintain that communication is the characteristic feature of society. Even
the pre-literate cultures communicated within themselves and sporadically with
others as well. With the invention of various kinds of inventions, the process of
communication has been transformed into a mass opportunity. Researchers and
communication scholars have analysed the function of mass communication in the
society. Mass media plays some basic roles such as ‘surveillance, interpretation,
socialization and entertainment’. We can say that there is not much variance between
the roles and functions of mass communication.By surveillance we mean the
information and news role of the mass media. This role may be divided into:
 Warning surveillance related to the news media (information regarding
pending threats like military attack, floods and gloomy economic
circumstances)
 Instrumental surveillance related to both popular media and news
(transmission of practical information regarding entertainment guides, news
products, stock prices, etc.).
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Surveillance information may also be gathered from films, television Overview of Mass
Communication
programmes, books and other kinds of literary elements containing information on
human issues. Through the electronic media information travels very quickly. The
main advantage of this is that it facilitates instantaneous awareness. However, the
basic disadvantage is that even misinformation travels just as fast as the true NOTES
information. Usually the speedy dissemination often means that the assumed facts
and accusations are not verified before their transmission.For example, there are
many health, astrology and business shows on the television nowadays. The news
of the terrorist attack in Mumbai on 26 November 2010 was also disseminated
through newschannels.
The interpretation function of mass media sets up a framework for the new
information and commentary regarding its meaning and significance. Conventionally,
the editorial and commentary sections in the newspapers provided such
interpretation, keeping in reserve the news pages for the apparently unbiased
information. Reporting is supposed to be objective in nature, i.e., free from any
kind of interpretation and comment. The concept was that reporters will provide
factual information unaffected by the readers and commentary. Afterwards the
readers will decide for themselves about the relevance and meaning of the
information provided to them. However, this kind of objectivity is not apparent
presently in newspapers, and the huge amount of television reporting appears to
have mixed the commentary and news reporting functions. For the producers of
such messages the interpretation is the function while persuasion is the motivation.
For example, newspapers inform the people what they should expect from a rise
or fall in the stock exchange rates, how the rise in the price of petrol will affect
them and why has there been a rise in the price, etc. The Coalgate crisis that took
place in India in August 2012 was brought to the public’s notice by the media.
The media plays a vital role in socialization, transmitting values in the society,
mainly the modelling of proper attitudes and behaviour. The conception is that the
mass media represent the images of society. The viewers can learn and adopt for
themselves by taking clues from these images. It helps in creating a stable society
having common social values. In its basic form, the media’s socialization role provides
a common discussion topic to the people, e.g., yesterday’s cricket match, the new
blockbuster movie, etc. Film and television possess the biggest potential for
socialization since they appear to be the most realistic to the viewers. Particularly
for the young people these are very influential. The role models or images of social
behaviour, fashion, grooming styles and scores of other aspects of social interaction
are presented through film and television. Their usefulness is obvious in the
resemblance of youth culture world over, wherein the media provides the common
influence. Young adults and teens in societies as varied as Saudi Arabia or Canada
or Finland or Taiwan possess various common tastes in dancing, fashion, music,
hair styles, etc. Also, the show, Satyameve Jayate, tried to bring social change in
India, and so, was much applauded by the various sections of the media and
received wide coverage.
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Overview of Mass Entertainment is a related function of mass media. It is sometimes termed as
Communication
the diversion function since it provides a kind of diversion from the real world.
Entertainment has been a significant part of society. With the help of sound
recordings, different kinds of entertainers are in a position to attract audience
NOTES world over. Sculptors, painters and poets are able to reach mass audiences through
magazines and books. The media’s entertainment function is divided into three
categories:
 Stimulation (antidote to boredom),
 Relaxation (soothing and meditative environment), and
 Release (safe expression of anger, hostility, fear, etc.).
There can be no two opinions about the fact that the mass media has invaded
each aspect ofour everyday lives. One can watch movies, news, travel shows,
cartoons, or reality shows on the television.There is absolutely no end to the way
mass media tries to entertain the masses for whom it is meant.
Sociologists have found that the extensive availability of quality media
entertainment functions as a very great channel of diversion. More and more people
are becoming spectators in sports, music, theatre, etc. It is comparatively very
easy and entertaining to watch soccer match on television in comparison to actually
work hard, practice and risk injury through personal participation in the game.
The use of mass communication or mass media has been studied thoroughly by
Katz in 1959 when he came up with his theory of use and gratification. In his
theory he emphasized upon studying the reasons for which people use media
instead of studying what media does to people. This was in a way a reaction to the
contemporary media research which had been almost camouflaged by election
studies and the use of media to influence the electorate. Uses and Gratifications
Theory became a popular approach to understanding mass communication. It
placed more focus on the consumer, or audience, instead of the actual message
itself by asking ‘what people do with media’ rather than ‘what media does to
people’ (Katz, 1959). In a way this theory once again introduces the concept of
selective exposure and selective perception, though the emphasis this time has
shifted from masses as mere audiences to masses as consumers. It says that the
choices made by the people are motivated by the desire to satisfy or ‘gratify’ a
range of needs. Hence, the use and gratification approach attempts to identify
how people use the media to gratify their needs.The principal elements of uses
and gratifications include:
 Our psychological state and the environment,
 Our needs and the motives to communicate,
 The media and our attitudes and expectations from the media,
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 Functional alternatives to using media, Overview of Mass
Communication
 Our communication behaviour, and
 Outcomes and consequences of our behaviour.
People use media such as TV, Internet, newspaper, radio, etc., to gratify NOTES
their needs for information, entertainment, social interaction, escapism, etc. For
example, if a person is feeling down and out, he may prefer listening to sad music
so that he can relate to it and can look at his situation objectively. Similarly, we all
have a preference for any one newschannel that we see as better than others. This
is so because we expect certain channels to maintain higher levels of objectivity in
their news telecast.
McQuail points out that the audience normally seeks to gratify certain needs,
which could be their requirements of surveillance or information, personal identity,
personal relationship, social interaction and diversion or entertainment. People
want information to find out about the events happening in their society and the
world. They seek advice or opinion on practical matters and they also want
information for their self education. Personal identity need refers to the reinforcement
of values and beliefs, knowing other people’s values and thereby gaining insights
into their own self. Social interaction need relates to social empathy and interaction
which gives people a sense of belonging and finally entertainment is a need that is
necessary for relaxing and emotional release as well as to get to know the cultural
and aesthetic enjoyment. Figure 1.1 illustrates the Uses and Gratification Theory
Model.
Fig. 1.1 Uses and Gratification Theory Model
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Overview of Mass However, Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) have categorized the various
Communication
needs and gratification for people into five categories. This is represented in Figure
1.2.
 Cognitive needs
NOTES
 Affective needs
 Personal integrative needs
 Social integrative needs
 Tension free needs
Fig. 1.2 Katz’s Categorization of Needs
The Use and Gratification Theory too has its criticism. Many scholars find
that in order to become audience centric, this theory underplays the media and it
does not recognize the power of media. However, in spite of these criticisms the
most important and meaningful contribution is to bring the individual members of
the mass society at the centre stage of mass communication process and studies.The
above discussion of needs and gratification tell us about the reasons and possibilities
for which mass communication or mass media are being used or can be used.
However, it would be appropriate to remind that ultimately the media is used by
the people for three basic needs that are information, education and entertainment.
Check Your Progress

1. How is the feedback process different in interpersonal, group and mass
communication?
2. Define mass communication.
3. List the various categories of needs and gratification for people according
to Katz, Gurevitch and Haas.
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Overview of Mass
1.4 THEMES AND ISSUES OF MASS Communication
COMMUNICATION
Themes relate to the effects, the significance and the social origins of mass NOTES
communication. These themes are as follows:
 Time: Time is an indispensible component of communication since it is
important when a communication takes place and how long it takes for the
communication to take place. In other words, communication depends on
time; it takes place in time. Developments in communication technology as
only increased the significance of the element of time in communication since
great volume of information can be transmitted quickly. Communication
technology has also introduced ways in which information can be stored for
recovery at a later date.
 Place: Communication is not produced in vacuum; it has a definite context
and invariably reflects the features of the place or location of its origin. It
serves as a connecting medium thereby reducing the distance that separates
cultures, countries and people. At the same time, mass communication also
has a delocalizing effect: it creates a ‘global place’ with which people are
becoming more and more familiar.
 Social reality: Behind the theory of mass communication is the assumption
that we inhabit a world of events and material circumstances that are ‘real.’
Therefore, one also assumes that these events and circumstances will be
reported to us with some degree of completeness and accuracy. In other
words, although it is not easy to asses or even define ‘truth,’ some notion of
truth is assigned as a standard to the content of mass communication,
specifically to the genre of news.
 Meaning: The interpretation of the ‘message’ of mass media is an important
theme. There is no way of saying with certainty what is meant since, as seen
above there is no single source of meaning. There are theories of mass
media however, which make assumptions about the meaning of what is
communicated. These theories view communication from the perspective
of either the sender, or the receiver or the observer.
 Cause and effect: The question of cause and effect of mass communication
is central to an understanding of the functions of mass communication. The
theories of mass communications attempt to resolve these questions by
enquiring whether a factor causes another. Is it that media is responsible for
certain incidents that take place in society or is it that the content of media is
itself a reflection and an outcome of a deeper social malaise or concern?
So, questions that arise regarding cause and effect are not merely about the
consequences of the message of mass media on society; they are also
questions regarding the rise and appeal of the institution of media.
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Overview of Mass  Cultural difference: This is an important theme since it sounds
Communication
contradictory to the theme of place; however the two themes can co-exist.
The contention here is that regardless of the universalizing tendency of
technology, the use and production of mass media is a cultural practice
NOTES which by itself becomes a form of resistance to attempts at universalization.
So although the working of media institutions and mass communications
are similar the world over, the study of issues related to media highlights
that these workings are effected and determined by cultural differences at
the level of nation, ethnic and racial groups, religion, etc.
You need to be aware that the issues that are discussed below are largely applicable
to mass communication in nations that are fully or partially developed, and have a
secular society, elective democracies and free market or mixed economies and
nations which are integrated into a wider set of political and economic international
relations of conflict, competition and exchange. Many will dismiss these as
characteristics of ‘western’ countries. Unfortunately, such is the hegemony of
western practices and standards that western media theory has also become a
part of the process of creating hegemony. Even though the object of media is to
provide ‘objective’ accounts, the study of the subject of mass communication
cannot avoid engaging with questions of social and political conflict and of economic
struggles. All countries are plagued with tensions and conflicts that in the current
scenario of globalization extend to the international arena. Media automatically
gets involved in and engages with these conflicts and contradictions since it is the
producer and disseminator of events and their meanings. It naturally follows that it
would be ambitious to expect the study of mass communication information that is
scientifically verifiable or theoretically neutral.
Divergent perspectives also characterize the discipline of mass
communication. Difference exists between the progressive left and theconservative
right tendencies and the critical approach and the applied approach. While the
liberal left is critical of power exercised by media in the hands of the state and
business houses (topics that you will study in a separate unit), the conservative
right finds fault with the role played by media in demolishing traditional values.
Similarly, according to Windahl and Signitzer, there exists a divide between the
critical approach and the applied approach to the theory of mass communication.
The object of critical theory is to highlight the underlying faults of media practice
and to relate these faults to social issues. The object of applied theory is to develop
an understanding of the communication processes so as to make mass
communication more effective.
Another axis of theoretical variation is that which was identified by Golding
and Murdock: the media-centric and the socio-centric approaches. Media-centric
approach attends on the media’s sphere of activity alone, activity that is undeniably
also driven by changes in communication technology. It gives much more influence
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10 Material
of social change. In other words, media-centric approach gives tremendous focus Overview of Mass
Communication
to the specific content of such different types of media as interactive, print, television,
etc.) and the consequences of the different kinds of media. Socio-centric approach
primarily sees media as a reflection of economic, social and political forces. Hence,
socio-centric approach proposes a theory of media which is little more than an NOTES
application of broader social theory.
Issues which are of relevance to mass communication and its theoretical
framework are as follows:
 Social issues
o Violence, crime, and deviance
o Social order and disorder and the maintenance of peace and security
in society
o Commercialism and consumerism
o The emergence and mediation of information society
o The definition of social experience
 Political issues
o War and terrorism
o Political propaganda and campaign
o Movements of liberation and revolution in states or their parts
 Cultural issues
o Cultural production
o The quality of life
o Cultural hegemonization and globalization
o Questions about cultural, ethnic, linguistic identities
 Normative issues
o Inequalities: ethnic, class, sexual, gender
o Freedom of speech and expression
o Media ethics, media professionalism and media regulation
 Issues regarding the effect and power of media
o Formation of public opinion
o Creation of celebrities
o News making
o Effective communication
Check Your Progress

4. What is the difference between the critical and applied theories?
5. What do you mean by socio-centric approach?
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Overview of Mass
Communication 1.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. The feedback process of the various types of communication is different as

the feedback is immediate in interpersonal and group communications,
whereas the feedback is delayed and more complex in mass communication
as different types of mass media are used for transmitting the messages to
masses.
2. The simplest definition of mass communication would be that it is a ‘public
communication transmitted electronically or mechanically’.
3. Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) have categorized the various needs and
gratification for people into five categories:
(a) Cognitive needs
(b) Affective needs
(c) Personal integrative needs
(d) Social integrative needs
(e) Tension free needs
4. The object of critical theory is to highlight the underlying faults of media
practice and to relate these faults to social issues, while the object of applied
theory is to develop an understanding of the communication processes so
as to make mass communication more effective.
5. The socio-centric approach primarily sees media as a reflection of economic,
social and political forces. Hence, socio-centric approach proposes a theory
of media which is little more than an application of broader social theory.
1.6 SUMMARY
 Communication can be categorized into different types depending upon the

level at which it takes place, the direction it takes or by its very nature.
 Mass communication is a one-way communication in the sense that it is
one-to-many kind of communication whereas interpersonal communication
is one-to-one communication.
 The simplest definition of mass communication would be that it is a ‘public
communication transmitted electronically or mechanically’.
 In order to find out how mass media functions in various societies, one must
look and find out how and why people listen to radio, watch television,
read newspapers, go to the movies or surf the Internet.
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 In analyzing the functions of mass communication, we should not be limited Overview of Mass
Communication
to what people do with media, but what media do to the people: How they
affect opinions and attitudes, culture, habits, etc.
 The use of mass communication or mass media has been studied thoroughly
NOTES
by Katz in 1959 when he came up with his theory of use and gratification.
In his theory he emphasized upon studying the reasons for which people
use media instead of studying what media does to people.
 Themes relate to the effects, the significance and the social origins of mass
communication.
 Even though the object of media is to provide ‘objective’ accounts, the
study of the subject of mass communication cannot avoid engaging with
questions of social and political conflict and of economic struggles.
1.7 KEY WORDS
 Surveillance: It means continuous observation of a place, person, group,

or ongoing activity in order to gather information.
 Uprooting: It means to displace from a country or traditional habitat.
 Propaganda: It is the dissemination of information—facts, arguments,
rumours, half-truths, or lies—to influence public opinion.
1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the issues relevant in the field of mass communication?
2. Write a short note on the use of mass communication.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the most commonly accepted functions of mass communication.
2. Describe the themes related to mass communication.
1.9 FURTHER READINGS
Holmes, David. 2005. Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society.

London: Sage Publishers.
Hartley, John. 2002. Communication, Culture and Media Studies: The key
Concepts. New York: Routledge.
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Overview of Mass Rosengren, Karl Eric. 2000. Communication: An Introduction. London: Sage
Communication
Publishers.
Fiske, John. 1982. Introduction to Communications Studies. London: Methuen
& Co. 5. Asa Berger, Arthur. 1995. Essentials of Mass Communication
NOTES
Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Mcquail, Denis. 1983. Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage Publication.
Schramm, Wilbur. 1966. The Story of Human Communication. New York:
Harper and Row Publishers.
William, Raymond. 1976. Communications. London: Penguin Books.
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Types and Theories of
UNIT 2 TYPES AND THEORIES OF Mass Communication
MASS COMMUNICATION
NOTES
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Types of Mass Communication
2.3 Models of Mass Communication
2.4 Theories of Mass Communication
2.4.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory
2.4.8 Mass Society Theory
2.4.9 Political-Economical Media Theory
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.0 INTRODUCTION
We are living in a different world today. The world which is full of information and
technologically advanced with a continuous process of information exchange. Our
society has come up with different types of mass communication. These different
modes help us to receive the information and keep us aware of the happenings
around the world. Our world is hyper connected with the help of these different
modes of mass communication. Information has become vital for our growth and
progress in today’s era. The existence of mass communication has helped information
to reach faster and take action to avoid any risk. Mass communication has also
given us a chance to speak, which has helped society to understand certain concepts
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Types and Theories of from different perspectives. In this unit, we are going to understand the different
Mass Communication
types of mass communication that currently exists, along with the different theories
of mass communication.
NOTES
2.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the different types of mass communication
 Discuss the different models of mass communication
 Describe the different theories of mass communication
2.2 TYPES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Mass communication media have special features as they are capable to reach a
large number of people spreading across different geographical areas. They are
used for the dissemination of information across the world. They are many in
number. But for the sake of our learning, we can broadly divide them into following
category –
 Print Media
 Broadcast Media
 Transit Media
 Digital Media
Print media
Print media is called the traditional or conventional media. Newspapers, magazines,
books, journals, etc. come under the category of print media. Any print publication
which is meant for the large number of people is considered as print media. The
word is frequently used in journalism. In common term, print media is used for
newspapers, magazines, tabloids etc.
There was a time when print media used to rule the news industry. But as
technology evolved and new form of media became popular, print media lost its
glory. But its importance can never be challenge. Still today, print media is
considered the most reliable among all form of media. Most of the elderly people
start their morning with newspaper. They enjoy reading the newspaper with a cup
of tea and solving crosswords while travelling. Even in the age of television and
mobile print media is keeping its prominence in terms of reliability and reference.
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Broadcast media Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
Broadcast media includes television and radio. It brought revolution in mass
communication. The world of journalism got changed with the advent of radio and
television. Not only in the area of journalism, but it has also revolutionized the NOTES
arena of entertainment. Films are still the great source of entertainment for us. With
the changing time, both radio and television changed their shape. Invent of private
satellite channels transformed the way we used to see the world. Private radio
channels are very popular among youth. Though they are getting stiff competition
from digital media, but their popularity has not been lessen among public. The TV
and Film industry is a place where creative people find great career opportunity.
Transit media
One of the underrated yet potential types of mass communication, outdoor media,
corresponds to the dissemination of information as well as advertising through our
outer environment such as billboards, posters, hoardings, banners, etc. The form
of transit media is utilized for advertising products or services as well as spread
social information and awareness to the general public. Transit Media is more
inclined towards advertising through posters, banners, signs, and notices in means
of transportations such as buses and metro rail, amongst others. Advertising plays
a pivotal role in promoting transit media. Advertisers have full control of the message
being sent to their audience.
Digital media
We are living in a digital age. This is the newest form of media which are gaining
popularity every day. For last two decades, it has been the most influential in mass
media tool. Especially, among new generation digital media is the most common
for getting information as well as their daily dose of entertainment. Digital media
provides the opportunity to connect with the world anytime, anywhere with the
lightening speed. Social media is the part of digital media which has become an
integral part of our life today.
2.3 MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Communication as an activity appears to be very simple to explain at the very first

instance, but when we explore it further the complexities of communication make
it difficult for us to describe it in simpler terms. There have been many models that
explain the various aspects related to communication. In a simple sense, a model
is any representation of a theory, idea or concept that takes into account any
studies that have already been done, and lays the foundation for further studies on
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Types and Theories of the subject. According to C. David Mortensen, author of Communication: The
Mass Communication
Study of Human Communication:
In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation of an
object or event in idealized and abstract form. Models are somewhat
NOTES arbitrary by their nature. The act of abstracting eliminates certain
details to focus on essential factors … The key to the usefulness of a
model is the degree to which it conforms–in point-by-point
correspondence – to the underlying determinants of communicative
behaviour.
The models of communication help us to understand the process of
communication where the factors of communications are shown in a particular
order and relations. In this section, we would look at various models of
communication suggested by different scholars from time to time.
It is worth mentioning here that we find two distinct types of models of
communication, i.e., linear and non-linear. The model suggested by Shannon and
Weaver is the first model of communication, though it was drawn by them to
explain the working of telephones. Linear models of communication are a one
way model to communicate with others. It involves sending a message to the
receiver. It does not take the feedback of the receiver into account. In a linear
model, the beginning and end of the communication process are clearly defined.
The linear models see communication as the transmission of message and
consequently raise the issue of effect rather than meaning. A situation of
communication gap can only occur if we look at communication as a process of
the transmission of message. Non-linear model of communication is a two way
model of communication that takes the response or feedback of the receiver of
the message into account. Another name of this kind of model is circular or
interactional model.
Claude Elwood Shannon published a paper in two parts, ‘A Mathematical Theory
of Communication’, in 1948. In this paper, he developed the concept of information
entropy, which worked as a measure for the uncertainty in a message. He was
essentially inventing something else that later on became the dominant form of
‘information theory’. Warren Weaver afterwards made his theory available to
people in simpler versions and was subsequently used by scholars widely in social
sciences. Many years later the same theory was published in a book co-authored
by Weaver. Hence the model was named as Shannon and Weaver model by
social scientists though it appeared for the first time in the original paper of Claude
Shannon in 1948. Figure 2.1 presents the basic elements contained in this model.
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Information Types and Theories of
Source Transmitter Receiver Destination Mass Communication
Signal Received
Signal
Message Message NOTES
Noise
Source
Fig. 2.1 Schematic Diagram of a General Communication System
The model when used in communication studies would mean that the
communication begins with the information source or sender who creates a message.
This message is then transmitted along a channel. The role of transmitter is to
convert the messages into signals that are capable of being transmitted through a
channel. The signals so received are then reconverted to the original message by
the receiver so as to reach the destination. Shannon in this model very significantly
discusses the role of noise. The noise in his model refers to disturbances in the
channel that may interfere with the signals and may produce the signals that were
not intended. Shannon also elaborates on the role of redundancy and entropy as
the major concepts of communication because they help in overcoming the
disturbances caused by the channels.
In his paper, Shannon discusses the terms entropy and redundancy in the
following words:
The ratio of the entropy of a source to the maximum value it could
have while still restricted to the same symbols will be called its relative
entropy. This is the maximum compression possible when we encode
into the same alphabet. One minus the relative entropy is the
redundancy. The redundancy of ordinary English, not considering
statistical structure over greater distances than about eight letters, is
roughly 50%. This means that when we write English half of what
we write is determined by the structure of the language and half is
chosen freely.
The model of Shannon and Weaver is interpreted a bit differently by scholars
of communication studies with social science background. It is for the same reason
that the model of David Barlow becomes important where the mathematical
technicalities of Shannon’s models were reinterpreted for human communication
process.
Harold Dwight Lasswell (1902–1978) was a leading American political scientist
and communications theorist. He was the Chief of the Experimental Division for
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Types and Theories of the Study of War Time Communications at the Library of Congress during the
Mass Communication
Second World War. He analysed Nazi propaganda films to identify mechanisms
of persuasion used to secure the acquiescence and support of the German populace
for Hitler. He gave verbal models of communication and politics in the same year
NOTES when Shannon wrote his paper on mathematical theory. His model of
communication is in the shape of a question containing many more questions:
Who says
What to
Whom in
What Channel with
What effect?
This linear model enumerates main variables involved in the process of
communication. The ‘Who’ refers to the identification of the source and ‘What’
refers to the analysis of the content of the message. The choice of channel is
denoted by the question ‘What channel’ and the characteristics of the audience by
the question ‘Whom’. The main thing about this model is that it makes the end
result of communication as the most important aspect of the whole process, when
Lasswell asks ‘What effect?’ In a way, this model of communication appears to
be influenced to a large extent by the behaviourism which was the newly developing
trend in America those days. Behaviourism is a school of psychology that supports
that behaviours can be influenced by conditioning. Laswell’s model takes the
psychological conditioning of individuals and society into account. His model of
communication can also be described as the psycho-sociological model of
communication because it deals with the psychological and sociological aspects
of communication. It considers what effects communication has on the recipient(s)
of the message, and so it enters the domain of psychology as well as sociology.
David Berlo’s model is popularly known as SMCR model. As has been said
earlier, it is the socio-cultural extension of the mathematical model of communication
given by Shannon and Weaver. Berlo says that the source and destination, i.e., the
speaker and listener should share certain elements in order to achieve successful
communication. The elements that they should share are described as
communication skill, attitudes, knowledge, social system and culture. Similarly, he
has also found more elements in ‘message’ and ‘channel’. The elements of message
are content, element, structure, treatment and code. Further, the elements within
‘channel’ have been seen as the five sense perceptions, i.e., seeing, hearing,
touching, smelling and tasting. Berlo has also described each element of SMCR in
great detail. The S in the model stands for source which may be oral, written,
electronic or even symbolic. The M denotes the message that is transmitted and it
implies the dissemination of ideas. The C indicates the channel through which
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communication is affected. Since the receivers are the one towards whom the Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
communication process is directed, so, they are denoted by R in the model.
S
SOURCE
M
MESSAGE
C
CHANNEL
R
RECEIVER
NOTES
communication seeing communication

skills skills
attitudes elements structure hearing attitudes

c t t
knowledge o r n touching knowledge
n e e
a m
t t smelling
social system e social system
n
culture t tasting culture
Fig. 2.2 David Berlo’s Model of Communication (1960)

Theodore M. Newcomb was an American social psychologist who carried out
work in the area of interpersonal attraction. Newcomb’s model is unique in the
sense that unlike other models he has given a triangular one which tries to explain
the role of communication in a society.
C (social environment)
A B
(Communicator) (receiver)
Fig. 2.3 Newcomb’s Model (1953)
The three nodes of the triangle A, B, C represent communicator, receiver

and their social environment, respectively. According to him, the ABC elements
form a system where there is a relationship of interdependence between the three.
It means that if A changes, B and C would also have to change. In case A changes
its relationship with C, then B will have to change its relationship with C or A as
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Types and Theories of well. The corresponding changes will maintain the equilibrium within the system. C
Mass Communication
here denotes social environment which is both common to A and B. Communication
takes place between the two in a symmetrical manner because they are both
oriented towards C. Communication supports this structure and relationship, and
NOTES so, if there is a change or adjustment in relationship between A and B, a symmetry
can be created without disturbing the communication equilibrium.
Let us take the example of an election where A is a political party, B is the
people and C is the election itself. A and B need to relate with each other in the
context of election. This relation or connectivity is achieved by both with the help
of various kinds of media and the result of elections would depend on how much
A has been able to influence B. If the communication is successful the result of the
election would be in the favour of A or else they would go against A. In either
case, the relationship between A and B would change because the environment C
has changed in a definitive manner.
In a way, this model can be compared with the sociological theory of the
state of equilibrium. It is a model which underlines the significance of communication
in an era of information where people believe in the power of knowledge and
where the political parties, governments and the people depend heavily on news
and information in order to provide or get good and effective governance. This
good governance requires democratization of public policy which cannot be
achieved without intense communication.
Charles Egerton Osgood was an American psychologist who is known for his
contribution of developing a technique of measuring the connotative meaning of
concepts, known as the semantic differential. He has also contributed insights into
the area of psycholinguistics. Charles E. In fact, Charles Osgood is the first person
to underline the two-way nature of communication which makes it a very good
model to understand the actual process of interpersonal communication. Osgood
has also talked about one-to-many and many-to-one systems of communication
while elaborating his model. Osgood made a new beginning in communication
models by suggesting the first circular model as it does not look at communication
as a linear process moving from point A to point B. Communication is a dynamic
process for him which can begin with any stimulus received by the source or
receiver. His model shows the significance of both the source and receiver as the
participants in a communicative situation. In his model, both the ends have the
capability of encoding, decoding and interpreting the messages.
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Mass Communication
Encoder M
Encoder
Interpreter Interpreter NOTES
Decoder M Decoder
Source Receivers
Fig. 2.4 Osgood’s Communication Model
Writing about his model in his book the measurement of meaning, Osgood
says:
…we have communication whenever one system, a source, influences
the state or actions of another system, the destination or receiver, by
selecting among the alternative signals that can be carried in the channel
connecting them. In dealing with human communication systems we
usually refer to signal sets as messages; and these are most often,
though not necessarily, language messages.…Also in dealing with
human communication, it is necessary to further analyze both source
and receiver into integrated subsystem. The individual human
communicator is equipped both to receive and transmit messages
more-or-less simultaneously–indeed, he is regularly the receiver of
the message he himself produces, via feedback mechanism.

Another linear model of communication proposed by George Gerbner, former
Professor and Head of the Annenberg School of Communication in the University
of Pennsylvania, tries to take the best of all the earlier models that judge
communication as the transmission of message. His model, in fact, tries to improve
upon the earlier models. The unique feature of this model is that it relates the
message with the reality and thereby raises the question of perception and meaning.
Gerbner’s model has two dimensions and three stages. The perceptual or receptive
and the communicative and means of control are the two dimensions and the
vertical, horizontal and then vertical again are the three stages in this model. The
elements used in Gerbner’s model are given in the figure below (Figure 2.5).
In order to explain, this model we will discuss it thread bare from first stage
to the last stage. To begin with, the first stage called Horizontal Dimension, one
has to start from the event E (external reality) as perceived by M (the human being
or the machine such as a camera or a microphone). M then selects E according to
his perception of the event. As human perception is a very complex phenomenon,
it involves a series of interaction and negotiation. This is the complete process of
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Types and Theories of arriving at some perception of the event by matching the external stimuli with the
Mass Communication
internal pattern of thought or concept.
The vertical dimension is the second stage where the perceived reality is
articulated with the help of a mechanism that converts E into signals that are capable
NOTES
of being transmitted along a channel. Here the E is converted into SE which we
normally call as message. In this stage, it becomes necessary to select the appropriate
means or the medium of communication. Gerbner is actually illustrating the notion
of access to media at this point. Let us take the example of television as media to
understand the question of access. Television is generally considered as the elitist
media.
M
E Selection context E1
Communicating dimension
event availability percept
Means and control

Access to channels
Perceptual dimension
Media control
M2
SE1
SE1 Selection context Percept of
form content availability statement
about event
Fig. 2.5 Gerbner’s Model
The third stage of this process is where the message reaches its destination.
This again has the horizontal dimension where M2 is the signal or statement SE
about the event E. Here the meaning of the message is not contained in the message
itself, but it is arrived at through interaction and negotiation that takes place between
the message and the receiver. Gerbner introduces here the concept of culture and
says that the receiver derives the meaning of SE on the basis of his culture or sub-
culture which again requires the interactions and/or negotiations between M2 and
SE resulting in the generation of meaning of SE. For example, there is a witness
(M) to a case (E). He is bound to be affected by his attitude, behaviour, perception,
and so, his statement is converted into SE. His mode of communication is through
written or oral form. This SE is taken up by the media house that converts it into a
news report (M2). The readers of the news at this point form their opinions based
on their own cultural aspects and orientations. Thus, meaning is generated in this
way.
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This model brings forth two important concepts of access and availability. Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
As we have described earlier, the selection of reality in television is in the control
of the persons who control that media. It is for the same reason that the trade
unions across the world accuse the owners of the media and the middle class
intellectuals of misrepresenting the workers agitation in particular and the industrial NOTES
news in general. Hence, access to media is a means of exerting power and social
control. At horizontal dimension, availability does something almost same as what
access does to the reality in vertical dimension. If selectivity tries to interpret the
reality in terms of a given perspective, then the availability helps to determine what
is actually perceived. At this level, the receiver of the message uses his own
selectivity that is the end result of his socio-cultural environment. It is amply clear
by the fact that the working class is able to understand the bias and
misrepresentation of reality portrayed by the mainstream media because of the
differences in the sub-cultures of the encoder and the decoder.
Revised model
George Gerbner later presented a modified version of his model which includes
human and mechanical agents involved in the process. His later works like his
studies of violence on television suggests that he was aware of certain deficiencies
in his model, but the significance of his work lies in the fact that he has tried to
synchronize the process and semiotic school of studies in his model. Later, Gerbner
adopted a new approach to the study of mass communication, focussing on the
process of mass communication itself. Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, and Signorielli
asserted that television is the new form that disseminates new images and messages
in the world. It determines the new social trends, and has replaced other forms of
media, thus creating a new symbolic environment. It affects the thinking of the
people, but Gerbner also argues that the effects of television are limited.
Wilbur Schramm was one among the leading experts in the field of communication
studies. He has very effectively tried to explain the process of communication in its
widest sense from intrapersonal to mass communication. He has improvised the
model of Shannon and Weaver and has also made Osgood’s model more effective
by introducing the notion of feedback. The stress on feedback and noise as the
essential components of communication process is an improvement upon Osgood’s
concept of the source and receivers both possessing the encoding, interpreting
and decoding capabilities.
The feedback becomes a very important factor for the two-way
communication between two people where any further possibility of sender’s
encoding of another message depends upon the constant feedback in terms of the
response. Hence, a dialogue is a communication where two people talking to each
other become the sender and receiver at the same time. Schramm also interpreted
feedback in another way where it means that the encoder gets the response from
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Types and Theories of his/her own message. We always hear our own voice while speaking and read our
Mass Communication
own writings before they are heard or read by others. The process of correcting
the pronunciation and spelling are the result of the feedback mechanism between
the encoding and the message. In this sense, the sender alone is having both functions
NOTES of encoding and decoding for his/her own message.
Encoder
Interpreter Message
Feedback
Decoder
Fig. 2.6 Schramm’s Communication Model
Schramm then brings the notion of field of experience as a significant factor

of communication. The large part of the field of experience of the people is
idiosyncratic or private. However, the medium and a part of the field of experience
should be shared by the individual, without which communication cannot take
place.
Field of experience Field of experience
Source Encoder Signal Decoder Destination
Fig. 2.7 Field of Experience in Communication
He also discusses the role of frame of reference for the people participating
in communicative situation. The frame of reference is the total sociological contest
in which the communication takes place and where the people relates to the
messages on the basis of their own values, needs and the social imperatives and
constraints imposed on individuals.
Bruce H. Westley and M.S. MacLean gave an improvised and extended version
of Newcomb’s model. If Newcomb’s model was for communication in general
then this model is specifically adapted and designed for understanding the role of
mass media in communication. Westley and MacLean have added one more element
of editorial-communicating function to the triangular model of sender, receiver and
their social context.
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X1 Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
X2
NOTES
X3 A C B
X1
X3c
X4 X = source of information
A = sender
C = gatekeeper
B = audience
f = feedback
Fig. 2.8 Westley and MacLean Model of Communication
In the Figure 2.8, C stands for the gatekeeper, B represents the audience
members, and A stands for the sender, or individuals who want to communicate
something to the others. The X represents the external surroundings that are also
the source of information. C is placed in middle of A and B because it acts as the
gatekeeper who decides what information given by A will be shared with others
and what will not be shared. The newspapers, websites and other media have
limited space and time in comparison to the stories that they could find out. The
gatekeeper believes that it knows the needs of the audience well, and so decides
for them the information that will reach them. It tries to understand their needs by
devoting time to this process.
The element of feedback between C and B is equally important in the
model. This involves the audience providing feedback to the gatekeeper about
their needs. At the same time, C will give feedback to A to tell him what the
audience or B wants. For example, at a news channel, the gatekeepers decide
what to broadcast on the channel because they have enough experience to know
the viewers’ needs well. A reporter who works with the news house will be required
to find stories that could be passed to the audience in the form of a broadcast. But
a reporter also needs to receive feedback from his editor or producer to know
what the viewers want. Similarly, the news channel has several competitors and
would not like to lose its viewership, so it will make sure that it understands the
needs of its viewers perfectly well.
According to their scheme of things, the receiver of the message gets what
the communicator wants him/her to receive. It is so because many a times they do
not have any information about the facts that are told. For explaining this Westley
and MacLean dragged axis X to such an extent that the triangular model becomes
linear. The other important aspect of their model is that they have revised it to
extend it further the first-layer talks about the relationship of receiver with the
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Types and Theories of sender and the social environment and the second layer involves a mass media or
Mass Communication
an editor who mediates between the two. An example of the Westley and
MacLean’s model is that in case a person witnesses an accident, his first reaction
would be to communicate this piece of information to his family and dear ones to
NOTES make sure that they are all right. in this case, he received signals from his environment
and passed the gathered information to others. Thus, communication is derived
from the external surroundings. In this example, the individual has acted as the
gatekeeper who chooses how to give the piece of information to the audience.
Westley and MacLean argue that mass media has expanded our world so
much that we by ourselves cannot obtain all the information required by us and it
is here that the role of mass media and journalists appears as they provide the
necessary orientation. In this scheme of things, the sender and the mass media can
play dominant role and the receiver becomes totally dependent on them for the
information and orientation to avoid the possible disconnect that could be caused
otherwise. Thus, theirs is a dependency model that fails to take into account the
fact that mass media is not the only means of orientation towards the reality and
people have other means too. We all have family, friends, school, religious places,
social institutions, work places and various types of organizations which on regular
basis supply us with information and orientation.
Check Your Progress

1. List the four types of mass communication.
2. Which model is the first model of communication?
3. Define redundancy.
4. Which model is also known as the psycho-sociological model of
communication?
2.4 THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
The emergence of new technologies of communication and the evolution of societies

into large and organized units suddenly changed the world as the notion of mass
societies and use of mass media for their control emerged. Broadly speaking, a
theory is a supposition or a system of ideas that intends to explain something. It is
with the help of theories that human behaviour pattern becomes clearer to scholars.
But theories are most often based on hypothesis, the basis of which may become
outmoded with time. Thus, the relevance of theories is dependent upon the time
period upon which they stand validated. A theory that once proved right may not
always be so. It is all a question of historical perspective, as the way we interpret
events in our lives changes with time. In this section, we would first discuss some
of the basic communication theories.
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2.4.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
Hypodermic needle theory and the magic bullet theory is the name given to the
explanation of the impact of mass media on masses. The magic bullet theory was
not based on empirical findings from research but rather on assumptions of the NOTES
time about human nature. Radio and newspapers had become such powerful mass
media that the allied forces had realized that they could be used for mounting an
ideological attack on the enemy during the World War II. This theory suggests that
mass media work exactly as the hypodermic needle or bullet as they have the
immediate effect. The ‘magic bullet’ theory graphically assumes that the media’s
message is a bullet fired from the ‘media gun’ into the viewer’s ‘head’ and the
’hypodermic needle model’ suggests that the media injects its messages straight
into the passive audience. This passive audience is immediately affected by these
messages. It presumes that the receivers of the mass media messages are generally
the passive receivers and they accept whatever is injected or shot at them.
Communication and mass communication relate to the transfer of meanings; they
relate to the process of understanding, assimilating and reinforcing or changing the
attitudes, and they are the processes taking place by and large to affect the state of
mind, behaviour and attitudes of the people involved in communication. There is
no doubt that the magic bullet or hypodermic theories were the result of behaviourism
school which tries to explain these processes as human psychological behaviour.
The only drawback of these theories wasthat they tried to generalize them and
they were less empirical and less rigorous in arriving at a conclusion.
The later phase of this psychological approach gave rise to many theories of
which the theory of individual difference is the most significant. Individual difference
theory is sometimes called differential theory because researchers in this area study
the ways in which individuals differ in their behaviour. This theory suggests that
different personality variables result in different reactions to the same stimulus. It
means that an individual’s psychological mechanism accounts for his/her reactions
to messages transmitted by mass media. Psychological difference theory suggests
that all individuals are unique, and so, different from each other. Individuals vary in
their behaviour, perception, attitude, values, beliefs and even in the way they react.
All individuals react differently to the same stimuli. What differentiates the
psychological difference theory from other psychological theories is that it is
concerned with individual differences, and not the differences that exist in a group.
When everybody in United States was involved in thinking about the impact of
mass media on the perception of masses, there were a few who were studying the
process of creating public opinion during the elections. They found that the personal
influence of the opinion leaders has more impact than the distant voice of mass
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Types and Theories of media. Lazarsfeld disproved these theories when he conducted election studies in
Mass Communication
The People’s Choice (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet, 1944/1968) during the
election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940. This study was executed to determine
the voting patterns of people during the elections and the relationship between the
NOTES media and political power. It was discovered that the majority of the public remained
unfazed by propaganda. Instead, interpersonal outlets proved more influential than
the media. Therefore, it was concluded that the effects of the campaign were not
all powerful to the point where they completely persuaded ‘helpless audiences’,
as claimed by these theories and Lasswell. These new findings also suggested that
the public can select which messages affect and do not affect them.
Lazarsfeld et al also introduced the multi step flow of communication theory.
It is also known as the two-step flow of communication. According to this theory,
people form their opinions based on what the opinion leaders think. These opinion
leaders, in their turn, are affected by what the mass media propounds. So, the
flow of information takes place from the mass media to the opinion leaders and
from them these ideas are disseminated to the larger audience or the public. The
opinion leaders are those who use media actively and analyse and interpret media
content for the lower-end media users. Most opinion leaders are respected by
those who follow them. An opinion leader in one area or domain may be a follower
in another.
The media dependency theory, also known as media system dependency theory,
is in fact an extension of the use and gratification theory. DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach
(1975) developed a theory that many scholars use to examine social phenomena
in relation to the media. In their theory, Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur recommend,
instead of looking solely at the individual to assess media effects, it is worthwhile
to consider the entire social framework within which the media function. This
theory focusses on the interplay between media systems and larger society. DeFleur
and Ball-Rokeach have said that ‘media do not exist in a vacuum’. They further
suggest that ‘the ultimate basis of media influence lies in the nature of the three-
way relationship between the larger social system, the media’s role in that system,
and audience relationships to the media’.
The dependency theory has its origins in sociology, but it extends to
connecting individual cognitive effects of media to events taking place in the larger
surrounding society. The outcome of the dependency on media is access to
information access and resultant power relations between the providers of access
to information and the seekers of information. Globalization is partly an outcome
of media dependency. This shows the important power dynamic role of media
dependency. According to Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur, there are three needs of a
person that ascertain the role that media will play in his life. These are as follows:
 Surveillance: This is derived from a person’s desire to understand his
or her social, political and economic environment.
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 Social utilty: It involves determining how to act and operate in the Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
world in the most effective and meaningful manner.
 Fantasy-escape: When worries are bogging an individual down, he is
looking for some sort of entertainment. This need is suitably met by the
NOTES
media.
Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur argue that the manner in which a person depends
on media for satisfying the preceding needs determines the importanceit will have
in his life, and the way it will affect him. For example, we watch or listen to the
news so that we remain updated on the current happenings in the world. Similarly,
when we want to release tension that we carry from work, we may prefer to
watch a comedy show or a cartoon. Also, a retired old woman living in the
countryside may be more dependent on the media than a young upcoming sales
executive living in the city.
The cultivation theory, developed by George Gerbner, is a scientific theory.
Cultivation theory in its most basic form suggests that exposure to television, over
time, subtly ‘cultivates’ the viewers’ perceptions of reality. This cultivation can
have an impact even on the light viewers of TV, because the impact on heavy
viewers has an impact on our entire culture. It looks at media as having a long-
term passive effect on the audiences and a compound effect over an extended
period. Gerbner, giving an example, says that there are so many images transmitted
to the viewers that it looks like a bombardment of images. He talks about dominant
symbols, images and messages of media that are unknowingly absorbed by the
audience and they have a subtle effect on them. If the television audiences are
shown glamorous places, big houses, nice cloths, various types of toys, chocolates,
fast food, electric and electronic gadgets repeatedly then the viewers start believing
that they too can expect such things in their life and they tend to become consumers.
Hence, it is quite evident that mass media, specially the television has an enormous
impact on the masses and it has the power to create consumers for the growing
markets in Europe, US and elsewhere. Hence Gerbner describes media as moulders
of the society.
George Gerbner developed the cultivation theory as a part of his three-
stage research strategy, called Cultural Indicators. The concept of a ‘cultural
indicator’ was given by Gerbner in order to be a more common idea of a social
indicator. The first part of this strategy is known as the institutional process analysis.
This investigates how the flow of media messages is produced and managed, how
decisions are made, and how media organizations function. The second part of
this strategy is known as message system analysis, which has been used to track
the most stable and recurrent images in media content in terms of violence, race
and ethnicity, gender, and occupation. It deals with several questions such as ‘What
are the dominant patterns of images, messages, and facts, values and lessons,
expressed in media messages?’ The final part of the research strategy is the
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Types and Theories of cultivation analysis, where the answers to questions like what is the relationship
Mass Communication
between attention to these messages and audiences’ conceptions of social reality
are sought.
The cultivation theory can have a negative effect on a particular business’s
NOTES
image. If the public is bombarded with negative materials about a company, then
it is very possible that the public will no longer associate the company with its
previous reputation or achievements or even its products. The public instead will
focus on the negative materials attached to the company, and if they do still attach
products to a company’s image, it is entirely possible that the public will then
attach that negative stigma to the products.
Agenda basically means a list of matters to be taken up for discussion or debate.
It also implies a list of programmes that are to be given importance. When forms
of media decide the content that they want to furnish to the public, they are
presenting or setting before us their agenda. Agenda Setting was an early theory
given to us by Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. These two scholars believed that
media content sets the agenda for public discussions. They both believed that the
media did not specifically tell us what to think about a particular subject; rather it
introduced the subjects about which we should have an opinion. However, the
term ‘agenda setting’ was coined by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in
1968.
McCombs has taken his research a step further by determining if the media
decides which topics we discuss as a society. His original theory was just looking
to prove that the media did select our topics. He has taken it a step further in
recent years to determine if the media control what we think about and how we
think about it. The media keeps us informed and gives us topics of interest without
us realizing that they are giving us topics. For example, certain newspapers favour
certain political powers, and try to present the political party that they support in a
positive light. This is an example of trying to better the image of a particular political
party.
The agenda setting theory comes up as a result of the shortcomings of ‘limited
effect’ school of thought which talked about the selected exposure, attention and
retention. Countering the point of view of this school, the agenda setting theory
highlights the power of media though it also recognizes the people’s freedom and
right to choose the media and its content. The Figure 2.9 illustrates the agenda
setting theory.
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Mass Communication
NOTES
Fig. 2.9 Agenda Setting Theory

The culture of a society is very important for its progress because culture defines
and informs our beliefs, values, attitudes, behaviours, etc. It defines our identity
and makes us capable of leading life in the society. In fact, the society would
collapse if there was no culture because it is the culture to which we turn when we
find human life difficult and full of struggles. Culture brings individuals together so
that they form a common cultural identity. It is culture that keeps the social
relationships intact.
The theory of culture industry developed by Frankfurt School critical theorists
such as Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer and Herbert Marcuse is
diametrically opposed to the aristocratic view. According to them, the culture
industry that is driven by the forces of consumer capitalism is what dominates the
masses. Marxism had a major influence on these thinkers and theorists, and so, it
informs their ideas to a great extent. The concept of hegemony given by Gramsci
does not find any resonance here. In this context, asserting that an oppressed
social class should aim for hegemony in the society fails to be significant. Here, the
machinery of the state becomes the dominating figure as it has ‘taken over’.
Popular culture studies found the much required momentum at this stage,
i.e., the late seventies and the eighties, though there had been thinkers such as
Umberto Eco and Roland Barthes earlier. Initially, studies on popular culture were
based on leftist ideas and were clearly opposed to the ‘aristocratic’ view. But the
pessimism of the Frankfurt School also received much censure from the
contemporary popular culture theorists. Contemporary studies on mass culture
assert that popular culture is largely a manifestation of the widespread needs of the
public. They argue that consumers do not often fall prey to indoctrination and
passive reception. These theorists do not see mass culture as a monolithic concept.
Instead their opinion on culture is that it is a ‘complex formation of discourses
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Types and Theories of which indeed correspond to particular interests, and which indeed can be dominated
Mass Communication
by specific groups, but which also always are dialectically related to their producers
and consumers’.
NOTES 2.4.8 Mass Society Theory

Mass society is the post-Industrial Revolution society that has entered modernity.
As a result, the traditional ideas around which societies in the past were based
have been replaced by an idea of a society where everyone is equal, thus, forming
a mass society. This mass society is bound to have a mass culture. Mass culture
refers to the prevailing consumerist culture in the society that has emerged from a
capitalist society. Mass society theory came up as a result of growing
industrialization in the nineteenth century Europe. Division of labour led to rapid
large-scale industrial organization, the growing centralization of decision-making,
the concentration of urban populations, and the development of complex
international communication networks. This in turn generated political movements
and the mass society.
Alan Swingewood points out in The Myth of Mass Culture that the
aristocratic theory of mass society can be associated with the moral crisis brought
about by the disintegration of established sources of authority such as family and
religion. Poets and philosophers such as José Ortega y Gasset and T.S. Eliot were
much wary of a society taken over by philistine masses, a society where the centres
of moral or cultural authority were absent. The survival of art in this society could
be possible only if it disassociated with the masses; then art would become an
asylum for threatened values. This kind of theory vacillates between the
disinterested, pure autonomous form of art and commercialized mass culture.
2.4.9 Political–Economical Media Theory
Marxism is an economic and socio-political worldview and technique of socio-
economic inquiry that concentrates upon the following:
 Materialist understanding of history
 A dialectical view of social change
 An analysis and evaluation of the growth of capitalism
Marxism has influenced socialist political movements worldwide. The
Marxian analysis starts with an analysis of material situations, taking at its initial
point the essential economic activities needed by human society to afford for its
material needs. The form of economic organization, or mode of production, is
understood to be the basis from which the majority of other social phenomena
arise. These social relations shape the superstructure, of which the economic system
is the base. As the forces of production, most particularly technology, progress,
existing forms of social organization become incompetent and suppress additional
growth.
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These inefficiencies look as social contradictions in society in the shape of Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
class struggle. Under the capitalist form of production, this struggle occurs between
the minority who own the means of production, i.e., the bourgeoisie, and the vast
majority of the population who make goods and services, i.e., the proletariat.
Taking the idea that social change happens due to the struggle between various NOTES
classes within society who are under contradiction against each other, the Marxist
analysis leads to the conclusion that capitalism coerces the proletariat, the
predictable result being a proletarian revolution.
A theory influenced by the Marxist thought is known as political–economical
media theory which maintains that the economy is the base of the superstructure of
a society and it is the economic ideology that decides the content of media along
with the political policies of the state. It is obvious in such a paradigm that the
media along with the political system and other institution is the part of the
superstructure and has to be in line with the economic philosophy of the state.
As the political–economical media theory puts a lot of emphasis on the
economic interests of the industrialists and other economically powerful people
who normally also own media, the independence of media appears to be reduced,
the media seems to be concentrating on large markets and the small and poor
sections of the potential audience are neglected. In spite of the fact that this theory
does not take the public media into account while describing the media in terms of
rich economic class and the growing free market, it aptly describes the role of
media, in general, owned by big industrial and business interests.
The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no
development without communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism
was legitimized, but under the development communication theory, the media
undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental programmes, accepting
restrictions and instructions from the State. The media subordinated themselves to
political, economic, social and cultural needs. Hence, the stress on ‘development
communication’ and ‘development journalism’ was seen in most of the developing
countries.
There was tacit support from various organizations of the United Nations to
the programmes of development in the area of education, health, environment,
and infrastructural development. Organizations like UNICEF, WHO, UNCHR,
UNDP promoted the cause of development. The UNESCO not only set up a
commission for the study of communication problems headed by Sean McBride,
but it also started a programme for the development of communication known as
IPDC. The Report of the Sean McBride Commission compiled in a book Many
voices, one world has become the major reference book for the students of
development journalism.
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Mass Communication
Check Your Progress
5. What is hypodermic needle theory?
NOTES 6. How many dimensions and stages are there in Gerbner’s model?
7. From where did the dependency theory originate?
2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS
1. The four types of mass communication are:

(a) Print Media
(b) Broadcast Media
(c) Transit Media
(d) Digital Media
2. The model suggested by Shannon and Weaver is the first model of
communication, though it was drawn by them to explain the working of
telephones.
3. One minus the relative entropy is the redundancy.
4. Harold Lasswell’s model of communication can also be described as the
psycho-sociological model of communication.
5. Hypodermic needle theory presumes that the receivers of the mass media
messages are generally the passive receivers and they accept whatever is
injected or shot at them.
6. Gerbner’s model has two dimensions and three stages.
7. The dependency theory of communication has its origins in sociology.
2.6 SUMMARY
 Print media is called the traditional or conventional media. Newspapers,

magazines, books, journals, etc. come under the category of print media.
Any print publication which is meant for the large number of people is
considered as print media.
 Broadcast media includes television and radio. It brought revolution in mass
communication. The world of journalism got changed with the advent of
radio and television.
 The form of transit media is utilized for advertising products or services as
well as spread social information and awareness to the general public.
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 Digital media provides the opportunity to connect with the world anytime, Types and Theories of
Mass Communication
anywhere with the lightening speed. Social media is the part of digital media
which has become an integral part of our life today.
 Communication as an activity appears to be very simple to explain at the
NOTES
very first instance, but when we explore it further the complexities of
communication make it difficult for us to describe it in simpler terms.
 The models of communication help us to understand the process of
communication where the factors of communications are shown in a particular
order and relations.
 David Berlo’s model is popularly known as SMCR model. It is the socio-
cultural extension of the mathematical model of communication given by
Shannon and Weaver.
 Newcomb’s model underlines the significance of communication in an era
of information where people believe in the power of knowledge and where
the political parties, governments and the people depend heavily on news
and information in order to provide or get good and effective governance.
 Charles E. Osgood made a new beginning in communication models by
suggesting the first circular model as it does not look at communication as a
linear process moving from point A to point B.
 Gerbner’s model has two dimensions and three stages. The perceptual or
receptive and the communicative and means of control are the two
dimensions and the vertical, horizontal and then vertical again are the three
stages in this model.
 Hypodermic needle theory and the magic bullet theory is the name given to
the explanation of the impact of mass media on masses. The magic bullet
theory was not based on empirical findings from research but rather on
assumptions of the time about human nature.
 Individual difference theory is sometimes called differential theory because
researchers in this area study the ways in which individuals differ in their
behaviour. This theory suggests that different personality variables result in
different reactions to the same stimulus.
 The media dependency theory, also known as media system dependency
theory, is in fact an extension of the use and gratification theory. DeFleur
and Ball-Rokeach (1975) developed a theory that many scholars use to
examine social phenomena in relation to the media.
 Mass society theory came up as a result of growing industrialization in the
nineteenth century Europe.
 The theory influenced by the Marxist thought is known as political–
economical media theory which maintains that the economy is the base of
the superstructure of a society.
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Mass Communication 2.7 KEY WORDS
 Encoding: It is the process of converting a message, information, etc. into

NOTES code.
 Decoding: It means to translate data or a message from a code into the
original language or form, to extract meaning from spoken or written symbols.

EXERCISES
1. What is the difference between Shannon and Weaver’s model, SMCR
model and Lasswell’s model?
2. Give a brief description of Osgood’s model of communication and explain
its significance.
3. Write a short note on Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model.
1. Explain the different types of mass communication.
2. How is the model of George Garbner different from the rest of the models?
Discuss its unique characteristics with examples.
3. Discuss the basic features of some of the important theories of
communication.
Holmes, David. 2005. Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society.

London: Sage Publishers.
Rosengren, Karl Eric. 2000. Communication: An Introduction. London: Sage
Publishers.
Fiske, John. 1982. Introduction to Communications Studies. London: Methuen
& Co. 5. Asa Berger, Arthur. 1995. Essentials of Mass Communication
Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Mcquail, Denis. 1983. Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage Publication.
Self-Instructional William, Raymond. 1976. Communications. London: Penguin Books.
38 Material
Nature and Function of
UNIT 3 NATURE AND FUNCTION Mass Communication
OF MASS
NOTES
COMMUNICATION
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Nature of Mass Communication
3.4 Summary
3.5 Key Words
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Mass communication has become an inseparable part of human life with the
emergence of satellite communication. Mass communication history is very recent
& its inputs are very significant for the nation’s growth. The nature of mass
communication is complex, proactive, realistic and promotional. In mass
communication, the audience is fairly broad, heterogeneous and anonymous. The
scale of the audience in mass communication makes it difficult for the mass
communicator and participants to communicate face to face. The receivers in mass
communication are often unknown to the source, in addition to being a diversified
group. This unit mainly deals with the nature and functions of mass communication.
3.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the concept of mass communication
 Discuss the nature of mass communication
 Describe the functions of mass communication
3.2 NATURE OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Even though mass communication has been in existence since the early twentieth
century, many of its chief characteristics have remained unchanged. A typical form
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Nature and Function of of mass communication will have certain features that are general in nature. These
Mass Communication
are as follows:
 Large-scale distribution and reception: Large-scale distribution and
reception of media is its most obvious feature; as the name indicates ‘mass’
NOTES
media is meant to reach many people. These form the potential audiences,
the relationship between them, the anonymous audience, the receiver and
the sender, the professional communicator (journalist, TV presenter, radio
jockey etc) or the organization (TV network, ad agency, PR agency, etc.)
 Asymmetrical relationship: An important feature of mass communication
is that the relationship between the sender and the receiver is asymmetrical.
The sender has more prestige and authority than the receiver.
 Impersonal and standardized content: The content or message of mass
communication differs from that of other kinds of human communication in
that it is impersonal and standardized. The operating principle that
manufactures the message is the exchange value of that message in the
media market since the message is treated as a commodity that will have a
certain use value for its consumers, in this case the media consumer.
The functions of mass communication can be broadly divided into three headings:
to inform, educate and entertain.
Inform
To inform the public is the most basic and primary function of mass communication.
Mass communication ensures that there is a constant flow of information regarding
events and developments occurring in the country and the world. This specifically
refers to the role played by news channels, newspapers, magazines and internet
sites devoted to news. By this, mass communication serves the function of
surveillance. They inform us to beware of threats from cyclones, hurricanes, riots,
impending wars or weather developments. However, this function can also prove
to be dysfunctional for society. For example, it is useful to be informed of a
developing storm. Nevertheless, sometimes it can cause panic and anxiety among
people. Similarly, reports on riots in one area can lead to clashes in other areas.
Hence mass communication has taken on the role of interpretation of events as a
necessary corollary to its function of informing people. TV channels, newspapers,
magazines, etc not only appreciate the importance of informing people about events,
but also realize the significance of conveying the meaning of these events so that
people get an added perspective of the event and are not over stimulated or over
modified. Panel discussions, news editorials, analytical articles, documentaries and
discussions on radios are all geared to perform this function.
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Educate Nature and Function of
Mass Communication
Mass communication also fulfils the function of educating the masses. It educates
people on news, events, changes and developments and especially on cultural
values. The latter is particularly important since, although subtle, it helps people NOTES
develop a sense of community and so performs a socializing function. Media
represents our society and by reading or watching articles or programmes based
on our society we learn to select values that are important to us and critically
analyse and then discard those that are not.
Entertain
This is the most obvious function of mass communication. With the availability of
media to a large number of people at affordable costs, media content is expected
to meet the interests and tastes of all kinds of audiences. This, in other words has
led to the democratization of media. Further, mass communication has enabled
people to participate in the process of entertainment. TV programmes like Indian
Idol and Kaun Benega Crorepati invite audience participation. While Indian
Idol makes judges of those watching the show from the comfort of their living
rooms, Kaun Banega Crorepati has questions which are dedicated to viewers.
Further, people can also post their own videos, creative works, etc. on YouTube,
Twitter and such sites on the Internet. All in all mass communication provides
means by which people can distract themselves from the anxieties of their lives
and relax.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the relationship between the receiver and the sender in mass
communication?
2. What is the most basic and primary function of mass communication?

QUESTIONS
1. In mass communication, the relationship between the receiver and the sender
is asymmetrical.
2. Informing the public is the most basic and primary function of mass
communication.
3.4 SUMMARY
 Even though mass communication has been in existence since the early
twentieth century, many of its chief characteristics have remained unchanged.
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Nature and Function of  A typical form of mass communication will have certain features that are
Mass Communication
general in nature.
 Large-scale distribution and reception of media is its most obvious feature;
as the name indicates ‘mass’ media is meant to reach many people.
NOTES
 The content or message of mass communication differs from that of other
kinds of human communication in that it is impersonal and standardized.
 The function of mass communication is to basically inform, educate and
entertain.
 To inform the public is the most basic and primary function of mass
communication.
 Mass communication ensures that there is a constant flow of information
regarding events and developments occurring in the country and the world.
This specifically refers to the role played by news channels, newspapers,
magazines and internet sites devoted to news.
 Mass communication also fulfills the function of educating the masses. It
educates people on news, events, changes and developments and especially
on cultural values.
 With the availability of media to a large number of people at affordable
costs, media content is expected to meet the interests and tastes of all kinds
of audiences.
3.5 KEY WORDS
 Mass Communication: It is the process by which a message is transmitted

or transferred to a large group of people. This process is achieved through
such forms of media as television, radio, newspapers and the Internet.
 Mass Media: It is media that is meant for a group of people. It consists of
diverse media technologies which enable messages to reach a large audience
through mass communication.

EXERCISES
1. What do you mean by large-scale distribution and reception of media?
2. Why is the feature of impersonal and standardized content relevant in the
context of mass communication?
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Long-Answer Questions Nature and Function of
Mass Communication
1. Discuss how mass communication performs the function of informing people?
2. Describe the educating and entertaining functions of mass communication.
NOTES
Rosengren, K. E. 2000. Communication. London: Sage Publications.

Silverstone, R. 1999. Why Study the Media? London: Sage Publications.
Curran, J. and M. Gurevitch (eds). 1996. Mass Media and Society. London:
Arnold.
Windahl, S. B. Signitzer and J. Olson, 1992. Using Communication Theory.
London: Sage Publications.
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Overview of Mass Media
UNIT 4 OVERVIEW OF MASS

MEDIA
NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Definition of Mass Media
4.3 Functions of Mass Media
4.3.1 Symbolic Function of the Mass Media
4.4 Modes of Mass Media
4.4.1 Print Media
4.4.2 Radio
4.4.3 Cinema
4.4.4 Television
4.4.5 New Media
4.6 Summary
4.7 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Mass media refers to a broad range of media technologies that through mass
communication, reach a wide audience. A number of channels are included in the
technologies by which this correspondence takes place. Through media such as
films, radio, recorded music, or television, broadcast media transmit information
electronically. Both the Internet and mobile mass communication are used in digital
media. Outdoor media transmits information using such media as AR ads; billboards;
blimps; flying billboards; inside and outside of buses, commercial buildings, stores,
sports stadiums, subway cars or trains; signs; or skywriting placards or kiosks.
Through physical items, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, or
pamphlets, print media transmits information. The organizations that manage these
technologies are also known as the mass media, such as movie studios, publishing
firms, and radio and television stations. This unit discusses definition and functions
of mass media. It also focuses on the types of mass media.
4.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the meaning of mass media
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 Discuss the functions of mass media Overview of Mass Media
 Describe the various types of mass media
4.2 DEFINITION OF MASS MEDIA NOTES
Both the terms ‘mass communication’ and ‘mass media’ were coined in the early
twentieth century. And though often used synonymously, the two terms refer to
very different forms and phenomenon of communication. Mass communication
basically is the process by which a message is transmitted or transferred to a large
group of people. This process is achieved through such forms of media as television,
radio, newspapers and the Internet. A more common definition of the term is that
which refers to mass communication as the academic study of the manner in which
messages are relayed to a large group or groups of people instantaneously. Mass
media, on the other hand, is media that is meant for a group of people. It consists
of diverse media technologies which enable messages to reach a large audience
through mass communication. Media technologies can be either electronic or print.
Electronic media, also known as broadcast media, comprise radio, television,
films, DVDs and CDs. Broadcast media relays information electronically. Print
media comprises pamphlets, newspapers, leaflets, magazines, brochures, books,
etc. It uses a physical object as means to relay information. The easy accessibility
of the Internet and the outreach it affords has allowed it to achieve the status of
mass media. The Internet allows the broadcast of information both cost-effectively
and simultaneously to all parts of the world. Television, cinema, newspapers, radio,
magazine and phonograms were the early forms of mass media. These developed
rapidly and reached formats that can still be recognized; changes being mainly in
scale and diversity. At the same time, key features of mass communication have
remained constant: universal appeal, tremendous influence and impact, and rapid
relay of information, entertainment and opinions to a large population.
Regardless of the changes that mass media has seen, its significance in
contemporary society, economics, culture, politics and social life cannot be denied
or doubted. Television channels magazines and newspapers dedicated to economics
have proved immensely valuable; the in-depth analysis of markets and economies
encourages lay man to engage in business and also provides them with specialized
understanding of money. This has allowed the democratization of economics. Mass
media is also the primary means of cultural articulation and representation. It also
plays a vital role in forming cultural identities and images of social realities. Moreover,
mass media provides a space in which political policies, facts, decisions can be
discussed and debated. It also provides the interest groups and politicians the
channels of influence and publicity. The relevance of mass media is also visible in
social life. Everyday social life is infused by the contents of media: lifestyles are
influenced, models of behaviour are presented and ideas for leisure time are offered.
Because of these developments, it is no wonder that mass media and mass
communication have become objects of public scrutiny and interest.
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4.3 FUNCTIONS OF MASS MEDIA
Harold Lasswell, a prolific communication scholar, suggested that the media perform
NOTES four basic functions for society: surveying the environment to provide information;
correlating response to this information (editorial function); entertaining the media
user (diversion function); and transmitting the country’s cultural heritage to future
generations (socialization or educational function). In a developing country, the
mass media are also expected to play an additional role–to mobilize public support
for national development. Let us go through the various functions of mass media in
detail:
 Information: Mass media disseminate information or news about the
happenings in any society. The dissemination of this information takes various
forms in different societies. In the traditional societies, folk stories, music,
drama, and group get-togethers for discussions emulated the contemporary
mass media as information disseminators as well as platforms for interaction.
Today that role has been taken over by the mass media–it is the source of
all information regarding local and external matters.
 Surveillance: As the watchdog of the society, media keep a close watch
on events and issues all around. Lasswell termed this the surveillance function.
It facilitates our adjustment and adaptation with the world around us.
Surveillance function also involves the media’s efforts to disclose threats
and opportunities, affecting the value position of the community. In performing
this function, they warn us of unexpected dangers and help us take
precautionary measures much in advance.
 Education: The mass media not only inform but also educate. They provide
context to the issues being informed. By spreading information about current
issues, new goods and services, mass media play a key role in forming,
shaping and educating the audiences. Buying decisions, forming public
opinion are aided by mass media. Mass media have also been used for
formal educational programmes as well as public service campaigns. George
Bernard Shaw described daily newspapers as ‘poor man’s university’. In
1975-76, the Satellite Instruction Television Experiment (SITE)
demonstrated the potential of television as a medium of learning in the socially
and economically backward areas in India. The mass media not only tell us
what has happened, but also explain the impact as well as importance of
the event and the issues reported. They clarify a complex situation by bringing
together fragmented facts. They also help us to correlate our response to
the imminent challenges and threats. Mass media also help us to reach at a
consensus on important issues.
 Entertainment: Entertainment refers to communicative acts intended for
amusement. Mass media have high entertainment value. A substantial part
of mass media content is designed to amuse, excite and titillate to attract the
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maximum number of consumers. Various mass media including print and Overview of Mass Media
electronic serve as entertaining and recreational platforms. Folk media kept

traditional societies entertained. The evolution of new media technologies
took the concept of entertainment of the general public to another level.
Cinema has been a veteran entertainer, and today television which adorns NOTES
most households the world over keep individuals, families and groups
constantly entertained through their 24x7 format. The characteristics of the
media audience have also changed. Where people once saw going out to a
film or gig or music festival as a luxury and could indulge only when budgets
permitted, consumers - with more money to spare today, see such activities
as essential counterbalances to the stresses of their lives. Entertainment has
a strong commercial aspect. It attracts a large audience which escalates the
medium’s potential for generating greater revenues through advertising and
related activities.
 Socialization: Socialization refers to the process by which an individual
develops the skills and habits to participate and settle in his/her socio-cultural
environment. Mass media are a strong social force and effective agents of
socialization. According to the noted communication scholar and theorist,
Denis Mc Quail, ‘the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic
reward and punishment for different kinds of behaviour as represented in
the media. An alternative view is that it is a learning process whereby we all
learn how to behave in certain situations and the expectations which go with
a given role or status in society. Thus the media are continually offering
pictures of life and models of behaviour in advance of actual experience’.
Mass media—newspapers, magazines, comic books, radio, video games,
movies, and especially television—present a different form of socialization
than any other.
 Link between government and people: There is a triangular relationship
between the government, media and people. In fact, Theodore Newcomb’s
model of communication (1953) represents this relationship very clearly in
the Figure 4.1. Newcomb describes ‘communication as a way in which
people orient to their environment and to each other. It is based on the
concept of balance between one’s attitudes and beliefs and those that are
important to an individual. If the balance is disturbed, communication is
used to restore it’. In Newcomb’s model, mass media becomes the mode
through which the government informs and explains its policies and programs
to the public and in turn receives support for the same.
Fig. 4.1 Newcomb’s ABX Model Self-Instructional

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Overview of Mass Media In this model, there are two communicators, A and B, and their ‘orientation’
towards an ‘object of communication’, X is shown. This object of communication
could be an actual physical object (such as a sofa which the couple is planning to
purchase or a decorative item), an event (such as a birthday or a music concert),
NOTES an activity (such as playing cricket or watching a film on television), an attitude
(such as a liking for horror movies or being against the dowry system), or a
behaviour (such as selling off a family heirloom without a second thought or donating
uniforms to the local little league baseball team). Any subject, behaviour, attitude,
belief, event, or object which is the focus of communication for the two participants
has the potential to be the ‘object of communication’. Each one of the
communicators, that is A and B, is co-oriented towards his communication partner
simultaneously and toward the object of communication (that is, the extent of
positivity or negativity about X).
 Act as a community forum: Media play a very mobilizing role and act
as a community forum to initiate and affect changes. The mass media
can stimulate a yearning for change. In his work, Mass Media and
National Develop (1964), Wilbur Schramm wrote: ‘Social change of
great magnitude is required. To achieve it people must be informed,
persuaded, educated…the required amount of information is so vast
that only by making effective use of the great information multipliers, the
mass media, can developing countries hope to provide information at
the rates their time tables demand.’
In an address to the Press Council of India in 2006, the Former President
of India, Dr A.P.J Abdul Kalam noted: ‘The media has a pivotal role in educating
the people to work for the well-being and prosperity of society and ultimately the
nation. The media has to become a partner in the development of the nation.’
Acting
as Community Forum
Linking
Informing Government and People
Functions
of Mass Media
Surveilling Socializing
Educating Entertaining
Fig. 4.2 Functions of Mass Media

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4.3.1 Symbolic Function of the Mass Media Overview of Mass Media
The media present ideologies and value messages. The media construct reality.
But the media have their own forms, codes and conventions. Audiences negotiate
meaning in media. In a nutshell, media mediate reality through the use of symbolism.
NOTES
Let us take an example of the commercially successful and critically acclaimed
Hindi movie Rang De Basanti. This film revolves around the youth. It is a story of
five friends. In the beginning, while these five friends are not too happy about the
state India is in, they are overall indifferent and happy in their world. A foreigner
contacts them to essay few historic characters in her film. As they play the part of
the key patriotic figures in India’s struggle for independence, they realize and
empathize with the fervor and sacrifices of these people to gain freedom from
colonial subjugation. The juxtaposition of the film’s narrative in the present against
the life story of the freedom fighters represents stark symbolism. They are driven
by this symbolic rebellion to drive a real rebellion which is triggered by a real loss.
The scene where the friends own up the murder of the Defence Minister on All
India Radio symbolically equates to the action of the late freedom fighter Bhagat
Singh who dropped a bomb in the assembly chamber of the British Parliament.
The film makes a strong symbolic statement for the audience. In fact, candle light
protests which marked the narrative of this film became a primary means of protest
in real India when soon after this film the Jessica Lal case verdict came out, and
the key accused was acquitted. These public protests and media support for them
reopened this case and the accused was brought to book.
Another example which can explain the symbolic function of the media is
the way gender is represented in children’s cartoon programmes. All these shows
represent stereotypical male and female images. The male is presented as a muscular
man, who is both physically and mentally strong. He seldom expresses his emotions
and also is the protector of the family and sometimes the society. The female
character is usually docile. She is physically attractive and is generally engaged in
household chores. There are hardly any representations where she goes out to
fend for the family.
Even non-fictional genres like news are not devoid of symbolism. News
media’s treatment of issues symbolizes the popular stance on them. For instance,
while the Hindi and regional news media in India represent news more sensationally,
the English news media show obvious elitist bias through their content and treatment.
While media images have inherent connotations, the public’s perception also ascribes
new meanings to these symbols. In a nutshell, media also perform a role in subtly
shaping perceptions and moulding public opinion by means of this symbolism.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the other name of electronic media?
2. How do print media relay information?
3. Who suggested the four basic functions of mass media? Self-Instructional
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4.4 MODES OF MASS MEDIA
The main feature of mass communication is that people are heterogeneous and
NOTES scattered all over the world. The role of mass media in mass communication is to
disseminate information to all the people in the world at a single point of time. As
we know, speech is the primary media of communication and all other media are
merely extension of speech. However, it is important to understand the difference
between media of communication and media of mass communication. Telephone,
gramophone, photographs, postcards and letters are some of the main media of
communication. They allow communication between individuals. They mostly
involve one-to-one communication.
Mass communication is also defined as one-to-many type of communication.
It requires certain type of media that allows one-to-many communication. Radio,
cinema, print, television and the Internet are the technologies of media that make
mass communication possible. Print has allowed the circulation of manuscripts at
the mass level whereas radio has extended the scope of human speech. Cinema
came to our rescue by giving us moving images that were identical to the reality
around us. Television helped us in sending the live events and realities in real time.
Internet in one sense is not like the mass media such as radio, television and
cinema as these technologies are invented to send a message from the source to
all the possible readers, listeners and viewers.
4.4.1 Print Media
Print can be defined as a medium that disseminates writing or textual matter. Printing
is defined as a process that involves the use of ink, paper and a printing press for
reproducing text and image. The technology of printing using a printing press allows
a large-scale production of the same matter. Printing is a technique that is an
integral part of publishing.
Printing has covered a long journey starting from wooden block printing
that was in practice in China and Korea much before Johann Gutenberg designed
movable types made of molten metal alloy and a printing press in the mid-fifteenth
century. Lots of efforts were made by him to cast the right type of letters, developing
the right type of ink that he made from lamp black mixed in an oil-based varnish
and combining together all these important components for the use of printing. It is
said that it took him almost 20 years to bring this system into practice. His system
is considered as the first revolution in printing technology.
The second revolution in printing technology came at the end of the 19th
century. Two methods of mechanical typesetting were invented that speeded up
the process of setting the type in metal. They were monotype system and line
casting. The third revolution was phototypesetting. Finally, Desktop Publishing
(DTP) is considered the fourth revolution in printing. The DTP system has brought
dramatic changes in the printing industry. Presently it is a widely accepted system
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50 Material
The most recent and the most revolutionary invention in the field of printing Overview of Mass Media
technology is that of desktop publishing. It is a new way to create a print document

in less time and at less cost. Linked with the Internet technology of data transfer, it
has given a new lease of life to the newspapers in this age of faster communication
like television and online journalism. NOTES
4.4.2 Radio
The emergence of radio in Europe after a long stretch of their dependence on print
changed the human behaviour to a large extent. It has been described as ‘tribal
drum because the radio had socked the European people who had learned to
divide the world in public and private spaces’. The need for rapid long-distance
communication led to the invention of radio. Mid-nineteenth century was a period
where long-distance communication technologies were coming one after other.
The first was the election dot and dash telegraph in 1844 by F.B. Morse. The
technology of telephone in 1876, wireless telegraph in 1896 and the concept of
radio telephony got materialized in 1906. All this become possible as the science
was already there. Michael Faraday was doing experiment on magnetic fields.
Another scientist Maxwell predicted that electromagnetic energy could be sent at
the speed of light. He proved the existence of radio waves in the decade of 1860
and a little later a German physicist Heinrich Rudolph Hertz found that the fast
moving electric current could be projected into the space. It was Sir J.C. Bose, an
Indian, who had invented radio in 1876, but he could not patent it due to lack of
knowledge about patents. But Marconi successfully sent radio signals in 1895,
and patented the radio in 1896. Thus, Marconi became the official inventor of
radio.
4.4.3 Cinema
Apart from using language for communication, human beings have been using visual
messages for communicating. The reason for this is our dependence on our eyes
for receiving maximum amount of information as eyes are the most important sense
organ. The growth of cinema could be traced back to the cave paintings. The
painting as a medium of reproducing the reality in term of landscape and portrait
has led to the invention of camera that further fuelled our imagination to think
about inventing moving images.
The word cinema is derived from Greek word kineto which means
‘movement’. Thus the word ‘movie’ came into existence. The technique of films is
related to the discovery and development of photography. It was in the early 19th
century when scientists were working on optics. They invented many devices like
thaumatrope of Dr. Filton in 1826, Phenakistoscope of the Belgium scientist Joseph
Plateau, stroboscope of Viennese scientist Simon Stampfer to name a few. The
working principle of all such devices was same, i.e., a disc with painted pictures of
different movements of an object on it, when rotated gave an impression as if the
object is moving. Later on this principle E.J. Marey of Paris devised a photographic
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Overview of Mass Media gun in 1882 for taking the pictures of moving objects like birds and animals. Seven
years later he modified his camera where in place of a roll of light sensitive paper,
he used celluloid film. He named his camera as ‘chronophotographe’. An
Englishman Edward Muybridge used a battery of cameras in a row to record the
NOTES movements of racing horses somewhere in 1877. Thomas Alva Edison
experimented with moving pictures under the direction of W.K.L. Dixon in 1888.
Thomas Alva Edison invented adevice called kinetoscope in 1895. In 1896,
Lumiere Brothers invented an improved version and named it as Cinematographe
in 1896. Dixon made a remarkable effort by using celluloid films designed by
George Eastman. These celluloid films later became the best medium for
photography as it was possible to roll them. The camera that Edison had designed
was heavy thus not portable.
French brothers Louis Lumiere and Auguste Lumiere succeeded in inventing
a portable, suitcase sized cinematograph or camera that contained a film processing
unit and a projector. The technology of Lumieres’ cine-camera was based on their
contemporary Edison’s bulky camera. Their first film depicted the arrival of a
train. The first public show of films by Lumiere brothers was organized in France
in 1895.
4.4.4 Television
Television has been the most spectacular invention of the 20th century. It has not
only made it possible to view the events and happenings of the world instantly, but
has also brought the cinema in the form of soap operas and telefilms and even in its
usual form to the drawing rooms of the people. It has become the most accessed
media and very powerful tool for forming opinions as well. Many politicians have
been able to capture and maintain their political power with the help of television.
Some of these people own television networks not only in Europe and Latin America
but in India as well.
In 1884, a German Scientist, Paul Nipkow, experimented with a rotating
disk containing small holes and found that this device can work as a scanner. The
disk, known as Nipkow disc, produced patterns of electric impulses required to
transmit pictures. This device became an integral part of the technology of
transmitting images. Even today, this scanning concept is a standard component of
the television. After Paul Nipkow’s technology, it is J. L. Baird who invented
television in 1926. The television industry grew further with the growth of cable
television and with adoption of video cassette recorders. Cable television system
was needed in those areas that were not getting the proper signals because of
geographical as well as manmade conditions. Tall buildings, densely populated
areas and valleys or hills blocked television signals. As a result, television transmitter
could not receive them. Initially setting up of cable system was started on a low
scale but when it was found that the picture quality is good, the cable operators
jumped in for making profit.
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The beginning of the 1970s was the period when Video Cassette Recorder Overview of Mass Media
(VCR) was adopted all over the world for recording the programmes of one’s
choice from the TV network. It was also a very useful device for editing. The
VCR was invented in America by Ampex Corporation. Charles Ginsberg designed
this machine to record television programmes on a magnetic tape. Japan improved NOTES
the technology by standardizing the systems and became the number one
manufacturer and exporter of video cassette recorder. The VCRs became more
popular for movie viewing. Movies were recorded on the VCRs and cassettes
were sold in the markets or at book stalls. The tape technology of the VCRs gave
rise to digital storage technology where any programme can be squeezed on a
compact disk.
The Russians launched Sputnik, the world’s first satellite on 4 October 1957.
A few months later, the United States launched Explorer I on 1 January 1958. In
1976, history was created by Home Box Office (HBO) by starting satellite delivery
of programming to cable networks with the telecast of ‘The Thriller from Manila’,
a heavyweight boxing match. The match was played between Joe Frazier and
Mohammed Ali. With the growth of satellite broadcasting, people looked to the
multi-channel facilities with low price, as an alternative to cable.
Satellite system provides clear pictures and stereo sound on various channels.
Conceptually, satellite system is a wireless system that delivers television
programming directly to the viewers. Satellite TV systems transmit and receive
radio signals using satellite dishes. These dishes act like antennas. Earlier the size
of the uplink dishes was quite huge as much as 9 to 12 meters in diameter. Satellites
are placed in geosynchronous orbits. They stay in one place in the sky relative to
the earth. Each one is approximately 22,200 miles or 35,700 kms above the
earth. The first ever satellite TV signal was sent from Europe to the Telstar Satellite
in 1962. The first geosynchronous communication satellite Syncom 2 was launched
in 1963 and Intelsat I, the first commercial communication satellite was launched
in 1965. Intelsat I is also called ‘Early Bird’. Soviet Union was the first to start
national network of Satellite Television which was named ‘Orbita’ and was deployed
in 1967.
All over the world, the satellite TV is growing rapidly in the recent years.
The television is migrating from analog to digital where audio and video are
transmitted by discrete signals. The use of digital signals is allowing other uses of
radio spectrum. This has been made possible with the advent of broadband. The
advanced broadband technology allows consumer to combine video, phone and
data services with an access to the Internet. The most significant advantage of
such a system is that digital channels are accommodated in less bandwidth. This
allows more channels to flow in the same space. Digital system provides high
definition TV service with better picture, better sound and multimedia service with
feedback and talkback facility. Digital signals react differently to interference and
obstacles. The common problems faced in analog TV were ghosting of images,
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Overview of Mass Media noise, and less clear or sometime wavy picture quality. But in digital technology
audio and video are synchronized digitally hence providing a crystal clear reception.
It is a system of storing, processing and transmitting information through the use of
distinct electronic pulses that represent the binary digits 0 and 1. In analog system,
NOTES the sound of the broadcast is modulated separately from the video. Analog is a
transmission standard that uses electrical impulses to emulate the audio waveform
of sound.
4.4.5 New Media
The last two decades of the 20th century were a remarkable period from the point
of view of media and communication technology. It was also a period of the
emergence of globalization and expansion of markets. The advancement in the
field of information technologies not only realised the dream of Marshal McLuhan
of the global village by inventing the technology of the Internet, it also changed the
technologies of print, radio and television. The unceasing innovations in the
telecommunication technologies not only helped the growth and expansion of the
Internet, it also paved the way for a new media nowadays popularly called mobiles.
Mobile technology in convergence with information technology has enormous
potential in the days ahead.
Check Your Progress

4. Who designed the movable types made of molten metal alloy and a printing
press?
5. Who was the official and unofficial inventor of radio?
6. What is the origin of the word cinema?
7. When was the first satellite launched?

QUESTIONS
1. The electronic media is also known as broadcast media.

2. The print media uses a physical object as means to relay information.
3. Harold Lasswell, a prolific communication scholar, suggested that the media
perform four basic functions for society
4. Johann Gutenberg designed the movable types made of molten metal alloy
and a printing press in the mid-fifteenth century.
5. It was Sir J.C. Bose, an Indian, who had invented radio in 1876, but he
could not patent it due to lack of knowledge about patents. But Marconi
successfully sent radio signals in 1895, and patented the radio in 1896.
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54 Material
6. The word ‘cinema’ is derived from Greek word, kineto, which means Overview of Mass Media
‘movement’.
7. The Russians launched Sputnik, the world’s first satellite on 4th October
1957.
NOTES
4.6 SUMMARY
 Both the terms ‘mass communication’ and ‘mass media’ were coined in the
early twentieth century. Though often used synonymously, the two terms
refer to very different forms and phenomenon of communication.
 Mass media is media that is meant for a group of people. It consists of
diverse media technologies which enable messages to reach a large audience
through mass communication.
 Harold Lasswell suggested that the media perform four basic functions for
society: surveying the environment to provide information; correlating
response to this information; entertaining the media user; and transmitting
the country’s cultural heritage to future generations.
 Mass media disseminate information or news about the happenings in any
society. The dissemination of this information takes various forms in different
societies.
 As the watchdog of the society, media keep a close watch on events and
issues all around. Lasswell termed this the surveillance function.
 According to the noted communication scholar and theorist, Denis Mc Quail,
‘the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic reward and
punishment for different kinds of behaviour as represented in the media.
 In Newcomb’s model, mass media becomes the mode through which the
government informs and explains its policies and programs to the public
and in turn receives support for the same.
 Dr A.P.J Abdul Kalam had noted: ‘The media has a pivotal role in educating
the people to work for the well-being and prosperity of society and ultimately
the nation. The media has to become a partner in the development of the
nation.’
 The media present ideologies and value messages. The media construct
reality. But the media have their own forms, codes and conventions.
Audiences negotiate meaning in media. In a nutshell, media mediate reality
through the use of symbolism.
 Radio, cinema, print, television and the Internet are the technologies of media
that make mass communication possible.
 Print can be defined as a medium that disseminates writing or textual matter.
Printing is defined as a process that involves the use of ink, paper and a
printing press for reproducing text and image. Self-Instructional
Material 55
Overview of Mass Media  The emergence of radio in Europe has been described as ‘tribal drum
because the radio had socked the European people who had learned to
divide the world in public and private spaces’.
 Apart from using language for communication, human beings have been
NOTES
using visual messages for communicating. The reason for this is our
dependence on our eyes for receiving maximum amount of information as
eyes are the most important sense organ.
 Television has been the most spectacular invention of the 20th century. It
has not only made it possible to view the events and happenings of the
world instantly, but has also brought the cinema in the form of soap operas
and telefilms.
4.7 KEY WORDS
 Broadcasting: It is the transmission of television and radio signals over air

from fixed terrestrial transmitters and with limited range.
 Bandwidth: It is the width (i.e., range of frequencies) of a channel or signal
carried between a transmitter and a receiver.
 Convergence: It is the process of coming together or becoming more
alike, usually applied to the convergence of media technologies as a result
of digitalization (computerization).

EXERCISES
1. Write a short note on the meaning of mass media.
2. How does mass media perform the symbolic function?
3. What are the important milestones in the evolution of the printing technology?
1. Explain the functions of mass media in detail.
2. Discuss the origin of radio and cinema in detail.
3. Describe the emergence and popularity of television as mass media.

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Hanson, Jarice. 1994. Connections: Technologies of Communication. New Overview of Mass Media
York: Harper and Collins Publishers.

NOTES
Rosengren, Karl Eric. 2000. Communication: An Introduction. London: Sage
Publishers.
Raghavan, G. N. S. 1994. Press in India: A New History. New Delhi: Gyan
Publishing House.
William, Raymond. 1976. Communications. London: Penguin Books.
Kumar, Keval J. 1981. Mass Communication in India. Mumbai: Jaico Books.
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Types and Features of
Journalism BLOCK - II
JOURNALISM
NOTES
UNIT 5 TYPES AND FEATURES OF
JOURNALISM
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Definition and Nature
5.3 Scope
5.4 Purpose of Journalism
5.5 Types of Journalism
5.5.2 Area-Specific Journalism
5.6 Current Trends in Journalism
5.6.9 Ambush Journalism
5.6.10 Churnalism
5.7 Features of Journalism
5.9 Summary
5.10 Key Words
5.0 INTRODUCTION
Journalism is a profession of disseminating news for information, education and

entertainment. Mahatma Gandhi, for the same reason, described journalism as
public service. However, with the growth and development of societies, it has
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become a sort of industry with significant power to manipulate the public opinion Types and Features of
Journalism
in order to muster power for itself or to support the political powers that be. It has
also become an industry that can generate enough employment as well as millions
of rupees as profits. As journalism is an activity performed within a given society,
it affects or gets affected by the political and social order.In this unit, we will NOTES
discuss the concept of journalism. We will then focus on the types and features of
journalism in detail.
5.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the concept of journalism
 Discuss the types of journalism in detail
 Describe the features of journalism in detail
5.2 DEFINITION AND NATURE
Journalism is reporting of daily events. In modern times, journalism is seen as the

profession of gathering news and information, processing it and finally disseminating
it through a particular media. The news and information so gathered is required to
be relevant to the society. It is for this reason that journalism, popularly known as
the press, has been defined as an institution of mass communication essentially
devoted to public service. It started as a small private trade and later become an
industry, but it has now sufficiently grown and has acquired gigantic proportion of
corporate business which in some places has also become a multinational
corporation.
Journalism has been described in the Encyclopaedia Britannica in the
following words:
Journalism includes the writing and editing of newspapers and
periodicals. Although this is the basic definition of various talks and
processes intimately connected with the production of serial publication
are commonly classified as journalistic. Thus, the gathering and
transmission of news, business management of journals and advertising
in all its phases are often thought of as coming within the field of
journalism and the following the advent of radio and television, there
was a trend toward including all communication dealing with current
affairs in the term.
On the other hand, the New Webster’s Dictionary gives a crispier meaning
of journalism: ‘(Journalism is) the occupation of conducting a news medium,
including publishing, editing, writing or broadcasting.’ Denis McQuail states that
journalism is ‘paid writing (and the audiovisual equivalent) for public media with
reference to actual and ongoing events of public relevance’.There are many more
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Types and Features of meanings and definition that can be found in various books, dictionaries and
Journalism
encyclopaedia, but it would be enough to understand that journalism is an activity
that involves the gathering of news and information, and processing them by
contextualising them for the society where they have to be disseminated and
NOTES distributed. The dissemination is actually done by replicating the said news and
information with the help of one medium or the other, i.e., print, radio, television,
Internet, etc.
Journalism is as old an activity as the primitive human societies. It has been a
common human tendency to share new things with the fellow beings. In interpersonal
communication we normally ask questions like ‘What is the news?’ which refer to
another similar questions like ‘What is happening?’ These questions are not referring
to the news as we understand it now. Some people in India say that the mythical
characters like Narad Muni and Sanjay were the earliest reporters, but the fact is
that these were the people who were involved in simple interpersonal
communication.
The press or journalism has been seen as an important institution of society
as the larger societies need to disseminate news and information for maintaining
the status quo or changing the social order if the need be. The transition from
feudal society to bourgeois democratic society could not have been possible without
the printing press, which initially allowed the publication of books that became the
instruments of advocacy of various ideologies. We may recall the great debate
between the French thinkers Descartes and Pascal. The philosophical vision of
Descartes served as the basis of bourgeois revolution in France. The printing
press was later used for practicing journalism and was given the status of fourth
estate of democracy as it had to strengthen the gains of democracy and to prevent
the return of feudal system. However, when democracy became the established
order of governance, the freedom of press was used by various types of interests
to gain the control of the society.
During the 18th century, British newspapers started with names ‘diurnals’.
In due course of time, it began to be pronounced as ‘journals’. The Dutas or the
messengers also worked as journalists starting from the 6thCentury BCE. In India,
the Dharma Mahamatras, appointed by King Ashoka, also worked as journalists
during the period. The history of printing is traced back to 868 AD when Chinese
used the movable types for printing. However, Johann Guttenberg has the credit
of developing movable metal type and the ink suitable for them in 1456. Twenty
years later the first printing press of England was set up in Westminster. Printing
press was introduced in India as late as 1556 and it took us more than two centuries
to get the first newspaper rolling out. There are different versions regarding the
earliest newspaper in the world. Some say that the first newspaper was started by
an American, John Campbell in 1704. There are others who consider Relation aller
Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien as the first newspaper. This newspaper
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in German language was published in Strasbourg from 1605 onwards. According Types and Features of
Journalism
to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the first newspaper in the world is Avisa
Relation Oder Zeitung, published in 1609 in Germany.
In modern times, journalism has become a central activity of any society. It
NOTES
is required to maintain the social, political and economical order; it is required by
individuals in the society for all kind of information that are required in life to
survive in the mass society. Journalism and media have acquired the status of
industry and become a major source of employment at various levels. Journalism
has evolved into many forms to keep pace with the changing interests of people
and the newly found segmented audiences. It is also true that with every new
innovation and invention in the area of media technologies, journalism has also
changed itself to suit the new environment. It is for this reason that one can say that
journalism as an activity will always remain relevant.
Check Your Progress

1. Define the profession of journalism?
2. In which language was the newspaper Relation aller Fürnemmen und
gedenckwürdigen Historien published?
5.3 SCOPE
In the world today, a large number of people, also known as masses, are eager to
know about what is happening around them. Journalism is a vital instrument to
provide them with the information regarding the happenings around us. Journalism
has over the years amassed a lot of importance as in not only informs the people,
it also records the daily events of various areas of human activity and thereby
provides their historical record.
In its earlier days journalism was so closely linked with the printed word
that is became synonymous with press. Even today, we use the term press for
people engaged in the business of journalism. The freedom of press, the press
gallery or the press conferences are the terms difficult to erase from our memory in
an age where radio, television and online media also indulges in journalism. The
press and the occupation of journalism had a lot of scope those days as it had the
duty to inform the people and at the same time being vigilant. Journalism in print
media obviously had to do with the writers as a result the journalists were also
called scribes.
In the present days the nature and scope of journalism has changed
considerably as various types of media are being used. There are broadcaster
working in radio and television. There are producers and technical people who
contribute in production and dissemination of news and other current affair
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Types and Features of programmes. Information technology and its deadly combination with
Journalism
communication technology popularly known as ICTs have given birth to various
platform on which journalism is being done these days. Online or web journalism
and journalism for mobile are new professions that are included in the list of the
NOTES scope of journalism. There are so many activities that require specialised training
and the dependence on mere writing skills is no longer the truth of journalism.
If the initial phase of journalism was only concerned with the news reporting
and editing, then the modern journalism has also stepped into various new domains
of journalism. Travel journalism, life style journalism, business journalism, science
and technology journalism and many more have been added in recent decades.If
there is an activity that will never become redundant in future, then it is journalism.
There will always be the thirst for knowledge and information and journalism of
various kinds would be there in the service of mankind. Journalism requires the
presence of mind and passion to move around the world. Journalism also is
interdisciplinary in nature and publishes various social, economic, political, cultural
issues and events. It also deals with the current developments and historical changes
of a society.
5.4 PURPOSE OF JOURNALISM
Journalism began as a natural activity of providing news and information in its

initial days. During the turbulent days of the French Revolution, journalism became
the torchbearer of revolutionary thinking and helped the bourgeoisie to accomplish
their historic role. It was afterwards that the press was seen as the fourth estate of
democracy. It became the fundamental duty of the press to protect the democratic
principles of the state.In the later days of bourgeois democracy, the interests of
various groups led to a new kind of journalism that was supposed to work for the
business interest of its owners. There would be a lot of commonality in thinking
and ideology of various newspapers but on certain issues and at certain times
some newspapers would speak a language that would be threatening for the powers
that be. It is here that the term ‘lobby’ came into being.
The journalism and media was supposed to be a service and in many cases
like in India it acquired the role of pioneer for the mission of the freedom of the
Indian people from the British rule. It is obvious that the purpose of journalism has
changed with the emergence of new technologies as well as the social changes
from a traditional feudal society to a modern and now the post-modern societies.
We find a few purposes of journalism and mass media like public service, seeking
truth, making itself a successful commercial venture, creating public opinion on the
matters of national importance and persuading the masses during the election.
Apart from these purposes, newspapers and other media are needed for
transmitting commercial and business information in the form of advertisements,
which is one of the biggest revenue earner for any news organization:
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 Informed citizenry:The principal objective of journalism is to facilitate Types and Features of
Journalism
a well-informed citizenry for the socio-political structure. In his book
Democracy and the News American sociologist Herbert J. Gans states
that journalism itself ‘can do little to reduce the political imbalance
between citizens and the economic, political and other organizations’. NOTES
The theory of democracy in journalism still relies on an assumption that
o An informed citizenry means an engaged citizenry,
o An engaged citizenry is more informed and more participatory, and
o The result is a more democratic society.
 Public service: Journalism actually started as an activity of public
service. It serves the people by giving them necessary information
regarding the political and social changes, law and order situations,
weather, sports, finance, etc. In the very early days it was also publishing
governmental orders and other information meant to reach the citizens.In
various third world countries, where the liberation movements were at
their peak, journalism found another purpose. It took an active part in
supporting such struggle and hence it acquired the role of missionary. In
India, journalism was considered as a mission rather than an occupation
for many years.
 Search of truth: Right from its inception the profession of journalism
has projected itself as the seeker of truth in the form of and activity of
academic research. So journalism was pursued by intellectuals.
Moreover, the journalists did not want to give up their zeal to know
about the truth which they had learned during their education. However,
the nature of truth sought by journalists is at times quite far from that a
researcher would be seeking. There is a kind of pragmatic attitude
attached to the process and activity of seeking truth in journalism.
 Commercial venture: Journalism was never considered as charity, there
are costs involved in publishing and distribution of newspapers. Today,
the costs of running the private radio and television and even magazines
and newspapers are very high. Thus, whether we like it or not, journalism
has come to be dominated as a commercial venture. It was also a question
of survival of journalists for which the earning of money became a valid
purpose.
 Public opinion and persuasion: Journalism is an effective means of
transmitting messages to the people who require various kinds of
information to meet different needs in their lives. Hence, newspapers
have another good purpose of assessing the public opinion on the key
national issues. Further, they also venture into making public opinion
during the elections and other national matters. The capability of
journalism to persuade is very handy for this purpose.There is a vast
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Types and Features of literature available in libraries and elsewhere on the role of newspapers
Journalism
in forming public opinion and also persuading people to have a particular
attitude towards things and situations. Most of the time, the persuasionis
very subtle and there are hidden biases behind such persuasion. However,
NOTES journalism is also capable of entering into propaganda mode where the
act of persuasion becomes obvious to the public.It may not be journalism
as such but it was the newspapers and other media that took to extensive
advertising not only for sustenance but for profit making as well.
Advertising is another activity where persuasion is at its peak. In recent
times, unfortunately the greed for profits has also influenced the act of
journalism as you may find newspapers stuffed with too much
consumerist advertorials and paid news.
 Promotion of different perspectives: The profession of journalism
promotes ideology and values with an objective to project a
multiperspectival approach. Journalism informs citizens about:
o The political diversity of the country,
o The politically significant ideas and activities of their fellow citizens,
and
o What types of issues concern the citizens (which our elected
representatives are also required to know)
For these objectives the journalists are required to be multiperspectival
— to include all the essential viewpoints from people having different
interests, values and incomes. Multiperspectivism refers to reporting all
ideas which can resolve issues and help in solving problems, even if the
ideas come from the side of ideologically tiny groups.
 Independent monitor of power: Journalism possesses an extraordinary
ability to function as the watchdog over such individuals and institutions
whose position and power has a great bearing on the majority of citizens.
Journalists have the responsibility to protect this watchdog freedom by
not tainting it in petty use or exploit it for commercial gains.
 Provide reliable and accurate information: It comprises various
roles—helping define community, evolving common language and shared
knowledge, finding a community’s objectives, specifying heroes and
villains, and push people out of complacency. It also comprises other
functions, e.g., entertainment, working as watchdog and providing voice
to the voiceless.Finally, we find that the basic purpose of journalism still
remains the dissemination of information and news, though this activity
has found many secondary purposes over a period due to the changing
political-economical situation as well as the rapid growth of mass media
technologies.
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 National development: It works as an agent of change in developmental Types and Features of
Journalism
perspective. Further, it works as a liasioning agent between the
government and the people for achieving development.
 Cultural integration: The purpose of journalism is to import positive
NOTES
sub-cultural traits from the other cultures and urge the people to adapt
it. Further, it also tries to discard the negative aspect of the internal
culture.
Check Your Progress

3. Who described journalism as public service?
4. Who wrote the book Democracy and the News?
5. What do you mean by multiperspectivism?
5.5 TYPES OF JOURNALISM
Journalism is practiced in many forms with many types of objectives in mind. The
mainstream journalism generally deals with anything under the sun, whereasthere
are various other kinds of journalism that have a very specific area or audience in
mind. The periodicity of the instrument of journalism matters. The journalism in a
daily newspaper is different than that of a magazine. The use of media for
disseminating news and information also affects the journalism. Newspaper
journalism has an age-old tradition and works entirely differently in comparison to
the journalism in radio, television and on the Internet.
The journalism practiced on a day-to-day basis in big media houses is called the
mainstream journalism. The broad sheet daily newspapers or the tabloid format
are the examples of mainstream print media. Further, the news bulletins in radio
and television are also the examples of mainstream journalism. Whenever we talk
of the press as an institution, we are normally referring to this main section of the
press. The mainstream media also means the newspapers or magazines which
regularly operate in the media market and earn regular income.
The mainstream media is also the big media as opposed to small-scale
efforts of alternate media. The big media involves bigger investments and hence is
regulated by many internal and external influences. The need to earn profits forces
them to seek more and more advertising revenue and the space for news shrinks
considerably. The owners of such media are also having other trade or industry
and to protect the interest of their other business, they many a times influence the
news reporting and editing. In spite of many such weaknesses, the mainstream
media remains very significant and strong because of its reach among the masses.
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Types and Features of 5.5.2 Area-Specific Journalism
Journalism
The journalism has not only developed as a result of the changes in the social
structure and the technology of mass media, it has also changed drastically due to
NOTES the ever-growing body of information relating to various specialized activities of
the modern human being. It has led to the emergence of specialized journalism
dealing with areas like film, sports, lifestyle, literature, business, travel, fashion,
automobiles, real estate, computers, mobiles, etc. Business and financial journalism
has become so important in the societies that we find a variety of newspapers
principally dealing with this theme. The Economic Times and the Financial Express
or the Business Mail are the popular examples of such newspapers. Similarly,
journalism of solely dealing with travel, fashion, mobiles, computers, cars and
other technologies has emerged to satisfy the needs of people interested in them.
Another area of such journalism is looking after a particular segment of the
readers, listeners and viewers that has nothing to do with the area-wise
specialization, but has a powerful identity as a group in the society. Women and
children are such groups and even the youth asserts its identity as a different group.
In India, magazines like Femina, Chanda Mama, the Competition Review or
Junior Statesman symbolized the journalism of such segmented target audiences.
Filmfare is one of the magazines that feature film news and events. Sports
Illustrated and Cricket Samrat are examples of sport magazines. Literary
enthusiasts can easily get a copy of the Civil Lines or the Enchanting Verses.
Magazine journalism is entirely different from the newspaper journalism because it
has more shelf value and covers a longer period as compared to daily newspaper.
A daily newspaper becomes part of the waste by evening and it reports events on
a daily basis. Magazines have a possibility of looking at and reporting an event in
its totality as it has lot of time to prepare and publish the story. The articles in
magazines are longer than what appears in newspapers and even the news
magazines try to analyse the story instead of narrating objectively the event in the
briefest possible manner. The pictures play a different part in the layout of the
magazine. Pictures are used in newspapers to enhance the content of news whereas
in magazines the picture could be used merely for making the page more attractive.
Generally, magazines are of two types, i.e. general and specialized. General includes
normal magazines like India Today, Frontline, etc. Specialized magazines, on the
other hand, refer to those magazines which cater to a particular issue only like
literature, sports, culture, film, computers, travel and lifestyle.
The magazines have seen great changes after the innovation of colour printing.
The colour photographs in glossy pages have made them more attractive and
impressed and affected by this even the newspapers have moved to colour printing.
Magazine journalism also has various types depending upon the periodicity and
subject matter. A weekly news magazine has a different objective than the fortnightly
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or monthly. Similarly, a magazine on fashion or films would be more picturesque Types and Features of
Journalism
than that of politics, economy, business and agriculture.Another major difference
between the newspapers and magazines is the schedule of production. A newspaper
has to be published every day and thus, involves hectic work on the part of journalists
and other people connected with the production of the newspaper. Journalists in a NOTES
weekly magazine have little more time and in a monthly magazine they have
comparatively much more time.
It is difficult to tell when a newspaper moved away from the tabloid format to
broadsheet, but after this shift the tabloid journalism changed drastically. In most
of the countries, the lunch time or evening newspapers are in tabloid form. They
are normally not delivered at homes because of their time of publishing. They are
distributed on the crossroads, malls and smaller markets. In Western countries,
the grocery shops are supplied with the copies of mid-day or evening tabloids. In
India, publishers engage hawkers to sell the papers who have developed an art of
attracting people towards their product. They sell these mid-day or evening
newspapers at busy crossroads, markets and in city transport buses and trains.
Unlike daily newspapers, the tabloid journalism thrives on sensationalism of one
kind or the other. There were and still are certain tabloids that publish nude
photographs on the last page, even if they may have very good reports inside
them. The phenomenon of paparazzi or photographers running behind celebrity
and their scandals is another kind of sensationalism that such journalism promotes.
In India, most of the small and medium newspapers are in tabloid format
catering to different languages. These newspapers not only promote rural journalism,
but also provide a helping hand for the development of the nation. Tabloid
newspapers become more relevant after the emergence of radio and television as
the daily newspapers are always behind them in disseminating news. They also
have an advantage of allowing the reader to read them in congested buses, metros
and other city transports because in comparison to newspapers they are easy to
handle.
The story of investigative journalism as a distinct form is not very old and can be
traced back to the mid-twentieth century. In is surprising that we differentiate it
from the rest of journalism because all journalism is supposed to be investigative.
However, the differentiation is justified if we look at the everyday journalism, we
find that it has become a routine and most of the news does not require any kind of
investigation. Moreover, journalism lost much of its vigour after it started depending
on press relations executives and the official press conferences of government and
other institutions where the press releases were given to the reporters and they
came very handy in making the reports.
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Types and Features of The challenge of journalism then depended on the ability of a journalist to
Journalism
probe further on the stories, do cumbersome research and then come up with a
story that would stir trouble for people in power. The story of Watergate scandal
is the best instance of investigative journalism in the world. It was a United States
NOTES political scandal of 1970s which resulted from the break-in to the Democratic
National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office premises in Washington,
D.C. Its effects finally resulted in the resignation of the United States President,
Richard Nixon on 9 August 1974—the only instance of resignation by any U.S.
President. Apart from this, it also resulted in the trial, indictment, conviction and
incarceration of various officials in Nixon administration. The media coverage
brought to light the link between the break-in and the re-election campaign
committee. Particularly the investigative coverage by Time, The New York Times
and The Washington Post firmly put the event in the public domain. Likewise, in
India the much talked about and possibly the first investigative report was regarding
the Bhagalpur blinding andBoforsscandal.TheBofors scandal is India’s counterpart
to the Watergate Scandal, and is one of the best examples of investigative journalism
in India.
On 22 November 1980, the front page of the Indian Express displayed
the picture of a blinded man under the heading ‘Eyes punctured twice to ensure
total blindness’. The article by Arun Sinha, the Patna Correspondent, drew attention
to the atrocity. Two days later, the matter was raised in the Parliament. The weeklies
took up the story and published more close-ups of the blinded prisoners, with
gory details of eyeballs being pierced with cycle spokes and acid poured into
them. The then Executive Editor of the Indian Express, Arun Shourie wrote two
front-page articles criticizing the administrative, police and jail procedures which
allowed such atrocities to take place.Later the story on Bofors guns scandal brought
serious lacunae in the arms-purchasing procedure in India. The case came to light
during Vishwanath Pratap Singh’s tenure as the defense minister, and was revealed
through investigative journalism by Chitra Subramaniam and N. Ram of the
newspapers the Indian Express and The Hindu.
Advocacy journalism is one of the alternate forms of journalism. If the press or the
mainstream journalism is called the fourth estate, then the alternate journalism in all
its forms is called the fifth estate. Advocacy journalism is in a way just opposite of
the mainstream journalism as the main objective of such journalism is to create
awareness about a certain issue. A part of advocacy journalism also finds its place
in the mainstream in the form of opinion writing. In a way, all journalism practices
by or for various nongovernmental organizations can be seen as advocacy
journalism. There are NGOs working on the issue of gender, empowerment, labour
issues, health and hygiene, bonded labour, child labour, violence against women
and children, etc. These indulge in advocacy at both the levels, i.e., mainstream
press and house publications.
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There are journalists who after working with the mainstream journalism feel Types and Features of
Journalism
that they are not able to give their best or are not able to get proper coverage for
the issues of their commitment. They also start newspapers, magazines or wall
newspapers with a very low budget. Some of them do get significant readership
too. Many of such newspapers and magazines are supported by various corporate NOTES
houses and government organization in the name of social responsibility.
The role of journalist is not only to disseminate information about a particular
event or incident; he/she can also make an interpretation of the same. As the
mainstream media possesses credibility among the people, it interprets the event
and explains to the society what is good and what is bad. It is an important role for
Indian journalists as they are regarded as the opinion leaders.
Check Your Progress

6. What is mainstream journalism?
7. Which scandal is the best instance of investigative journalism in India?
5.6 CURRENT TRENDS IN JOURNALISM
Journalism has changed a lot over the decades. It was a simple process of gathering,
processing and disseminating the information. Today, the competitive markets have
posed many responsibilities and the nature and work of journalists have changed.
On the one hand, we find big conglomerates pumping huge amount of money in
different media technologies and on the other hand there are people with relatively
smaller capital investing on media. The technology and the economics of management
of media has forced the companies to employ journalist with multiple skills.
Convergent journalism is the name given to multitasking in journalism where a
journalist is expected to not only produce a report for the newspaper, but also
required to give it orally for radio and/or television as well as for mobile news
services. A journalist needs to be trained in many skills like writing for newspapers,
radio, television, online and mobile news service. For example, the Times of India
(Bennett, Coleman & Co.) runs Times of India (newspaper), Times Now (TV
channel), Indiatimes.com (website portal) and Radio Mirchi (private FM
channel).Gone are the days when the journalism institutes were training journalist
in the specialized area for a specific media only.
The convergent journalism is the end result of the convergence of media
and communication technology. The most popular forms of convergent journalism
are to be found in media houses owning more than one type of media. Today,
almost all newspapers are having their hard copy editions and the online editions. Self-Instructional
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Types and Features of They have also taken interest in the mobile news service as it gives them a better
Journalism
market reach. Even the radio and television houses have their online services where
they not only provide the audio-visual content, but they also give textual reports.
Looking at the economy of media management they prefer multitasking journalists
NOTES instead of having specialists in a particular media, though the demand for
specialization in various kinds of journalism like economic journalism, sports
journalism, defence journalism, etc. has also increased over the years.
We are living in an age where speed matters. The print journalism in spite of being
analytical used to appear stale in comparison to the breaking news scenario of
television a few years back. Today, even the television news looks slower than the
SMS messaging or the various news services incorporated by the mobile service
providers.
The revolution of information technology has changed the world dramatically
in the past two decades. From slow word processing computers, the IT has moved
towards faster processors, increased bus speed and bandwidth to allow the audio
and video to be played in real time. The communication technology has also moved
away from the slow and narrow copper lines to optical cable capable of carrying
various signals at the same time. The widening of pathways has become possible
due to the conversion of signals from analogue to digital. The information
superhighway works on broadband connectivity of ever-increasing bites.
It has brought the online journalism at the forefront. Newspapers have
responded well to the new culture of paperless world and have started moving in
a direction that is not only convenient but economical. Many newspapershave
already started their online editions that could be accessed on the Internet by
paying a certain amount as subscription. In order to keep the conventional layout
of the newspaper that has become a matter of habit for many of us, they also have
the replica of the hard copy on the Internet. This combination of web journalism
and mobile news services is the most recent trend in the profession of journalism.
Fashion journalism comprises the reports and articles on the fashion world. The
journalists in this field are also called as fashion editors or fashion writers. The key
duty is to cover the most up-to-date trends and happenings in the fashion business.
It also comprises developing lifestyle articles. These fashion articles are generally
found in the supplements in newspapers and specialized magazines. Presently there
are many television channels which cater to fashion only. It provides abundant
opportunities for journalists having a passion to cover such topics.
As suggested by the name, the journalist in this field deals with the news and
events connected to celebrities from the various domains of life. It includes celebrities
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from the fields like sports, dance, music, art, politics, etc. This kind of journalism Types and Features of
Journalism
is concerned about the news related to the celebrities’ professional and personal
lives. Interestingly, reporting gossip is also one of the aspects of celebrity journalism.
However, journalists are usually accused of misrepresenting and misconstruing
news or quotes in a manipulative or intentional manner. This kind of journalism is NOTES
especially popular with magazines, newspapers and television.
Though sports belong to entertainment category, sports journalism is one of the
most important aspects of journalism. For reporting sports events, the journalist
should have proper knowledge of the game including points, rules and regulations
etc. In sports journalism, the journalists spend hours reporting on a specific sports
event. A journalist is required to report the precise facts and statistics about that
event. In sports journalism, interviews with celebrity sports stars are one of the
interesting features. Even though the lovers of sports watch the live coverage through
various media channels, still there are scores of people who still prefer reading or
watching comprehensive details of the event.
The citizen journalism is just not just the domain of professional journalists. All
citizens possess the right to function as journalists and report news to the media.
With the emergence of the mobile communication, the importance of citizen
journalism quadrupled. Anybody can take a picture of an event and can send it to
any media organisation through MMS and get it telecasted. The conscious
individuals from the society collect and report news to the media. They voluntarily
participate to further the cause of the media. Many a times they highlight critical
issues that might have been missed or overlooked by the mainstream media.
The environmental cause is getting stronger as we come across the effects of our
blind race on the path of development with the use of environmentally unsustainable
schemes. We have the journalists who have a preference for covering the issues
concerned with the environment and its conservation and protection. Environmental
journalists bring into focus various issues like greenhouse gas emission, melting
polar ice, deforestation, extinction of various flora and fauna, etc.
In this kind of journalism, the reporter or journalist covers detailed reports about
the latest in the world of business, e.g., product launches, stock market conditions,
loans, the economic conditions, etc. We have many shows solely dedicated to the
business news on television. Further, in newspapers as well one can find a specific
section on these subjects.
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Types and Features of 5.6.9 Ambush Journalism
Journalism
Ambush journalism connotes the aggressive tactics taken up by the journalists to
abruptly confront and question the individuals who would otherwise not speak to
NOTES the media. Particularly the television journalists have taken the practice on a large
scale. For instance, news shows such as The O’Reilly Factor and 60 Minutes and
by Geraldo Rivera and other local television reporters conduct investigations on
various socially critical issues.Some media people have sharply criticized the practice
as being very unethical and sensational in nature. However, others have defended
it on the grounds that it is the only means to get an opportunity to avail comments
from those who are generally beyond the reach of the media. The sting operation
performed by an Indian newschannel, India TV, on the involvement of umpires in
match-fixing is an example of ambush journalism.
5.6.10 Churnalism
In churnalism, form of journalism the press releases, wire stories and other kinds
of pre-packaged material are utilized to generate articles for the newspapers and
other news media. It is done to meet the increasing pressures of cost and time
without performing further checking or research.The degree of churnalism form of
journalism has increased to the point that various stories that are found in the press
are not original anymore. The decline of original journalism is related to a
corresponding increase in public relations.
Gonzo journalism is a form of journalism that is popularized by the American
writer Hunter S. Thompson. Among other stories and books he authored Fear
and Loathing in Las Vegas, Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail ‘72
and The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved. This kind of journalism is
specialized on account of its rough language, punchy style and apparent disregard
for the conventional journalistic writing customs and forms. More significantly, the
conventional objectivity of the journalist is discarded by immersing into the story
itself, just like in New Journalism. Further, the reportage is taken from a participatory
and first-hand perspective, even sometimes using an author surrogate like
Thompson’s Raoul Duke. Gonzo journalism tries to represent a multi-disciplinary
viewpoint on a specific story by drawing from sports, popular culture, and
philosophical, political and literary sources. This kind of journalism has been
categorized as eclectic or untraditional in nature. It is the defining feature of the
popular magazines like the Rolling Stone. It possesses a great deal in common
with new journalism and on-line journalism.
5.7 FEATURES OF JOURNALISM

Journalism is a way of mass communication that keeps people informed about the
changing events, issues and other happenings around the world. The basic purpose
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of the journalism is to provide useful information to the citizens so that they can Types and Features of
Journalism
make best possible decisions about their lives, their communities, their societies
and their government. Though the mode of providing information changes with the
time but the basic nature and characteristics of journalism doesn’t change and
remains same. Here are some basic features of journalism: NOTES
 Reliability: Trust is the most basic part of journalism. A journalist or media
institution must possess trust of public. The viewer or audience should believe
in news which is coming to them. To create this reliability in public it is
necessary for journalists to show integrity in his character. It is a journalist’s
duty to report accurate and reliable information to the public. He should be
well aware of all the ethics and values of journalism. Only when he possess
an ethical core within he can present a reliable news story to the public.
 Courage: Courage is the essential characteristics for journalism. A good
journalist should be courageous and bold enough to face any tough situation.
In search of truth he may face many challenges. This includes travelling to
the drastic and dangerous places to get the necessary details. Asking tough
questions from powerful people that may make them uncomfortable is the
part of the job of journalism. So, being fearless and bold is the necessity for
this field.
 Communication skills: Strong communication skills are a must for a
journalist. These skills are used on a regular basis to interview sources and
to write in-depth stories and reports. A journalist must also possess skills in
technical writing and source attribution, along with a high proficiency in the
grammar of concerned languages. Especially for electronic media and digital
media he must have a ability to be at ease in front of the camera.
 Tech-Savvy: Technology and social media have become a huge part of
journalism and reporting today; therefore, it is important that a journalist’s
possess technology skills. Journalists are expected to use social media as a
tool to report in real time and to provide transparent coverage of an ongoing
event. Journalists also need to know how to search the internet so that they
can properly fact check and access any public records that are necessary
for reporting a story. Social media also helps journalist connect with potential
sources that could help build a story; therefore, knowing the ins and outs of
each social media platform is necessary.
 Analytical mind: A good journalist should also have an analytical mind
that allows them to base stories on fact instead of emotion. Critical thinking
skills and sound judgment are crucial when it comes to reporting. Even
when there are strict deadlines, a journalist should hone these skills to report
stories accurately and to verify that all information they have found is true.
Journalists are essentially the watchdog of the society. Journalism is
considered the fourth estate in our country. Our constitution guarantees the freedom
of speech for us and journalism uses this power most effectively to give voice to
every common man. Self-Instructional
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Types and Features of
Journalism
Check Your Progress
8. What is the name given to multitasking in journalism?
NOTES 9. Who popularized Gonzo journalism?
10. Mention the five characteristics of journalism.

QUESTIONS
1. Journalism is a profession of disseminating news for information, education

and entertainment.
2. The newspaper, Relation aller Furnemmen und gedenckwurdigen
Historien was published in 1605 in the German language.
3. Mahatma Gandhi described journalism as a public service.
4. The book, Democracy and the News, was written by the American
sociologist, Herbert J. Gans.
5. Multiperspectivism refers to reporting all ideas which can resolve issues
and help in solving problems, even if the ideas come from the side of
ideologically tiny groups.
6. The journalism practiced on a day-to-day basis in big media houses is called
mainstream journalism.
7. The Bofors scandal is the best instance of investigative journalism in India.
8. Convergent journalism is the name given to multitasking in journalism.
9. Gonzo journalism is a form of journalism that is popularized by the American
writer, Hunter S. Thompson.
10. The five characteristics of journalism are: reliability, courage, communication
skills, tech-savvy and analytical mind.
5.9 SUMMARY
 Journalism is the profession of gathering news and information, processing

it and finally disseminating it through a particular media. The news and
information so gathered is required to be relevant to the society.
 The press or journalism has been seen as an important institution of society
as the larger societies need to disseminate news and information for
maintaining the status quo or changing the social order if the need be.
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 The transition from feudal society to bourgeois democratic society could Types and Features of
Journalism
not have been possible without the printing press, which initially allowed the
publication of books that became the instruments of advocacy of various
ideologies.
NOTES
 In the present days the nature and scope of journalism has changed
considerably as various types of media are being used.
 The journalism and media was supposed to be a service and in many cases
like in India it acquired the role of avant-garde for the mission of the freedom
of the Indian people from the British rule.
 It is obvious that the purpose of journalism has changed with the emergence
of new technologies as well as the social changes from a traditional feudal
society to a modern and now the post-modern societies.
 Journalism is practiced in many forms with many types of objectives in
mind. The mainstream journalism generally deals with anything under the
sun, whereas there are various other kinds of journalism that have a very
specific area or audience in mind.
 Magazine journalism is entirely different from the newspaper journalism
because it has more shelf value and covers a longer period as compared to
daily newspaper.
 Advocacy journalism is one of the alternate forms of journalism. If the press
or the mainstream journalism is called the fourth estate, then the alternate
journalism in all its forms is called the fifth estate.
 Convergent journalism is the name given to multitasking in journalism where
a journalist is expected to not only produce a report for the newspaper, but
also required to give it orally for radio and/or television as well as for mobile
news services.
 One of the recent trends in journalism is known as supplement journalism
and it is called so because the newspapers in India have now started
publishing various supplements that they provide with the main newspapers.
 Fashion journalism comprises the reports and articles on the fashion world.
The journalists in this field are also called as fashion editors or fashion writers.
The key duty is to cover the most up-to-date trends and happenings in the
fashion business.
 Journalism is a way of mass communication that keeps people informed
about the changing events, issues and other happenings around the world.
5.10 KEY WORDS
 Public Service:It is the function of journalism where the press is the provider
of information regarding various areas, events and issues.
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Types and Features of  Disinformation: It refers to the false or inaccurate information that is spread
Journalism
deliberately and may include the distribution of forged documents,
manuscripts and photographs, or spreading malicious rumours and fabricated
intelligence.
NOTES
 Churnalism:It is the form of journalism in which the press releases, wire
stories and other kinds of pre-packaged material are utilized to generate
articles for the newspapers and other news media.

EXERCISES
1. Briefly explain the scope of modern journalism.
2. What is the difference between mainstream journalism and area-specific
journalism?
3. Write a short note on the characteristics of journalism.
1. Describe the various purposes of journalism.
2. Describe the basic features of supplement journalism and online journalism.
3. Discuss how convergent journalism has come to almost define most of the
current trends in journalism.
Parthasarathy, Rangaswami. 1984. Basic Journalism. New Delhi: Macmillan India

Limited.
Burns, Lynette Sheridan. 1900. Understanding Journalism. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Publishing House.
Natarajan, J. 1997. History of Indian Journalism. New Delhi: Publication
Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
Sharma, Suresh. 2006. Press in India. New Delhi: Vista International Publishing
House.
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Journalism and
UNIT 6 JOURNALISM AND Journalist
JOURNALIST
NOTES
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Functions of Journalism
6.3 Principles and Ethics of Journalism
6.4 Functions of Journalists
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.0 INTRODUCTION
Journalism is a profession that is essentially meant for public service. Mahatma

Gandhi for the same reason described journalism as a kind of service. However,
with the growth and development of societies, it has become a sort of industry
with significant power to manipulate the public opinion to muster power for itself
or to support the political powers that be. It has also become an industry that can
generate enough employment as well as millions of rupees as profit. Every field of
human activity is governed by certain rules and regulations; journalism is no different.
In order to allow the kind of freedom required by this profession, societies all
around the world have established certain canons for the profession that serve as
a commonly accepted set of rules and regulations. This unit will discuss the functions
and principles of journalism. It will also focus on the functions of journalists.
6.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the functions of journalism
 Discuss the principles and ethics of journalism
 Describe the functions of journalists
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Journalism and
Journalist 6.2 FUNCTIONS OF JOURNALISM
Apart from disseminating news and information in society in public interest,

NOTES journalism is also seen as a bridge between the government and the people, in the
sense that it communicates the policy and programmes of the government to the
people. At the same time, it conveys the grievances and perception of public
about issues of the society to the powers that be.
As the ownership of the institutions of journalisms is in the hand of people
with a certain amount of capital to invest in this industry, there is always a possibility
of using it for the benefit of the interests of certain individuals. In modern societies
we find linkages between the economically stronger groups and the political parties.
Hence, journalism also functions as a means of influencing the political system by
various kinds of interest groups. The recent exposure of the corruption in the
distribution of 2G spectrums in our country has clearly shown the nexus between
the top political leadership, managers of big corporate houses and the journalists
trying to work for the benefit of different big players in the area of telecommunication.
The investigations and publication of the tapes of discussions of Nira Radia with
some prominent journalists of the Indian media have exposed this nexus which
presents an unfortunate picture of journalism playing a role of lobbying for vested
economic interests.
The political system uses journalism for dissemination of news and information
for its own perpetuation. Besides, the role of press is one of maintaining the status
quo as every morning the newspaper by and large make us feel that things are all
right in the world in general and in the country in particular. Even on the days
where we get one or more shocking news, we are by and large assured that rest
is all right. This could be called the assurances function of the press. The example
given above also shows that the political system uses the media and the lobbyists
to negotiate with each other for the formation of government as well as for reducing
the conflicts that could lead to the destabilization of the political power.
Journalism as the fourth pillar of democracy has been granted the freedom
of speech and expression in almost all constitutions world over. Journalism has to
function as the watchdog of democracy by constantly being vigilant towards the
functioning of the other three pillars, i.e., legislature, executive and judiciary. All
governments in democratic systems try to use journalism for the propagation of
their views. In some countries the government owns various media to do so, but
the presence of free press in democracies has always kept these governments on
their toes by constantly investigating and exposing their misdeeds or anti-people
policies.
The press or journalism also has a duty and function of being vigilant to the
political, economical and social processes. The watchdog function of press is one
among the oldest main beliefs in journalism which maintains that the media is
supposed to serve as a controller of government. Hence press was also called the
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watchdog. The concept of the ‘watchdog’ function of the press was propounded Journalism and
Journalist
by the social theorist James Mill (1773–1836). He supported the freedom of
press since it ‘made known the conduct of the individuals who have chosen to
wield the powers of government’. In his 17th century pronouncement, Edmund
Burke in England stated that the press had acquired the role of the Third Estate in NOTES
Parliament, i.e., the press was playing the role of a watchdog over government.
However, the concept was directly promulgated in the 18th century Cato’s Letters,
a series of letters in England. It advocated a free press and was comprehensively
reprinted in the colonies. It spread the American idea of the press being the Fourth
Estate, i.e., a watchdog of the government.
Check Your Progress

1. What are the first four pillars of a liberal democracy?
2. Who propounded the concept of the ‘watchdog’ function of the press?
6.3 PRINCIPLES AND ETHICS OF JOURNALISM
As a profession, journalism has many facets. A journalist could be working in a

newspaper, but it is just one kind of journalism. Today journalists work for radio,
television and the Internet as well. However, conventionally the terms like journalist
and journalism are associated with newspaper or press. Though the term ‘media’
is being increasingly used to incorporate other media, we still use certain terms like
press conference, correspondent, etc., that relate to the print media. Over the
years, journalism has seen many ups and down, journalists have been involved in
various types of reporting some of which have been vehemently criticized by the
people. In fact, after the press was given freedom in many democracies, it was
found that in order to shield the business interests of their owner the press is being
used to mould public opinion in some very unethical ways.
It has become imperative in all societies for the journalists to decide for
themselves good practices and the norms for behaviour known as ethics. We
would first of all deal with the desired standards for journalism practice and then
discuss the ethics of journalism in a wider sense where we will discuss not only the
behaviour but also certain practices which infringe with the laws of the land. As the
freedom of press needs to be guarded, journalists and newspapers are required to
be careful in dealing with certain kind of news which leads to defamation or libel.
Generally there are causes of dissatisfaction and complaints against journalists.
People feel that they are biased, they are not truthful or they take sides. The matter
of fact is that journalists work under many kinds of pressures and the very nature
of news writing is such that in spite of the good intentions of the journalists it
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Journalism and becomes difficult to satisfy everyone. Journalist associations and many other bodies
Journalist
such as press councils have evolved certain guidelines for the journalists. Over the
years, there have been various codes of ethics agreed and endorsed by the
journalists and editors. Although these are not as ‘official’ as an oath, nevertheless
NOTES they are generally accepted at the practical level.
The American Society of Newspaper Editors was founded in 1922. It made
definite parameters meant to specify the functioning of journalists. These were
known as the ‘Canons of Journalism’. The list given below summarizes these
cannons:
 Responsibility (of newspaper and journalist)
 Freedom of the Press (‘a vital right of mankind’)
 Independence (fidelity to the public interest)
 Sincerity, Truthfulness, Accuracy (good faith with reader)
 Impartiality (news reports free from opinion or bias)
 Fair Play, Decency (recognition of private rights, prompt correction of
errors)
It is interesting to note that these canons of journalism were also described
by Casper Yost in his book, Principles of Journalism, in 1924 and they still hold
good though now we have added a few more things to it, as the practice of
journalism has shown us the newer dimensions of the cannons. The cannons of
journalism have turned out to be similar to the code of medical ethics by which
every doctor has to abide as he takes oath of it while passing out. In this section
we would discuss various aspects of good practices in journalism. We would start
our exploration with the canons as described by Yost (1924):
 Responsibility: The right of a newspaper to attract and hold readers is
restricted by nothing but considerations of public welfare. The use a
newspaper makes of the share of public attention it gains serves to
determine its sense of responsibility, which it shares with every member
of its staff. A journalist who uses his power for any selfish or otherwise
unworthy purpose is faithless to high trust.
 Freedom of Press: Freedom of the press is to be guarded as a vital
right of mankind. It is the unquestionable right to discuss whatever is not
explicitly forbidden by law, including the wisdom of any restrictive statute.
 Independence: Freedom from all obligations except that of fidelity to
the public interest is vital. Promotion of any private interest contrary to
the general welfare, for whatever reason, is not compatible with honest
journalism. The so-called news communications from private source
should not be published without public notice of their source or else
substantiation of their claims to value as news, both in form and substance.
Partisanship in editorial comment which knowingly departs from the
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truth does violence to the best spirit of journalism; in the news columns Journalism and
Journalist
it is subversive of a fundamental principle of the profession.
 Sincerity, Truthfulness and Accuracy: Good faith with the reader is
the foundation of all journalism worthy of the same. By every
NOTES
consideration of good faith a newspaper is constrained to be truthful. It
is not to be excused for lack of thoroughness or accuracy within its
control or failure to obtain command of these essential qualities. Headlines
should be fully warranted by the content of the articles which they
surmount.
 Impartiality: Sound practice makes clear distinction between news
reports and expression of opinion. News reports should be free from
opinion or bias of any kind. This rule does not apply to the so-called
special articles unmistakably devoted to advocacy or characterized by
a signature authorizing the writer’s own conclusions and interpretations.
 Fair Play: A newspaper should not publish unofficial charges affecting
reputation or moral character without opportunity given to the accused
to be heard; right practice demands the giving of such opportunity in all
cases of serious accusation outside judicial proceedings. A newspaper
should not invade private rights or feelings without sure warrant of public
right as distinguished from public curiosity. It is the privilege, as it is the
duty, of a newspaper to make prompt and complete correction of its
own serious mistake of facts or opinion, whatever their origin.
 Decency: A newspaper cannot escape conviction of insincerity if while
professing high moral purpose it supplies incentives to base conduct,
such as are to be found in details of crime and vice, publication of which
is not demonstrably for the general good. Lacking authority to enforce
its cannons, the journalism here represented can but express the hope
that deliberate pandering to vicious instincts will encounter effective public
disapproval or yield to influence of a preponderant professional
condemnation.
Similarly, the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) has also prepared a
code of conduct for journalists. Indian journalist organizations like All India
Newspaper Employees Federation, Indian Journalists’ Union and National Union
of Journalists are the members of this organization. The International Federation
of Journalists, according to its website, is the world’s largest organization of
journalists. First established in 1926, it was re-launched in 1946 and again, in its
present form, in 1952. Today the Federation represents around six lakhs members
in more than 100 countries. The IFJ Code of Conduct, first adopted in 1954,
provides a code of ethics adopted by all national representative journalists’
organizations in Europe. Therefore, the IFJ Code of Conduct provides the basis
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Journalism and for a common understanding on ethical issues through voluntary adoption of
Journalist
journalists and publishers. In this area IFJ sees no active role for national
governments.
NOTES Declaration of principles on the conduct of journalists

This international declaration is proclaimed as a standard of professional conduct
for journalists engaged in gathering, transmitting, disseminating and commenting
on news and information in describing events:
 Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truth is the first duty of the
journalist.
 In pursuance of this duty, the journalist shall at all times defend the principles
of freedom in the honest collection and publication of news, and of the right
of fair comment and criticism.
 The journalist shall report only in accordance with facts of which he/she
knows the origin. The journalist shall not suppress essential information or
falsify documents.
 The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtain news, photographs and
documents.
 The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any published information which
is found to be harmfully inaccurate.
 The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regarding the source of
information obtained in confidence.
 The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered
by the media, and shall do the utmost to avoid facilitating such discrimination
based on, among other things, race, sex, sexual orientation, language, religion,
political or other opinions, and national or social origins.
 The journalist shall regard as grave professional offences the following:
o Plagiarism;
o Malicious misrepresentation;
o Calumny, slander, libel, and unfounded accusations;
o Acceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration of either publication
or suppression.
 Journalists worthy of the name shall deem it their duty to observe faithfully
the principles stated above. Within the general law of each country the
journalist shall recognise in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues
only, to the exclusion of every kind of interference by governments or others.
In many countries including India, there are autonomous or independent institutions
that look after the grievances of public regarding the work of newspapers and
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other periodicals. In Britain there was Press Council in the earlier days, but as it Journalism and
Journalist
was felt that it is not very representative and effective so a new body called the
Press Complaints Commission (PCC) was formed. In India there is an autonomous
body chaired by a retired justice of the Supreme Court of India, which is called
the Press Council of India. Similarly, in many other countries there are Press NOTES
Councils that look into the grievances of public regarding the functioning of
newspapers and the conduct of journalists. The process of nominations in these
organizations may differ, but the journalists and media organizations are adequately
represented in them along with representatives from almost all walks of life.
After the expansion of privately owned television networks in India, there
have been many complaints from various groups of people regarding the news
coverage and entertainment programmes. In the absence of any regulatory body
for the television and the new media, public is forced to go to courts for getting
their grievances redressed. In recent years, the Government of India has tried to
make such a regulatory body, but it has been opposed tooth and nail by the media
organizations and journalists. Some news and entertainment channels have made
an independent organization called News Broadcasters’ Association and have
come up with certain codes of conduct. However, the issues have not been properly
addressed till date.
In this subsection we will look at the code of conduct as suggested by the
Press Complaints Commission (PCC) and the Press Council of India (PCI) as they
are much more comprehensive than those of the journalist associations mentioned
above. The Press Complaints Commission, situated in London, is charged with
enforcing the following Code of Practice, which was framed by the newspaper and
periodical industry and was ratified by the PCC in September 2009.
The editors’ code
All members of the press have a duty to maintain the highest professional standards.
The Code, which includes this preamble and the public interest exceptions below,
sets the benchmark for those ethical standards, protecting both the rights of the
individual and the public’s right to know. It is the cornerstone of the system of self-
regulation to which the industry has made a binding commitment. It is essential that
an agreed code be honoured not only to the letter but in the full spirit. It should not
be interpreted so narrowly as to compromise its commitment to respect the rights
of the individual, nor so broadly that it constitutes an unnecessary interference with
freedom of expression or prevents publication in the public interest.
It is the responsibility of editors and publishers to apply the Code to editorial
material in both printed and online versions of publications. They should take care to
ensure it is observed rigorously by all editorial staff and external contributors, including
non-journalists, in printed and online versions of publications. It is said that the editors
should co-operate swiftly with the PCC in the resolution of complaints.Any publication
judged to have breached the Code must print the adjudication in full and with due
prominence, including headline reference to the PCC.
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Journalism and  Accuracy:
Journalist
o The Press must take care not to publish inaccurate, misleading or
distorted information, including pictures.
NOTES o A significant inaccuracy, misleading statement or distortion once
recognised must be corrected, promptly and with due prominence,
and - where appropriate - an apology published.
o The Press, whilst free to be partisan must distinguish clearly between
comment, conjecture and fact.
o A publication must report fairly and accurately the outcome of an
action for defamation to which it has been a party, unless an agreed
settlement states otherwise, or an agreed statement is published.
 Opportunity to reply: A fair opportunity for reply to inaccuracies must
be given when reasonably called for.
 Privacy:
o Everyone is entitled to respect for his or her private and family life,
home, health and correspondence, including digital communications.
o Editors will be expected to justify intrusions into any individual’s private
life without consent. Account will be taken of the complainant’s own
public disclosures of information.
o It is unacceptable to photograph individuals in private places without
their consent.
 Harassment:
o Journalists must not engage in intimidation, harassment or persistent
pursuit.
o They must not persist in questioning, telephoning, pursuing or
photographing individuals once asked to desist; nor remain on their
property when asked to leave and must not follow them. If requested,
they must identify themselves and whom they represent.
o Editors must ensure these principles are observed by those working
for them and take care not to use non-compliant material from other
sources.
 Intrusion into grief or shock:
o In cases involving personal grief or shock, enquiries and approaches
must be made with sympathy and discretion and publication handled
sensitively. This should not restrict the right to report legal proceedings,
such as inquests.
o When reporting suicide, care should be taken to avoid excessive detail
about the method used.
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 Children: Journalism and
Journalist
o Young people should be free to complete their time at school without
unnecessary intrusion.
o A child under 16 must not be interviewed or photographed on issues NOTES
involving their own or another child’s welfare unless a custodial parent
or similarly responsible adult consents.
o Pupils must not be approached or photographed at school without
the permission of the school authorities.
o Minors must not be paid for material involving children’s welfare, nor
parents or guardians for material about their children or wards, unless
it is clearly in the child’s interest.
o Editors must not use the fame, notoriety or position of a parent or
guardian as sole justification for publishing details of a child’s private
life.
 Children in sex cases:
o The press must not, even if legally free to do so, identify children
under 16 who are victims or witnesses in cases involving sex offences.
o In any press report of a case involving a sexual offence against a child-
- The child must not be identified.
- The adult may be identified.
- The word “incest” must not be used where a child victim might
be identified.
- Care must be taken that nothing in the report implies the
relationship between the accused and the child.
 Hospitals:
o Journalists must identify themselves and obtain permission from a
responsible executive before entering non-public areas of hospitals or
similar institutions to pursue enquiries.
o The restrictions on intruding into privacy are particularly relevant to
enquiries about individuals in hospitals or similar institutions.
 Reporting of crime:
o Relatives or friends of persons convicted or accused of crime should
not generally be identified without their consent, unless they are
genuinely relevant to the story.
o Particular regard should be paid to the potentially vulnerable position
of children who witness, or are victims of, crime. This should not restrict
the right to report legal proceedings.
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Journalism and  Clandestine devices and subterfuge:
Journalist
o The press must not seek to obtain or publish material acquired by
using hidden cameras or clandestine listening devices; or by intercepting
private or mobile telephone calls, messages or emails; or by the
NOTES
unauthorized removal of documents or photographs; or by accessing
digitally-held private information without consent.
o Engaging in misrepresentation or subterfuge, including by agents or
intermediaries, can generally be justified only in the public interest and
then only when the material cannot be obtained by other means.
 Victims of sexual assault: The press must not identify victims of sexual
assault or publish material likely to contribute to such identification unless
there is adequate justification and they are legally free to do so.
 Discrimination:
o The press must avoid prejudicial or pejorative reference to an
individual’s race, colour, religion, gender, sexual orientation or to any
physical or mental illness or disability.
o Details of an individual’s race, colour, religion, sexual orientation,
physical or mental illness or disability must be avoided unless genuinely
relevant to the story.
 Financial journalism:
o Even where the law does not prohibit it, journalists must not use for
their own profit financial information they receive in advance of its
general publication, nor should they pass such information to others.
o They must not write about shares or securities in whose performance
they know that they or their close families have a significant financial
interest without disclosing the interest to the editor or financial editor.
o They must not buy or sell, either directly or through nominees or agents,
shares or securities about which they have written recently or about
which they intend to write in the near future.
 Confidential sources: Journalists have a moral obligation to protect
confidential sources of information.
 Witness payments in criminal trials:
o No payment or offer of payment to a witness - or any person who
may reasonably be expected to be called as a witness - should be
made in any case once proceedings are active as defined by the
Contempt of Court Act 1981. This prohibition lasts until the suspect
has been freed unconditionally by police without charge or bail or the
proceeding are otherwise discontinued; or has entered a guilty plea to
the court; or, in the event of a not guilty plea, the court has announced
its verdict.
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o Where proceedings are not yet active but are likely and foreseeable, Journalism and
Journalist
editors must not make or offer payment to any person who may
reasonably be expected to be called as a witness, unless the information
concerned ought demonstrably to be published in the public interest
and there is an over-riding need to make or promise payment for this NOTES
to be done; and all reasonable steps have been taken to ensure no
financial dealings influence the evidence those witnesses give. In no
circumstances should such payment be conditional on the outcome of
a trial.
o Any payment or offer of payment made to a person later cited to give
evidence in proceedings must be disclosed to the prosecution and
defense. The witness must be advised of this requirement.
 Payment to criminals:
o Payment or offers of payment for stories, pictures or information, which
seek to exploit a particular crime or to glorify or glamorise crime in
general, must not be made directly or via agents to convicted or
confessed criminals or to their associates – who may include family,
friends and colleagues.
o Editors invoking the public interest to justify payment or offers would
need to demonstrate that there was good reason to believe the public
interest would be served. If, despite payment, no public interest
emerged, then the material should not be published.
Check Your Progress

3. When was the American Society of Newspaper Editors founded?
4. Who formulated the canons of journalism?
5. When was the International Federation of Journalists established?
6. When was the IFJ Code of Conduct first adopted?
6.4 FUNCTIONS OF JOURNALISTS
Before you study the role of a journalist in detail, it is important to understand what
journalists do. The profession of journalists is known as journalism. It is an activity.
In order to define journalism, you need to identify some journalists and see what
do they have in common? In the Indian context, the following persons exemplify
journalism:
 Barkha Dutt: She was the managing editor of NDTV and her claim to
fame was the coverage of the Kargil war between India and Pakistan in
2006. She left NDTV in 2017 to start her own media venture.
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Journalism and  Rajdeep Sardesai: He is a journalist, political commentator and news
Journalist
presenter. He was the editor in chief of IBN 18 network. This network
included channels such as CNN IBN, IBN7 and IBN Lokmat. He is
currently a news anchor on India Today.
NOTES
All these journalists remind us that journalism is not limited by sex, race or
the type of medium for which they work.
Journalists are participants in the process of human communication. In order to
communicate, at least two parties play a role in the process–one who transmits
the stimuli and another who responds. These are often referred to as senders and
receivers, or simply as writers and readers, speakers and listeners. Journalists do
an enormous amount of reading and listening. They work as receivers of
communication and as observers, which helps them to gather the knowledge that
they formulate in messages. Thus, journalists are responsible for the content that
has been transmitted or conveyed to others. The signs that journalists use to convey
their messages are most often verbal or written. But other people such as poets,
novelists, playwrights are communicators too. How do they differ from journalists?
Journalists send out messages that are true or factual. Therefore, you can
say that the messages do not purport to be false, erroneous, made up, invented,
imagined or fictional. Journalists are responsible for messages about things that
they claim have really happened, are really happening or likely to happen.
Historically, newspapers are the media that is most frequently associated with
journalism followed by television and radio. Journalists are not the only non-fiction
communicators. Philosophers, economists, sociologists and many others devise
messages that are intended to be true. Among them the group that seems most
akin to journalists is historians. Journalism is in fact referred to as contemporary or
current history. But is there any difference between them? Is it true that historians
write about the past whereas journalists write about the present; not at all.
Both are concerned with the communication of knowledge. Historians acquire
knowledge for the sake of sheer pleasure of knowing. This is known as theoretical
knowledge. The other is acquired to procure some kind of good for the people. It
is knowledge that is put to use. This is called practical knowledge. Journalists are
interested in this kind of knowledge. Therefore, the first kind of knowledge might
be viewed as useful, but it is useful for increasing the understanding and not for
determining future actions. Journalists on the other hand are ultimately concerned
with helping people decide what would be a good thing to do or what should you
avoid doing.
But others communicate useful knowledge too. Like parents profiting from
their experience advice their children on how to make their first car purchase.
While journalists are mass communicators, lawyers are not. There is another term
that is closely associated with journalists and is sometimes used as a synonym.
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88 Material
journalists’. Indeed in the mind of persons, news writers seem to occupy the centre Journalism and
Journalist
most place in the house of journalism.
In the 1920s, an American writer, reporter and political commentator Walter
Lippmann understood that the role of journalism role at that time was to act as a
NOTES
mediator between the public and policy making elites. Thus, the journalist became
the middleman. When the elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the
information, distilled it and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His
reasoning behind this was that the public was not in a position to deconstruct the
growing and complex flurry of information present in modern society, and so an
intermediary was needed to filter news for the masses.
In other words, none of us can experience everything first hand and it is
difficult for us to look at things from different points of view than our own. Thus,
we must rely on other sources, such as the media to help aid us in our understanding,
and then be able to decipher the truth out of what the media tells us. The journalist
therefore fulfils the role of deciphering the world around us and giving us an insight
into complex issues. Many times, a journalist also serves to be the link between
the decision makers and the masses by conveying the popular sentiment of the
people. He plays the powerful function of opinion formation among the masses. In
a nutshell, journalists assume the following roles:
 Watchdogs
 Investigators
 Moderators
 Entertainers
 Analysts
 Informers
 Editors
 Commentators
 Advertisers
In many ways journalists are community activists, agenda-setters and voices
for the voiceless. They are also given the following names:
 Public servants
 Keepers of public record
 Protectors of democracy
 Promoters of public dialogue
Information as we know is power. Hence, those who wield information, also wield
power. The business of gathering and disseminating information automatically makes
the journalists powerful. This implies that some ethical practices are necessary so
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Journalism and that there is a commitment to a proper and an impartial use of power by journalists
Journalist
and media practitioners. As you all know, journalists and reporters hold the
responsibility of informing the public and keeping a watchful eye on the public
employees. They serve as a sort of system of checks and balances. They gather
NOTES the facts and check to make sure that they are all accurate. If they find something
wrong, they can dig deeper to get the whole story. In their articles they can relay
what they have found to the public. The public, having now been informed, can
choose whether or not to take action.
While presenting any news, a journalist should be very careful and aware of
his responsibilities towards the society. He must deliver such news as it serves a
common purpose and fulfils major interests of the people. Following are the three
main responsibilities of a journalist:
 Social responsibility: The media reflects the social images or pictures
of our society. These images are powerful influencing factors in the society
and shape the perspective and decision making of the policy makers.
These also reflect the issues that are important to the common man.
Thus, what a journalist reports should be fair, balanced, truthful, inspiring
and it should meet the needs of the common man. This role is of particular
importance in developing countries where it becomes the journalist’s
duty to highlight social issues and contribute in national development.
Although every journalist has to work in the overall ambit of the editorial
policy that his/her news organization subscribes to, he/she should strive
to reflect a truthful picture of the social reality.
 Responsibility towards the organization: A journalist has a
responsibility to follow the editorial policy of the newspaper organization
that he is working for. Considering that the media in India has a
dichotomous role of reflecting social reality and also making money, a
journalist needs to participate in both the functions. This might at times
conflict with the journalist’s own principles, but a balanced view needs
to be taken in such cases. Since, every news organizations has its own
stylization of the presentation of news content or a style guide, the
journalist needs to make himself familiar with it.
 Responsibility towards sources: It is crucial for a journalist to not
only protect but also respect his sources. If the source wishes to be
anonymous then the journalist should respect his confidence. In fact,
sources should be sacrosanct for the journalist who must protect them
at all costs. It is quiet important for a journalist to establish his/her
credibility with the sources, a breach of which can mar the reputation of
the journalist for good. Sources share sensitive information with journalists
only when they can trust the journalist to handle it maturely and if need
be, keep the sources anonymous. Journalists try the legal backing to
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keep the sources anonymous even when demanded by police or Journalism and
Journalist
prosecutors, but in serious cases, they might land up in jail or be issued
a contempt notice.
In order to maintain responsible journalism many ethicists have suggested
NOTES
that journalists should have some kind of control or a kind of institutionalized
concept of responsibility that should be injected in the practice of journalism. This
could be in form of governmental laws or professional sanctions, namely, an ethical
code for journalists.
Some of the qualities of a journalist are as follows:
 Ethics and integrity: A solid ethical core characterizes a good journalist.
Fairness, objectivity and honesty matter when reporting on the news.
Professional journalists detest fake news based on rumour, innuendo and
unverifiable anonymous tips.
 Courage and boldness: It is the duty of journalists to ‘speak truth to
power’. They do this by pushing themselves to dig deeper into issues and
asking tough questions to the powerful. They put their own feelings on an
issue aside while unearthing the truth on events and stories taking. Courage
is critical to investigating what is happening at the scene.
 Expert communication skills: Along with impeccable character, a journalist
should be skilled communicators to interview sources and write in-depth
stories.
 Knowledge of technology: As part of their job, journalists follow and use
social media suitably to provide immediate and transparent coverage of
happening events. They know how to use the internet to research stories
and access public records when engaging in investigative journalism.
 Investigative skills: A good journalist has an analytical objective mind
that can base his or her stories on evidence and facts, and not emotion.
They are also astute observers and instinctive in sense. Critical thinking
skills are also important when weighing contradictory accounts of an incident
and assessing the credibility of sources. Even when faced with looming
deadlines, a good journalist takes time to get a balanced accounting of the
news event.
Check Your Progress

7. Who is Barkha Dutt?
8. What other names are given to journalists?
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Journalism and
Journalist 6.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. The first four pillars of a liberal democracy are legislature, executive, judiciary,
and Journalism.
2. The concept of the ‘watchdog’ function of the press was propounded by
the social theorist, James Mill.
3. The American Society of Newspaper Editors was founded in the year 1922.
4. The canons of journalism were formulated by the American Society of
Newspaper Editors.
5. The International Federation of Journalists was established in the year 1926.
6. The IFJ Code of Conduct was first adopted in 1954.
7. Barkha Dutt was the managing editor of NDTV and her claim to fame was
the coverage of the Kargil war between India and Pakistan in 2006. She
left NDTV in 2017 to start her own media venture.
8. The journalists are also given the following names:
(a) Public servants
(b) Keepers of public record
(c) Protectors of democracy
(d) Promoters of public dialogue
6.6 SUMMARY
 Mahatma Gandhi described journalism as a kind of social service. However,

with the growth and development of societies, it has become a sort of industry
with significant power to manipulate the public opinion to muster power for
itself or to support the political powers that be.
 Apart from disseminating news and information in society in public interest,
journalism is also seen as a bridge between the government and the people,
in the sense that it communicates the policy and programmes of the
government to the people.
 The political system uses journalism for dissemination of news and information
for its own perpetuation. Besides, the role of press is one of maintaining the
status quo as every morning the newspaper by and large make us feel that
things are all right in the world in general and in the country in particular.
 Journalism as the fourth pillar of democracy has been granted the freedom
of speech and expression in almost all constitutions world over.
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 Journalism has to function as the watchdog of democracy by constantly Journalism and
Journalist
being vigilant towards the functioning of the other three pillars, i.e., legislature,
executive and judiciary.
 The American Society of Newspaper Editors was founded in 1922. It made
NOTES
definite parameters meant to specify the functioning of journalists. These
were known as the ‘Canons of Journalism’.
 The International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) has prepared a code of
conduct for journalists. Indian journalist organizations like All India
Newspaper Employees Federation, Indian Journalists’ Union and National
Union of Journalists are the members of this organization.
 In many countries including India, there are autonomous or independent
institutions that look after the grievances of public regarding the work of
newspapers and other periodicals.
 In Britain there was Press Council in the earlier days, but as it was felt that
it is not very representative and effective so a new body called the Press
Complaints Commission (PCC) was formed.
 Journalists are participants in the process of human communication. In order
to communicate, at least two parties play a role in the process–one who
transmits the stimuli and another who responds.
 Journalists send out messages that are true or factual. Therefore, you can
say that the messages do not purport to be false, erroneous, made up,
invented, imagined or fictional.
 The business of gathering and disseminating information automatically makes
the journalists powerful. This implies that some ethical practices are necessary
so that there is a commitment to a proper and an impartial use of power by
journalists and media practitioners.
6.7 KEY WORDS
 Public service: It is the function of journalism where the press provides

information regarding various areas, events and issues.
 Press: It is the section of the mass media industry that focuses on presenting
current news to the public.

EXERCISES
1. Briefly explain the basic functions of journalism.
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Journalism and 2. List the basic constituents of ethical standards set up by the International
Journalist
Federation of Journalists (IFJ).
3. What are the qualities of journalists?
NOTES Long-Answer Questions
1. What do you understand by the ‘canons of journalism’? Describe the
different parameters set up by the American Society of Newspaper Editors.
2. Describe the significant instructions contained in the editors’ code suggested
by the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) and the Press Council of India
(PCI).
3. Discuss the responsibilities of journalists in detail.

Limited.
Publications.
Publishing House.
House.
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Introduction to
UNIT 7 INTRODUCTION TO Newspapers
NEWSPAPERS
NOTES
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Definition and Types of News
7.2.1 Types of News
7.3 Value, Elements and Functions of News
7.3.2 Functions of News
7.4 Departments and Functions
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.0 INTRODUCTION
A newspaper is a periodic publication that provides written material on current

affairs and is mostly typed with a white or grey background in black ink.
Newspapers can cover a broad range of areas such as politics, business, sports
and art, and also include materials such as columns of opinion, weather forecasts,
local service reviews, obituaries, birth announcements, crosswords, editorial
cartoons, comic strips, and columns of advice. Most newspapers are corporations,
and with a combination of subscription income, newsstand sales, and advertisement
revenue, they fund their expenses. This unit discusses the definition and types of
news. It will also focus on the various departments of newspapers and their functions.
7.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the definition and types of news
 Discuss the types of news
 Describe the various departments of newspapers and their functions
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Introduction to
Newspapers 7.2 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF NEWS
Different scholars have given their own interpretations about the meaning of news.
NOTES According to John Bogart of New York Sun, ‘when a dog bites a man, it is not
news but if a man bites a dog, it becomes news’. He pointed out that unusual
events fall under the purview of the news. Similarly, William Hearst has defined
news as ‘…what somebody somewhere is trying to suppress. Everything else is
advertising’. Walter William, who has been credited with founding the first school
of journalism, defined news as, ‘…news in its broader sense, is that, which is of
interest to the readers – the public’. According to another scholar G. Johnson,
news is what interests a newsman.
The well-known publisher of New York world Joseph Pulitzer, whose name
is now synonymous with a prestigious journalism award, defines news as ‘original,
distinctive, dramatic, romantic, thrilling, unique, curious, quaint, humorous, odd
and apt to be talked about’. The Funk & Wagnall’s Dictionary defines news as:
‘Information of a recent event, development, etc., especially as reported in a
newspaper, on the radio, etc…any new or unfamiliar information.’
News is the timely report of events, facts and opinions, and interests a
significant number of people. It is a new piece of information about a significant
and recent event that affects the readers/audience and is of interest to them. The
definition of a news item is dependent on the following:
 The size of the community (audience).
 The periodicity of the publication (daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly,
etc).
 The social character and economic strata of the community.
 The emphasis on the community (e.g., the elections to the panchayat in
a village do not become the headline of a provincial or national
newspaper).
Turner Catledge, former managing editor of New York Times said that news
was ‘…anything you can find out today that you didn’t know before’.
In brief, the main characteristics of news are as follows:
 It is perishable, i.e., the moment it is known to the readers, it perishes.
Once known, the news loses its value and becomes a part of history.
 It is of interest to a considerably large number of people.
 It possesses an unusual nature.
 It is something that is new to the people at large.
 It is provided by a reporter; it does not exist without a reporter.
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However, here one should keep it in mind that the general idea of news Introduction to
Newspapers
differs with people and situations. In a common perspective, some of the defining
elements of news may vary, but their essential components are same throughout
the world.
NOTES
One must try to find out what exactly is the meaning of news? After reading
the definitions and opinions of various scholars on the issue, it is better to ponder
over the nature of news? Most of us watch television news bulletins, listen to radio
news bulletins or leaf through newspapers a number of times. Why do we do this?
One may say, ‘to get information’. But why do we need to get information in the
first place? One may feel that something is amiss. Without knowledge and
information about contemporary happenings, an individual will not be able to connect
with the society at economic, social and political levels. Further, one does not
generally read Monday’s newspaper on Friday. One may refer to an old newspaper
to recheck certain information but this is rarely done on a daily basis.
To begin with, any unusual happening falls under the category of news.
News is what you do not know. People turn to mass media like radio, newspaper
and television to get informed about the latest happenings around the world. Without
this information, one may not be able to relate and keep pace with the society.
News is basically the report of facts. It is anything out of the ordinary. News is
what a newsman makes it. An essential feature of news is that it is ‘new’. There
are no rigid rules to define news. It is unpredictable. In case of political news,
prediction depends more or less on educated guesswork. Remember, the best
way to learn about news and reporting is to develop an ability to analyse a news
story.
A news story in a modern society reflects on various aspects of everyday
life. For example, the prices of onion have skyrocketed. Why are media
organizations giving so much prominence to this news? Why is it making headlines?
Why is it consuming important time slots in different news channels? This is because
onion is an essential commodity in kitchens throughout the country. It is also an
important component in the menu of poor people. In our country a considerable
percentage of population consumes raw onion as a substitute of expensive
vegetables. Here, poor people cut it or crush it, put a little salt and pepper on it
and eat it with bread. Given this background, skyrocketing of onion prices makes
important news. It was on the issue of onion prices that a political party like Congress
had dethroned Bharatiya Janata Party in 1999.
7.2.1 Types of News
There are two main categories in which the news is mainly divided: hard news and
soft news.
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Introduction to Hard news
Newspapers
It is mostly event-centered. It is the narration of an event. Hard news items are
centered on ‘what, when and why’. Consider the following news item taken from
NOTES the front page of Indian Express, Delhi, Saturday, 20 November 2010.
Terror Probe: CBI arrests Aseemanand in Haridwar

Jaipur, Nov. 19. In a breakthrough for investigation agencies probing terror
incidents involving right wing Hindu outfits, the CBI today arrested Swami
Aseemanand from an ashram in Haridwar in Uttarakhand.
Officials said Aseemanand had been in Haridwar for weeks, using forged
identification papers. He is considered one of the main conspirators in the
Malegaon, Mecca Masjid and Ajmer Dargah blasts cases. The Rajasthan ATS
maintains it was Aseemanand’s plan to target Muslim places of worship across
the country. The Uttarakhand police confirmed Aseemanand’s arrest in Haridwar.
‘A team from the CBI was here and they have arrested Swami Aseemanand from
an ashram in Haridwar. We believe they have taken him to New Delhi’, a senior
officer told The Indian Express. Rajasthan ATS Chief, Kapil Garg said a team
would soon be sent to question Aseemanand in connection with the Ajmer
Dargah blast case. ‘He is a vital link in this investigation. We hope to question
him. We have also been on his trail since the first arrest in this case in April’,
Garg said. He pointed out that the ATS chargesheet mentions Aseemanand as
the main conspirator and ideologue behind the 2007 Ajmer Dargah blast.
Sources said Aseemanand went underground soon after the Rajasthan ATS
made the first breakthrough in the case with the arrest of Devendra Gupta on
April 29 in Ajmer. During the course of his interrogation, Gupta mentioned that
it was Aseemanand and Sunil Joshi who had brought him into their fold and
convinced him to carry out attacks in Ajmer and Mecca Masjid, the sources
said. Aseemanand remained in the Dangs in Gujarat where he was based for a
few weeks after Gupta’s arrest. A team from the Rajasthan ATS had been tracking
Aseemanand ever since. According to the ATS, he was spotted in Gujarat a few
times but then fled to South India. ‘Aseemanand had sympathisers who probably
sheltered him for a while. We believe he kept moving to keep his location secure.
We also believe he went to certain areas in the North-East before settling down
in Haridwar’, a senior official said.
According to senior ATS officials, the plot to target Muslim places of worship
was intended to ‘avenge’ attacks against places like the Akshardham temple and
Raghunath Mandir. ‘We believe it was Aseemanand’s plan to start the series of
attacks across the country. He was not only responsible for choosing targets
and making plans, but was vital in supplying logistics and financial aid to those
who would execute the operation’, an official said. It is alleged that Aseemanand
also harboured Sunil Joshi—prime suspect in the Ajmer blast case, he died
later—and other accused in his ashram in the Dangs.
No doubt, a daily newspaper focuses more on hard news. It is its main
thrust area. The principal task of the dailies is to provide information to readers. A
mere account of events however does not satisfy readers. They would like to
enter beneath the upper layer of news.
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Soft news Introduction to
Newspapers
Soft news is beyond what has happened. It analyses and interprets in order to
arrive at logical conclusions. This is becoming a very important segmentof modern
newspapers. The following is a sample of a news item that has been quoted from
NOTES
Times of India, Delhi, Friday, 26 November 2010:
From Jan 20, switch mobile operator but keep number

Times News Network
New Delhi: Exasperated with your present mobile service provider but unwilling
to switch because that would mean changing your number? Soon, you’ll be free to
change operators at will, for a nominal transaction fee of ‘ 19. On Thursday, telecom
minister Kapil Sibal launched mobile number portability (MNP) in Haryana.
Nationwide implementation is expected to be completed by January 20. Of course,
the implementation of MNP has missed many deadlines. In March 2006, TRAI had
recommended that MNP be implemented by April 1, 2007. In December 2009, the
government set a deadline of March 31, 2010 for its implementation, which was
extended to June 30, 2010 and later to October 31, 2010.
From Friday, mobile phone customers in Haryana can port their numbers provided
at least 90 days have elapsed after subscription to the service of the current
provider. For change of service provider or porting, a subscriber has to send an
SMS (PORT followed by the mobile number) from the number s/he wishes to be
ported, to number 1900 whereby a Unique Porting Code (UPC) will be received
on SMS from the current service provider. The subscriber will need to apply in
the prescribed application form to the chosen new service provider quoting the
UPC. The new service provider will then take action to get the required processes
completed to enable the subscriber to get connected to his network. Porting has
to be completed within seven working days. Before making the porting request,
subscribers will have to make sure their last bill has been paid failing which the
change request will be rejected. In case of pre-paid subscribers, any balance
amount left will not be carried forward when the number is transferred.
Check Your Progress

1. What are the factors on which news is dependent?
2. Define the term ‘news’.
3. What is soft news?
7.3 VALUE, ELEMENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF

NEWS
The following are the factors that determine, affect and influence the news value of
any news story:
 Timeliness: This is an important factor that decides the news value. If the
news is not timely, it has little or no value. There is a fierce competition
among newspapers to publish important events as quickly as possible. Strict
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Introduction to watch is kept on news events till the eleventh hour, i.e., the deadline when
Newspapers
the final pages go to print. In case something really important happens,
other stories are pushed to the back pages or dropped and the important
story is flashed on the front page. This is done keeping in view the reader’s
NOTES desire for information on the latest happenings. If there is any delay in the
coverage of news, the reader might lose interest in the news or the news
element itself might diminish.
 Proximity: Human beings are inclined to know about the news events as
soon as possible. Things that happen at faraway places like other countries
are of relatively lesser interest to people. Something happening in the locality
draws more interest than something occurring in the other town or for that
matter, in another country. For example, a crime incident in the city evokes
more interest than something that happens in a neighbouring country.
 Eminence: If the focus of the news is someone of prominence like the
President or the Prime Minister, the interest of the reader automatically
shifts to him as compared to people of little or no eminence at all. For
example, many ordinary people die in road accidents and hardly anyone
bothers. Even the passerby thinks twice before stopping, particularly in
metropolises. Moreover, the utterances of eminent people also make news;
their speeches decide the leads of newspapers.
 Size: Different angles to a story decide its size. This happens particularly in
crime-oriented stories. The more the angles to a story, the more will be the
interest of readers in it. So at times, size also determines the news values of
stories.
 News policy of the news organization: The spectrum of coverage that a
news organization decides in accordance with the readership it wants to
cater news to is also an important determinant of the news value. For example,
Indian Express enjoys a special readership because of its, what some people
say, ‘anti-establishment stance’.
 Human interest: People are always interested in knowing what is happening
to other people. Something that deviates from ordinary course of life is
always interesting. The uncertainty of human nature and oddity of
circumstances normally contributes to such stories. For example, in 2006 a
boy named Prince fell into a deep bore-well pit and this prompted the
media to go after the story. Human interest is much in demand as far as
news value is concerned.
 Novelty or oddity: Anything that is new or odd in a way adds to the value
of the news. For example, in 2006 Pravin Mahajan, brother of then
prominent BJP leader, shot his elder brother in his flat. It was something
absolutely unusual with no other parallel in Indian politics. So it made banner
headlines throughout the country.
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 Conflict: Like creative stories, conflict plays an important role in determining Introduction to
Newspapers
news value. Conflict of any kind is news, whether it is the family squabble of
Ambani brothers, agitation of Gujjars in Rajasthan to be included in the list
of scheduled castes, Telangana movement in Andhra Pradesh or the scourge
of Naxalites in many states of India. NOTES
 Weather and sports: Both categories of weather and sports carry
considerable news value. Monsoon arrival, cyclones, soaring (or
plummeting) of mercury, icy chilly winds or dust storms make front page
news material. Many newspapers dedicate entire page or a couple of pages
to sports.
 Follow-up: News items carry a lot of interest for the general public when
the issues are followed up and updated. Follow-up of news events keeps
the interest of readers alive. Every good news story has follow-ups as it
does not end at the first reference only.
There are certain parameters on which any news has to be tested. News has
certain fundamental qualities, which are as follows:
 Accuracy: Accuracy is basic to any news item. It will not be an exaggeration
to say that it is the backbone of any news story or news item. When a
reporter fails in accuracy, s/he loses credibility. Before writing the news, it is
absolutely must for a reporter to crosscheck the facts and information. S/he
has to check facts, figures and names to make sure that the meaning is not
changed and the statements are not quoted out of context.
 Balance: A news item, report or story has to be balanced and this is as
important as being accurate. While writing about a controversy, both sides
of the story should be given. A story may appear to be ‘imbalanced’ and
thus biased, if it has too much of government views, or tends to give too
much of foreign news which has little relevance to readers.
 Objectivity: The reporter’s opinions should not creep into the story. Only
facts and other people’s opinions should be reported. The reporter should
be a disinterested observer, reporting events without taking sides.
 Clarity: The opening sentence should be short and in active voice to the
maximum extent possible. The ideal length of each paragraph may be 3–4
lines containing one-to-three small sentences to facilitate easy comprehension.
 Impact: Whenever a reporter does a news report, s/he should consider
the impact the story will make. Will it induce some changes for the better?
S/he will have to develop a ‘nose for news’, particularly news that will leave
an impact.
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Introduction to 7.3.2 Functions of News
Newspapers
The following are the functions of news:
 Informing the audience: It is the primary duty of news to inform its
NOTES audience about the things happening around the world. News should cover
topics like business, education, politics, weather forecast, foreign affairs,
etc.
 Educating the audience: As discussed above, the primary duty of news is
to inform people about the world. Similarly, news is also used to educate
the audience. News helps us to educate ourselves on the topics that will
affect us and others.
 Guiding the audience: News is a great source of influence on people.
Once the audience is informed and educated on some certain issues, news
helps them, guiding about the right or wrong things.
 Interpreting facts and news: People have the tendency to believe in things
that are in written form as it is believed that anything in written form has
more authenticity. Every reporter must keep in mind to collect their information
from different sources before conveying it to the audience. Before informing
it to the audience, a reporter must go through all the facts required in the
story and interpret them accordingly. The facts must be interpreted carefully
to influence an audience rightly and persuade them in the right direction. A
good news means every fact and figure must be looked after keenly and
presented in the news appropriately.
 Forming opinions: Once the news is published in a newspaper or
broadcasted on television, then it acts as the mediator of forming opinions.
News helps people to build their opinion on the information given by the
news.
 Spreading awareness: News helps in spreading awareness regarding what
is going on around the world on serious topics like politics, health, business
and other people-oriented matters.
Check Your Progress

4. Mention any two factors that determine, affect and influence the news
value.
5. State any three parameters on which any news has to be tested.
7.4 DEPARTMENTS AND FUNCTIONS
Media houses are in the business of spinning news. They employ a large workforce
of both skilled and unskilled workers to run their operations. In the present times,
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newspaper houses not only face competition from their peer publications, but also Introduction to
Newspapers
from alternate channels like TV and radio stations. It is needless to say that they
need considerable amount of dough to function and operate smoothly, and make
some profit in the long run.
NOTES
An important fact that needs to be remembered in the production of
newspapers is that the cost of a newspaper, which includes the inputs of newsprint,
printing and content development, is almost ten times more than its printed price.
This cost has to be subsidized through intensive marketing of the space. It means,
only higher circulation will attract advertisers to a newspaper. Further to this, a
newspaper also needs to balance the essence, beliefs and the philosophy of its
target audiences, i.e., the readers, both present and future. This is essential to
ensure the smooth running of the media house. This is so because only if a newspaper
adds up to catering to its readers can it manage to make up to 10–15 per cent of
its production costs. So, in order to understand the organizational structure of a
newspaper better, it is imperative for a media scholar to understand that a good
organizational structure needs to be built around this core requirement of a
newspaper house.
While designing a newspaper organization, three points need to be
categorically considered. These are enumerated as follows:
 Focus on echoing the characteristics of the marketplace: In simple
words, a newspaper needs to effectively cater to the requirements of its
readers and advertisers. This means that the focus of the top brass, the
mindset of all its employees, the type of news covered, its writing and
presentation styles, should be in accordance with the readers’ needs
and aspirations.
 Synchronization of the newsroom and the marketing functions:
To do so, a conscious and strategic decision has to be taken by the
management. In order to protect the prerogative of the editorial staff in
the marketing scheme of things, it is quintessential, for say, the chief of
the news bureau to be present in all sales planning meetings. Basically,
the hierarchy that flows from top to bottom has to be strategically designed
to ensure smooth flow of information, decisions and execution.
 Concentration on optimum utilization of available resources: Lastly,
one needs to optimally use what one has, to the best of one’s ability.
Thus, people, time and money resources need to be put to good use.
Business-like decisions need to be taken across all levels and all
departments, whether it is advertising, circulation, sales or editorial.
While designing the organizational structure of a newspaper, several aspects
also hold significance, because the nature of their structure, design and size would
depend on these factors. Organizational structure of a newspaper can be grouped
in the following ways:
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Introduction to  Frequency of newspaper publication: The organizational structure
Newspapers
of a newspaper depends on whether a publication is a daily, fortnightly
or monthly. While publications with occasional frequencies may have
simpler organizational hierarchies and smaller workforce, morning dailies
NOTES and eveningers have larger number of people, thus, adding to the
complexities of their job roles and more multifaceted and defined
organizational structure.
 Market size: The organizational structure for a publication having
regional or local presence would naturally be different from its national
or global counterpart, adding to the complexity of the design and flow
of authority. Based on their market size, publications can be categorized
as follows:
o National: The publication covers the whole nation and not just a
particular region or state, like The Times of India, Hindustan Times,
The Indian Express or The Hindu.
o Large: The metropolitan dailies are papers that have their presence
in a large city, like the Mumbai Mirror, Telegraph, etc.
o Medium: These are newspapers with circulation figures of about
1,00,000–5,00,000. These may be regional in nature, like Nayi Duniya
or Free Press.
o Small: Some small local newspapers can be put under this category.
While much is appreciated about the noble profession of journalism, and every
budding writer with any bit of fire in the belly and a zeal for writing, wants to
advent on this voyage of attaining popularity and recognition through it; much
needs to be understood by a media scholar about the trials and triumphs of the life
of a journalist, especially in the Indian context. There is much ado about the fun
and spirit of being a journalist, but despite their growing importance and complexities
of roles, there are numerous challenges they face in their profession.
Open profession
Journalism is among the few open professions, where one can never really keep
skilled inadequacies under wraps. Their continuous exposure has forced journalists–
irrespective of the medium they serve– to continue their quest for high professional
standards. The quality of writings and the growing market challenges have forced
media professionals to be alert and on their toes all the time, for no journalistic
endeavour attempted can survive in the market without the stamp of quality.
Technology and competition
With the growth in technology and competition, this ever changing world of the
journo has become ever more challenging and stiff. Their trials have worsened as
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they ceaselessly races against time and deadlines to meet their goals chugging Introduction to
Newspapers
away the word-mills to the best of their ability and skills. With a greater need for
holding on to circulation figures and satiating the taste buds of the ever flickering
reader, they are expected to dole out innovations and quality content day in and
day out. NOTES
Technology has provided level-playing ground to even small players in this
field against their formidable rivals. Even a local daily today can be accessed
anywhere in the world through the internet. The big newspapers of metropolises
too have launched multi-editions catering even small towns, giving cut-throat
competition to local publications or television channels. Before the entry of the
present hi-tech era, some of the well-known national dailies also used to represent
specific regions. The Times of India was known as a ‘Mumbai daily’, a leader in
the western India, Hindustan Times was considered to be a north-Indian daily
published from Delhi. Similarly, The Hindu initially published only from Madras
(now Chennai) was considered to be a media giant of the South India. The Hindu
was first Indian daily to introduce the concept of multi-edition daily through facsimile
editions. It was much before the advent of the computer and Internet era. Equipped
with the state-of-the art technologies, the dailies have their editions even in those
areas, where the regional giants had their pre-eminence. For example, the Bangalore
and Chennai and Kolkata editions of the Times of India have challenged the
regional giants such as the Deccan Herald, the Hindu and the Telegraph in their
own respective dens. In Bangalore, the Times of India has captured the market
by becoming the highest circulated English daily. Like TRP’s in a television channel,
the circulation of a daily attracts advertisements. The Times of India has succeeded
in corning much bigger share of the advertising revenue than any other media
house in the country, because it has achieved number one position in the
metropolises like Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad.
Focus on marketing
The focus on marketing has its own implications. The present day tradition of
editorial systems in the newspapers is inherited from the British-owned newspapers.
During the past three decades, the Indian newspapers have diluted the proven
British systems in the editorial management. Earlier newspaper journalists were
important people widely respected and acknowledged for their strong content
writing skills and fiery and fearless articles. That was the time when newspapers
did not back on monetary sponsorships from advertisers or political parties.
However, with the fierce competition among the newspaper and periodicals, the
ideal role of journalists has been considerably reduced. The journalists are no
more insulated from the day to day interference of management. The editors have
lost their pre-eminent role as the leader of the team. Their position has now been
reduced just like a departmental head manning the circulation department. Mostly,
they function under the overall supervision of the marketing or advertisement
department.
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Introduction to In a number of publications, the editor functions like a manager of a section
Newspapers
such as the advertisement, circulation or printing departments in newspaper offices.
The advertisement department has become the back-bone of the newspaper office.
In The Times of India, the journalists do not decide the content of the newspaper;
NOTES they have to follow the priorities of the marketing department in selecting news.
Even if an important person is to be interviewed, the marketing department decides
whether this interview would be beneficial to the newspaper in terms of generating
revenue. There are instances, when an interview with a senior official of the
government, public sector undertaking or a private sector company is immediately
followed with a request for a full page advertisement.
Various departments of a newspaper organization
Though newspapers provide a valuable public service, they are, first and foremost,
business enterprises. A newspaper has to routinely cover several institutions and
locations. Thus, its organizational structure is complex. Newspaper organizations
involve many departments, each of which performs its own tasks with certain staff
taking on multiple jobs. In a newspaper organization, functions are divided amongst
employees in a logical manner. The important departments in a newspaper
organization and their main functions are listed as follows:
 Editorial department: Headed by the editor, this department is where the
following activities take place:
o News is collected
o News and features are selected
o News and features are edited
o News is interpreted
The overall responsibility of the working of this department rests with the
editor of the newspaper. However, he or she needs the assistance of the
chief correspondent (and many types of correspondents who collect and
supply news), resident editors, managing editors, deputy editors, assistant
editors, news editors, feature writers and reviewers.
 Marketing and advertising department: The primary revenue source
for a newspaper is of course advertisement. Therefore, one of the most
important activities in a newspaper organization is that of collecting and
publishing advertisements. The Advertising department comprising of
different sections is responsible for this function. There are different sections
looking after local advertisements, classified advertisements, general/national
advertisements, legal advertisements and copy preparation. Marketing
managers come up with promotional methods that would result in higher
sales. Additionally, the media is motivated to sell news that gets higher TRPs
or which its marketing departments have assessed as popular. Market
researches on media habits and audience behaviour help writers to
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understand the need of a particular kind of writing. They also help them to Introduction to
Newspapers
strategize their writings.
 Circulation department: A newspaper cannot survive without circulation.
Therefore, the circulation department becomes the most important
NOTES
department of a newspaper organization. This department is responsible
for newspaper sales, newspaper delivery, and subscription collection.
 Printing department: This department is responsible for printing the
newspaper. It looks after everything related to printing including the installation
and maintenance of machines, layout of the press, composition, processing,
loading and scheduling.
 Administrative department: This department is responsible for the general
administrative work related to personnel, recruitment, training, promotion,
work allotment, leave record maintenance, liaison with government
departments, general facilities and all kinds of assistance to other
departments. If there is no separate legal department, even tasks related to
legal issues are handled by the administrative department.
 Accounting department: Quite evidently, this department looks after all
the accounting work like maintaining books of accounts, preparing balance
sheet and other financial statements, payment, receipt, preparation of budget,
financial planning, cost control, etc.
 Stores department: It is responsible for storing the newsprint, which is the
raw material required to print a newspaper. In addition, it also stores all
other material required.
 Other departments: The larger newspapers also maintain separate
departments to handle issues related to the personnel, legal, public relations
and data processing. The personnel department handles manpower planning,
recruitment, training, promotion, compensation, employee welfare,
appraisals, personnel research, retirement, and HR policy formulations. The
public relations department plays the important role of promoting the
newspaper in the face of stiff competition. Most big dailies today also have
a data processing department comprising a data processing manager,
computer supervisors, computer operators, key punch supervisor,
programmers, systems analysts and control clerks.
Introduction of contract jobs
The job profile of a journalist has undergone a sea-change in the past two decades.
There are no more permanent employees, but journalists are being hired on the
contract. It has enabled the newspaper owners to their claim to enjoy unfettered
press-freedom without any resistance from the journalists, it also suites the
government, powerful political leaders, corporate, because it is much easier to
tackle a newspaper owner than a large number of journalists. It has made most of
the Indian journalists docile in comparison to their predecessors. The institution of
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Introduction to the editors in the media houses too has been compromised in such a way that the
Newspapers
owners prefer their own name or the names of their next of kin to be published as
the editors. There are many owner-editors who do not write themselves, but employ
scribes to write on their behalf to justify their position as editors. In spite of these
NOTES unprofessional trends in the Indian media, the professional roles of journalists remain
crucial in the media. The editing is the key factor to determine the quality of any
media product.
Check Your Progress

6. State an important fact that needs to be remembered in the production of
newspapers.
7. What are the three points that need to be categorically considered while
designing a newspaper organization?
8. Mention any two important departments in a newspaper organization.
9. What is one of the most important activities in a newspaper organization?

QUESTIONS
1. The factors on which news is dependent are as follows:

(a) The size of the readers
(b) The socio-economic character and background of the readers
(c) The frequency of the publishing newspaper
(d) The focus of attention or emphasis of the readers
2. News is the timely report of events, facts and opinions, and interests a
significant number of people.
3. Soft news goes beyond what has happened. It analyses, interprets and
draws logical conclusions.
4. The two factors that determine, affect and influence the news value are as
follows:
(a) Timeliness
(b) Proximity
5. The three parameters on which any news has to be tested are as follows:
(a) Accuracy
(b) Balance
(c) Objectivity
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6. An important fact that needs to be remembered in the production of Introduction to
Newspapers
newspapers is that the cost of a newspaper, which includes the inputs of
newsprint, printing and content development, is almost ten times more than
its printed price. This cost has to be subsidized through intensive marketing
of the space. NOTES
7. While designing a newspaper organization, three points need to be
categorically considered. These are enumerated as follows:
(a) Focus on echoing the characteristics of the marketplace
(b) Synchronization of the newsroom and the marketing functions
(c) Concentration on optimum utilization of available resources
8. Editorial department and marketing and advertising department are the two
important departments in a newspaper organization.
9. One of the most important activities in a newspaper organization is that of
collecting and publishing advertisements.
7.6 SUMMARY
 News is the timely report of events, facts and opinions, and interests a
significant number of people.
 News is a new piece of information about a significant and recent event that
affects the readers/audience and is of interest to them.
 There are two main categories in which the news is mainly divided: hard
news and soft news.
 Hard news is mostly event-centered. It is the narration of an event. Hard
news items are centered on ‘what, when and why’.
 Soft news is beyond what has happened. It analyses and interprets in order
to arrive at logical conclusions.
 News value is determined by public interest. It differs from person to person
and society to society.
 News value is the significance and importance of a news item. It determines
how much prominence the news story should be given by the media
organization.
 Accuracy is basic to any news item. It will not be an exaggeration to say
that it is the backbone of any news story or news item. When a reporter
fails in accuracy, s/he loses credibility.
 Media houses are in the business of spinning news. They employ a large
workforce of both skilled and unskilled workers to run their operations.
 An important fact that needs to be remembered in the production of
newspapers is that the cost of a newspaper, which includes the inputs of
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Introduction to newsprint, printing and content development, is almost ten times more than
Newspapers
its printed price.
 The organizational structure of a newspaper depends on whether a publication
is a daily, fortnightly or monthly.
NOTES
 The organizational structure for a publication having regional or local presence
would naturally be different from its national or global counterpart, adding
to the complexity of the design and flow of authority.
 The focus on marketing has its own implications. The present day tradition
of editorial systems in the newspapers is inherited from the British-owned
newspapers.
 The primary revenue source for a newspaper is of course advertisement.
Therefore, one of the most important activities in a newspaper organization
is that of collecting and publishing advertisements.
 A newspaper cannot survive without circulation. Therefore, the circulation
department becomes the most important department of a newspaper
organization.
 The personnel department handles manpower planning, recruitment, training,
promotion, compensation, employee welfare, appraisals, personnel research,
retirement and HR policy formulations.
 The job profile of a journalist has undergone a sea-change in the past two
decades. There are no more permanent employees, but journalists are being
hired on the contract.
7.7 KEY WORDS
 Publication: It is the preparation and issuing of a book, journal, or piece of

music for public sale.
 Resident Editor: Resident editor means a person who performs the
functions of an editor of a newspaper at a centre other than the one from
which the newspaper was originally published.
 Deputy Editor: The deputy editor is the second-in-command at a
newspaper, magazine or website, who takes over the editor’s role in the
editor’s absence.

EXERCISES
1. What are the main characteristics of news?
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2. What are the certain fundamental qualities of news? Introduction to
Newspapers
3. What points needs to be considered while designing a newspaper
organization?
Long-Answer Questions NOTES
1. Discuss the difference between soft news and hard news.
2. Explain the factors that determine, affect and influence the news value of
any news story.
3. Describe the various departments of a newspaper organization.

Limited.
Publications.
Publishing House.
House.
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Material 111
Overview of News
Agencies
UNIT 8 OVERVIEW OF NEWS
AGENCIES
NOTES
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Features of News Agencies
8.2.3 Ownership Pattern
8.4 Summary
8.5 Key Words
8.0 INTRODUCTION
You must have heard the name of PTI, UNI, ANI, AP, Reuter, etc. while going
through the newspapers. You may find these names in the beginning of any news.
Have you ever thought what do they mean? Why some news begins with the
name of reporters or newspaper itself and why some news starts with these names?
These are the names of News Agencies. Some of these are international news
agencies and some of these are national news agencies. News agencies form a
major part of media. Whether we talk about print media or electronic media,
news agencies play a vital role in their functioning. News agencies have become
the major source of news for both print media as well as electronic media.
Interestingly, news agencies are considered as the most reliable source of news
too. Many times electronic news channels flashes the breaking news on their screen
by quoting the name of PTI, etc. as the source of the news. In this unit, we will
discuss every aspect of news agencies. We will also focus on the history and
growth of news agencies. We will try to understand why news agencies are
considered indispensable for the media these days.
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Overview of News
8.1 OBJECTIVES Agencies

 Understand the functioning of news agencies NOTES
 Discuss the different features of news agencies
 Describe the importance of news agencies for newspapers and news channels
8.2 FEATURES OF NEWS AGENCIES
In this section, we will study about what the news agency is? How they are different
from newspapers? What is their organizational and financial structure? We will
also try to understand the functioning of news agencies.
A news agency is an organization that is quite similar to reporting bureaus of media
organizations, where reporters collect or gather news from different walks of life.
The only difference is that news agencies do not publish its own newspapers,
magazines or telecast its own news channels. They cover the news and send to the
different media organizations. For getting the services of news agency, media
organizations have to subscribe to it and pay some fee. Thus, a news agency is
only dedicated to the gathering or collecting of news. Some news agencies provide
international services too. In addition to general news agencies, several specialized
services have also developed.
As we have already discussed that news agencies are completely different from
newspapers or news channels. Newspapers or news channels have complete setup
for news publishing or news broadcasting. They invest heavily in there infrastructure
for smooth functioning of complete news operations. Ultimately, they publish a
newspaper or telecast a channel. Instead of that news agencies are dedicated
service of providing news only, to the different media organizations. They work
quite similar to the news bureaus of media organizations. News agencies concerned
to the sending news to the media organizations only. After that is up to media
organizations how they use their news.
It’s the sole discretion of media organizations whether they select any news
from the agency or not. Most of the time they choose their own reporter’s news
item instead of news from agency. The advantage of news agency is that as they
work dedicatedly for news gathering instead of the whole news operations, they
provide news from remote locations as well, where media organizations usually
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Overview of News don’t have their reporters. The news agency invests only for news gathering
Agencies
operation and they have large numbers of reporters or stringers to get news from
distant places and different walks of life.
NOTES 8.2.3 Ownership Pattern

Who owns the News Agencies? This is a common question which must be coming
into your mind. As PTI and UNI types of news agencies are quite old and so much
reliable that many people think that government owns these agencies. But it’s far
from the truth. So, how these agencies manage their expenditure? Well, different
agencies have different ownership patterns. Some are run by trusts, while some
have private ownership. For instance, both the main agencies of India–PTI (Press
Trust of India) and UNI (United News of India) are run by trusts. These are
registered under the Registration of Societies of Act. They are owned by groups
of newspapers who have bought shares to run them. These newspapers have
established Boards of Directors headed by a Chairman. They make the policies
of the agency to run its operations. On the other hand, other famous news agencies
like ANI (Asian News International), which is South Asia’s leading multimedia
news agency with over 100 bureaus in India, is a professionally managed corporate
media entity.
The main source of earning for news agencies is through its subscription. News
agencies also incur installation charges when first time any media organizations
subscribe their services. Due to their importance and presence in news gathering
operations every media organization must take their subscription. Large
organizations usually subscribe all the main agencies. Many times breaking news
comes through the news agencies only. Rate of subscription is determined by
specific criteria like circulation of a newspaper or reach of news channel, and it
remains the same, irrespective of whether the newspaper or news channels uses
the news items sent out by the agency or not. As we discussed earlier, government
does not own the agencies but government’s different ministries and departments
including All India Radio and Doordarshan are the subscriber of news agencies.
In fact, the Government is the largest subscriber.
Most of the time news agencies organizational structure is more or less similar to
any media house’s organizational structure. The only difference is in broadcasting
or publishing team, as news agencies don’t broadcast or publish anything. As for
example in PTI or UNI, the board of directors decides the major policies. But to
look after day to day functioning of news gathering a General Manager is assigned
for the responsibility. He is usually assisted by Deputy General Manager. The
editorial desk works under the leadership of Managing Editor who is responsible
for all the news content. The desk is usually divided into output and input which
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114 Material
the bureau chief. Reporters are assigned for different beats. All state capitals have Overview of News
Agencies
their bureau offices having some reporters who cover the different news. For
distant places there are usually stringers who are not on the payroll of the agency
but they are paid on per news basis. For other operations, there are technical
team, accounts team, human resource team having their own hierarchy. NOTES

The functioning of news agencies is also more or less similar to the reporting and
desk team of any media organizations:
 The reporting team is responsible for news gathering. News agencies have
many reporters and stringers who cover all the news.
 As news agencies are dedicated to news gathering work only, they have
reporters or stringers even on the distant places where usually other media
organizations don’t have any reporters.
 Even in current scenario of media, where fake news has become a common
thing, news agencies have maintained their reliability.
 Reporting team always keep themselves in alert mode and try to break the
news. There are many instances when agencies got credit to break some
historical incidents. Like people still remember that PTI was the first to
break the news of former Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi’s assassination.
Similarly, UNI was the first to report that Mr Premdasa of Sri Lanka had
been killed in the blast in the island country.
 Reporters and stringers send their news to the Desk where their news were
rechecked, corrected or sometimes even rewritten by the Desk team.
 After that, news is released to all the subscriber of the agencies. It’s a
continuous process which keeps on going 24*7.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the basic difference between news agencies and media
organizations?
2. What is the full form of PTI, UNI and ANI?
3. Who is the owner of PTI and UNI?

QUESTIONS
1. The basic difference between news agencies and media organizations is

that news agencies do not publish its own newspapers, magazines or telecast
its own news channels.
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Overview of News 2. The full form of:
Agencies
(a) PTI: Press Trust of India
(b) UNI: United News of India
NOTES (c) ANI: Asian News International
3. Both the main agencies of India–PTI and UNI are trusts. These are registered
under the Registration of Societies of Act. They are owned by groups of
newspapers who have bought shares to run them.
8.4 SUMMARY
 Whether we talk about Print Media or Electronic Media, news agencies

play a vital role in the functioning of print media or electronic media.
 News agencies have become the major source of news for both print media
as well as electronic media. Interestingly, news agencies are considered as
the most reliable source of news too.
 The news agency is an organization that covers the news and sends it to the
different media organizations. For getting the services of news agency media
organizations have to subscribe it and pay its fee for that to the news agency.
 Thus a news agency services are dedicated to gather or collect news only.
 Newspapers or news channels have complete setup for news publishing or
news broadcasting. They invest heavily in there infrastructure for smooth
functioning of news operations. Ultimately they publish a newspaper or
telecast a channel.
 Instead of that news agencies are dedicated service of providing news only
to the different media organizations. They work quite similar to the news
bureaus of media organizations.
 Different news agencies have different ownership patterns. Some are run
by trusts. On the other hand some have private ownership.
 Both the main agencies of India – PTI (Press Trust of India) and UNI
(United News of India) are trusts. These are registered under the Registration
of Societies of Act. They are owned by groups of newspapers who have
bought shares to run them.
 ANI (Asian News International) which is South Asia’s leading multimedia
news agency with over 100 bureaus in India is a professionally managed
corporate media entity.
 The main source of earning for news agencies is through its subscription.
News agencies also incur installation charges when first time any media
organizations subscribe their services.
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 Government does not own the agencies but government’s different ministries Overview of News
Agencies
and departments including All India Radio and Doordarshan are the
subscriber of news agencies. In fact, the Government is the largest subscriber.
 News agencies organizational structure is more or less similar to any media
NOTES
house’s organizational structure. The only difference is in broadcasting or
publishing team, as news agencies don’t broadcast or publish anything.
 There is General Manager with his team to look after all the operations and
Editor to look after News Content with his team. The agencies have many
reporters and stringers for news gathering.
 For other operations, there are technical team, accounts team, human
resource team having their own hierarchy.
 The functioning of News agencies is also more or less similar to the reporting
and desk team of any media organizations.
 The reporting team is responsible for news gathering. News agencies have
many reporters and stringers who cover all the news.
 Even in current scenario of media where Fake News has become a common
thing, news agencies have maintained their reliability.
 Reporters and stringers send their news to the Desk where their news were
rechecked, corrected or sometimes even rewritten and edited by the Desk
team.
 After that, news is released to all the subscriber of the agencies. It’s a
continuous process which keeps on going 24*7.
8.5 KEY WORDS
 PTI: Press Trust of India (PTI) is India’s premier news agency, having a
reach as vast as the Indian Railways. It employs more than 400 journalists
and 500 stringers to cover almost every district and small town in India.
 UNI: United News of India (UNI) is a multilingual news agency in India. It
was founded in December 1959 as an English news agency.

EXERCISES
1. How are news agencies different from newspapers or news channels?
2. Briefly explain the ownership pattern of news agencies.
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Overview of News Long-Answer Questions
Agencies
1. Comment on the organizational structure of news agencies.
2. Explain the functioning of news agencies.
NOTES

Limited.
Publications.
Publishing House.
House.
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Broadcasting Journalism
BLOCK - III
MASS MEDIA
NOTES
UNIT 9 BROADCASTING
JOURNALISM
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Television and its Evolution
9.3 Television Genres
9.3.1 News Related Programme
9.4 Television and its Programmes
9.6 Summary
9.7 Key Words
9.0 INTRODUCTION
Television has brought the events and happenings of the world to people’s drawing
rooms. Not only this, it has also brought with it cinemas, soap operas, telefilms,
and so on. Any movie that runs in a cinema hall today is shown on television within
a period of five to six months. Therefore, television has become the most powerful
and much accessed medium of ideas, information and culture. In developed
countries like the United States, it is television that keeps the politicians in power
as the contestants have to launch special election campaigns for television. The
trend has begun in developing countries like India as well, although it is only in its
initial stages. This unit discusses the television and its evolution, along with its
various genres. It will also focus on the television and its programmes.
9.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the of television broadcasting evolution
 Discuss the various genres of television
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 Describe television and its programmes Material 119
9.2 TELEVISION AND ITS EVOLUTION
Television has had a deep and powerful impact on society. It has altered lifestyles
NOTES and changed values of people and in the process has considerably influenced our
culture. When compared to the printing industry, which took hundreds of years to
influence culture, television’s impact has been almost instantaneous. This is simply
because watching TV does not require much mental effort as compared to reading
printed material which needs concentration as well as a mental faculty of
comprehension. For instance, an illiterate person cannot read a newspaper or a
magazine but can definitely watch programme on television and thus get influenced
by it.
As a technology, television has made a huge difference to the manner of
conveying ideas to people. This has been proved time and again by the innovations
made in the field of TV advertising with the help of rapidly developing multimedia
techniques during the last two decades. According to Joseph Levitt: ‘Having earned
a niche for itself in ways that are inimitable and unprecedented, TV has worked its
way to becoming an indispensable member of hundreds of millions of families
across the world. To say that it merely educates, informs and entertains is an
understatement.’ It has been more than 70 years since John Baird invented the
television. In that time, the subtleties of how TVs works and influences people
have made it one of the most important inventions in the twentieth century. From a
supposed harmless square shaped box, the television has transformed into a
medium that has altered, and continues to alter, the way human beings think and
act.
In India, since television is increasingly becoming extremely influential, almost
being a source of mass enlightenment, it is crucial to examine its influences in
various areas. Doing such an examination is critical for providing guidelines for
future programme on development on television. Television has also helped in
producing a huge array of analysts whether they are critics, commentators and
reviewers; no other medium, whether print, movies or the radio can compete.
Some of these analysts have strongly argued that television has made a positive
impact on Indian society. This is of course contested hotly by the members of the
traditional media who have consistently underestimated television’s culture changing
effects, mainly because they overlook certain characteristics that are so obvious
that one takes them for granted. The most important feature of television is its
ability to mingle ideas with powerful drama right into the intimate environment of
countless homes.
The television medium has radically altered how people receive information
and perceive their surroundings. This is because television relies on second hand
or contrived experiences rather than direct experiences. There has also been
numerous researches conducted that show how messages, images and ideas on
television help mould the entire social system. In India, television has played the
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role of helping us appreciate the diversity and socio-cultural ethos of different Broadcasting Journalism
regions in India; in fact there have been studies done that prove this. The television
medium has also helped break social barriers and inculcate a scientific temperament
among the Indian people.
NOTES
The free flow of information is key for social change to occur. Information
helps increase awareness and understanding of issues; it also helps unite people
by creating common understanding about issues among them. Today’s information
explosion has opened the floodgates of knowledge and curiosity. A majority of
our people are cut off from modernity as they live in remote villages. Till date, they
led a life submerged in age old conservatism. However, slowly they are also being
able to access information thanks to television. In a developed country like the
United States, television has helped the homogenization of a heterogeneous society.
Historically, it played an important role in providing a common denominator to a
multi-lingual, multi-racial American society, which led to certain uniformity in societal
reaction to situations or events, in developing common response in personal and
social communication and in better appreciation of people with diverse beliefs and
life styles.
In 1920, experiments began in the field of television broadcasting. The United
States and some European countries took the lead in these exercises. Initially, a
mechanical scanning disc was used in these experiments whose speed of scanning
a picture was very slow. The next three years saw the invention of the iconoscope
which basically was an electric television tube. The invention of the picture tube or
kinescope, electronic camera and TV home receivers took another seven years.
In 1930, two respective TV stations were set up – the National Broadcasting
Station (NBC) in New York and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in
London. Germany and France too did not lag behind in setting up television stations.
The 1936 Olympics in Berlin was televised on German television in a big
way as the event was a part of a big propaganda show for the Third Reich.
However, despite the fact that the Nazis used German television as an instrument
of their political propaganda, further developments in television came to an abrupt
halt during the Second World War. The beginning of the 1950s saw television
becoming a part of life in many developed countries. For example, in 1948, in the
US, around five lakh receiving sets had been counted in 23 cities covered by 41
TV stations. The figure swelled to 533 TV stations covering 5.50 crore receivers
by 1958.
In the United States, it took four more years for the age of satellite
communication to dawn. The launch of the satellite Early Bird turned out to be a
milestone in the field of satellite communication. Moreover, in 1965, Intelsat, and
in 1971, Intersputnik, came into existence. The progress of television has been
phenomenal since that time.
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NOTES
Fig. 9.1 The Baird ‘Televisor’: The First Commercial Television Set to Receive the
30-line Pictures (1929-1935)
Today, there is no country in the world that does not have its earth stations
linked to satellites for transmission and reception. In fact, the modern world has
been transformed by these communications satellites into a ‘global village’. In the
words of Canadian media sociologist Marshal McLuhan, ‘electronic technology
is reshaping and restructuring patterns of social interdependence and every aspect
of our personal life. Extraordinary information explosion have dramatically shrunk
time and distance and have converted our world into a global village’.
Inventions led to more sophisticated transmission technique in the decades
that followed, employing optical fibre cable and computer technology. Japan
successfully designed a computer controlled network that enabled two-way video
exchange to and from households. The video cassette, the Video Cassette
Recorder (VCR), Closed Circuit TV (CCTV), Internet Protocol Television (IPTV),
Direct to Home (DTH), High Definition Television (HDTV), and so on, have
completely altered the path of televisions development in new and unexpected
ways. The number of accessible channels and media platforms has shot up because
of DTH, HDTV and IPTV. The quality of picture and sound transmission has also
been enhanced. Websites now have streaming video on the Internet and one can
access them even on mobile phones and tablet PCs. Households have been
converted into mini-theatres and gaming arcades with the help of flat-screen TV
sets with Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and plasma screens of varying sizes. But
this fast growth is far from being uniform. Many developing countries in Africa and
Asia do not have their own domestic satellites, transmission centres and number
of receiving sets. Several efforts have been initiated by world organisations like
the UNDP, the UNESCO and the United Nations to narrow this gap in technology
hardware between the developed and developing countries.
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Television in India Broadcasting Journalism
Television in India began when the Delhi Television Centre came into existence on
September 15, 1959. In the beginning this centre used to beam 20 minutes
programme twice a week. To make the experiment successful, 180 ‘teleclubs’ NOTES
were formed where TV sets provided by UNESCO were put up. In 1961, a
survey conducted by UNESCO concluded that ‘some impact’ was made by
teleclubs’ programme. In addition to social education programme – the very basis
of setting up the TV centre in the capital, the centre introduced information and
entertainment programme from August 1965. A TV production studio was also
set up with the help of the Federal Republic of Germany. With the addition of
news, information and entertainment programme, the service was extended to
three hours by 1970; aside from this, two weekly programme of 20 minutes duration
each for ‘teleclubs’ were already running. Another programme called
‘KrishiDarshan’ for farmers in 80 villages was also added. Meanwhile, the range
of transmitter was extended to 60 k.m. and the farmers of Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh could easily pick it up.
India during that year imported 22,000 TV sets but by mid-seventies the
number of television sets being manufactured in India soon crossed the 100,000
mark. In view of Indira Gandhi government’s popularity and demands from the
advertising industry, television manufacturers and consumers in Indian cities, it
was decided to expand the medium nationwide. The number of TV sets in Delhi
and neighbouring states amounted to 200,000 sets. Such was the encouragement
that the Bombay Centre was opened in 1972 and a year later, TV centres became
functional in Srinagar, Amritsar and Pune though only as relay centres. A couple of
years later Kolkata (then Calcutta), Chennai (then Madras) and Lucknow centres
became operational. January 1, 1976, marked the beginning of ‘commercials’
being telecast at all these centres.
Another milestone was achieved the same year when television was
separated from All India Radio. The ministry of I & B recognised television as an
independent media unit and named it ‘Doordarshan’. This decision taken by the
ministry raised hope for improvement in the quality of the content and duration of
the programme. The very next year saw terrestrial transmitters being set up in
Jaipur, Hyderabad, Raipur, Gulbarga, Sambhalpur and Muzaffarpur. This extended
television coverage to a population of more than 10 crores. It was during this year
that political parties shared equal radio and TV time with the ruling party for their
election campaigns – a unique and unparalleled decision in the history of Indian
broadcasting.
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)
Launched as an experimental satellite communications project in 1975, the Satellite
Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was aimed at providing informational
television programme to rural India. NASA and the Indian Space Research
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Broadcasting Journalism Organization (ISRO) jointly designed the project. The experiment had a two
pronged strategy - first to educate the poor on various issues via satellite
broadcasting, and secondly to help India gain technical experience in the field of
satellite communications. The experiment covered 2400 villages in six states of
NOTES Orissa, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The
experiment ran for one year from 1 August 1975 to 31 July 1976. While All India
Radio produced the television programme, NASA stationed the ATS-6 satellite
above India for the duration of the project broadcast. Various international agencies
such as the UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF, ITU Ford Aerospace were major
players in supporting the project while General Electric, Hughes Aircraft, The
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and so on, were the minor players. The
experiment was successful because it played a major role in helping India develop
its own satellite programme known as INSAT. It also made clear that India could
use advanced technology to fulfil the socio-economic needs of the country. SITE
was followed by similar experiments in various countries, which showed the
important role that satellite TV could play in providing education.
The INSAT series of domestic communication satellites and microwave
cable networks provided India the infrastructure for a national satellite hook-up.
With India’s hosting the Asian Games in 1982, the rapid expansion of television
networks got a further boost. During the middle of 1980s, New Delhi and Mumbai
(then Bombay) witnessed the introduction of a second channel which rapidly went
to other metros as well. It was called DD-1. After the Asian Games were over, the
television industry in India saw the entry of film directors and producers. Progressive
directors like Govind Nihalani, Saeed Mirza, Shyam Benegal and Basu Chatterjee,
who specialised in directing low budget films, found a good expression for
themselves in television. Nihalani came out with Tamas, a serial on India’s partition,
Saeed Mirza produced a socio-political show called Nukkad, while Basu
Chatterjee’s Rajani made a mark on the small screen. Benegal, however, failed to
attract viewers to his Sunday morning production known as Bharat ekkhoj which
was inspired by Jawaharlal Nehru’s book Discovery of India.
In the late 1980s, what took Indian television by storm was the entry of
bigwigs of commercial cinema into the television industry. Noted filmmaker,
Ramanand Sagar made Ramayana while another colleague B.R. Chopra produced
Mahabharata. Both of them were Sunday morning serials, and when they were
telecast, it was said that there used to be a curfew like atmosphere in most of
India. After their success, soon political satires like Kakkaji Kahin and episodes
of Malgudi Days followed suit.
Rapid strides in telecast technology
Telecast technology has undergone a sea change through all these decades. Initially,
the technology employed was terrestrial television where the range of the transmitter
used to be limited, say only about 50 kilometers. Thus, the signals reached Delhi
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and some of its neighbouring states like Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan Broadcasting Journalism
only. Delhi and its local studio used to telecast programme to Mumbai and other
places and viewers of these cities had no option but to remain content with whatever
they got. What was a revolutionary change was the arrival of cable TV in the early
1990s. NOTES
Satellite based TV transmission in India took almost one and a half decades
to come into existence. Although it turned out to be successful during its trial period
as part of SITE, it took off only in the early nineties when STAR (Satellite Television
Asia Region) TV arrived from Hong Kong. With this development, national and
international channels and programme in different Indian languages became
accessible to Indian viewers throughout the country. But STAR alone was not the
solution to the problems of Indian television. For almost 50 per cent of TV
households in the country, satellite transmission was simply unaffordable. Therefore,
it was imperative that satellite transmission became connected to terrestrial cable.
When this occurred, the monopoly that Doordarshan used to exercise automatically
ended. As did the monopoly of Hindi and English TV programme. Southern
channels like Asianet, Eenadu TV (ETV) and Sun TV and others paved the way
for the growth of television in South India and began to get higher ratings and
advertising revenues as compared to English and Hindi channels.
In 2003, Doordarshan launched the Direct-to-Home (DTH) deliver mode.
In this mode, it became mandatory to have a set-top box (STB) to receive signals
direct from communication satellites. This move set the viewer’s free from the
clutches of cable operators, although it was an additional investment and many
thought it was expensive as well. It also inspired channels like Zee TV and Star
TV to have their own DTH service – Dish TV and Tata Sky respectively. Today,
a majority of viewers in the major cities subscribe to either of the two services.
Check Your Progress

1. What is key for social change to occur?
2. Which TV stations were set up in 1930 in London?
3. When did the television in India begin?
4. What was the aim of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment?
9.3 TELEVISION GENRES
The content of television programme varies. Broadly speaking, it can be classified

into three types: (a) News related programme (b) entertainment related programme
and (c) Religious programme. We shall discuss these genres one by one.
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Broadcasting Journalism 9.3.1 News Related Programme
Television news forms the most important content unit for the students of journalism
and mass communication. However, as recent experiences with television news
NOTES has shown, it can also be the most superficial medium as far as news is concerned
as compared to print media, or, for that matter, radio. For any news, television has
to show pictures (visuals in TV parlance) and running up visuals takes time. This
does not allow for a thorough investigation or even adequate background
information. Besides, presentation of interesting or significant news is absolutely
out of question for television because a camera has its own limitations and cannot
be omnipresent. Therefore, no matter how detailed a story on television, it remains
superficial compared to stories on other mediums.
Some of the things that can be covered by a TV camera are sports,
inaugurations, parades, signing of treaties and memoranda of understandings
(MOU), arrivals and departures of VIPs and ceremonial events like swearing-in
ceremonies and coronations. Even if these events are telecast live, there is no hard
news content in them. Besides, their contribution to daily dose of news is very
small in terms of percentage. In TV parlance, any event that is covered is called a
‘package’ and a daily newscast comprises of some of these packages put together
by a news reader.
News bulletins and current affairs
The popular news programme on the over eighty channels of Indian Television
comprise of news bulletins and panel discussions on public affairs. Like most of
the programme on the national network, these are either in English or Hindi. These
programme make use of charts, diagrams, maps, film clips, slides and other visual
material.
Crime based programme
Also known as ‘crime specials’, crime based programme have now become
inseparable with the dawning of 24 hours news channels. Since crime ‘sells’, there
is hardly any channel these days which does not have its own flagship crime show.
In most of these programmes, a real life crime story is reconstructed and dramatised
and presented along with eyewitness accounts, music and a breathless and dramatic
narrative. Rape, murder, theft, burglary and forgery make excellent crime stories
and get a lot of television attention. Sansani, Red Alert, Crime city, Dial 100,
Jurm and Wardaat are some of the crime based programme on news channels.
Talk shows
Talk shows can be interviews, discussions and panel discussions. There may also
be participation of the audience in these shows. Interviews can be of various
types. For example, in shows like Karan Thapar’s The Devil’s Advocate and
Shekhar Gupta’s Walk the Talk, interviews are personality interviews where the
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focus is on probing well-known personalities. On the other hand, programme like Broadcasting Journalism
In Conversation and Vibrations deal with literary figures. We the People and
The Big Fight are content interviews in which the message is of prime importance
rather than personalities. Then there are group interviews like press conference in
which a group of newspersons shoot questions at those who are holding the press NOTES
conference.
Fig. 9.2 TV Grab of NDTV’s Walk the Talk

Some of the entertainment related programmes are discussed in this section.
Soap operas
A soap opera is also known as a TV serial. Serials are a narrative form in television
that presents daily/weekly episodes, with a multiple set of recurring characters
and simultaneous story lines. It is called a serial because each episode specifically
links to the next. This genre of TV programme came into existence in the mid-
1980s. Prior to this, Hindi feature films and film based programme dominated
Indian television almost for a decade.
Hum Log was India’s first indigenous soap opera. 156 episodes of the
show were telecast twice a week from July 7, 1984 to December 17, 1985. Hum
Log depicted the ups and the downs in the life of a North Indian lower middle
class joint family with parallel stories which tackled the problems of smuggling,
political corruption and underworld activities. The show became quite popular as
the Indian lower middle class identified itself with protagonists in the show. Its
popularity prompted the production of many indigenous serials in quick succession.
Shows like Khandaan and Buniyaad and Ye Jo Hai Zindagi and many others
were televised and became successive hits. By the end of 1987, forty serials had
been produced with two being screened every evening.
With the advent of cable and satellite channels during the beginning of 1990s,
the number of soap operas went up on Indian television. With Ekta Kapoor’s TV
production venture Balaji Telefilms, a new trend in the soap genre was introduced;
these serials later came to be known as K-serials. The pioneer of the K-serials
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Broadcasting Journalism was Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi. It turned out to be longest running soap
on Indian television. It had over a thousand episodes that ran for 7.5 years. Other
soaps like Kahani Ghar Ghar ki and Kasauti Zindagi Ki followed suit. In fact,
Balaji Telefilms became a soap factory and Ekta Kapoor became to be known as
NOTES a soap queen.
Buoyed by the success of K-serials, a number of soaps of different
production houses also began to be telecast. Soaps like Balika Vadhu are still
popular with the masses. Along with TV soaps, the number of television series
also saw a huge jump in the 1990s. Unlike TV serials, a television series is a
narrative form that presents weekly episodes, usually self contained, with a defined
set of recurring characters. It is not necessary that an episode of a TV series will
specifically link with the next episode. Such popular TV series in the 1990s include
Dekh Bhai Dekh, Byomkesh Bakshi, Zee Horror Show, CID, and so on.
A third type of entertainment programme that is popular is sitcoms. Sitcoms
are programmes about the stories and lives of a certain set of characters which are
narrated in a comedy/satirical form to make an audience laugh. Sitcoms began to
appear on Doordarshan in the 1980s. It became standard fare for television channels
to have sitcoms in the 1990s with many becoming popular. Some popular sitcoms
in the 1990s include Zabaan Sambhal ke (1993), Shrimaan Shrimati (1995),
Office Office (2001), Sarabhai vs Sarabhai and so on. The influx of foreign TV
channels in India in the 1990s saw some foreign sitcoms becoming popular as
well, especially in major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, etc. Some popular
foreign sitcoms in India in the 1990s and 2000s were Friends, Big Bang Theory,
How I Met Your Mother, and so on.
Children’s programme
Programme specially made for children at certain special times are called children’s
programme. A children’s show could either be on educational items, ‘live’ stories
and plays, puppet-shows, or cartoons. Some quiz shows are also included in
children’s programming. There are also some television channels like POGO,
Hungama, Disney and Cartoon Network (CN) that are targeted at children.
Reality TV
In the late 1990s, there was a short span where television was dominated by
religious programme with the advent of private TV channels. However, in the
beginning of the 21st century, what dominated the small screen were game shows,
quiz and reality shows. During the period, Star TV’s Kaun Banega Crorepati,
which was a copy of an American show called Who wants to be a Millionaire,
became quite popular. Sony’s search of an Indian Idol dominated the competition
during 2004 and 2005. Roadies and Splitsvilla–two shows on MTV- caught the
fancy of the young crowd but what really stole the show was the T20 matches of
the BCCI’s Indian Premier League (IPL) in mid-2008. All the matches were
telecast live at prime time on SET-Max.
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Travel, food and lifestyle Broadcasting Journalism
A recent addition to the genres of entertainment programmes that is in vogue are

travel, food and lifestyle channels. They are aimed at an audience of young middle
to upper class people with disposable incomes to spend. Food shows focus on NOTES
cuisines of different regions in India and the world while travel shows focus on the
places around the world one can visit. Lifestyle shows aim to familiarize audiences
with unique ways of living focusing on a whole range of topics including healthy
living, adventure sports, luxury and fashion, and so on. In India, there has been a
boom in terms of travel, food and lifestyle programming. Most entertainment
channels have shows on travel and food. In addition, there are a few channels
completely dedicated to providing travel, food and lifestyle content including TLC
India, NDTV Good Times, Zee Trendz, Fox Life, and so on.
Also known as spiritual programme, religious programme is a popular genre in
India. Many spiritual ‘gurus’ use religious teachings to spread their teachings and
reach the faithful. A number of religious channels have, in recent years, attracted
millions of faithful people. Some of the religious channels in India include Ashirwad,
Aastha, God, Jagran, Jesus calls, Sanskar, Power Vision, TCTV (Tamil
Christian TV), Velugu TV Newtork and QTV. These channels contain programme
on religious discourses, bhajans, Gurbani, Ayurved, Yoga, Astrological forecasts,
vastu and religious/mythological movies.
Today, almost every newspaper publisher in India owns at least one television
channel. For instance, India’s largest chain of newspapers The Bennett Coleman
& Company Limited, also known as the Times of India group has a news channel
Times Now and a lifestyle channel called Zoom. The publishers of India Today
Living Media group own three channels–Headlines Today, AajTak and Delhi
AajTak.
Other major players in the news media include the Star network and the
Zee network, both of which run news, business news and entertainment channels.
Eenadu, Sun, Sahara and Asianet are the other Indian language networks that
include news channels and sports channels in their hands. In total, there are over
eighty news channels in India including the public service Doordarshan. All of
them are commercial in nature as their primary source of revenue is advertising.
Only a few of them are pay or subscription channels. It has been observed that
slowly the TV industry is going the newspaper way in terms of a similar revenue
model. Local newspapers or local editions of national or regional newspapers
have proved to be successful across the country in winning over advertisers and
readers, according to a study of localisation of Hindi newspapers.
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Broadcasting Journalism It was probably the boom in the local retail market that prompted several
TV channels to launch city-centric channels in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
AajTak and Sahara Samay NCR started the trend in New Delhi; NDTV’s Metro
station and INX followed suit. Sahara Samay has six city-specific channels, one
NOTES each in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar/Jharkhand and
Mumbai. NDTV and other networks have also announced the launch of city-
specific general entertainment channels in other Indian cities.
Check Your Progress

5. What kind of content forms the most important content unit for the students
of journalism and mass communication?
6. What was India’s first indigenous soap opera?
7. What kind of shows dominated the small screen in India in the beginning of
the 21st century?
9.4 TELEVISION AND ITS PROGRAMMES
The most common kinds of formats are associated with game shows, many of
which are remade in multiple markets with local contestants. Reality shows like
the Big Boss, Kaun Banega Crorepati, Indian Idol and Nach Baliye have attained
nationwide success. Specific models in the genre of sitcoms are often sold as
formats, enabling broadcasters to tune them to the tastes of their own audience.
For example, The Office, a BBC sitcom was adapted as Office Office in India,
The Office in US, Le Bureau in France, Stromberg in Germany, La Job in Quebec
and La Ofis.
TV formats are considered to be a form of intellectual property (IP), and
are purchased and sold on a regular basis by TV producers, distribution companies
and broadcasters. However, TV formats are usually not backed by copyright law.
Therefore, copycat formats are sometimes created, which aim at replicating an
original format’s success without paying its rights-holder. Format developers try
to prevent this by various means, including using trademarks or preventing the
distribution of other programmes. Establishing a ‘Proof of Review’ and exposure
to companies reviewing new TV formats is a crucial aspect of protection by the
industry. The Format Recognition and Protection Association (FRAPA) aims to
protect rights to formats and lobbies for legal protection. The commonly used
formats are as follows:
 Actuality: In this type of format, the audience sees and hears people
being discussed. The programme may be introduced by a host, but
from then on, rather than interviewing people, the programme cuts directly
to the people involved; for example, a story on child labourers working
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in various shops and roadside hotels. Television news falls into this Broadcasting Journalism
category.
 Animation: Here a series of still drawings or individual shots are
combined to give the illusion of movement. 25 separate pictures can
NOTES
make one picture showing full animation per second. Making animation
is time consuming and expensive as each frame of the film has to be shot
separately. An example of an animation show is The Simpsons.
 News programme: It is a regularly scheduled television programme
basically on current events. The news is typically a series of individual
stories that are presented by one or more anchors. The programme can
be live or recorded.
 News documentary: When news is shown in a documentary style with
facts and figures making the news story more authentic it is known as a
news documentary. News documentary are longer than normal news
stories.
 Demonstration: Demonstration of recipes in cookery shows, or gadgets
in a technology show often form a part of television programmes. These
programmes can either be shot in studio or can be filmed on field
demonstrations.
 Graphics: Graphics means pictures. The camera moves across the series
of painted pictures, which are created on a particular topic. They are
divided into several sections or ‘episodes’ to make the message
explanatory. These pictures are drawn horizontally with soft edges to fit
the TV screen so that the picture fades out to the edges of the paper,
rather than stopping abruptly.
 Drama: Drama has been very effective in involving the viewers in
television programme since they try to realistically represent life. A drama
is a play which represents a true-to-life story in a dramatized form with
actors playing the part of the story’s characters. The story develops
through what the characters do and say. Dramas on television have
provided a cheaper substitute for theatre plays which are beyond the
reach of the middle class household. Many TV soap operas are examples
of this format. Soap operas have proven to be very popular with
housewives and often run for many years.
 Interview: An interview is a face-to-face conversation between a host
and the interviewee or an invitee. Interviews can be conducted of
renowned politicians, outstanding personalities, writers and artists, and
so on. These types of shows are one of the most difficult programmes to
do well. Sometimes interviews are made interesting by shots, showing
the interviewee engaged in whatever is being discussed. The recent
interview of Rahul Gandhi by Arnab Goswami on Times Now is an
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Broadcasting Journalism example of this format. Interviews can be conducted in various settings,
the seated interview being among the most popular. Despite being in a
permanent studio or someone’s living room, the interviewer, guest(s)
and cameras are arranged in a way such that it looks and feels most
NOTES appropriate for achieving the objectives of the interview. A number of
common floor plans exist as options. Factors such as space and number
of cameras will often be limitations. The following are the guidelines that
include options for most settings in an interview:
o Single Guest, Single Camera: In this case, the interviewer and guest
occupy the same frame and appear equally prominent. This is useful
in knowing who will be doing most of the talking, or whether the talk-
time is proportionately divided between the interviewer and guest.
The setting is more or less casual, especially suited to interviews that
are less formal in nature. However, this has a variant. Assuming the
same situation and moving the camera to one side gives a different
experience. Thus, the guest becomes much more prominent and
assumes primary focus. The interviewer faces the camera at the
beginning and end of the interview, but not in course of the interview.
This leaves the interviewer with profile framing so 1-shots will be
reserved for the guest. From time to time, the camera can zoom out to
a 2-shot, and then back in to the guest. When the interview is edited,
the guest will mostly occupy the frame of the interview. When the
interview ends, the camera is shifted to the other side and back-cut
questions are shot.
o Single Guest, Multi-Cameras: If a second camera is added facing
the interviewer, it provides a second shot and also allows each camera
to reframe its shot while the other camera is in use. This enables you
to cut among a range of shots without continuously zooming in and
out. A third camera in the middle adds the safety and flexibility of a
permanent 2-shot.
o Two Guests, Two Cameras: This arrangement covers two guests in
an informal way. It is very effective when the guests are connected
somehow (e.g. family members or work colleagues), or share similar
views in relation to the subject. One camera covering both guests
enables them to be covered with a 2-shot for considerable time but
you would probably want to incorporate more compact shots. The
camera operator has to move carefully between the guests to cover
the speaker. This problem is dealt with the optional extra camera as
one camera covers each guest.
o Two Guests, Multi-Cameras: This arrangement is preferred if the
guests are antagonistic towards each other, or do not want to sit close
to each other. If the guests are seated at opposite ends of a table, a
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more confrontational situation is created. This is suitable in the case of Broadcasting Journalism
guests who hold opposed views on the subject concerned.

 Panel show: These programmes have a group of experts and a
moderator who introduces the experts, explains the theme, anchors the
NOTES
discussion and concludes. Mostly this format is used for discussion of
current events or affairs where the audience is interested in learning
various opinions on an issue. The examples are too common these days
as every news channel hosts these shows.
 Docu-Drama: It is a type of programme that uses a literary and narrative
technique to flesh out the bare facts of an event in history to tell a story
to the audience.
 Puppet shows: Puppet shows are used especially for children’s
programmes because they add novelty. They are cheaper as well as
they require short periods for rehearsal and much less payment to those
who play puppet as compared to actors of a play. Many times, puppet
is used in the role of the comparer. These days, puppet shows are used
for political satires as well, in which puppets represent characters of
politicians and indulges in discussions.
 Series: It is a type of programme that presents weekly episodes, usually
self contained, with a defined set of recurring characters.
 Sitcoms: Sitcoms or situational comedies are fictional programmes
containing a fix set of characters whose stories are told in a comedic or
satirical form to make the audience laugh.
 Studio discussion: Studio discussions involve speakers who join in to
talk about a specific subject or issue that is usually serious in nature. The
subjects discussed may include academicians, politicians, economists,
sociologists and so on. For instance, many experts participate in
discussions around the budget during the budget session of the parliament
or respective assemblies. These days it has become a trend that on any
current topic, five to six people from different ideological backgrounds
or political parties are invited to the studios of television channels and an
anchor conducts the show.
 Studio chat shows with audience participation: Talk shows are
television programmes in which a host—and sometimes a sidekick—
interacts with entertainers, newsmakers, and others regarding a particular
subject. Some incorporate additional segments, like cooking
demonstrations or sketches, but others focus on a discussion between
the host and the guest. A wide variety of talk shows on television cover
a wide range of topics. This type of programme, sometimes known as a
chat show, was one of the earliest formats created for television. In
India, they have existed from the early eighties when Doordarshan ruled
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Broadcasting Journalism the roost in television shows. Ever since private television channels have
come to dominate the market, the chat show format has metamorphosed
into a dominant format. Koffee with Karan, Chat room and Face the
Review are a few examples. These shows have a good rating. Modern
NOTES television formats range from controversial tabloid shows to the
established late night comedy shows. An organized pattern of a talk
show is usually a blend of musical performances, audience interaction,
and short celebrity interviews. Local television stations also produce
their own versions, since they do not require elaborate sets or difficult
camera movements.
 Studio quiz programme with audience participation: In the social
sciences, research on audience participation in the media has
concentrated mainly on television talk-shows. These genres have proved
attractive to conversation analysts because they provide researchers
with a corpus of unscripted, ‘naturally occurring’ talk. Callers to television
shows typically begin their contribution by constructing a local identity
that legitimizes their contribution. However, at present, there are many
genres of broadcasting in which members of the public make a significant
contribution. Quiz shows and other game shows featuring public
participants have been among the most popular television shows in the
last three decades. More recently, the extensive genre of ‘lifestyle’
programming has helped ordinary and ‘expert’ public participants come
together in various activities based in the domestic sphere from fashion
and shopping to interior decorating and gardening. In these types of
audience participation media, public contribution is legitimized through
clearly defined roles in the programme (as a contestant, for instance).
The examples are Kaun Banega Crorepati and Tol mol ke bol.
 TV documentary: Documentaries feature any subject of interest and
give detailed information on real situations, people, and news. Examples
include documentary on puppetry, environment, political situations,
regional handicrafts, achievements of Indian railways, a government and
so on. The documentaries create interest, enlightenment, or entertainment.
A television documentary takes the form of a direct presentation of the
substance of a problem or an experience or a situation. A documentary
is one of the most effective sources of original programming in the TV
schedule. There is no doubt that documentaries are television’s most
successful achievement to realize the goal of Educate and Inform and
public service channels are the ones that are completely responsible for
broadcasting the majority of documentaries. Documentaries are
commissioned by tiny elite of commissioning editors who act as patrons
to larger elite of ‘passionate’ independent producers. British film maker
John Grierson adopted the use of the term ‘documentary’ for the first
time, in 1926, for describing a different and innovative type of short
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film. Grierson’s films had no resemblance with the newsreels of the time, Broadcasting Journalism
nor the tedious public information films. The closest approximation he

came across was the French ‘Documentaire’ which were ‘travelogues.’
Cinema Documentary/Non-Fiction films were very common in the early
days of film (The first public exhibitions of films by the Lumiere brothers NOTES
were such films) but cinema soon shifted from short ‘one & two reelers’
to become dominated by the ‘three reeler’ feature film. In the 1950s
and 1960s, French political film makers used the new light weight cameras
and sound equipment to pursue artistic and social ‘truth’. The use of
hand held cameras, natural lighting and sound, unrehearsed and unscripted
action and real locations influenced documentary as well as drama. In
production of a documentary a strategy of presentation is chalked out
under which, the ‘Topic’ is selected, decisions are made with regard to
the depiction or treatment of the subject, material is selected, ‘typicality’
is established, research is conducted, and contacts are established.
 Corporate video production: Corporate videos are very costly to
make. The reason for this is that every related constituent like time,
workforce and equipment have all become expensive. It is fortunate
that quite a few production houses have all the experience to efficiently
manage a production process, without the added extras and at the same
time, keeping the creativity and quality intact. A careful procedure is
followed to handle the production effectively maintaining the budget. In
the first pre-production meeting, a production schedule is chalked out
and the video content is listed down to ensure that the future stages are
easy. At this initial meeting, the team gets together with the producer and
scriptwriter to ensure an easy flow of things. A quality result involves
creativity of the crew and the talent of the performers as well as careful
planning and approval at each stage of the process. Right at the beginning,
it is the producer’s responsibility to provide a comprehensive timetable
of the activities involved in the production process. By the end of this
meeting the entire team agrees upon:
o A detailed schedule for the production, including deadlines for approval
of the script and storyboard, pre-production meetings, shoot dates,
dates for viewing the rough cut and fine cut, completion and final
delivery rollout.
o The content areas for the script as bullet points, plus where, when and
how the scriptwriter will find information within your organization -
who he/she can talk to, what can be seen, etc. The script being the
most significant part of production needs to be approved. It is the
engine that drives your video.
 Ad films: An ad film is a short capsule made to deliver a particular
message to the audience to persuade them to buy a particular product.
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Broadcasting Journalism These films spanning a few seconds inserted between the different
segments of a TV programme are aimed at influencing the audience
and, therefore, demand much creativity on the part of the producers
and scriptwriters. In this age of competition, they are not easy to make.
NOTES Here are a few examples:
o Tata Sky has come out with the longest ad to be aired on Indian
television. Titled ‘Prison Break’ the commercial is about a group of
foreign convicts in an Indian jail who devise a daring escape during a
cricket match between Indian and Pakistan, assuming the guards and
the jailer will be too busy watching TV. After several minutes of plotting
a free running, they are apprehended by the jailer who has had them
his sights all along, since he had opted to record the match.
o Idea 3G–Population is yet another ad film with duration of 1:30 minutes.
It is about how people getting busy playing games and accessing
streaming content via 3G will keep their carnal desires at bay under
control and thus reduce India’s population.
Check Your Progress

8. What are the aims of the Format Recognition and Protection Association?
9. What are panel shows?
10. Define an ad film.

QUESTIONS
1. The free flow of information is a key for social change to occur.

2. In 1930, two respective TV stations were set up–the National Broadcasting
Station (NBC) in New York and the British Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) in London.
3. Television in India began when the Delhi Television Center came into
existence on September 15, 1959.
4. Launched as an experimental satellite communications project in 1975, the
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment or SITE was aimed at providing
informational television programmes to rural India.
5. Television news forms the most important content unit for the students of
journalism and mass communication.
6. Hum Log was India’s first indigenous soap opera.
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7. In the beginning of the 21st century, what dominated the small screen in Broadcasting Journalism
India were game shows, quiz and reality shows.

8. The Format Recognition and Protection Association aims to protect rights
to formats and lobbies for legal protection.
NOTES
9. Panel shows have a group of experts and a moderator, who introduces the
experts, explains the theme, anchors the discussion and concludes.
10. An ad film is a short capsule made to deliver a particular message to the
audience to persuade them to buy a particular product.
9.6 SUMMARY
 As a technology, Television has made a huge difference to the manner of

conveying ideas to people. This has been proved time and again by the
innovations made in the field of TV advertising with the help of rapidly
developing multimedia techniques during the last two decades.
 The most important feature of television is its ability to mingle ideas with
powerful drama right into the intimate environment of millions of homes.
 In 1920, experiments began in the field of television broadcasting. The United
States and some European countries took the lead in these exercises.
 The launch of the satellite Early Bird turned out to be a milestone in the field
of satellite communication. Moreover, in 1965, Intelsat, and in 1971,
Intersputnik, came into existence.
 The video cassette, the Video Cassette Recorder (VCR), Closed Circuit
TV (CCTV), Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), Direct to Home (DTH),
High Definition Television (HDTV), and so on, have completely altered the
path of televisions development in new and unexpected ways.
 Television in India began when the Delhi Television Center came into existence
on September 15, 1959.
 The INSAT series of domestic communication satellites and microwave
cable networks provided India the infrastructure for a national satellite
hookup.
 The content of television programme varies. Broadly speaking, it can be
classified into three types: (a) News related programme (b) entertainment
related programme and (c) Religious programme.
 Hum Log was India’s first indigenous soap opera. 156 episodes of the
show were telecast twice a week from July 7, 1984 to December 17, 1985.
 TV formats are considered to be a form of intellectual property (IP), and
are purchased and sold on a regular basis by TV producers, distribution
companies and broadcasters. However, TV formats are usually not backed
by copyright law.
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Broadcasting Journalism  Establishing a ‘Proof of Review’ and exposure to companies reviewing
new TV formats is a crucial aspect of protection by the industry.
 The Format Recognition and Protection Association (FRAPA) aims to
protect rights to formats and lobbies for legal protection.
NOTES
9.7 KEY WORDS
 Homogenization: It is the act of making something homogeneous or uniform

in composition.
 Genre: It is a class or category of artistic endeavor having a particular
form, content, technique, or the like.
 Terrestrial Television: Terrestrial television is a type of television
broadcasting which does not involve either satellite transmission or cables.
Instead, transmission is done with radio waves, and antennas or television
antenna aerials are used for reception.
 Intellectual property: It refers to the intangible property that is the result
of creativity, such as patents, copyrights, etc.
 Graphics: It refers to the products of the graphic arts, especially commercial
design or illustration.

EXERCISES
1. How has television impacted the lives of people in India? Can you find
some examples in real life?
2. Write a short note on SITE and reality television.
3. What do you understand by studio discussions and studio chat shows?
1. Describe the different genres of television.
2. Telecast technology has undergone a sea change through all these decades.
Discuss.
3. Explain how can a TV interview be effective? How can it be done with the
help of camera positions?
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Utterback, Andrew. 2016. Studio Television Production and Directing:

Concepts, Equipment and Procedures. New York: Taylor & Francis. NOTES
Donald, Ralph; Riley Maynard; and Thomas Spann. 2008. Fundamentals of
Television Production. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Zettl, Herbert. 2015. Television Production Handbook. Stamford, CA: Cengage
Learning India, 2011.
Mehta, Nalin. 2008. Television in India: Satellites, Politics and Cultural
Change. London: Routledge.
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Radio and Films
UNIT 10 RADIO AND FILMS

NOTES Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Radio and its History
10.3 Radio and its Programmes
10.3.1 Spoken Word Programmes
10.3.2 Outside Broadcast Production of News, Sporting and Mega Events
10.4 Films
10.6 Summary
10.7 Key Words
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Radio has been the means of providing information and entertainment for a long.
Most of us have heard of Binaaca Geetmala which was the first film programme to
be beamed on radio in India. Radio caters to all categories of people—children,
youth and the adults. With the advancement of technology, private players have
entered the field of radio in India. In this unit, you will learn about the origin and
emergence of radio in the world in general and in India in particular. We will also
focus on the diversification of radio programmes as well as films.
10.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the origin of the radio
 Discuss various radio programmes
 Describe the emergence and features of films
10.2 RADIO AND ITS HISTORY
It was wireless telegraphy that originated from a combination of a number of

discoveries of electro-magnetic waves, the wireless telegraph and the triode
amplifier valve by scientists and technicians from different countries. A Danish
scientist Hans Christian Oersted in 1819 discovered that electric current created
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magnetic effect. Later, Alessandro Volta recorded the production of electricity by Radio and Films
chemical means in 1829. After six decades, James Clark Maxwell, came out with
his theory of electromagnetism. This theory proved the existence of radio waves.
Later a German Physicist Heinrich Hertz concluded that like light waves, electric
current can be projected into space as radio waves. In 1888, Hertz published a NOTES
paper which provided the basis for modern radio transmission.
An Italian scientist Guglielmo Marconi fanatically worked on Hertz research.
Using Hertz’s theory, he succeeded in setting his radio waves in motion by generating
a spark that leaped across a gap. He filled up a glass tube with metal fillings and
put them in touch with radio waves. The metal fillings cohered. Then he loosened
them up and by tapping the tube on the table, he again repeated his experiment.
This is how wireless communication was born. Prior to this, transmission of Morse
code (telegraph) required the laying of string wires from one point to another.
John Fleming in 1904 invented vacuum tube which enabled the transmission
of voice. Later Reginald Fessenden and Lee Dee Forest contributed to its further
development. It was Fessenden’s theory that radio wave can be sent as a continuous
wave on which voice can be super-imposed. Earlier they used to be sent in bursts
that accommodated the dots and dashes of the Morse code. Dee Forest improvised
on Fleming’s vacuum tube into audition tube that contained three electrodes instead
of two that belonged to Fleming. The audition tube was capable of amplifying
sound to a bigger extent and it became a crucial development towards transmission
of the voice. Developments were later added to these inventions in due course of
time and finally it took the shape of radio broadcasting. The sole use of wireless
telegraphy was to ship and ship to shore communication. It took ten years for it to
develop into broadcasting. The world war was the sole reason for industrialization
of wireless telegraphy.
The pioneers of broadcasting in India were the amateur radio clubs in Calcutta
(now Kolkata), Madras (now Chennai), Bombay (now Mumbai) and Lahore
after several experimental broadcasts were conducted in Bombay and other cities.
The Radio Club of Calcutta was the first amateur radio club to start functioning in
November 1923. Madras Presidency Radio Club came close on its heels in May
1924 and began broadcasting in July. The clubs came together because of financial
crunch to form Indian Broadcasting Company Ltd. (IBC) in 1927. This was a
private company on the lines of European Broadcasting. The IBC built two weak
little stations at Calcutta and Bombay. Within three years, the company had as
many as 7000 listeners. However, due to lack of revenue it lost a great deal of
money and decided to go into liquidation. There was no support from the
government. At the last moment BBC started an Empire programme on the short
wave. There was a sudden rush from Europeans to buy radio sets to be able to
listen to this programme and 8000 sets were purchased in bulk after imposing a
15 per cent import duty on them. The government-run broadcasting was set up
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Radio and Films and was named as Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS). Lionel Fielden was
made its first controller. It was his idea to rename this service as All India Radio
(AIR).
NOTES AIR after independence

When British Raj ended in 1947, All India Radio had a small network of six
stations. There were 2.5 lakh receiving sets which meant one set for every 12500
persons in the country. This would hardly characterize the organization as a mass
communication system; and among the available mass media radio was the only
channel that had the potentiality to be quickly developed into an effective and truly
national service. That was particularly the case, since the reach of the printed
word was limited as only about 30 per cent of the population was literate and 80
per cent lived in villages. So out of necessity, the quick development of the radio
became the policy of the planners and the government under the successive five
year plans.
AIR came to be known as Akashvani in 1957. Since then it has emerged as
the biggest media organization of the central government, with its programmes
received by over 3 crore radio receiver sets in India. As a fast and instantaneous
communication medium, it has an in built advantage of overcoming the country’s
formidable literacy, linguistic, cultural and physical barriers. It could also involve
different types of people and integrate various kinds of cultural, musical, dance
and folk art forms that are found in India. During the British period this was not
possible because the alien government had little respect for national aspirations as
also for an indigenous form of entertainment. After independence this attitudinal
obstacle ended.
Luckily, AIR had experienced personal and ‘its innovative zeal was
unbounded.’ For example, in 1948 AIR Bombay arranged to interview the
Hollywood Greer Garson through an intercontinental link arranged by the Post
and Telegraph department. In fact, that spirit had infused largely the software
policy of AIR. Accordingly, the main thrust of its programmes was on putting out
need – based innovative programmes. In addition, that was the requirement of the
time after the communal bloodbath of partition, the urgency of emotional integration
after the reorganization of states and initiation of the process of integrated planning.
The programme advisory committees set up at various stations and guidelines
evolved in August 1980 too have sought to inject a high spirit of professionalism in
broadcasting programmes and to make them more receptive to constructive
criticism. To this end, listeners’ letters, regular feedback service, and analysis of
listeners’ reactions by audience research units to the programmes broadcast have
also made significant contribution.
The manifestation of the spirit of innovativeness was evident when AIR
covered sports events during Asiad 1982. In fact, it proved to be a landmark
coverage. AIR broadcasted the various events to listeners all over the country. It
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also furnished facilities for dubbing and relaying the events to foreign broadcasting Radio and Films
organizations. A team of nearly 550 people consisting of programmers, engineers

and technicians were placed on duty in different stadia to catch the events in sound
and convey them to listeners. All the technical infrastructure required for this historic
event was provided internally. NOTES
Diversified programmes of AIR

Over the years, All India Radio has expanded its range of programming. Today its
home service programmes are transmitted for 3.91 lakh hours every year, excluding
1.76 lakh hours of Vividh Bharati programmes. Further, All India Radio also presents
programmes in seventeen different foreign languages and eight Indian languages
for over 56 hours daily on its external service to listeners aboard so as to present
India’s point of view on important issues.
Radio is considered to be the music box for the common man. Previously,
music, particularly, Indian classical music was considered to be the reserve of the
rich. Due to the radio, different kinds of Indian music, whether they are classical,
folk, film based, tribal, devotional, and so on can be enjoyed by anyone who
owns a radio. Studies show that radio stations spend about 40 per cent of their
total broadcasting time to programmes related to music. Thus, it can be said that
All India Radio is facilitating the protection of the Indian musical heritage by
acquainting the younger generation with the Indian classical music tradition.
AIR is seeking to scout new talents continually through regular music auditions
as well as annual music competitions. Young and promising artists of higher grades
are regularly featured in public concerts as well as in zonal hook up programmes.
Classical music programmes comprise a weekly national programme of music
which presents to the nation music by leading practitioners of both Hindustani and
Karnataka schools of music. As a promotional measure, a festival of music, known
as radio sangeet sammelan is also organized every year. The recordings of these
concerts are broadcast on AIR’s network in the country. One of the significant
achievements of AIR’s national programmes in music as also of radio sangeet
sammelan is integration through the interaction of the two major styles of Indian
music. Eminent artists as well as the more promising younger talents in both styles
are presented in these programmes which are beamed on the national network.
Since 1973, it also broadcasts a national programme of regional music,
which brings to the listeners the rich tradition of folk and the light music of various
regions. Besides, AIR stations put out sizeable chunks of folk and light music in
their programmes. In 1952, it started the orchestral programme called
‘vadyavrinda’ consisting of both Hindustani and Karnataka instrumentalists. The
Delhi unit has done remarkable experiments in orchestration of Indian music and
has wide repertoire of a variety of compositions based on traditional ragas and
fold tunes. The madras unit comprised mainly Karnataka musicians. AIR is also
paying equal attention to the development of folk light and choral music.
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Radio and Films Even today, discerning people like to listen to radio news bulletins for they
attempt to give comprehensive and speedy coverage of news and views in addition
to commentaries and discussions on current affairs. Besides focusing on major
trends in political, economic, social, cultural and scientific fields they give adequate
NOTES attention to rural development, parliamentary proceedings and sports activities.
News is broadcast daily through 254 bulletins. Of these, 68 bulletins in 19 languages
are beamed from the home service from Delhi, 123 original bulletins in 60 languages
and dialects and 63 bulletins of external services in 24 languages. Specialized
news, sports news, state and development news, slow speed bulletins in English,
Hindi and Urdu, a weekly bulletin of human interest stories constitute other important
bulletins of AIR covered by its own correspondents. In days when parliament is in
session, daily commentaries in English and Hindi review the day’s proceedings in
the two Houses. Since 1977, a weekly coverage has also been introduced. A
similar coverage of state legislatures is broadcast for state capitals in the languages
concerned.
The external services broadcasts are designed to project a true and objective
image of the country to listeners abroad. They explain the country’s point of view
on matters of national and international importance. They also seek to acquaint
listeners with the ideas and achievements of India as an open society, as also its
secular ideals. These broadcasts are equally significant to service as a link with
people of Indian origin living or settled abroad. AIR beams programmes for special
audiences and occasions. Specific programmes are relayed for the armed forces,
women and children, youth, students, industrial workers, rural and tribal people.
14 stations broadcast daily programmes for the armed forces. Almost 55 stations
present programmes twice a week in original languages for women. The objective
of these programmes is to provide entertainment and impart necessary information
on household topics. Programmes on family welfare, a very important sector of
human progress are planned and produced by 36 family welfare units at various
stations of the broadcasting network. These programmes are integrated with the
general programmes as well as those meant for the special audiences like rural,
folk, women, youth and industrial workers.
The early sixties saw a vast growth in rural broadcasting. Auxiliary transmitting
centres were installed to extend the coverage of the existing station. Farm and
home units were created at several stations. By 1965, every station of AIR started
broadcasting special programmes especially for rural listeners for about 30 to 75
minutes on a daily basis. Besides, a daily programme on hard core agriculture and
weather reports are broadcast for 45 to 55 minutes from 64 farm and home units,
located in different AIR stations. These programmes aimed at providing educational
and informational support to the intensive agricultural and rural development
programmes. They also seek to disseminate new agricultural technology to farmers
in their local languages or dialects, besides covering other subjects like rural
cooperation, animal husbandry, poultry, fisheries and cottage industries. 31 stations
present specially conceived and cooperatively developed programmes called the
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‘farm school of AIR’ where instruction and guidance on farming is provided to Radio and Films
listeners. In this programme, lessons on subjects like rice and wheat cultivation
use of fertilizers, dairy, poultry, fisheries and nutrition are given. The evaluation of
these programmes has indicated that the audience finds them extremely useful. It is
interesting to learn from the record projects of agricultural universities that AIR’s NOTES
rural programmes are not only useful to the villagers but also command credibility
and acceptability. The imprint of AIR is best known by the terms—radio seeds
and radio fertilizers.
In order to provide a forum for the self-expression of the youth between the
age of 15 to 30 years, AIR broadcasts a programme for youth called ‘yuvavani’
from 74 stations. This service provides an opening for the talents of this age group
to present their viewpoints by participating in a wide range of programmes, talks,
discussions, interviews, plays, features and music. Under these programmes a
youth news bulletin is also broadcast by the youths.
AIR is an extensive arm of India’s cultural activities. Its programmes include
at least two plays a week. Besides, original plays, radio adaptations of outstanding
stage plays, novels and short stories are also broadcast. Since 1956 outstanding
plays from Indian languages are being transmitted in the national programme of
plays. The national programme of features which commenced in 1956 focuses
attention on matters of national importance or interest in political, economic, social
or cultural spheres. In fact, many people with a literary bent of mind lay great
emphasis on AIR’s literary and cultural programmes and draw mental exhilaration
from them.
AIR is becoming a good aid in school education. Most AIR stations
broadcast programmes based on the school curriculum to reach students in interior
areas. Radio support to university correspondence degree courses is also provided
by several stations. Sports events in India and abroad are covered by reviews,
running commentaries and voice dispatches. In metropolitan centres a daily sports
service is put for 95 minutes covering all important sports events. In addition, two
news bulletins, one in English and other in Hindi, of five minutes duration, and
weekly sports newsreels are also broadcast. There are special occasions which
attract special programmes on the national hook up of AIR. These include the
Republic day, Independence Day, anniversaries, visits of foreign dignitaries or the
visits of Indian dignitaries abroad.
Radio is a popular entertainer as well. Vividh Bharati, a popular broadcast
for this purpose is transmitted from 31 centres including two short wave transmitters
at Mumbai and Chennai. The total duration of Vividh Bharati is 12 hours and 45
minutes on week days and 12 hours and 15 minutes on Sundays and holidays.
The programmes which are generally acclaimed are music, humorous skits, short
plays and features. AIR introduced broadcasting of commercials on November 1,
1967. That is a part of marketing service, through it brings revenue as well. Today
the service is provided by 28 centres. Advertisements are accepted in any language
as tape recorder spots of 7, 15, 30 and 60 seconds duration. Self-Instructional
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Radio and Films Radio as a mass media tool and the concept ‘radio for all’ will be roughly
measured in terms of the number of radio receiving or transistor sets in the country.
Since independence these sets have increased manifold to an aggregate of around
3 crores. The number may increase with the lifting of licence fee this year. In terms
NOTES of diffusion rate it means nearly 4.4 sets for 100 persons. Still a figure below the
minimum UNESCO norm of 5 sets for 100 people or one set for each family. In
the Indian context, however, the redeeming situation is that one set can be used to
serve a larger number of people beyond the household. In addition, there are
about 1.6 lakh community sets which operate in rural areas. Although the transistor
revolution which has swept every part of the country has reduced the importance
of community sets, some recent studies have underlined the need of continuing to
have community receiver sets at least in selected areas. In the sixties, when the
community listening scheme was in full swing and assessed, it was revealed that
the discussions in community listening and deliberations were excellent or good
and that participants learnt a ‘ great deal’ or quite a lot.’ also In addition, these
forums developed rapidly into decision-making bodies capable of speeding up
common pursuits of the village.
The government’s interest in radio and its concern about its growth were
reflected in the allocations to broadcasting in its successive five year plans. As a
result AIR grew in size and status. Today this national service comprises 86 stations
including two Vividh Bharati commercial centres, one at Chandigarh and other at
Kanpur. In addition, the network includes two auxiliary study centres at
Bhubaneswar and Shantiniketan.
AIR’s programmes are beamed from 162 transmitters of which 126 are
medium dash wave. Broadly speaking we may say that AIR now serves about 90
per cent of population and about four-fifths of the total area of the country. More
than any other media, its sweep includes far flung areas like Leh and Laddakh,
Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh and the distant islands like the Andaman and Nicobar
and the Lakshadweep. One may hope that it is not in the distant future that AIR
may reach its full moon day by claiming to cover all the areas of the country and its
entire population.
Simultaneously, AIR has also staged a leap forward in its software and
research development aspect. Today it does face occasional fireworks or adverse
comments of critics. It also has an intrinsic weakness of not enjoying high credibility
because of its being a government controlled medium. Yet, AIR is considered by
media authorities and researchers to have proved its worth and utility both as an
informational channel and a development and cultural activist. Still more, it has
provided healthy entertainment through its various light andhumorous programmes.
Extension research and other field surveys have already given great credit to radio
both as a credible promoter of suitable climate for development and progress and
also for having advanced farm educational and cultural renaissance. Its contribution
in the form of transmitting useful and timely information, motivation and suggestions
for rural development is conceded. Its sponsors claim that radio is helping to
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create a climate of opinion in which social change can take place and people could Radio and Films
be involved in the process. One can safely presume that along with TV,
documentaries and farms journals, AIR will provide an adequate communication
umbrella to integrated rural broadcast, feedback interviews, ‘meet the activists
and innovators’ and critic series, impact studies and others. Thus, AIR has an NOTES
activating role in furthering India’s culture, education, music and other practising
arts. The increasing number of Walkman transistors and the growing popularity of
listeners’ letters are obvious indications.
Check Your Progress

1. Who discovered that electric current created magnetic effect?
2. Which invention of John Fleming enabled the transmission of voice?
3. What was the first amateur radio club?
4. When did AIR come to be known as Akashvani?
5. What is ‘vadyavrinda’?
10.3 RADIO AND ITS PROGRAMMES
Different radio programme formats can well be understood by comparing them

with different formats of news in print media in general and a newspaper in particular.
You must have noticed when you go through a newspaper that a series of news
items are presented in such a way that they catch your attention. The news items
range from the serious ‘hard’ news, the ‘soft’ news, news from neighbouring and
distant countries abroad or regional news and then news features and entertainment
news are all placed in a way which suits the mood and nature of the news item. All
of these news items have a distinct presentation style. Some have graphs; some
come with display of figures and with some photos. Similarly, a radio station also
broadcasts different types of programmes known as formats. These may include
news bulletins, discussion shows, phone-in music request shows, radio features,
and so on.
When we decide on the format of a programme, it is very important that we
are aware about our target audience. We cannot make a programme on urban
problems for rural population and vice versa. Hence, it is important to know the
following characteristics of our audience before we prepare a programme:
 People
o The total population
o The sex ratio
o Levels of literacy and illiteracy
o Religious denomination
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Radio and Films o Primary employment of the region
o Poverty and Income levels
 Languages spoken
NOTES  Number of schools and colleges
 Number of children in school
 Health facilities available in the area
 Power supply
 Television and Radio Stations Available
 Road and transport facilities
A producer of a radio programme should be aware of all these facts of a
region before he or she decides on the time slot and the language to be used for a
particular programme. Therefore it can be said that formats of radio programmes
are primarily dependent upon the choices and the needs of the audience. Certain
factors need to be taken into account in all radio formats. In any area or region,
different communities live together. They have different socio-cultural and religious
beliefs and life styles. In India especially, radio plays a significant role in the lives of
the people. Irrespective of there being plenty of rich people and highly developed
cities, majority of our people are poor and a large number of them cannot read or
write. So radio serves as the medium that can inform, educate and entertain them.
Radio formats can be classified into two broad groups:
 Spoken word programmes which include news bulletins, talks,
discussions, interviews, educational programmes for schools and
colleges, specific audience programmes aimed at women, children, rural
and urban listeners, drama, radio features and documentaries.
 Music programmes which include disc jockey programmes, musical
performances of all types and variety programmes.
So, in this way, radio programmes can be of various types. You must have
heard of some programmes on the radio. You must also know the names of some
of the radio stations operating in your area. When you tune into a radio station,
you would be familiar with the timings of programmes you want to listen to being
mentioned. These are known as announcements. Announcements are traditionally
made by people who are known as announcers. These days, radio jockey (RJ)
is a very popular term used for announcers because commercial radio channels
prefer to call them by this name. A radio format has some basic elements. It can be
divided into three parts:
 Spoken word or human voice
 Music
 Sound effects
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10.3.1 Spoken Word Programmes Radio and Films
Let us go through some of the spoken word programmes.

 News bulletins: All India Radio or Aakashvani broadcasts news bulletins
every hour of the day in English and other regional languages. The duration NOTES
of major bulletins is 15 minutes. Summaries of news stories are presented in
these bulletins in order of importance and interest value. In these bulletins
national and international happenings are given prominence while regional
and local news are accommodated if time permits. Human interest stories
and sports complete the major bulletins. The language, structure and
presentation of these bulletins is formal.
 Newsreels: This format is usually of 15 minutes duration and spot reports,
comments, interviews and extracts from speeches are presented in it. It is
much more expensive and complex format than the news bulletin and needs
more efforts like well-written link narrations and skilled editing.
 Documentaries/Radio features: Documentaries or radio features are
usually factual, informational in character and sometimes educational in intent.
Techniques of talks and drama are used in these with a view to tell the story
of events, past, present or those likely to happen in future. The biography of
a great leader, or merely the interpretation of the world around us or people
and culture unfamiliar to us or even social, political, economic or cultural
problems-all these can be covered under this format. In fact, any subject of
interest is open for a feature writer. What can induce life in a documentary/
feature is the use of a narrator along with the voices of real people or actors
interspersed with background effects and music.
 Radio plays: Radio drama is a story told through sound alone. Dialogues,
voices of people, background or mood effect, musical effect, atmospheric
effects and the like constitute this sound. Radio drama is no different than a
stage drama except that you cannot see the actors. You can only hear them.
Like a stage drama, radio drama also thrives on conflict, uses characters
and has a beginning, middle and an end. In a radio drama, sounds suggest
movement and progress – generally to a crisis or climax. The voices of the
characters have to be distinguished from each other, or the producer may
risk the confusion of the listeners. In a radio drama, at the most three to four
characters are advisable otherwise the listeners may get confused.
 Radio talks: This format resembles a chat with a friend who is addressing
the listener alone in an informal manner. The words in a radio talk are kept
simple and familiar, yet descriptive and powerful with short sentences of
independent clauses. Radio talks have no definite structure and are interesting
and informative.
 Radio interview: Like other media including the newspaper, magazine,
radio or television, radio interview is an effective technique of drawing
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Radio and Films information. Journalism is basically about asking right questions and getting
the required answers. This technique is used extensively and in various ways
in radio particularly because radio is all-audio medium. Interviews may be
of different duration, content and purpose. First of all, there are full-fledged
NOTES interview programmes, the duration of which may range from 10 minutes to
50 minutes or even 60 minutes depending upon the topic and the person
being interviewed. Most of such interviews are centred on a controversial
issue or celebrities. Secondly, interviews are used in various radio
programmes like documentaries. These interviews are brief, question specific
and few. The purpose is to get a very brief and accurate answer. Thirdly,
there are many interviews or interview-based programmes in the field of
news and current affair. Nowadays, phone-in programmes have become
quite popular wherein live interviews are conducted with either listeners or
an expert. With more refined technology, these interviews have been made
more interactive encouraging the listeners to take part in a discussion or
share their views on a common forum. In another type of interview-based
programmes, ordinary people or people with knowledge are just asked
one or two questions on some current topic to gather public opinion. For
instance, when the general budget or the railway budget is presented in the
Parliament, people representing radio approach the general public about
their opinion. They remain anonymous. Such interviews are called ‘vox
pop’ which is a Latin phrase meaning ‘voice of people’. You have to be
very inquisitive, well-informed and dedicated to be a radio interviewer with
sound general awareness and communication skills.
 Radio discussions: Discussions can be effective in resolving issues and
making people aware of the various dimensions of an issue. Any discussion
involves more than two or three people and then ideas can be derived to
arrive at some inference. In radio, this technique allows people to have
various points of view on matters of public concern. Radio discussions are
produced in relation to controversial social or economic issues. So when
experts meet and discuss such issues, people get an idea of different points
of view. Usually, radio discussions are of a longer duration on radio as
compared to TV, around 15 to 50 minutes. A well informed journalist or a
senior radio announcer who is well versed with the topic acts as the
moderator of the discussions and two or three experts in that particular
field are invited to take part and discuss that issue for approximately 50
minutes. The moderator conducts the discussion, introduces the topic and
the participants and ensures that sufficient time is given to every participant
to express his/her opinions.
 Phone-in programmes: Phone-in programmes are another format of radio
programming. In such interactive programmes, the caller calls up the anchor
and talk about whatever topic is the subject of the discussion. In such
programmes, it is important to advertise in advance so that callers have
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advance notice of when to call. In the beginning, the format was used primarily Radio and Films
in call-in music request shows. Nowadays, the range of the format has
expanded, and includes programmes on health, programmes discussing
government policies, rural broadcasts, and so on.
NOTES
 Music programmes: In radio, music programmes are far more popular
than spoken word programmes. Music is enjoyed because of its rhythm,
melodies and harmonies and for the relaxation that it provides. Unity and
form are a must in music programmes. What is advisable from experts here
is that disc jockey (DJ) programmes of ‘pop’ or ‘disco’ or, for that matter,
those of groovy music should not be mixed with classical or light classical
music. The genres of music programmes should be strictly kept separated.
10.3.2 Outside Broadcast Production of News, Sporting and Mega
Events
Outside Broadcast (OB) stands for a programme produced outside the station
and studio. A Van housing the equipment for broadcast is called the Outside
Broadcast Van (OBV). This kind of broadcast is related to covering and recording
an event right from the place where it is happening. Every production activity and
even some of the post production activities occur outside a conventional studio.
Earlier OB production was limited to sporting and mega events, but these days it
is also used in news programmes. The press conferences of VIPs or people in
news are covered through these vans and are telecast live.
It is of utmost importance that before the OB van goes from the station to
the location, it is ensured by the producer of the programme that the van is fully
equipped and functional. It should reach the required location well before the
event starts. The van is usually stationed at a suitable place from where there is
convenient access to the field staff as well as the main station. If goes to the location
and finds a suitable place for the van so that an effective coverage of the event can
be ensured. This is also referred to as field plan just like chalking out the floor plan
in studio production. There are various kinds of outside recordings. Some of them
are the following:
 (ENG) Electronic News Gathering
 (DNG) Digital News Gathering
 (EEP) Electronic Field Production
 (RFP) Remote Field Production
Any of these can be used to record schedule or unscheduled events for use
in the broadcast station. However, each of them is used in different ways to
accomplish a common objective. For instance, in ENG, a camcorder is used to
cover events and that recording can be used for news production in the station.
The DNG makes use of satellite up-link facility to relay field news events to the
satellite. From the satellite, the field news event are downloaded and used by the
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Radio and Films radio station. On the other hand, remote field production consists of all the
equipment that a production may require and thus acts as a complete studio in the
field.
A radio signal begins in the studio and ends in the radio set of listeners. The
NOTES
material that is recorded beforehand are played in the continuity studio. The audio
can be recorded on tapes, CDs, or on the hard drive of computers. The signals
are then sent to the lines room. From there they are routed to the transmission hall.
From the transmission hall, the signals are transmitted using microwaves through
space. In the case of reporting on sports and other mega events, commentators
are linked to the station from outside. This is dependent on the number of available
telephone lines. The proximity of the commentary site to the station is also a
determining factor. The linkage can be established in the following ways as well:
 By cable: The cable linkage method is used for cases when an event is
occurring within the grounds of the station but outside the studio. This is
a direct link from the studio to scene or from the scene to the studio.
 By Microwave Link-Sat: In this method, signals are transmitted from
the event using the satellite uplink. The use of the method is also
dependent on how close the event is from the station. If it is far away, it
is possible that a microwave would not be able o cover the long distance.
However, if the event is within the coverage area of the radio station,
the microwaves will be able to transmit no matter how long the distance.
 By telephone lines: In this method, the broadcast equipment is
connected to a telephone line that directly transmits to the studio. Even
if the area has no telephone coverage, microwave equipment can be
employed from the location to the carrier room of NITEL which could
direct the signals through its trunk to the broadcast station.
Most outside broadcasts on radio also contain either sports or ceremonial
commentaries. Both types of commentaries function exclusively depending on the
availability of resources and time involved. These are essentially of four types:
 Delayed broadcast: Refers to a situation when an event is recorded
from the beginning to the end and is transmitted at a later date. Usually
this is done in a situation when the scene of the event cannot be
broadcasted live.
 Closed circuit: This is employed during a sport situation where the
duration of the event is not known, for example a tennis match. The
entire event is covered and edited to fit into a broadcast at a later date.
 Live broadcast: In such situations, the entire event is carried live just
as the event is taking place. Commentaries are recorded from the spot.
This is done for cricket and football matches.
 Relayed outside broadcast: In such situations, the radio station relays
a broadcast from a sister station for its listeners.
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Time frame is a vital factor in spite of the OB technique. There are some Radio and Films
programmes on radio stations that last for a longer period than others. For example,
events like India’s Independence Day or Republic Day celebration may be three
to four hours long while a sports event like a badminton game lasts no more than
an hour or an hour and a half. The commentary position is determined on the NOTES
arrival of the crew at the venue of the event. However, in standard stadia, standard
cubicles are already in place. Here the commentators advise engineers on the
number of cables or microphones to be used and how they should be placed.
Thereafter, the team checks possible escape routes in the case of uncalled for
incidents that are situation specific. The announcer usually introduces the
commentators who equip themselves with portable and small radio sets to monitor
their output on air. This is very significant and enables them to rectify anomalies in
the commentary if any. The commentators work in shifts to avoid being
overstressed. They generally sign off when the event ends. Outside Broadcasting
requires efficient planning with efficient personnel to handle the assignment because
it involves efficient use of person and equipment. The people as well as the
equipment ought to be in good condition, and the people ought to be experts in
handling the production equipment in order to achieve the desired result. At the
scene of the event, cables should be arranged in such a way that disturbance and
damage can be pre-empted and prevented.
Check Your Progress

6. What is significant during the process of format selection for radio
programme?
7. Define documentaries.
10.4 FILMS
The moment you hear the word film or cinema, it takes you to another world; a
world, which is full of dreams and fantasies. A world, where you see everything
larger than life. This is how we see our cinema. The cinema, which is popularly
considered as Masala Film or commercial cinema. But cinema or films are not
confined to these commercial formulas only. The spectrum of cinema is much
greater. Cinema is a form of art through which we can make a long lasting impact
on viewers’ mind. Films are a form of art. An art that has no boundaries. We can
also say that it’s a form of illusion too. It makes the absence presence. What you
think in the past and what you created in the past becomes present whenever you
see the film. So it’s an elusive art. Cinema comprises different compositions within
itself. Several concepts that must combine to form the cinema, as for example,
perception, representation, signification, adaptation, evaluation, identification,
figuration and interpretation. All these together complete this form of art called
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Radio and Films cinema. We will discuss some major concepts from these to understand the cinema
in a better manner:
 Perception: Perception is the basic part of cinema. You perceive something
before making it a reality. To understand it better let’s take an example.
NOTES
Suppose you visit a place and gets enchanted by its beauty. Now even if
you leave the place, you can describe it easily as it is in your mind now. You
may close your eyes and explain each and every detail of that mesmerising
beautiful place. You can do the same for some imaginary things like when
you read something, you can describe it afterwards. It might be some
imaginary thought but you can make it real in your mind. In cinema, according
to the Gestalt theory, perception implies the process of incorporating cultural
and social codes into visual life to create a semblance between some incidents
or parts of individual life and the cinematic portrayal of human life. Thus, we
tend to see cinema as an integral part of our everyday life and what is
perceived every day in life.
 Representation: Representation is another mode of cinematic art. To
understand it better we first have to understand the difference between
physical reality and psychological reality. Physical reality is something that
exists in real. Suppose there is flower in front of you. This is physical reality
because flower in its real form exists here. But if someone ask you what is
a flower? You may have different answer according to your choice and
preferences. This is psychological reality. The flower of your imagination
might be completely different from the flower which is placed in front of
you. Like there might be Lotus in front of you and you might think of Rose
as a flower. So, physical reality might be completely different from
psychological reality. As you can see, the ‘psychological reality’ of a
perceived object can vary from person to person. Thus, we all differ in our
mental representations and choices. According to film theorist Christian
Metz, this concept works in cinematic perception also.
 Adaptation: Adaptation is the integral part of cinema. Adjusting yourself
to your immediate environment is adaptation. Adaptation is the process
which we apply in our daily life. You go the restaurant for dinner and order
your favourite food. Then you come to know that your favourite dish is not
available at that time. In this situation you order something else for your
dinner. This is adaptation to new situation. In cinematic world too, the similar
process happens. When we take a story or plot we make lots of adaptation
to make it fit in the cinematic language. According to the film theorist, Jean
Mitry, when a story from a different language is modified or adapted as the
plot of a film, the treatment of it becomes a necessary aspect of film-making,
and this can vary according to the language and culture in which the film is
being made.
 Identification: Identification is the concept that converted a simple idea
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154 Material
their plots with the language of cinema. According to Hugo Münsterburg, Radio and Films
identification is the story of the subconscious mind that could be represented

in a cinematic form of art only when intelligence of mind and genuineness of
motivation combines together. Therefore, to understand any given film as
art, it is very important that the producers communicate properly to the NOTES
audience what they have in mind.
 Interpretation: Interpretation is the concept that we use in understanding
and analysing something. In communication interpretation is the most
important part because it gives the real meaning to what you communicate.
The idea which the sender wants to communicate is depend on how the
receiver hears it interpret it. If the receiver interprets it correctly then only
communication establishes. It applies in cinema too. Interpretation is integral
for understanding and analysing cinema as it focuses on the contexts of
meaning and whatever is pertinent in such meaning-making. It basically studies
the otherness that may not be immediately visible when you watch a film.
Film makers communicate many things through the way of cinematic art.
For example, camera angles give depths into many scenes thus are able to
enhance the emotions of viewers.
Film or cinema is an art. An art, which comes into reality through mechanical
medium. There are so many mechanical devices used in film making that makes it
a highly technical job. Cameras, lenses, trolleys, mixers, sound tracks, projectors
– there are numerous equipment used in film making. But these mechanical devices
are nothing unless technical people don’t understand the art of cinema. Film making
turns these technicians into artists. We can say that film making becomes reality
only when all these technicians turned artists come together with actors and other
creative artists in their full potential.
Film is a continuous strip of exposed celluloid. Celluloid is composed of
several reels. Reels have several shots. Shots have several frames. Frames have
only images which are static and do not move. So, film is only a sequence of static
images, recorded by the camera. These images move and come to life through
projectors, running one after the other at the end of each reel. Actually there is no
real movement of images when the projectors project them on the cinema screen.
It is only an illusion of movement of images. Here are some important characteristics
of films:
 Mass medium: Films are medium of mass communication. Millions of
people watch movies in different platforms. Today cinema halls or
theatres are not the only way to see a movie. Through satellite channels
and OTT platforms its reach has increases manifolds. Films could be
watched and understood by illiterate people also. It’s in true sense a
medium for masses.
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Radio and Films  Preserved medium: Films can be preserved for long time. Technology
facilitates this process of preserving our cinema. So we can watch it
again and again. Films are said to be mirror of society. So when we
watch a old movie we get to know the cultural and social aspects of old
NOTES era. In this way, it could be useful for research also.
 Collaborative medium: Film making is a team work. Many people
collaborate in the process of film making. Technician, actors, creative
artists all come together to make a film. Even to reach to the public the
whole bunch of people are needed – from distributer to the cinema hall
operator. No other medium depends so much on so many people.
 Art medium: When cinema was started, it was considered only as a
medium for entertainment. But with the time, cinema has shown that it is
not lesser than any other art medium. In fact, today, cinema is considered
the seventh art like the earlier arts of painting, sculpture, architecture,
drama, poetry, and music. There are many great movies those come
into the category of classics.
 Role of government: Government try to promote healthy cinema but
with this it puts some rules and regulations also on cinema. In most of
the country, a censor board has been established which monitors all the
film and gives certificate for release to the films. Government also levy
taxes on films. But a demand of removing harsh taxes and a less control
of censor board on cinema has strengthened its voice in few decades.
Check Your Progress

8. Mention five concepts of cinema.
9. What is physical reality?
10. Why are films considered as mass medium?

QUESTIONS
1. A Danish scientist, Hans Christian Oersted, in 1819 discovered that electric

current created magnetic effect.
2. John Fleming, in 1904, invented vacuum tube which enabled the transmission
of voice.
3. The Radio Club of Calcutta was the first amateur radio club to start
functioning in November 1923.
4. AIR came to be known as Akashvani in 1957.
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5. In 1952, AIR started the orchestral programme called ‘vadyavrinda’ Radio and Films
consisting of both Hindustani and Karnataka instrumentalists.

6. When we decide on the format of a radio programme, it is very important
that we are aware about our target audience.
NOTES
7. Documentaries or radio features are usually factual, informational in character
and sometimes educational in intent.
8. Five concepts of cinema are perception, representation, adaptation,
identification and interpretation.
9. Physical reality is something that exists in real.
10. Films are considered as mass medium as millions of people watch movies
on different platforms. Today cinema halls or theatres are not the only way
to see a movie. Through satellite channels and OTT platforms its reach has
increases manifolds. Films could be watched and understood by illiterate
people also. It’s in true sense a medium for masses.
10.6 SUMMARY
 A Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted in 1819 discovered that electric

current created magnetic effect.
 John Fleming in 1904 invented vacuum tube which enabled the transmission
of voice. Later Reginald Fessenden and Lee Dee Forest contributed to its
further development.
 The Radio Club of Calcutta was the first amateur radio club to start
functioning in November 1923.
 The government-run broadcasting was set up and was named as Indian
State Broadcasting Service (ISBS).
 When British raj ended in 1947, All India Radio had a small network of six
stations.
 Since 1973, AIR also broadcasts a national programme of regional music,
which brings to the listeners the rich tradition of folk and the light music of
various regions.
 Even today, discerning people like to listen to radio news bulletins for they
attempt to give comprehensive and speedy coverage of news and views in
addition to commentaries and discussions on current affairs.
 In terms of radio production, ‘programme’ basically means the various
meaningful sounds produced by human beings or recorded sounds used to
fill the airtime to be audible.
 Different radio programme formats can well be understood by comparing
them with different formats of news in print media in general and a newspaper
in particular.
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Radio and Films  Announcements are traditionally made by people who are known as
announcers.
 All India Radio or Aakashvani broadcasts news bulletins every hour of the
day in English and other regional languages.
NOTES
 Discussions can be effective in resolving issues and making people aware
of the various dimensions of an issue.
 Outside Broadcast (OB) stands for a programme produced outside the
station and studio.
 Outside Broadcasting requires efficient planning with efficient personnel to
handle the assignment because it involves efficient use of person and
equipment.
 The moment you hear the word film or cinema, it takes you to another
world; a world, which is full of dreams and fantasies.
 Film or cinema is an art. An art, which comes into reality through mechanical
medium. There are so many mechanical devices used in film making that
makes it a highly technical job.
 Cinema comprises several concepts that must combine to form the cinema,
as for example, perception, representation, signification, adaptation,
evaluation, identification, figuration and interpretation.
 In cinema, perception implies the process of incorporating cultural and social
codes into visual life to create a semblance between some incidents or
parts of individual life and the cinematic portrayal of human life.
 Representation is another mode of cinematic art. Our physical reality might
be completely different from psychological reality.
 Adaptation is the integral part of cinema. Adjusting yourself to your
immediate environment is adaptation.
 Identification is the story of the subconscious mind that could be represented
in a cinematic form of art only when intelligence of mind and genuineness of
motivation combines together.
 Interpretation is integral for understanding and analysing cinema. Filmmakers
communicate many things through the way of cinematic art. For example,
camera angles give depths into many scenes thus are able to enhance the
emotions of viewers.
 Film is only a sequence of static images, recorded by the camera. These
images move and come to life through projectors, running one after the
other at the end of each reel. Actually there is no real movement of images.
It is only an illusion of movement of images.
 Some important characteristics of films are mass medium, collaborative
medium, preserved medium, art medium and role of government.
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Radio and Films
10.7 KEY WORDS
 Wireless Communication: It is the transfer of information over a distance

without the use of electrical conductors or wires. NOTES
 Electromagnetism: It is the interaction between electrical fields or currents
with magnetic fields.
 Radio Jockey (RJ): This is a very popular term used for announcers as
commercial radio channels prefer to call them by this name.
 Phone-in Programmes: It is also known as interactive programming where
the listener and the presenter talk to each other.
 OTT Platforms: OTT stands for ‘Over the Top’ and refers to any streaming
service that delivers content over the internet. The service is delivered ‘over
the top’ of another platform.
 Censor Board: The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) is a
statutory film-certification body in the Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting of the Government of India. It is tasked with regulating the
public exhibition of films under the provisions of the Cinematograph Act
1952.

EXERCISES
1. Briefly describe the history of the evolution of radio.
2. Write a short note on the emergence of radio in India.
3. What do you understand by the format of a radio programme? Why is it
necessary?
4. Write a short note on the different types of outside broadcasts.
1. Describe the expansion of All India Radio in India after 1947.
2. Explain the different kinds of programmes that are broadcast on radio.
3. Describe the different spoken word programmes.
4. Discuss some major concepts in the world of cinema.

Limited. Self-Instructional
Material 159
Radio and Films Burns, Lynette Sheridan. 1900. Understanding Journalism. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
NOTES
Richter, William A. 2006. Radio: A Complete Guide to the Industry, Volume 4
of Media Industries. USA: Peter Lang.
Coe, Lewis. 1996. Wireless Radio. USA: Mc Farland and Company Inc.
Publishers.
Naqvi, Hena. 2007. Journalism and Mass Communication. Agra: Upkar
Prakashan.
Kumar, J. Keval. 2000. Mass Communication in India (4th Edition). Mumbai:
Jaico Publishing House.
Dudley, Andrew. 2008. Concepts of Film Theory. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
Monaco, James. 2009. How to Read a Film: Movies, Media and Beyond.
Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press
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Mass Media: Uses and
UNIT 11 MASS MEDIA: USES AND Misuses in Modern

Society
MISUSES IN MODERN
NOTES
SOCIETY
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Advantages and Limitations of Mass Media
11.3 Uses and Misuses in Modern Society
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.0 INTRODUCTION
Mass media facilitate dissemination of information and communication to a vast

number of people. There is a strong heterogeneity of media audiences. And more
often than not, the media content caters to different groups rather than to a
homogenous set of audience. Media performs four basic functions for society:
surveying the environment to provide information; correlating response to this
information (editorial function); entertaining the media user (diversion function);
and transmitting the country’s cultural heritage to future generations (socialization
or educational function). In a developing country, mass media is also expected to
play an additional role–to mobilize public support for national development. Media
also performs a role in subtly shaping perceptions and moulding public opinion by
means of this symbolism. The use of media effectively helps citizens to engage
meaningfully with the media in an active and a critical manner. In this unit, we will
discuss the uses and misuses of mass media in modern society.
11.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the role of mass media
 Discuss the usage of mass media
 Describe the uses and misuses of mass media in modern society
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Misuses in Modern 11.2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MASS
Society
MEDIA
NOTES Let us first discuss the advantages of mass media:

 Mass media helps educate people. Through television and radio programs,
individuals get to learn about health matters, environmental conservation,
and much more.
 Through mass media, people are able to receive the latest news in a very
short time. Distance is not a barrier for news. People get news daily through
the media and this keeps them updated on global events.
 People get to bring out their hidden talents through mass media. Through
media, individuals can showcase their talents such as comedy, acting and
singing.
 Media also helps increase the knowledge of children. They can learn from
quiz programs, animal programs and so on.
 Radio is a convenient mass media tool through which people receive a
synopsis of the news. News can also be accessed through hand held devices
like mobile phones.
 Mass media is a great way to promote mass consumer products. This can
in turn increase sales of the product.
 It serves as a good source of entertainment. People get entertained through
music and television programs.
 Television allows electronic duplication of information. This reduces the
production cost making mass education possible.
 Media leads to diffusion of different cultures. Media showcases different
cultural practices.
 It helps people around the world to understand each other and embrace
their differences.
The limitations of mass media are:
 One major limitation is that mass media leads to individualism. People spend
too much time on the Internet and watching television. As a result, socialization
with friends, family and neighbours is affected.
 Some media contents are not suitable for children. Limiting children’s access
to such content can be difficult.
 Newspaper is geographically selective.
 Increase in advertisements in television and radio is making them less
attractive.
 Internet as a form of media opens up possibilities of imposters, fraud and
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162 Material
 Media can be addictive, e.g. some television programs and internet. This Mass Media: Uses and
Misuses in Modern
can lead to decrease in people’s productivity. Society
 Health problems. Prolonged watching of television can lead to eyesight
problems and radio listening using earphones exposes one to possible hearing
NOTES
defects.
 It glamorize drugs and alcohol. Some programs make the use of these things
appear cool’.
 It can lead to personal injury. Some people decide to follow the stunts that
are showcased in the media. This can lead to injuries.
 Another limitation of mass media is that it can lead to ruin of reputation. It is
possible for one to create an anonymous account. Such accounts can be
used to for malicious reasons such as spreading rumours. This can lead to
ruin of reputation of an individual or a company.
11.3 USES AND MISUSES IN MODERN SOCIETY
The most important use of mass media is creating public opinion. Millions of people
use different mass media. Mass media denotes a section of the media specifically
designed to reach a large audience. This widespread reach is the real power of
mass media. The basic purpose of mass media is to communicate. This
communication is in the form of different sort of information depending on the
place and situation. Newspaper, Magazines, Radio, TV, Internet– there are so
many of media which are constantly communicating with you. So, ultimately all the
information that you get from mass media works as the base to create your view
point and through it you make decision. In addition to this mass media can be used
for various purposes:
 Advocacy: Media advocacy is the strategic use of mass media to make the
public opinion for advancement of community policies or business goals.
This can include advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations, and
political communication.
 Entertainment: In today’s scenario our major chunk of entertainment role
comes through Mass Media. Whether it is TV, Radio, Cinema or newer
version of mass media digital platforms, we all are heavily dependent on
mass media for our daily dose of entertainment.
 Journalism: Though many times journalism becomes synonymous with
mass media but journalism is just a section of mass communication. The use
of journalism is that much important that it is considered as fourth estate in
democracy. Journalism is the discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying
and presenting information regarding current events, trends, issues and
people. Journalism is also called watchdog of society.
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Mass Media: Uses and The uses of mass media are manifolds but here we discussed only few of
Misuses in Modern
Society them. Modern media is basically based on the digital technology. Like every coin
has two faces, mass media has advantages as well as disadvantages. Some misuses
of mass media are as follows -
NOTES
 Information Overload: In the era of internet, there is no filtration or
gatekeeping available on information. The result comes into the form of
information overload. The internet is flooded with information and
sometimes it becomes really difficult to filter out the relevant information
 Unreliability: Unreliability of information has emerged as the biggest
problem in internet. Fake news has become the common thing in new
media. People are spreading their own propaganda through media. There
a bunch of information which is biased or full of factual errors.
 Indecent content: Internet is full of obnoxious and vulgar content. This
is most common misuse of mass media in modern society. There is no
censorship on the content available on internet. The consequences results
into vulgarity and offensive content. This scenario is not good for our
culture.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the advantage of electronic duplication of information allowed by
TV?
2. Mention some misuses of mass media.
3. What is media advocacy?

QUESTIONS
1. The advantage of electronic duplication of information allowed by TV is

that it reduces the production cost, making mass education possible.
2. The misuses of mass media are information overload, unreliability, and
indecent content.
3. Media advocacy is the strategic use of mass media to make the public
opinion for advancement of community policies or business goals. This can
include advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations, and political
communication.
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11.5 SUMMARY Misuses in Modern
Society
 Mass media helps educate people. Through television and radio programs,
individuals get to learn about health matters, environmental conservation, NOTES
and much more.
 One major limitation is that mass media leads to individualism. People spend
too much time on the Internet and watching television. As a result, socialization
with friends, family and neighbours is affected.
 The most important use of mass media is creating public opinion. Millions
of people use different mass media. Mass media denotes a section of the
media specifically designed to reach a large audience. This widespread reach
is the real power of mass media.
 Media advocacy is the strategic use of mass media to make the public
opinion for advancement of community policies or business goals. This can
include advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations, and political
communication.
 Whether it is TV, Radio, Cinema or newer version of mass media digital
platforms, we all are heavily dependent on mass media for our daily dose of
entertainment.
 Journalism is an important use of mass media. You can’t imagine a modern
society without the effective role of journalism.
 There is information overload in internet. The internet is flooded with
information and sometimes it becomes really difficult to filter out the relevant
information.
 Fake news has become the common thing in new media. People are
spreading their own propaganda through media. There a bunch of information
which is biased or full of factual errors.
 Internet is full of obnoxious and vulgar content. This is most common misuse
of mass media in modern society.
11.6 KEY WORDS
 Fake News: The term fake news alludes to reports, images, and videos
that are shared to purposefully spread misinformation, i.e., information that
is factually incorrect. These news items may appear authentic at first and
attempt to attract attention, shock, or shape opinions.
 Individualism: It is the quality of being different from other people and
doing things in your own way.
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Misuses in Modern 11.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
Society
EXERCISES
NOTES Short-Answer Questions

1. State any seven limitations of mass media.
2. How is mass media used for entertainment?
1. Explain the advantages of mass media.
2. Discuss the uses and misuses of mass media.

Limited.
Publications.
Naqvi, Hena. 2007. Journalism and Mass Communication. Agra: Upkar
Prakashan.
Kumar, J. Keval. 2000. Mass Communication in India (4th Edition). Mumbai:
Jaico Publishing House.
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Mass Media: Government
UNIT 12 MASS MEDIA: Control and Regulatory

Measures
GOVERNMENT CONTROL
NOTES
AND REGULATORY
MEASURES
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Government Control and Regulatory Measures
12.3 Press Council of India
12.3.1 Role of PCI in Maintaining Ethical Journalistic Standards
12.3.5 Press and Registration Appellate Board
12.4 Reasonable Restrictions on Media
12.6 Summary
12.7 Key Words
12.0 INTRODUCTION
Freedom of media is an integral part of the freedom of expression which is necessary

for the success of a democratic set up. In fact, the media is regarded as the fourth
pillar of democracy. The Indian Constitution has granted this freedom by way of
Fundamental Rights. The media has the obligatory responsibility to respect the
rights of individual and also to work within the framework of legal principles and
statutes. These principles or statutes have been framed by way of minimum standards
and do not intend to detract from higher standards of protection to the freedom of
expression. This unit discusses the government control and regulatory measures
for mass media.
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Control and Regulatory 12.1 OBJECTIVES
Measures

NOTES  Understand the importance of government control and regulatory measures
for mass media
 Discuss the history of press laws from colonial to present times
 Describe the formation of Press Council in India
12.2 GOVERNMENT CONTROL AND

REGULATORY MEASURES
The history of press laws in India began during the days of East India Company
rule. The first ever Indian newspaper was the Bengal Gazette which was founded
in Kolkata in 1779. The Bengal Gazette was described by its publisher James
Augustus Hicky as being a ‘weekly political and commercial paper open to all
parties but influenced by none’. After the Bengal Gazette, newspapers soon
spread to other cities under the control of the East India Company. Bombay was
the last of the towns held by the East India Company to have its own paper. In
1789, 10 years after the Bengal Gazette, the Bombay Herald was published. It
was followed by the Courier a year later. The Courier has great historical
significance as it was the first ever newspaper to cater in part to an Indian public
as it published advertisements in Gujarati as well. The Courier is significant because
all of the newspapers at this time were owned by Europeans living in India and
thus, they essentially catered to and reflected the opinions of European colonials
in India. Indian-owned newspapers were to arrive much later.
In Madras and Bombay, the East India Company’s relationship with
newspapers was one of understanding; the latter looked after the interests of the
company by following a course of submissiveness. However, newspapers in Bengal
continued to be subversive, and were viewed by the East India Company with
suspicion. This was in large part due to the legacy laid down by Hicky. The content
of the early newspapers was mainly gossip with headlines frequently being the
latest scandals to hit the European social circles. Thus, the East India Company
did not impose any legal restrictions on the press as such. The only weapon that
was used against editors of these early newspapers was pre-censorship and threats
of libel and deportation.
The first ever governor-general who put down guidelines for the press in India
was Richard Colley Wellesley. In 1799, Wellesley issued regulations that required
newspapers to print the names of the printer, publisher, proprietor and editor of
newspapers, and to submit all material published therein for pre-censorship by the
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Secretary to the Government of India. Pre-censorship was abolished in 1823 Mass Media: Government
Control and Regulatory
after an ordinance called the ‘Adam Regulation’ named after the governor general Measures
John Adam. Despite abolishing pre-censorship, the ordinance made the restrictions
on the press more stringent. According to the ordinance, every newspaper, journal,
pamphlet or printed matter in any language had to obtain a license from the governor- NOTES
general in council signed by the chief secretary before publication. The governor-
general was also given the power to cancel the license after issuing notice. The
second part of the ordinance, known as the ‘Regulation of Printing Establishments,
1823’, prohibited the publication or circulation of any newspaper or book or
printed matter without a license. It also empowered the government to collect a
fine of Rs 400 from defaulters and even cease the press if it wanted. These stringent
licensing laws were replaced after a few years by Sir Charles Metcalfe, another
acting governor-general. In 1835, Metcalfe, who was an admirer of the press,
replaced licensing regulations by the ‘Registration of the Press Act’. Metcalfe also
abolished the Bengal Press Regulation of 1823 and the Bombay Press Regulations
of 1825 and 1827.
As a direct result of the First War of Independence in 1857, the governor
general Lord Canning reintroduced the press restrictions of the Adam Regulations
of 1825 through the Press Act of 1857. The purpose of the act was to ‘regulate
the establishment of printing presses and to restrain in certain cases the circulation
of printing books and papers’. The act empowered the British administration to
issue and revoke licenses at its discretion. The government was also given the
power to disallow the publication or circulation of any newspaper, book or printed
matter in any part or throughout its territories. According to the Press Act, no
newspaper or periodical or pamphlet printed in a licensed press could ‘contain
any observations or statements impugning the motives or designs of the British
Government either in England or India or in any way tending to bring the said
government into hatred and contempt, to excite disaffection or unlawful resistance
to its orders or to weaken its lawful authority or the lawful authority of its civil or
military servants.’ The Act also stated that ‘no such newspaper, pamphlet or book
shall contain observations having a tendency to weaken the friendship towards the
British Government of native princes, chiefs or states in dependence or alliance
with it’. In 1860, the landmark Indian Penal Code (IPC) was formulated. The
IPC laid down the penalty for offences of defamation and obscenity. In 1878,
under Viceroy Lord Lytton, the most contentious act against the press in British
India known as the Vernacular Press Act was passed. The act was specifically
targeted towards Indian language newspapers and its purpose was, in the words
of the act, to ‘better control of publications in oriental languages’. The act
empowered the British colonial administration to issue search warrants and to
enter the premises of any Indian language newspaper even without orders from
any court.
The act also stated that no publisher against whom action had been taken
could resort to a court of law. The reason given by the British to target Indian
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Mass Media: Government language newspapers was because they ‘circulated among people who were likely
Measures to believe anything they read whereas those who could read English papers were
capable of judging the contents themselves’. After heavy criticism in India, and
even in Britain, the act was repealed by Lord Ripon in 1881.
NOTES
In 1908, the first major regulation related to the press in India in the twentieth
century was the Newspapers (Incitement of Offences) Act. The act gave powers
to a magistrate to seize a Press after he was satisfied that a newspaper had printed
material that incited people to commit murder or any other act of violence. This
act was followed by a more comprehensive act known as the Indian Press Act,
1910. This act was passed to legislate offences of incitement to violence as well as
sedition. The Act empowered magistrates to require deposits ranging from ‘500
to ‘2000 from new printing press and publishers of newspapers. This was in
addition to security deposits that they already had to pay. The act also broadened
the scope of what was considered objectionable. The act considered objectionable
any content against princes, executive officers and public servants. By 1919, over
350 publications, including leading newspapers like the Amrit Bazar Patrika, the
Bombay Chronicle, the Hindu had fallen victim to the act. In 1922, after the
recommendations of a committee appointed under the Chairmanship of Sir Tej
Bahadur Sapru, both the Newspapers (Incitement of Offences) Act, 1908 and
the Indian Press Act, 1910 were repealed.
In 1931, after Mahatma Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement,
the British government promptly passed the Press (Emergency) Powers Act, 1931.
Although it was meant to be only temporary in nature, the act became permanent
in 1935. The act whose purpose was to ‘better control the press’ empowered the
colonial administration to punish words, signs or visible representations, which
incited or encouraged the commission of any offence or murder or any cognizable
offence. These cognizable offence included violence or directly or indirectly
expressing approval or admiration of any such offence. According to the Act, any
person, real or fictitious, who had committed or alleged or represented to have
committed the offence, would be punished.
While the Constituent Assembly was debating the constitution of independent India,
the first government of independent India appointed a Press Laws Enquiry
Committee to ‘review the Press Laws of India with a view to examine if they are
in accordance with the fundamental rights formulated by the Constituent Assembly
of India’. This committee recommended the repealing of the Press (Emergency)
Powers Act, 1931 and the incorporation of some of its provisions in the general
statutes laying down the law of crimes. Acting on the advice of the committee, the
government replaced the Act of 1931 by the Press (Objectionable Matter) Act,
1951. The purpose of the Press (Objectionable Matter) Act, 1951 was ‘to provide
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against the printing and publication of incitement to crime and other objectionable Mass Media: Government
matter’. The act also provided for a judicial inquiry by a Sessions Judge before Measures
security could be demanded from a printing press or forfeited to the government.
Despite some safeguards, the very idea of a separate law to restrict publication
was criticized by many journalists and publishers. It was felt that in independent NOTES
India, such laws were not acceptable. After heavy criticism, the government repealed
the act in 1957.
Another important act in the 1950s related to the press was the Newspaper
(Price and Page) Act, 1956. The objective of the act was to prevent unfair
competition among newspapers through price-cutting. In exercise of the power
conferred by this Act, the government also issued the ‘Daily Newspapers (Price
and Page) Order, 1960’. Through these, the right of a newspaper to publish any
number of pages was made to depend upon the price charged to the readers, so
that a newspaper could not increase the volume of its publication without raising
its price to that extent. According to the government, the Newspaper (Price and
Page) Act 1956 and the Daily Newspapers (Price and Page) Order, 1960 was
necessary to protect smaller newspapers from unfair competition of the bigger
newspapers having larger financial resources and also to prevent the concentration
of ownership in the hands of the few commercial groups. Both these contentions
were turned down by the Supreme Court of India.
In 1965, the Press Council Act was passed by Parliament, following which
the Press Council of India was established. The reasons behind establishing the
Press Council was to preserve the freedom of the Press and to maintain and
improve the standards of newspapers in India.
Check Your Progress

1. What was the first ever Indian newspaper?
2. Who was the first ever governor-general to put down guidelines for the
press in India?
3. What was the objective of the Newspaper (Price and Page) Act, 1956?
12.3 PRESS COUNCIL OF INDIA
The Press Council of India was first constituted on 4 July 1966 as an autonomous,
statutory, quasi-judicial body, with Shri Justice J.R. Mudholkar, then a Judge of
the Supreme Court, as the chairman. The Press Council Act, 1965, listed the
following functions of the Council in furtherance of its objects:
 To help newspapers maintain their independence
 To build up a code of conduct for newspapers and journalists in accordance
with high professional standards
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Mass Media: Government  To ensure on the part of newspapers and journalists the maintenance of
Measures high standards of public taste and foster a due sense of both the rights and
responsibilities of citizenship
 To encourage the growth of a sense of responsibility and public service
NOTES
among all those engaged in the profession of journalism
 To keep under review any development likely to restrict the supply and
dissemination of news of public interest and importance
 To keep under review such cases of assistance as received by any newspaper
or news agency in India from foreign sources, as are referred to it by the
Central Government
Provided that nothing in this clause shall preclude the Central Government
from dealing with any case of assistance received by a newspaper or news agency
in India from foreign sources in any other manner it thinks fit:
 To promote the establishment of such common service for the supply
and dissemination of news to newspapers as may, from time to time,
appear to it to be desirable
 To provide facilities for the proper education and training of persons in
the profession of journalism
 To promote a proper functional relationship among all classes of persons
engaged in the production or publication of newspapers
 To study developments which may tend towards monopoly or
concentration of ownership of newspapers, including a study of the
ownership or financial structure of newspapers, and if necessary, to
suggest remedies therefore
 To promote technical or other research
 To do such other acts as may be incidental or conducive to the discharge
of the above functions
The Act of 1965 provided that the Council shall consist of a Chairman and
twenty-five other members. Of the twenty-five members, three were to represent
the two houses of Parliament; thirteen were to be from the working journalists, of
which not less than six were to be editors who did not own or carry on the business
of management of newspapers; and the rest were to be the persons having special
knowledge or practical experience in respect of education and science, law,
literature and culture. By an amendment of the Act in 1970, the membership of the
Council was raised by one to provide a seat for persons managing the news agencies.
The Chairman under the Act on 1965 was to be nominated by the Chief Justice of
India. Of the three Members of Parliament, two representing Lok Sabha were to
be nominated by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha; and one representing Rajya
Sabha, was to be nominated by the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. The remaining
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twenty-two members were to be selected by a selection committee comprising Mass Media: Government
the Chief Justice of India, Chairman of the Press Council and a nominee of the Measures
President of India. The Chairman and the members were to hold office for a
period of three years, while providing that no member could hold office for a
period exceeding six years in the aggregate. NOTES
As has been referred to earlier, the composition of the nominating committee
was changed by an amendment of the said Act in 1970, according to which the
chairman and the members from the Press were to be nominated by a nominating
committee consisting of the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, the Chief Justice of
India and the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. The nominating committee was empowered
to review any nomination on a representation made to it by any notified association,
or by any person aggrieved by it or otherwise. The amended Act also prohibited
the re-nomination of a retiring member for more than one term. Where any
association failed to submit a panel of names when invited to do so, the nominating
committee could ask for panels from other associations, or persons of the category
concerned, or nominate members after consultation with such other such individuals
or interests concerned as it thought fit.
Under the original Act, the chairman was nominated by the Chief Justice of
India. But, after this amendment, the nomination of the chairman was also left to
the nominating committee. The new Act provides for selection of the chairman by
a committee consisting of the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, the Speaker of Lok
Sabha and a person elected by the members of the Council from among themselves.
The twenty representatives of the Press are nominated by the associations of
aforesaid categories of the newspapers and news agencies notified for the purpose
by the Council in the each category. One member each is nominated by the
University Grants Commission, the Bar Council of India and the Sahitya Academy.
Of the five Members of Parliament, three are nominated by the Speaker of the
Lok Sabha and two by the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. The term of the chairman
and the members of the Council is three years. A retiring member is eligible for re-
nomination for not more than one term.
An extremely healthy feature of the Indian Press Council is the scheme and
procedure of the nomination of its chairman and other members, following a long
search based on the experience of several years of functioning of the Council.
Despite being a statutory body, the government and its authorities have been
completely kept out of the nomination process except for publishing the notification
in the official gazette of the names of the members nominated. Nor has it been left
to any individual to decide, however eminent or highly placed he may be. A totally
non-subjective procedure which leaves no scope for the interference or influence
by government or any other agency was evolved with remarkable ingenuity. The
scheme is in force since the enactment of the Press Council Act of 1978 under
which the revived Press Council was set up in 1979.
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Mass Media: Government 12.3.1 Role of PCI in Maintaining Ethical Journalistic Standards
Measures
The objects of the present Press Council are substantially the same as were laid
down under the Act of 1965. But the functions have undergone some change in
NOTES that the three of the functions listed in the earlier Act were not included in the 1978
Act, as they were considered to be burdensome for the Council to perform. These
relate to the following:
 Promoting the establishment of such common services for the supply and
dissemination of news to newspapers as may, from time to time, appear to
it to be desirable
 Providing facilities for proper education and training of persons in the
profession of journalism
 Promoting technical or other research
In addition, the Act of 1978 lists two new functions of the Council:
 To undertake studies of foreign newspapers, including those brought out by
any embassy or any other representative in India of a foreign state, their
circulation and impact
 To undertake such studies as may be entrusted to the Council and to express
its opinion in regard to any matter referred to it by the Central Government
The powers of the Press Council are provided in Section 14 and 15 of the Act as
under:
Section 14(1)
Where, on receipt of a complaint made to it or otherwise, the Council has reason
to believe that a newspaper or news agency has offended against the standards of
journalistic ethics or public taste or that an editor or a working journalist has
committed any professional misconduct, the Council may, after giving the
newspaper, or news agency, the editor or journalist concerned an opportunity of
being heard, hold an inquiry in such manner as may be provided by the regulations
made under this Act and, if it is satisfied that it is necessary to do, it may, for
reasons to be recorded in writing, warn, admonish or censure the newspaper, the
news agency, the editor or the journalist, as the case may be:
Provided that the Council may not take cognizance of a complaint if
in the opinion of the Chairman, there is no sufficient ground for holding
an inquiry. If the Council is of the opinion that it is necessary or
expedient in public interest so to do, it may require any newspaper to
publish therein in such manner as the Council thinks fit, any particulars
relating to any inquiry under this section against a newspaper or news
agency, an editor or a journalist working therein, including the name
of such newspaper, news agency, editor or journalist.
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Section 14(2) Mass Media: Government
Measures
Nothing in sub-section (1) shall be deemed to empower the Council to hold an
inquiry into any matter in respect of which any proceeding is pending in a court of
law. NOTES
The decision of the Council under sub-section (1), or sub-section (2), as
the case may be, shall be final and shall not be questioned in any court of law.
Section 15(1)
For the purpose of performing its functions or holding any inquiry under this Act,
the Council shall have the same powers throughout India as are vested in a civil
court while trying a suit under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, in respect of the
following matters, namely:
 Summoning and enforcing the attendance of persons and examining them
on oath
 Requiring the discovery and inspection of documents
 Receiving evidence on affidavits
 Requisitioning any public record or copies thereof from any court or office
 Issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents; any
other matter, which may be prescribed
Section 15(2)
Nothing in sub-section (1) shall be deemed to compel any newspaper, news
agency, editor or journalist to disclose the source of any news or information
published by that newspaper or received or reported by that news agency, editor
or journalist.
Section 15(3)
Every inquiry held by the Council shall be deemed to be a judicial proceeding
within the meaning of sections 193 and 228 of the Indian Penal Code. The Council
may, if it considers necessary for the purpose of carrying out its objects or for the
performance of any of its functions under this Act, make such observations, as it
may think fit, in any of its decisions or reports, respecting the conduct of any
authority, including Government.
The Council discharges its functions primarily through the medium of its inquiry
committees, adjudicating on complaint cases received by it against the Press for
violation of the norms of journalism, or by the Press for interference with its freedom
by the authorities. There is a set procedure for lodging a complaint with the Council.
A complainant is required essentially to write to the editor of the respondent
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Mass Media: Government newspaper, drawing his attention to what the complainant considers as a breach
Measures of journalistic ethics or an offence against public taste. Apart from furnishing to the
Council a cutting of the matter complained against, it is incumbent on the
complainant to make and subscribe to a declaration that to the best of his knowledge
NOTES and belief, he has placed all the relevant facts before the Council and that no
proceedings are pending in any court of law in respect of any matter alleged in the
complaint. He shall also inform the Council forthwith if during the pendency of the
inquiry before the Council, any matter alleged in the complaint becomes the subject
matter of any proceedings in a court of law. The reason for this declaration is that
in view of Section 14(3) of the Act, the Council cannot deal with any matter which
is subjudice.
Any person can complain against a newspaper to the Press Council for a
breach of the recognized ethics of journalistic propriety and taste. The complainant
need not necessarily be the person aggrieved or directly involved. The alleged
breach may be in the publication or non-publication of a news-item or statement,
or other material, like cartoons, pictures, photographs, strips or advertisement
which are published in a newspaper. Cases can also be initiated by any member of
the public against any professional misconduct by an editor, working journalist,
staff of a newspaper or engaged in freelance work. While the Council accepts
complaints by email they need to be followed up by signed complaints. There is a
specific time period in which complaint shall be lodged in case of dailies, news
agencies and weeklies: it should be done within 2 months.
In all other cases, the time frame is within 4 months. It is necessary that a
relevant publication of an earlier date may be referred to in the complaint. If the
chairman finds that there are no sufficient grounds for inquiry, he may dismiss the
complaint and report it to the Council; otherwise, the editor of the newspaper or
the journalist concerned is asked to cite reasons as to why action should not be
taken against him. On receipt of the written statement and other relevant material
from the editor or the journalist, the Secretariat of the Council places the matter
before the inquiry committee. The inquiry committee screens and examines the
complaint in detail. If necessary, it also calls for further particulars or documents
from the parties. The parties are given opportunity to adduce evidence before the
inquiry committee by appearing personally or through their authorized
representative, including legal practitioners. On the basis of the facts on record
and affidavits or the oral evidence adduced before it, the committee formulates its
findings and recommendations, and forwards them to the Council, which may or
may not accept them. Where the Council is satisfied that a newspaper or news
agency has offended against the standards of journalistic ethics or public taste, or
that an editor or working journalist has committed professional misconduct, the
Council may warn, admonish or censure the newspaper, the news agency, the
editor or journalist, or disapprove the conduct thereof, as the case may be. In the
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complaints lodged by the Press against the authorities, the Council is empowered Mass Media: Government
to make such observations as it may think fit in respect of the conduct of any Measures
authority, including the government. The decisions of the Council are final, and
cannot be questioned in any court of law. It can, thus, be seen that the Council
wields a lot of moral authority although it has no legally enforceable punitive powers. NOTES
The inquiry regulations framed by the Council empower the Chairman to
take suo moto action, and issue notices to any party in respect of any matter falling
within the scope of the Press Council Act. The procedure for holding a suo moto
inquiry is substantially the same as in the case of a normal inquiry, except that for
any normal inquiry a complaint is required to be lodged with the Council by a
complainant. The Council, in 1980, had proposed amendment of the Act for
empowering the Council to recommend to the authorities concerned, the denial of
certain facilities and concessions in the form of accreditation, advertisements,
allocation of newsprint or concessional rates of postage for a certain period in the
case of a newspaper which was censured thrice by the Council. The acceptance
of the Council’s recommendations on the part of the authorities was sought to be
made obligatory.
The Council was further of the view that, as in the case of newspapers, the
power vested in it under Section 15(4) of the Press Council Act, 1978–to make
such observations as it may think fit, in any of its decisions or reports, respecting
the conduct of any authority including the government–should expressly include
the power to warn, admonish or censure such authorities. Further, the observations
of the Council in this behalf should be placed on the table of both the Houses of
Parliament and/or of the legislature of the state concerned. In the year 1987, the
Council reconsidered the matter and after detailed deliberations, decided to
withdraw its proposal for penal powers, because it was of the reconsidered opinion
that in the prevalent conditions, these powers could tend to be misused by the
authorities to curb the freedom of the Press. Since then, time and again, suggestions/
references have been made to the Council that it should have penal powers to
punish the delinquent newspapers/journalists. In response, the Council has
consistently taken the view that the moral sanctions provided to it under the existing
scheme of the Act are adequate. The suggestion was repeated by the Union Minister
for Information and Broadcasting in his inaugural address to the International
Conference of Press Councils held in New Delhi in October, 1992, but the Council
unanimously rejected it with the following reasoning:
Were the Council to be endowed with the power to impose sanctions/
penalties, it would be equitable that the power to impose sanctions
applies also when complaints are made by the Press against the
Government and its authorities. A power to impose meaningful
sanctions raises a number of issues, including, (a) the onus of proof;
(b) the standard of proof; (c) the right to and cost of legal
representation; and (d) whether review and/or appeal would be
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Mass Media: Government available. The effect of any or all of these issues may militate against
the basic premise, that the Press Council provide a democratic and
Measures
efficient and inexpensive facility for hearing of the complaints, and
that the consequent inevitability would, in effect, become courts,
NOTES exercising judicial power and well known problems of access, cost,
formality and delay would equally apply, thus defeating the basic
purpose of the Press Council.
Along with these functions, a newspaper, a journalist or any institution or
individual can complain against the Central or State Government or any organization
or person for interference with the free functioning of the press or the encroachment
on the freedom of the press. Such complaints should contain full particulars of the
alleged infringement whereupon the Council will follow the procedure of inquiry
given above.
In the contempt of court proceedings, the Press usually makes the plea that it
should not be forced to disclose confidential source. ‘Such a plea for justification
has been permitted on a limited basis. The right of the Press to hold on to its
sources of information has been balanced against other aspects of public interest.
By way of tail piece, it has also been added that the Press often demands the right
to break confidence more than they plead the right to hold on to their own
confidential sources. It is only fair that each claim should be balanced against
other claims without conceding total primacy to the Press in respect of its
investigative and truth verification functions’.
The Law Commission of India, in 1983, asked the views of the Press Council
through a set of questions about the revelation of source of information by a
journalist–information that he has taken in confidence. On the pretext of the reply,
the Law Commission of India submitted its ninety third Report to the government
on 10 August 1983, and recommended the inclusion of Section 132A in the ‘Indian
Evidence Act, 1872.’ Section 132A says, ‘No court shall require a person to
disclose the source of information contained in a publication for which he is
responsible, where such information has been obtained by him on the express
agreement or implied understanding that the source will be kept confidential.’Also
included in this Section is that:
(a) ‘Publication’ means any speech, writing, broadcast or other
communication in whatever form, which is addressed to the public at
large or any section of the public
(b) ‘Source’ means the person from whom, or the means through which
the information was obtained
Even after the recommendation of the Law Commission, the Government
of India has not shown the will to act accordingly. Similar is the case with the other
recommendations of the commission or the Press Council.
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12.3.5 Press and Registration Appellate Board Mass Media: Government
Measures
Section 27 of the Press Council Act, 1978, entrusts the Council with the functions
of the Press and Registration Appellate Board, constituted under sub-section (1)
of Section 8C of the Press and Registration of Books Act, 1867, to hear appeals NOTES
against unlawful cancellation of declarations of newspapers or non-authentication
thereof by the District Magistrate. The Board consists of the chairman and another
member to be nominated by the Press Council of India from amongst its members.
The Board has rendered a number of important judgments, since it was first
constituted in 1979.
The Council has issued guidelines and recommended policy framework on various
matters concerning the Press and the people. In addition, the Chairmen of the
Council have been guiding the Press through statements whenever a serious situation
arose in which the Press was expected to work with restraint and circumspection.
They also reacted sharply through such statements whenever organized major
offensives were made against the Press. In 1969, the Council issued a ten-point
guidelines laying down norms and standards in reporting and commenting on matters
which bear on communal relations. Without being exhaustive, the guidelines listed
and explained what would be offending against journalistic propriety and ethics,
and should, therefore, be avoided. Again, in the wake of the happenings in Ayodhya
in 1990, the Council while reiterating the 1969 guidelines issued other twelve-
point guidelines in the light of the new experience. The Council said that the principles
outlined in it should be inculcated at every level of the media from training stage
upwards, and made a standard of external accountability. These principles laid
down certain dos and don’ts for both the Press and the state. The Council has
over the years formulated policy framework in respect of such subjects as rules of
accreditation, newsprint, advertisements, selection of journalists for accompanying
the President, the Prime Minister, etc. on their foreign tours.
12.4 REASONABLE RESTRICTIONS ON MEDIA
By enforcing Article 19(2) of the Constitution, the State can enforce reasonable
restrictions on the exercise of the right to freedom of speech and expression based
on eight grounds. These are:
 Defamation: Refers to statements which injures a man’s reputation.
 Contempt of court: Restriction may be instituted on the freedom of speech
and expression if it surpasses the reasonable limit and amounts to contempt
of court.
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Mass Media: Government  Decency or morality: Sections 292 to 294 of the Indian Penal
Measures Code provide for situations where freedom of speech and expression is
limited in the interests of dignity or morality.
 Security of the state: Under Article 19(2), fair limitations on the freedom
NOTES
of speech and expression can be placed in the context of State’s security.
 Friendly relations with other states: The intention behind the provision
is to prevent unrestricted malicious publicity against a foreign friendly state
that can disrupt India’s good ties with that state.
 Incitement to an offence: Added through the 1951 Constitution (First
Amendment) Act. Freedom of speech and expression cannot provide citizens
with a privilege to incite people in committing offence.
 Sedition: Sedition supports all those activities, whether through words or
writing, determined to disrupt the State’s tranquility and drive misguided
individuals to subvert the government.
 Public order: Introduced by the Constitution Act (first amendment). That
which perturbs public peace or tranquility perturbs public order. ‘In the
interest of public order’ involves not only utterances meant explicitly but
also those which appear to contribute to disorder.
In addition to the above limitations, the rights to freedom under Article 19
of the Indian constitution are revoked during the time of National Emergency
proclaimed by the President of India. Furthermore, during the time of action of the
National Emergency, the President is authorized to suspend citizens’ right to move
to the Supreme Court to implement their personal freedom.
It is obvious that media can play vital role in shaping the society through its
widespread reach and impact on people. It holds a dominant position in society
that makes it responsible and answerable to the society. It is expected from media
to follow moral customs and ethics in its functioning. The gathering of information
by media is done on behalf of its citizens and the public and while doing so, it has
the utmost duty to be attentive against misleading and distorted information.
Therefore, media practitioners should be principled and responsible in news
broadcasting
Check Your Progress

4. When was the Press Council of India first constituted?
5. Who nominated the Chairman of the Press Council of India under the
original Act of 1965?
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12.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Control and Regulatory
Measures
QUESTIONS
1. The first ever Indian newspaper was the Bengal Gazette which was founded NOTES
in Kolkata in 1779.
2. The first ever governor-general to put down guidelines for the press in India
was Richard Colley Wellesley.
3. The objective of the Newspaper (Price and Page) Act, 1956 was to prevent
unfair competition among newspapers through price-cutting.
4. The Press Council of India was first constituted on 4th July 1966.
5. Under the Original Act of 1965, the Chairman of the Press Council of India
was nominated by the Chief Justice of India.
12.6 SUMMARY
 The history of press laws in India started during the days of the East India
Company. The first ever Indian newspaper was the Bengal Gazette which
was founded in Kolkata in 1779.
 In 1789, 10 years after the Bengal Gazette, the Bombay Herald was
published. It was followed by the Courier a year later.
 The Courier has great historical significance as it was the first ever paper to
cater in part to an Indian public as it published advertisements in Gujarati.
 In 1799, Wellesley issued regulations that required newspapers to print the
names of the printer, publisher, proprietor and editor of newspapers, and to
submit all material published therein for pre-censorship by the Secretary to
the Government of India.
 Pre-censorship was abolished in 1823 after an ordinance called the ‘Adam
Regulation’ named after the governor general John Adam. Despite abolishing
pre-censorship, the ordinance made the restrictions on the press more
stringent.
 According to the ‘Adam Regulation’, every newspaper, journal, pamphlet
or printed matter in any language had to obtain a license from the governor-
general in council signed by the Chief Secretary before publication.
 As a result of the First War of Independence in 1857, the governor-general
Lord Canning reintroduced the press restrictions of the Adam Regulations
of 1825 through the Press Act of 1857.
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Mass Media: Government  The purpose of the Press Act of 1857 was to ‘regulate the establishment of
Measures printing presses and to restrain in certain cases the circulation of printing
books and papers’.
 In 1878, under the viceroy Lord Lytton the most contentious act against the
NOTES
press known as the Vernacular Press Act was passed. The act was specifically
targeted towards Indian language newspapers and its purpose was to ‘better
control of publications in oriental languages’.
 In 1908, the first major regulation related to the press in India in the twentieth
century was the Newspapers (Incitement of Offences) Act. The act gave
powers to a magistrate to seize a Press after he was satisfied that a
newspaper had printed material that incited people to commit murder or
any other act of violence.
 In 1931, after Mahatma Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement,
the British government promptly passed the Press (Emergency) Powers
Act, 1931.
 In 1965, the Press Council Act was passed by Parliament, following which
the Press Council of India was established. The reasons behind establishing
the Press Council was to preserve the freedom of the Press and to maintain
and improve the standards of newspapers in India.
 The Press Council of India is the regulatory body for controlling the conduct
of print media and also the conduct of the journalists.
 The Press Council of India was first constituted on 4 July 1966 as an
autonomous, statutory, quasi-judicial body, with Shri Justice J.R. Mudholkar,
then a Judge of the Supreme Court, as Chairman.
 The Press Council of India has been entrusted with the task of holding and
uplifting the standard of the print media in the country along with the
maintenance of the ethics among the journalists. For this, the PCI formulates
the guidelines for the press and the journalists.
 The importance of the Press Council of India can be estimated by the fact
that the retired judge of the Supreme Court of India is entrusted with the
Chairmanship of the PCI.
 PCI must take cognizance of the complaint filed by an aggrieved person
against the press or the journalists.
 The Press Council discharges its functions primarily through the medium of
its Inquiry Committees, adjudicating on complaint cases received by it against
the Press for violation of the norms of journalism or by the Press for
interference with its freedom by the authorities.
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 The Council has over the years formulated policy framework in respect of Mass Media: Government
such subjects as rules of accreditation, newsprint, advertisements, selection Measures
of journalists for accompanying the President, the Prime Minister, etc. on
their foreign tours.
NOTES
12.7 KEY WORDS
 Deportation: It is the act of expelling a person from their native land.

 Libel: It is a false publication, as in writing, print, signs, or pictures that
damages a person’s reputation.
 Affidavit: It is a written declaration made under oath before a notary public
or other authorized officer.
 Suo moto: Literally meaning ‘on its own motion’, this is an Latin legal term,
approximately equivalent to the English term Sua Sponte. It is used, for
example, where a government agency acts on its own cognizance.

EXERCISES
1. Write a short note on press regulations passed by the Indian government
post independence.
2. How did the Press Council come into existence? What were its chief
objectives?
3. What are the powers entrusted to the Press Council of India?
1. Discuss the press regulations passed by the East India Company in the
early 1800s.
2. Critically analyze the role of the PCI in maintaining the standards of journalism
keeping in view the decline in the ethics of the journalists.
3. Describe the working of the PCI in detail.
Mazzarella, William and Raminder Kaur (ed.). 2009. Censorship in South Asia:
Cultural Regulation from Sedition to Seduction. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
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Mass Media: Government Natarajan, Swaminath. 1962. A History of the Press in India. Kolkata: Asia
Measures Publishing House.
Parons, Patricia. 2004. Ethics in Public Relations: A Guide to Best Practice.
London, UK: Sterling.
NOTES
Phelan, John M. 1980. Disenchantment: Meaning and Morality in the Media.
New York, USA: Hastings House.
Thayer, Lee (ed.). 1980. Ethics, Morality, and the Media. New York, USA:
Hastings House.
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Training in Mass
BLOCK - IV Communication
MASS COMMUNICATION
NOTES
UNIT 13 TRAINING IN MASS
COMMUNICATION
Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Better Understanding of Mass Communication
13.3 Training in Mass Communication
13.4 Need for Mass Communication
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
13.0 INTRODUCTION
Mass communication is the way to dispersing information and spreading awareness

in the society. In this sense, this is one of the most significant fields in this era. We
all know that we are going through a dynamic phase of time. We call it information
revolution. Information plays a vital role in changing and shaping the society. Mass
communication has become an important part of our lives and we cannot do without
it now. With the sheer proliferation of media into each of our lives through
components like newspapers, televisions, and the internet, the profession and field
of mass communication are gaining popularity like never before. In this unit, we
will discuss the training required in mass communication, along with the need of
mass communication.
13.1 OBJECTIVES

 Describe the skills needed to become a good communicator
 Explain the difference between mass communication and journalism
 Discuss the need and importance of mass communication
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Training in Mass
Communication 13.2 BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF MASS
COMMUNICATION
NOTES We have already studied that Mass communication is the process of producing
and distributing information, ideas, opinions, values and entertainment from a single,
but invariably complex, organization or source, through print or electronic channels,
to large numbers of people. Mass communication channels or media include
newspapers, magazines, books, radio, television, film, sound recordings and the
Internet. Over the past few decades mass communication has gained in more
importance and influence. It is an essential building block in the construction of
human culture and civilization. Mass communication has evolved from the old
simple ways of communication to today’s complex ways of transmitting the
information to the masses.
Many times we consider mass communication and journalism as same. But the
fact is journalism is just a segment of mass communication. It has no doubt that
journalism stands a very important position in society but mass communication is
much broader in terms of spreading information and knowledge to the people.
The term Mass Communication is not limited to Journalism only. It spreads its
branches to various other media fields. News gathering and presenting the news
which includes anchoring is comes under journalism. But other fields like Advertising,
Public Relations (PR), Corporate Communication, Event management, Film
Production, Production of Entertainment programs for Television etc come under
the mass communication. These are not the part of journalism. These are different
segments of mass communication. So when you go for studying mass
communication, you will get to all know these various media fields.
Mass communication has emerged as a new career avenue in modern era. For
those who have creativity in mind, mass communication could be good arena to
step in. Its various media fields give you a great opportunity:
 Job of new era: Mass communication is the field of new era. This is the
era of information. So, those who are in the business of providing information
to the masses, have no dearth of job. This sector provide lucrative job with
good amount of money.
 Creative satisfaction: There are many for those creative satisfactions are
of prime importance in life. This field gives ample satisfaction for your
creativity.
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 Glamour: Most of the jobs associated with Mass Communication are Training in Mass
Communication
considered glamorous in the society. But be aware, it needs lots of hard
work to stay for long in this field.
 Social prestige: Jobs related to mass communication are well known to
NOTES
the society. You will have no need to explain that what sort of job you are
doing. These jobs are considered prestigious.
 Social networking: These jobs provide you many acquaintances. You may
develop a very good social networking through your job. Some of them
may become your lifelong friends too.
 Adventure: Mass communication jobs are not boring. They are full of
adventure. Nothing is mundane in this field. Something new is happening all
the time.
 Travelling: If travelling is your first love then this field is certainly for you.
You may get lots of travelling chances in this field. You may explore new
places in your job.
 Enhanced personality: Mass communication fields bring out a better
version of you from within yourself. You learn how to present yourself in
this field. At the end, you will certainly find a newer version of yourself.
 Confidence: When your personality is improved it enhances your
confidence. Confidence is something that you need in every aspect of your
day to day life. With a high confidence you emerge as a winner in your life.
 Practical exposure: Mass communication field is not confined to books
only. It gives you lots of practical exposure too.
13.3 TRAINING IN MASS COMMUNICATION
As mass communication has emerged as a new career avenue in last few decades,
it is necessary to get professional training in learning different aspect of mass
communication:
 Social responsibility:Mass Communication is a social field. Basically you
provide information in various formats. You must be aware that you are
interacting with the society. It’s a work of great social responsibility. If you
are well trained, you can understand your responsibility and perform your
work more efficiently.
 Problem-solving and decision-making:Training in mass communication
will teach you to be resourceful and creative in solving problems. It will also
help with your decision making, by learning how to effectively take the right
decisions while under pressure. In a field like journalism where there is
constant pressure to deliver news as fast as possible, those skills come in
very handy.
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Training in Mass  Good communication skills: If you want to be an effective communicator
Communication
you must learn how to communicate your feelings and expression in an
impressive manner. Good oral and written skills are important if you want to
excel in this arena. This isn’t come easy. It takes lots of practice and training.
NOTES
 To handle technical aspect: The mass communication is no more a simple
field now. With advent of newer and newer technologies, it has become
imperative to learn new technical skills. Digital journalism, Editing, production
there are several fields that are highly technical. Training is necessary to
execute your work here.
 Sharpen your creativity:Though creativity is god-gifted, it also needs
training to sharpen your creativity. Training gives you confidence to use
your skills in a effective and impressive manner.
Check Your Progress

1. Mention any two benefits of learning mass communication.
2. Mention two reasons why training is necessary in mass communication?
3. Does creativity need training?
13.4 NEED FOR MASS COMMUNICATION
Mass communication is needed because:

 Inform people: The basic need of mass communication is to provide
information to people. Information on mass communication may be related
to education, weather, sports, products and services, public holidays,
festivals, recreation, and entertainment.
 Build public opinion: Mass media attempts to create public opinion by
providing their audiences with a realistic picture of the world, activities of
the leaders, governmental policies, etc. Mass media also tries to build public
opinion through special articles, editorials, and commentaries.
 Persuade: Mass communication aims at persuading people to bring a change
in their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and thinking on several issues like smoking,
voting, religious convictions, donation, dowry culture, etc.Moreover,
business enterprises design various advertisements to persuade potential
customers.
 Circulate government policies: Another goal of mass communication is
to announce and circulate government programs and policies. Mass media
can bring such policies to the public notice very quickly.
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 Disseminate health and education programs: The government takes Training in Mass
Communication
various health and educational programmers like vaccination, sanitation,
birth control, open education, mass education, etc. These health and
education programs are disseminated and implemented through mass media
like radio, television, films, newspapers, etc. NOTES
 Provide pleasure and entertainment: The mass media are wonderful
sources of pleasure and amusement. Almost all mass media have an
entertainment component. Television and radio arrange various programs
for pleasure and amusement of mass people. Newspapers and magazines
publish articles on literary and cultural events, sports, stories, etc. that also
provide entertainment to the readers.
 Establish social contact and linkage: Mass communication also tries to
establish and maintain social contact and linkage among various races, tribes,
or communities. Mass media create social contact and linkage by giving
messages of shared knowledge and experience.
 Help in facing disaster and calamity: Mass communication also aims at
creating public awareness to face natural and men made disasters like floods,
earthquakes, war, riots, etc. with due courage and energy. Through mass
media, necessary instructions, strategies, & programs are circulated so that
people can take proactive preparation.
 Highlight diplomatic role: In this global world, every country wants to
highlight its diplomatic role in global peacekeeping and development activities.
Such a diplomatic role can conveniently be disseminated and highlighted
through mass media.
 Promote political ideologies: Political parties rely on mass media to
promote their ideologies, plans, programs, and manifestos. With the help of
mass media, they try to create public opinion in their favour.
Check Your Progress

4. Mention two reasons due to which we need mass communication.
5. What is the basic purpose of mass communication?

QUESTIONS
1. The two benefits of learning mass communication are:

(a) Creative satisfaction
(b) Enhanced personality
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Training in Mass 2. Training is necessary in mass communication so as to:
Communication
(a) To handle technical aspects
(b) For good communication skills
NOTES 3. Yes, training is necessary to sharpen the creativity.
4. The reasons due to which we need mass communicationare:
a. Building public opinion
b. To Persuade
5. The basic purpose of mass communication is to inform people.
13.6 SUMMARY
 We are going through a dynamic phase of time. We call it information

revolution. Information plays a vital role in changing and shaping the society.
 Mass communication is the process of producing and distributing information,
ideas, opinions, values and entertainment from a single, but invariably
complex, organization or source, through print or electronic channels, to
large numbers of people.
 Mass communication took a long journey to reach this digital era–the age
of convergence. To understand mass communication in depth we must learn
these different phases of transition.
 The most significant thing to notice is that each age of communication
compounds, rather than replaces the previous age because human
communication practices are cumulative.
 Many times we consider mass communication and journalism as same. But
the fact is journalism is just a segment of mass communication.
 News gathering and presenting the news which includes anchoring is comes
under journalism. But other fields like Advertising, Public Relations (PR),
Corporate Communication, Event management, Film Production,
Production of Entertainment programs for Television, etc. come under the
mass communication.
 Mass communication has emerged as a new career avenue in modern era.
For those who have creativity in mind, mass communication could be good
arena to step in.
 It is necessary to get professional training in learning different aspect of
mass communication.
 To inform people is the basic objective of mass communication.
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Training in Mass
13.7 KEY WORDS Communication
 Media Convergence:It is the blending of multiple media forms into one

platform for purposes of delivering a dynamic experience. NOTES
 Corporate Communication:It is a set of activities involved in managing
and orchestrating all internal and external communications aimed at creating
favourable point of view among stakeholders on which the company
depends.

EXERCISES
1. How does mass communication persuade?
2. Why is training important in mass communication?
1. Explain the difference between mass communication and journalism.
2. Discuss the need and importance of mass communication.
Fiske, J. 1982. Introduction to Communication Studies. London: Routledge.

Ravindran, R. K. 2016. Media and Society. Delhi: Commonwealth Pub.
Curran, J. and M. Gurevitch (ed). 1996. Mass Media and Society. London:
Arnold.
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Future of Mass
Communication
UNIT 14 FUTURE OF MASS
COMMUNICATION
NOTES
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Changing Face of Mass Communication
14.3 Evolution of Mass Communication
14.4 Emerging Trends of Mass Communication
14.6 Summary
14.7 Key Words
14.0 INTRODUCTION
Our lives have changed drastically in last few decades. Those days are gone when
media used to impact the society in very lesser manner. In today’s world, the
impact of media has enhanced manifolds. Every aspect of our life has been now
influenced by media. The media has pervaded every nook and corner of today’s
life. The change which we are seeing in the arena of mass communication is not
new. This change is a continuous process. We have seen many changes in the
past. The changing technology has now taken us to the digital era. The journey is
still going on. We are waiting for the future. We are expecting a lot from the future.
In this unit, we will learn how mass communication is changing its shape and how
it will look like in the future. We will try to find out how we can cope up with these
changes.
14.1 OBJECTIVES

 Describe the evolution of mass communication
 Explain emerging trends of mass communication
 Discuss the future of media industry
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Future of Mass
14.2 CHANGING FACE OF MASS Communication
COMMUNICATION
The saying goes on that change is the only constant thing. Mass communication is NOTES
the perfect example of it. The face of different media of mass communication is
now quite different in comparison to old era. Not only the technology but the
content too has been changing rapidly. Gone are the days when we used to wait
for news or our dose of entertainment. Now new generation want everything on
demand. Whether it is information or entertainment, they want everything according
to their own convenience. And it is available to them.
Mass communication has travelled a long journey to reach this destination.
From signs to speech, from oral to written form, from print to electronic media and
now the digital world with the magic of internet – the face of mass communication
has always been changing. We are now in digital era. New generation has been
raised on the internet. Social media is the tool they use to connect with others. They
are well versed with new technology and spend so much time on different social
media platforms that sometimes they are even called anti-social or tech-addicted.
This generation is very competitive. They are ready to test their mental fortitude.
They are also accustomed to immediate result or feedback. But Most of the time
they even get frustrated if they have to wait too long. New generation prefers to
work independently. Their privacy is very important for them. But they also celebrate
their openness and diversity. They are ready to break the norms. They don’t focus
much on someone’s colour, religion or sexual orientation. For them, diversity is simply
the norm. Compared to teenagers of other generations, they are ranked as the most
informed. They are open to any new idea or concept. This generation has a strong
ability to adapt to changes. This makes them one of the most creative bunches. This
generation will be the youngest workforce in new decade. With this, new generation
is estimated to soon become the largest consumer population. Needless to say, this
generation matters. So if any medium wants to exist in the era of new generation, it
needs to start establishing relationships with them now and make sure to meet this
generation’s digital expectations. Our mass communication media are doing the same.
They are adopting themselves to new changes.
We had already witnessed the growth of television. Somewhere print materials
took a back seat with the growth of television. But now the way of watching television
has been changing too. From terrestrial transmission to cable TV and then satellite
TV, we have witnessed all changes. Now the newer version is video streaming. The
market of video steaming is growing day by day. According to an international survey
the OTT (Over The Top) services is expected to grow from USD 81.6 billion in
2019 to USD 156.9 billion by 2024. Major growth factors for the market include
growth in broadband, increase in fixed data connection and enhanced usages of
smart devices. The inception of OTT video streaming platforms such as Netflix,
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Future of Mass Hotstar and Amazon Prime coupled with the growing internet penetration is
Communication
responsible for the rise of Smartphone and tablet usage leading to the growth of
digital video consumption. The growth story of OTT platforms is not different in
India. In fact, India has emerged as one of the major market in the world. Most of
NOTES the major OTT platforms are operating in India and increasing their subscription
growth rapidly. In 2018, OTT market in India was worth USD 303 million which
grew to USD 461 million in 2019. It is expected to reach USD 5 billion by 2023.
This data clearly indicate that the future of television is streaming.
14.3 EVOLUTION OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Communication is the essential element to form a society. It is the basic fabric of

any civilized society. As the society grows larger in numbers, this communication
converts into mass communication. Mass communication is essential for nourishing
and transmitting culture in the society. It is Imperative for sharing knowledge. It is
the best way of our entertainment. It is must for envisioning our future. It motivates
us to perform actions to live in a better way in the society. But mass communication
took a long journey to reach this digital era – the age of convergence. To envisage
the future of mass communication, we must understand these different phases of
transition. The most significant thing to notice is that each age of communication
compounds, rather than replaces the previous age because human communication
practices are cumulative.
 The age of signs and signals: This is the earliest phase of communication.
The early formation of human togetherness was not possible without
communicating with each other. At primitive stage of human species emerged
the standardization of gestures, sounds, and other signals that were used to
indicate “danger, the presence of food and coordinated hunting. Many of
these signs and signals are still in the human communication repertoire. It
was the age of non-verbal communication.
 The age of speech: In the process of evolution of human species the
development of human physiology occurred. With the development of our
vocal apparatus speech got intrigued with human life. With the time language
came into existence and every community developed a common language
for them. With the help of language humans now could express their
expressions, instructions etc. in a way that was not possible only with signs
and signals. With invent of language, humans could now deal with their
environment more effectively. They were now able to store and exchange
messages of greater length and complexity. Migration contributed to the
spread of language.
 The age of writing: After the signs and languages, it was the age of writing.
Writing was moving from pictographic representation to phonetic systems.
It was representing complex ideas by using simple letters to imply specific
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sounds. The Age of Writing emerged about 5,000 years ago in various
194 Material
regions of the world. Associated with the development of writing were also Future of Mass
Communication
advances in writing media – a progressive shift from static stone to lighter
and more portable media. The ability to read and write still confers power
and social status in human society. The role of the scribe in the storage and
distribution of knowledge is recognized and valued in human society. NOTES
 The age of print media: Development of writing gave development of
writing media. With advent of newer technologies, like printing, we
developed media that could reach to the much larger number of people.
Printing was considered as one of the most important inventions in mass
communication. Books, magazines, newspapers, etc. are completely
changed the way mass communication behaved before.
 The age of electronic media: As we moved ahead with time, we
developed new technologies and we reached to the age of Electronic Media.
Now with Radio, TV, etc. the reach of media increased manifolds with
much higher speed.
 The digital age: We are now in the era of digital world. Internet dominates
our world. It has changed the shape of communication. Digital communication
is the fastest way to communicate in new time. If both the sender and the
receiver have the internet connection, they can communicate anytime,
anywhere. Information has never travelled with this speed before.
As we mentioned earlier, we can’t see these phases separately. These were
just the different steps of development. All are linked with each other and all are
relevant in modern era too. The future development will also be in the synchronization
of past events.
14.4 EMERGING TRENDS OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
Mass communication will witness a considerable change in near future. The face of
traditional mass communication media may be changed completely. If we want to
keep pace with these changes, we must have to develop a deep understanding of
these transformations. Changes require greater sense of responsibilities and leadership.
Emerging trends
Let us discuss some of the emerging trends.
 New ways of distribution: The rise of social media, democratic internet
access, and the proliferation of smartphones and tablets has changed the
demands and expectations of media consumers. The result is an astounding
variety of new digital products and services. The video on demand (VoD)
market is expected to grow globally. With streaming being an engaging way
of delivering the content, more industries are now leveraging live streaming
to reach out to their audiences.
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Future of Mass  Intelligent media: People need more interactivity in new era. It would be
Communication
like developed virtual reality. The new era TV will recognize you and it will
have a profile of your likes, dislikes and preferences. Artificial Intelligence
and machine learning help streaming services recommend shows that
NOTES consumers actually want to watch. Artificial Intelligence (AI) brings with it a
promise of genuine human to machine interaction. When machines become
intelligent, they can understand request, connect data points and draw
conclusions. Like in Netflix, 80 percent of consumers watch comes from
their personalized recommendation. In the era of personalized TV, content
provided by streaming services must be attractive and meaningful. That’s
why, we say that content will be the king in new era.
 Advertising: It’s no mystery that there is some brilliant mechanism behind
a user logging in to a service to find just the right content. Interspersed
within these recommendations are cleverly placed ads. Pre-rolls, in-stream,
and post-roll ads have already proven their effectiveness in increasing the
monetization for distributors. Server-side video ad technologies like Dynamic
Ad Insertion are capable of inserting video ads into live streaming and video
on demand. The deep insights available through a modern video ad server
enable advertisers to serve customized ads to different consumers during
the same stream.
 Consumer engagement via new medium: In the age of diminishing
attention span, the widespread use of ad blockers, and a multitude of content
channels, media companies need to get creative to engage with their user
base. For a consumer to engage with an ad, it must be relevant to them and
presented in a novel, creative format.
Check Your Progress

1. Which was considered the earlier phase of communication?
2. What is the full form of OTT?
3. Mention the name of two OTT platforms.

QUESTIONS
1. The Age of Signs and Signals is considered the earlier phase of communication.
2. The full form of OTT is On the Top media services.
3. Netflix and Hotstar are two of the OTT platforms.
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Future of Mass
14.6 SUMMARY Communication
 In today’s world, the impact of media has enhanced manifolds. Every aspect
of our life has been now influenced by media. NOTES
 Mass communication has travelled a long journey to reach this destination.
From signs to speech, from oral to written form, from print to electronic
media and now the digital world with the magic of internet–the face of mass
communication has always been changing.
 The way of watching television has been changing. From terrestrial
transmission to cable TV and then satellite TV, we have witnessed all changes.
Now the newer version is video streaming. The market of video steaming is
growing day by day.
 Mass communication took a long journey to reach this digital era – the age
of convergence.
 To envisage the future of mass communication, we must understand these
different phases of transition.
 The most significant thing to notice is that each age of communication
compounds, rather than replaces the previous age because human
communication practices are cumulative.
 Different phases of evolution of mass communication are: The Age of Signs
and Signals, The Age of Speech, The Age of Writing, The Age of Print
Media, The Age of Electronic Media, The Digital Age.
 Emerging Trends of Mass Communication are: New way of distribution,
Artificial Intelligent, Advertising, Consumer engagement via new medium.
14.7 KEY WORDS
 Artificial Intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation

of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans
and mimic their actions.
 Video on Demand: Video on demand (VoD) is a system that allows users
to select and watch video content of their choice on their TVs or computers.

EXERCISES
1. Briefly explain the changing face of mass communication.
2. Write a short note on growing popularity of OTT platforms.
Self-Instructional
Material 197
Future of Mass Long-Answer Questions
Communication
1. Describe the evolution of mass communication in detail.
2. Explain the emerging trends in mass communication
NOTES

Curran, J. and M. Gurevitch (eds). 1996. Mass Media and Society. London:
Arnold.
Windahl, S. B. Signitzer and J. Olson, 1992. Using Communication Theory.
London: Sage Publications.
Self-Instructional
198 Material

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BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

BLOCK II: JOURNALISM

BLOCK III: MASS MEDIA

BLOCK IV: MASS COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

1.3 NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE

The simplest definition of mass communication would be that it is a ‘public

Fig. 1.1 Uses and Gratification Theory Model

Fig. 1.2 Katz’s Categorization of Needs

Check Your Progress

Check Your Progress

NOTES 1. The feedback process of the various types of communication is different as

 Communication can be categorized into different types depending upon the

1.7 KEY WORDS

 Surveillance: It means continuous observation of a place, person, group,

1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

1.9 FURTHER READINGS

Holmes, David. 2005. Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society.

UNIT 2 TYPES AND THEORIES OF Mass Communication

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

2.2 TYPES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

2.3 MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

Communication as an activity appears to be very simple to explain at the very first

Fig. 2.1 Schematic Diagram of a General Communication System

communication seeing communication

attitudes elements structure hearing attitudes

Fig. 2.2 David Berlo’s Model of Communication (1960)

2.3.4 Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model (1953)

Fig. 2.3 Newcomb’s Model (1953)

The three nodes of the triangle A, B, C represent communicator, receiver

Interpreter Interpreter NOTES

Fig. 2.4 Osgood’s Communication Model

2.3.6 George Gerbner’s Model (1956)

Means and control

Fig. 2.5 Gerbner’s Model

Fig. 2.6 Schramm’s Communication Model

Schramm then brings the notion of field of experience as a significant factor

Field of experience Field of experience

Source Encoder Signal Decoder Destination

Fig. 2.7 Field of Experience in Communication

Fig. 2.8 Westley and MacLean Model of Communication

Check Your Progress

2.4 THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

The emergence of new technologies of communication and the evolution of societies

Fig. 2.9 Agenda Setting Theory

2.4.7 The Theory of Culture Industry

NOTES 2.4.8 Mass Society Theory

2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The four types of mass communication are:

 Print media is called the traditional or conventional media. Newspapers,

 Encoding: It is the process of converting a message, information, etc. into

2.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

2.9 FURTHER READINGS

Holmes, David. 2005. Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society.