May 2022

Volume 100 | Issue 5

How to achieve a
SCORS A rating

Concrete-encased
steel frames

Timber-sheathed
steel-framed structures

How’s that?
Complex steelwork, the cricket
calendar and Covid-19 were no match
for the project team behind two
striking new stands at Lord’s

Cover_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 1 20/04/2022 15:40

 C

CM

MY

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 14
Upfront
5 Editorial
6 News
8 News

Features
10 Optimising the structural design of modular housing
by combining timber and lightweight steel framing

Climate emergency
14 How to achieve a SCORS A rating using current

38
materials and technology

Professional guidance
16 Collaborative Reporting for Safer Structures:
Basement excavation under a semi-detached house
causes collapse

Technical
18 Concrete-encased steel frames, 1900–70:
considerations in their assessment and
refurbishment

Project focus
26 Design and construction of the Compton and Edrich
stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground redevelopment

10
Opinion
34 Viewpoint: Could sustainability be advanced through
simplification of codes of practice?
38 Book review: Why do buildings collapse in
earthquakes?

4
40 Verulam

At the back
Volume 100 │ Issue 5 │May 2022

43 Diary dates
46 Spotlight on Structures
48 Services Directory

46
50 TheStructuralEngineer Jobs
COVER: CLARE ADAMS/MCC

18
3
thestructuralengineer.org | May 2022
34
CONTENTS_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 3 21/04/2022 09:15
 Embodied carbon basics
for structural engineers
on-demand course
Learn how to undertake embodied carbon calculations Module 1: Definitions, the
calculation, scope
for every project and aspect of structural design. This
Module 2: Using the results,
new course is essential undertaking for all engineers reuse and refurbishment
and contributes to your CPD.
Module 3: Steel, concrete,
Features four captivating modules you can follow at your timber, brick and masonry
own pace. Module 4: Other materials,
environmental product,

––– declarations

Free for members

Non-members: £215 + VAT

Book now:
www.istructe.org/resources/training/
embodied-carbon-basics-on-demand-course

21144_embodied_carbon_FP.indd
TSE.May22_004.indd 4 1 21/02/2022
19/04/20224:27 pm
16:55
 Editorial Upfront

PRESIDENT
Jane Entwistle
BSc(Hons), CEng, FIStructE, MICE

CHIEF EXECUTIVE
Martin Powell

EDITORIAL
HEAD OF PUBLISHING
Lee Baldwin

MANAGING EDITOR
Robin Jones
t: +44 (0) 20 7201 9822
e: [email protected]
Robin Jones Managing Editor
EDITORIAL ENQUIRIES

Hitting a top
Noha Ali
t: +44 (0) 20 7201 9152
e: [email protected]

ADVERTISING
DISPLAY SALES

SCORS rating
t: +44 (0) 20 7880 7632
e: [email protected]

RECRUITMENT SALES
t: +44 (0) 20 7880 6235
e: [email protected]

DESIGN
SENIOR DESIGNER
Nicholas Daley

PRODUCTION AS SPRING ARRIVES at HQ in London, and we In the Technical section, Nicholas Bill looks at
PRODUCTION DIRECTOR
Jane Easterman
feel the warmth of the sun again, many people’s the historic use of concrete encasement for steel
thoughts will be turning to cricket. Despite the frames, aiming to provide some guidance on the
EDITORIAL ADVISORY GROUP
Will Arnold MIStructE
recent trials and tribulations of the England men’s unusual characteristics of such structures and
Premma Makanji MIStructE team, thousands of people up and down the how these should be considered when planning
Allan Mann FIStructE
Chris O’Regan FIStructE country will be turning out to follow their counties. refurbishment works (page 18). Assessment of
Angus Palmer MIStructE
Simon Pitchers FIStructE
So, what better way to mark the start of the season concrete-encased steel frames requires a thorough
Eleana Savvidi MIStructE than with an article describing the design and understanding of the materials used and knowledge
Subscription prices construction of a pair of striking new stands at of the design practice at the time of construction.
Institutional: £479
Personal (print only): £110
Lord’s – the ‘Home of Cricket’ Other content this month
Personal (online only): £110 (page 26)? includes a CROSS report on
Personal (Student Member): £45
The authors discuss the a basement excavation that
Single copies: £25 (incl. p&p) design of the steel-framed
structures, with a secondary
OFF-SITE led to the collapse of a semi-
detached house (page 16),
CONSTRUCTION
Printed by
Warners Midlands plc
timber beam network for as well as our usual Verulam
CAN ALLOW
The Maltings, Manor Lane Bourne,
Lincolnshire PE10 9PH the canopies, along with (page 40), Diary dates
United Kingdom

© The Institution of Structural Engineers.

the complex fabrication
requirements, and the OPTIMISED (page 43) and Spotlight on
Structures (page 46) pages.
MANUFACTURE
The Structural Engineer (ISSN 1466-5123) is
published by IStructE Ltd, a wholly owned challenges imposed by Lastly, don’t forget to share
AND REDUCTIONS
subsidiary of The Institution of Structural
Engineers. It is available both in print and online. working around the cricket your sketches with us for the
seasons and the onset of the next round of The Drawing
Contributions published in The Structural
Engineer are published on the understanding Covid-19 pandemic after work IN MATERIAL Board at [email protected].
PARTIAL FACTORS
that the author/s is/are solely responsible for the
statements made, for the opinions expressed on site had begun. The deadline for entries is
and/or for the accuracy of the contents.
Publication does not imply that any statement or We also continue our focus 1 June.
opinion expressed by the author/s reflects the
views of the Institution of Structural Engineers’
this month on sustainability I hope you enjoy the issue.
Board; Council; committees; members and reuse of structures. Muiris Moynihan explains
or employees. No liability is accepted by such
persons or by the Institution for any loss or how engineers can achieve a SCORS A rating for
damage, whether caused through reliance on
any statement, opinion or omission (textual
a building using current materials and technologies
or otherwise) in The Structural Engineer, or (page 14). Muiris looks at the cumulative
otherwise.
reductions in carbon that can be made through a
The Institution of Structural Engineers
International HQ
series of smaller efficiencies, noting that that the
47–58 Bastwick Street more controlled factory environment of off-site
London EC1V 3PS
United Kingdom construction can allow optimised manufacture and
t: +44 (0)20 7235 4535
e: [email protected]
reductions in material partial factors.
Off-site modular construction is also the subject
The Institution of Structural Engineers
Incorporated by Royal Charter of an article by Smail Kechidi based on his winning
Charity Registered in England and Wales number
233392 and in Scotland number SC038263
entry to the Institution’s Research into Practice
essay competition in 2021 (page 10). Smail
describes his research into cold-formed steel-
framed shear walls sheathed in timber, which has
helped deliver reduced material use and improved
fabrication time for ilke Homes.

5
thestructuralengineer.org | May 2022

EDITORIAL_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 5 21/04/2022 09:48

 Upfront News

Institution news Institution news

Institution releases Deadline extended: don’t
new guidance on miss your chance to enter the
reinforced autoclaved Structural Awards
aerated concrete The deadline to enter the Structural Awards 2022
panels has been extended to 9 May,, giving teams an extra
two weeks to optimise their entries and showcase
New guidance from the Institution their work in the best possible light.
of Structural Engineers provides Exciting changes this year will ensure that the
advice on identification and Awards recognise the incredible work structural
remediation solutions for reinforced engineers around the world are delivering in
autoclaved aerated concrete response to emerging issues in construction,
(RAAC) planks. particularly the climate crisis.
RAAC has been used in In place of award categories, entries will be
building structures in the UK and judged in response to four key attributes that
Europe since the late 1950s, most exemplify structural engineering achievement: best of the best receiving the Supreme Award.
commonly as precast roof panels Planet, People, Process and Profession. The only Don’t miss this chance to get the recognition you
in flat roof construction, but in entry requirement is that your project celebrates the deserve for your work.
the 1990s structural deficiencies incredible skill of structural engineers in relation to
became apparent. at least one of the four key attributes. Find out more at www.istructe.org/training-
The guidance has been prepared Ten winning projects will be announced at the and-development/enter-awards/structural-
by the IStructE RAAC Study Structural Awards ceremony in November, with the awards/.
Group to improve awareness of
RAAC among the wider structural
engineering community and to
share recent findings to assist those Industry news
who are asked by clients to advise
on the management of RAAC
10th edition of South African
panels. ‘concrete bible’ available
The report is not intended to be Fulton’s Concrete Technology 10th edition
definitive guidance and focuses represents a truly South African contribution
principally on the performance of to the science and practice of concrete
RAAC roof panels, although some technology. Extensive new material has been
of the findings may be relevant included, representing a significant update on
to floor and wall panels. Skill Growing plants on building facades, also known the previous edition.
and expertise will be required to as ‘living walls’, is one way buildings can improve The new edition views concrete in the context
biodiversity of local area
assess the structural integrity and of environmental sustainability, as an important
condition of RAAC panels and to leitmotif threaded throughout the book.
advise clients on management and Industry news Fulton’s, published by Cement & Concrete
remediation measures. SA, has been an essential reference in concrete
CWCT launches free platform to technology for over six decades, and this edition
Download the free report at share ‘sustainability stories’ will ensure that local practice remains at the
www.istructe.org/resources/ The Centre for Window and Cladding Technology forefront of international trends.
guidance/reinforced-autoclaved- (CWCT) has launched a Sustainability Stories The latest edition is edited by Mark Alexander,
aerated-concrete-guidance/. platform. The platform showcases short stories Emeritus Professor of Civil Engineering and
highlighting the state-of-the-practice at the Senior Research Scholar at the University of
intersection of facades and sustainability. Current Cape Town.
stories include: Prof. Alexander says positive feedback for the
| Reusing components new edition shows that concrete professionals
| Enhancing biodiversity are aware of pressing future issues for the
| Monitoring emissions in fabrication. industry. ‘Tremendous demands will be made on
professionals in future to address issues such as
The free platform provides a resource to sustainability of concrete construction, impact
educate and inspire the industry in its transition to of climate change, and population growth. The
a more sustainable future. authoritative, relevant, accurate and up-to-date
‘Sustainability in facades is complex with plenty information on concrete contained in the new
of nuance. The ‘stories’ format of the platform Fulton’s will therefore be
provides a great digestible resource for capturing valued throughout the
good practice in all its forms’, explained Will Wild, world,’ he said.
Sustainability Engineer at the CWCT.
The platform builds on the CWCT’s ongoing Find out more at
work leading on provision of knowledge and https://cemcon-sa.
guidance to the facade industry in the field of org.za/information-
sustainability and climate action. hub/fultons-concrete-
technology-10th-
Access the platform at www.cwct.co.uk/ edition/.
pages/sustainability-stories.

6
May 2022 | thestructuralengineer.org

NEWS_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 6 20/04/2022 15:41

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 Upfront News

Industry news Institution news

Report Jacques Heyman autobiography available on Institution
SUSTAINABLE BY DESIGN highlights website
commercial
JANUARY 2022

The Institution’s History Study Group has opened up an entirely new way of assessing
value of made available a ‘technical autobiography’ that stability.
developments of Jacques Heyman, former Professor and He also recognised that maintaining
Head of the Department of Engineering at compatibility wasn’t essential, as it is for an
with
the University of Cambridge. First published elastic theory, as the natural state of masonry
sustainable in the Peterhouse Annual Record in 2019, is to be cracked.
design ‘Skeletons: A Technical Autobiography Written He first applied this approach to masonry
A report by for Instruction and Entertainment’, charts bridges, but was soon asked to apply it to the
engineering consultancy Patrick Parsons, based the course of Professor Heyman’s long and more complex structures of Gothic churches.
on research with 100 senior executives of UK illustrious career, Jacques Heyman is the author of 14 books
construction firms, reveals that they are seeing Jacques Heyman was one of the people and co-author of two others, and has written
significant commercial benefits from using who recognised the limitations of the elastic numerous articles on the plastic design of steel
sustainable design and engineering to build theory of structural mechanics and developed structures, masonry construction, general
developments with a lower carbon footprint and the plastic theory to better predict the failure structural theory, and the history of structural
water use, and to reduce waste and materials of structures. engineering. He is a Fellow of the Society of
used. His early work applied plastic theory to the Antiquaries, of the Institution of Civil Engineers
In the report, Sustainable by design, two- prediction of the strength of steel structures and of the Royal Academy of Engineering.
thirds (66%) of respondents said sustainable and that work has changed how we picture Jacques Heyman has been a member of
design is adding value to current developments their behaviour and assess their strength and the IStructE History Study Group for many
and 83% said that projects designed with green stability. years and in 1992 gave the ‘Star’ (now
credentials have given them a competitive He then perceived that plastic theory could Sutherland) history lecture on ‘Rib vaults and
advantage. Furthermore, 68% expect the value be applied to masonry structures, recognised flying buttresses – the structure of Gothic’.
of developments with sustainable design to that the central problem was usually the
increase by between 10% and 20%, and 18% stability of their equilibrium, rather than Download the biography at www.
expect values to increase by between 20% and their strength, which was the focus of most istructe.org/get-involved/study-
50% over the next three years, demonstrating approaches and of all codes of practice, and groups/history-of-structural-engineering/.
the significant premium placed on sustainable
construction. Industry news
The research also highlighted that the most New Dutch bridge tests flax-based bio-composite material
important aspect of sustainably designed
developments is that they can be adapted to An EU project entitled ‘Smart Circular project is investigating options for the building
meet future environmental and social challenges. Bridge’ is showing what is possible with an material after the bridges have reached the
innovative new bio-composite based on end of their life. These include mechanical,
Read the report at www.patrickparsons. flax. The project involves the development chemical, or even biological recycling with
co.uk/wp-content/uploads/Sustainable- of three bridges using the material, the first fungi.
by-Design-Report-Web.pdf. of which has been unveiled at the Floriade ‘These materials have a great future,’
international horticulture exhibition in Almere, said project leader, Professor Rijk Blok, from
the Netherlands. TU Eindhoven. ‘In particular, the intensive
Institution news The bridge, which has a span of 15m, cooperation between science, industry and
Have you considered joining the has been developed by an international communities has given a big push to materials
consortium of 15 partners led by Eindhoven development.’
IStructE Expert Witness register?
University of Technology. The project team
The IStructE Expert Witness register helps consists of five universities, seven innovative Find out more about the project at
Chartered Members kickstart their careers as companies, and three municipalities. www.nweurope.eu/projects/project-
Expert Witnesses, by promoting their skills and As well as 100% natural flax fibres, the bio- search/smart-circular-bridge-scb-for-
specialisms to legal firms and other interested resin will also use non-fossil sources as much pedestrians-and-cyclists-in-a-circular-
parties. as possible. The proportion of bio-resin in the built-environment/.
Unlike other registers, the IStructE register first bridge is 25%, but will reach 60% or more
includes details of your specialist structural in the next two bridges. This will be achieved
engineering knowledge, helping clients and legal by using waste products from bio-diesel
professionals access the expertise they require production and recycled PET bottles.
quickly and effectively. The bridge will be systematically monitored
Successful applicants will also gain in real time. Almost 100 sensors provide
membership of The Academy of Experts (TAE), data on the material’s behaviour in everyday
with all membership benefits available for the year use. A structural health monitoring system
at no additional charge (including technical advice with optical glass fibre sensors provides
and guidance, information services and practical information on material strains, and
SMART CIRCULAR BRIDGE

assistance in relation to their work as an Expert acceleration sensors detect even the finest
Witness). vibrations caused by wind. Evaluation of data
from the sensors is carried out with the help
Find out more or express your interest at of artificial intelligence to recognise patterns
www.istructe.org/get-involved/become- in material behaviour. The data can be viewed
istructe-expert-witness/. on a dashboard at
dashboard.smartcircularbridge.eu/.
With the circular economy in mind, the
8
May 2022 | thestructuralengineer.org

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TSE.May22_009.indd 9 19/04/2022 16:58

 Feature Hybrid timber-sheathed steel-framed structures

Optimising the structural

design of modular housing
by combining timber and
lightweight steel framing
on the shear strength and stiffness
SMAIL KECHIDI provided by the screw fasteners used
PhD to fix the wood structural panels to
KTP Associate, ilke Homes Ltd, Knaresborough, UK; the CFS in such a wall system, which
and School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, UK
hinders its adoption in the UK and
Europe. Consequently, design assisted
by experimental tests and/or high-fidelity
SYNOPSIS finite element analysis (FEA) models is
recommended in such situations.
Smail Kechidi describes his research into cold- The research presented in this
formed steel (CFS)-framed shear walls sheathed in article has mainly focused on the
lateral performance of CFS-framed
timber, which won the Institution’s Research into shear walls manufactured by ilke
Practice essay competition in 2021. The research Homes Ltd. In the first instance, this
has focused on the lateral behaviour of CFS- involved characterisation of the CFS
material properties, as well as the shear
framed shear walls and the performance of the behaviour of the sheathing-to-CFS
sheathing-to-CFS screws. screws. An FEA modelling protocol was
then developed to predict the lateral
behaviour of CFS-framed shear walls,
as well as to plan and interpret physical
Introduction can be adopted to ensure lateral stability tests.
An Innovate UK-supported knowledge in building structures. They are typically Fifteen full-scale monotonic tests on
transfer partnership between modular composed of studs, tracks and noggins different shear wall configurations have
housing developer ilke Homes Ltd and to which wooden structural panels been carried out. Comparison between
the University of Leeds has achieved (such as oriented strand boards – OSB) numerical and experimental test results
major advances in the design and are screwed in order to provide shear validated the FEA modelling protocol,
manufacturability of hybrid timber- strength and stiffness to the wall system. which was shown to be accurate in
sheathed steel-framed structures. As CFS framing members are simulating the lateral behaviour of CFS-
This has been accompanied by generally made of slender cross-sections framed shear walls.
developments in warranties and (Class 4 according to the Eurocode 34 Subsequently, an assessment of
accreditation (SCI, NHBC and BOPAS). classification), the effective width method the demand-to-capacity ratio of the
The pioneering research was can be used to evaluate their axial and sheathing-to-CFS screws at different
presented at the ninth European flexural design strengths in order to take levels of lateral load served as an
Conference on Steel and Composite into account the reduction resulting optimisation tool for designing the
Structures (Eurosteel 2021)1,2 with a from local buckling effects. Practising sheathing layout and screw distribution.
paper subsequently published in Thin- engineers are therefore referred to EC3, The results obtained shed light on the
Walled Structures3. Part 1-35 for the calculation of CFS thin- feasibility of using FEA as a virtual test
These advances have enabled ilke gauge members and sheeting. bench, particularly in off-site mass
Homes to manufacture lighter, stronger However, the current European production and manufacture (DfMA),
and more cost-effective modular houses standard does not provide any guidance for the development of a new CFS-
faster and with lowered embodied framed wall system for lateral stability of
energy (Figure 1). lightweight modular houses.

Context, motivation and Approach

objectives Steel tensile tests and sheathing-to-CFS
In recent years, the use of lightweight CFS-FRAMED SHEAR WALLS screw shear tests have been carried out
cold-formed steel (CFS) profiles as CAN BE ADOPTED TO with the aim of acquiring information
structural elements in low- to mid-rise
modular construction has undergone
ENSURE LATERAL STABILITY necessary for designing CFS-framed
shear walls and developing high-fidelity
a resurgence. CFS-framed shear walls IN BUILDING STRUCTURES FEA models.

10
May 2022 | thestructuralengineer.org

Modular Housing_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 10 20/04/2022 09:34

 Hybrid timber-sheathed steel-framed structures Feature

a) Factory line b) Assembly of roof modules

c) Installation on site d) Render of completed houses

ëFIGURE 1: Modular housing by ilke Homes

| A
 series of 32 tensile tests was use of cement particleboards at the largest forces, while the screws
performed on coupons longitudinally the bottom of the shear wall as an around the openings and in the top and
cut from the webs and flanges of aboveground waterproofing measure bottom stripes of the wall experience
C-section profiles. Testing was were scrutinised. A typical shear wall forces of lower amplitude.
completed in accordance with BS configuration in the first-floor front Accordingly, the screw density
EN ISO 6892-1 (2016)6. Figure 2a facade of ilke Homes’ modular house and the sheathing board layout were
shows the BS EN ISO-dictated is shown in Fig. 2d. optimised by positioning screws in
coupon dimensions for steel sheet | O
 ptimisation of the wall materials optimal positions and making the fewest
thickness (1.6 mm) used in the tests. in terms of CFS cross-sections, cuts possible to boards, although fire
| T
 hirty-three tests on screws sheathing board cuts and the number design requirements in terms of screw
connecting sheathing boards to of sheathing-to-CFS screws was spacing had to be met as well.
CFS profiles were carried out. carried out using FEA. Figure 5a shows the failure mode in
The experiments investigated the | A
 set of design guidelines for the the shear wall represented by damage in
sheathing type and thickness, as well sheathing layout, screw distribution the OSB corners around the openings.
as the distance between the screw’s and stud cross-section dimensions A similar trend was obtained from the
longitudinal axis and the edge of the has been drafted. FEA simulation (Fig. 5b), where the grey
sheathing (i.e. the edge distance). areas in the von Mises stress contour
The test set-up as designed and Results show parts of the boards that are under
implemented in the laboratory is The lateral load-versus-displacement stresses higher than their nominal
shown in Fig. 2b. curves from monotonic tests on full-scale strength (7MPa).
| F
 orty-one FEA models of different shear walls are plotted in Figure 3 along
CFS-framed shear wall configurations with FEA results. The FEA modelling Benefits
were established in Abaqus/CAE protocol developed accurately simulates The above results have brought several
2017 (Fig. 2c). the lateral behaviour (strength and benefits and improvements to the design
| F
 ifteen CFS-framed shear walls stiffness) of the tested walls. of ilke Homes’ modules:
were designed and tested under Assessment of the shear force on | R elying on OSB-to-CFS screw shear
monotonic lateral loads (i.e. the sheathing-to-CFS screws at peak strength and stiffness to develop
wind loads). The influence of the strength of the wall (Figure 4) revealed lateral capacity in the external walls,
area, number and position of the that the screws at the vertical straight instead of K-bracing or X-strap
openings, screw spacing, and the edges of the sheathing boards endure bracing, led to a 5% reduction in steel

11
thestructuralengineer.org | May 2022

Modular Housing_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 11 20/04/2022 09:35

 Feature Hybrid timber-sheathed steel-framed structures

îFIGURE 2: Examples of research activities undertaken

a) Coupon
testing for CFS
characterisation
b) OSB-to-CFS screw shear tests

d) Full-scale shear wall test

c) FEA modelling of
CFS shear wall

THE STRENGTH AND

STIFFNESS OBTAINED ...
MADE IT POSSIBLE TO
CHANGE TO A GENERIC
DESIGN THAT COVERS
ìFIGURE 3: Plots
of measured and

80% OF ENGLAND
simulated lateral load
vs displacement

12
May 2022 | thestructuralengineer.org

Modular Housing_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 12 20/04/2022 09:35

 Hybrid timber-sheathed steel-framed structures Feature

ëFIGURE 4: Screw
force vector diagram
at peak load

a) Tested b) Numerical

ìFIGURE 5: Model deformation at peak load showing localised failure of sheathing boards

REFERENCES

per module (minimum saving of £405 have common long walls in the 1) Kechidi S., Banks N. and Iuorio O. (2021) ‘Contribution of
and a reduction in embodied energy). ground-floor module. In addition, the OSB Sheathing to Racking Capacity of Cold-Formed Steel
| T
 he strength and stiffness obtained reduction in the CP boards’ height Frames’, ce/papers, 4, pp. 393–400; https://doi.org/10.1002/
for the tested shear walls made it enabled the sheathing layout to be cepa.1308
possible to change to a generic designed with off-the-shelf OSB 2) Iuorio O., Kechidi S. and Banks N. (2021) ‘Experimental
design that covers 80% of England, dimensions, which significantly helped investigation into the performance of cold-formed steel walls
considering wind speed, distance to in reducing material waste. sheathed with OSB and cement-based panels’, ce/papers, 4,
shore and altitude above sea level. | F
 ull board layouts can be pp. 525–529; https://doi.org/10.1002/cepa.1325
| S
 heathing-to-framing screw density accommodated on the HSPL with 3) Kechidi S. and Iuorio O. (2022) ‘Numerical investigation
is now under the ‘takt time’ of an a cut at each end. Previously, these into the performance of cold-formed steel framed shear
automated high-speed panel line required trimming or packing out on walls with openings under in-plane lateral loads’, Thin-
(HSPL) – 600 screws per cycle for the HSPL bed. Walled Struct., 175, 109136; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
one pair of walls – allowing ilke’s | S
 heathing board arrangements are tws.2022.109136
production target to be reached. now common across floors and 4) British Standards Institution (2005) BS EN 1993-1-
| A
 voidance of triangular insulation house types. 1:2005+A1:2014 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures.
cuts due to the absence of K-bracing General rules and rules for buildings, London: BSI
in the external walls of the modules These improvements in design and 5) British Standards Institution (2006) BS EN 1993-1-
resulted in a significant reduction manufacturability have been reviewed 3:2006 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. General
in labour time. In addition, loose fill and accepted by consultant structural rules. Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and
insulation is enabled as well. engineers, as well as being accepted for sheeting, London: BSI
| C
 ement particle (CP) board strips warranties and accreditation by the key 6) International Organization for Standardization (2016)
have been reduced from 600mm reviewing bodies SCI, NHBC and BLP/ ISO 6892-1:2016 Metallic materials – Tensile testing – Part 1:
to 300mm, making it possible to BOPAS. Method of test at room temperature, Geneva: ISO

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 Climate emergency How to achieve a SCORS A rating

3. Lean design

How to achieve a SCORS

A rating using current
materials and technology
Muiris Moynihan takes structural engineers though a series of actions they could take to lower the
embodied carbon of projects to a SCORS A rating.

The science is now unequivocal – climate change | worries about errors (‘sleep at night’ this quickly) and then engage with the contractor
is happening, and human activities are the main factors): designers overdesign structures so to understand if/where it is beneficial to put
cause; we must act now to mitigate the worst that there is excess capacity to ameliorate any material back in.
consequences. Structures are responsible mistakes that occur in calculation, draughting,
for a significant amount of embodied carbon manufacture or installation. Challenge load allowances (10% saving)
emissions: current practice in buildings results in Imposed loads for London offices are still
upfront carbon emissions of 300–600kgCO2e/m2 While both behaviours are understandable and often set at 4+1 = 5kN/m2, whereas Eurocode
for the structure1–3. However, there are significant stem from good intentions, they add unnecessary recommends 2–3kN/m2. Research has shown
reductions that can be made using current carbon emissions. the lower values to be more than sufficient for
materials and technology if we: A more efficient approach would be to design most scenarios7 – and using them would reduce
| design more efficiently targeting 100% utilisation (using software to do carbon by 10%8.
| construct more efficiently.

We can reduce embodied CO2e by ~75% if

we implement all the initiatives outlined below,
which would mean a typical building structure
contains 123kgCO2e/m2. For a 5000m2 office
building, the reduction in carbon emissions is
1 885 000kgCO2e, equivalent to 940 years’ worth
of cutting meat, dairy and beer from your diet4.
This isn’t all the way to zero carbon (we still
need reuse and new materials to do that), and it
might not be possible to realise every saving on
a single project – but a very low carbon footprint
is possible with the technology and materials we
have right now.

Designing efficiently
We have a duty to our clients and to society to
apply our skills and abilities to make best use of
materials and design efficiently. As a profession,
we design conservatively to keep people safe;
however, there is evidence that we are over-
conservative in places in our assumptions
about loading, serviceability requirements and
appropriate utilisation.

Target high utilisation (30% saving)

Research suggests that a ~30% reduction in
material could be achieved in structural frames by
ensuring that utilisation ratios are kept as close to
100% as practicable for every element5. Evidence
JOHN STURROCK

suggests that two factors work against this6:

| rationalisation: designers routinely reduce
variation in beam selection or rebar layouts in
order to: i) reduce design/drawing/checking FIGURE 1: Modern methods of construction (precast columns, facade panels, bathroom pods, etc.)
time (hence, fee); and ii) simplify procurement can enhance quality and safety while reducing material use. Cadence building, Kings Cross pictured
and construction

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 How to achieve a SCORS A rating Climate emergency

Table 1: Estimated carbon savings as applied to typical building an estimate of the savings potential; the latter
two columns apply these reductions to a
Values for a typical building structure typical 500kgCO2e/m2 (average of sources
CO2e savings
Change 1–3) structure to show the absolute and
estimate kgCO2e/m2 % percentage values.
As can be seen, the net effect is a sizeable
None (current practice) – 500 100% 75% reduction, resulting in a typical building
structure of just 123kgCO2e/m2 – less than the
Challenge load allowances 10% 450 90%
150kgCO2e/m2 required to achieve a SCORS
A rating1. SCORS sets this target for 2030,
Reassess serviceability 25% 337 68%
but fortunately we can achieve it immediately.
Target high utilisation 30% 236 47% So, what’s stopping us?

Optimise manufacture 30% 165 33%

Muiris Moynihan
Reduce material partial factors 20% 132 27% MEng, PhD, CEng, MIStructE
Muiris is a Project Technical Leader at
Reduce waste 2% 130 26% Laing O’Rourke and Vice-Chair of the
IStructE Sustainability Panel.
Use 56-day strengths 5% 123 25%
REFERENCES

Engineers can also be overzealous when diameters, lengths and pitches to closely match
allowing for future loads: while having long- steel provision to that required, or fabricating 1) Arnold W., Cook M., Cox D., Gibbons O.
life structures is also required to minimise steel beams with variable thicknesses or depths, and Orr J. (2020) ‘Setting carbon targets: an
introduction to the proposed SCORS rating
future emissions, allowing for adaptability (e.g. reducing material by 30% in some examples10, all scheme’, The Structural Engineer, 98 (10), pp.
enabling future addition of extra members or while increasing build quality. 8–12
strengthening) can be a more resource-efficient
2) London Energy Transformation Initiative
way of achieving it9. Material partial factors (20% saving) (2020) LETI Embodied Carbon Primer [Online]
Design codes assume a traditional level of Available at: www.leti.london/ecp (Accessed:
Reassess serviceability (25% saving) workmanship and inspection in construction; in March 2022)
Serviceability limits, such as for deflection, the Eurocodes these are included in the material 3) UK Green Building Council (2015) Tackling
often govern structural design, yet too often partial factor values. Placement tolerances and embodied carbon in buildings, London:
UKGBC
are excessively conservative. Engagement with material properties (e.g. concrete strength) can
clients and the supply chain at appropriate points be more closely controlled off site, resulting in a 4) Gibbons O. and Orr J. (2020) How to
in the design process can mitigate this by: reliably more accurate construction. Eurocode calculate embodied carbon, London: IStructE
Ltd
| u nderstanding what limit is appropriate for the clauses enable this increased quality to be
end user, e.g. could span/360 deflection limits reflected in a reduction in the material partial 5) Moynihan M.C. and Allwood J.M. (2014)
‘Utilization of structural steel in buildings’,
be relaxed to span/250? Is a response factor factors11. Applying this reduction to columns Proc. R. Soc. A., 470, 20140170; https://doi.
of 4 absolutely necessary for an office floor or on a UK project resulted in a 20% reduction in org/10.1098/rspa.2014.0170
would 6 or 8 suffice? embodied carbon. 6) Orr J., Copping A., Drewniok M., Emmitt
| a djusting slab-edge deflection limits when the S. and Ibell T. (2018) MEICON: Minimising
cladding supplier is appointed and can advise Reduced waste (2% saving) Energy in Construction Survey of Structural
the specific capabilities of their system. Building products for multiple projects on a Engineering Practice Report; https://doi.
org/10.17863/CAM.35178
single production line offers the opportunity to
Furthermore, given it is a serviceability limit use offcuts from one project on the next and 7) Drewniok M and Orr J. (2018) MEICON:
Demonstrating Floor Loading Report [Online]
state, stiffness contributions from partition walls eliminate the need to over-order materials to de- Available at: www.meicon.net/floor-loading
or secondary steelwork/concrete could be added risk construction. On-site construction commonly (Accessed: March 2022)
into deflection analyses to augment the response features abortive work and rework caused 8) Hawkins W., Peters A. and Mander T.,
of the primary structure. It is estimated that by trades working in close proximity or out of (2021) ‘A weight off your mind: floor loadings
coupling these contributions with relaxing limits by sequence; by contrast, factory work typically and the climate emergency’, The Structural
30–50% could give a 25% carbon reduction. eliminates such issues. These effects can reduce Engineer, 99 (5), pp. 18–20
waste from the 5% typically seen on site4. 9) Field C. (2020) ‘Lean yet resilient – designing
Constructing efficiently for the future’, The Structural Engineer, 98 (8),
pp. 15–17
While many structures are still built in a 1950s, Using 56+ day strengths (5% saving)
in situ manner, modern methods of construction Twenty-eight-day concrete strengths are 10) Allwood J.M., Cullen J.M., Carruth
A.M. et al. (2011) Going on a metal diet
(MMC) are becoming increasingly attractive as specified; however, particularly for off-site
[Online] Available at: www.uselessgroup.org/
a way to enhance quality and safety while also manufacture, the concrete is often more mature publications/reports/wellmet-2050-going-
offering the potential to significantly reduce than this when it is loaded. Fifty-six-day strengths metal-diet (Accessed: March 2022)
material (Figure 1). Factory environments are are 15–20% higher12, and could therefore enable 11) Institution of Structural Engineers (2021)
more controlled workplaces with the potential to lower cement mixes to be used, potentially Reduced reinforcement through reduced
leverage economies of scale, while automated reducing carbon contents by ~5%. material partial factors [Online] Available
at: www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/
systems offer the ability to more closely tailor
reduced-reinforcement-material-partial-factors/
manufacturing output to design requirements. Summation (Accessed: November 2021)
Obviously, the above savings cannot be
12) British Standards Institution (2008) BS EN
Optimised manufacture (30% saving) arithmetically summed – instead, they compound 1992-1-1:2004+A1:2014 Eurocode 2: Design of
Robots can manufacture complex arrangements in the order shown in Table 1. The first two concrete structures. General rules and rules for
efficiently, e.g. changing reinforcement bar columns list the changes described above with buildings, London: BSI

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 Professional guidance CROSS report

CROSS: Basement excavation

under a semi-detached house
causes collapse
This month’s CROSS Safety Report highlights the importance of the relationship between the
permanent works engineer, the temporary works engineer, and the contractor in basement
construction, and the need for competent persons to fill these roles regardless of the size of
the overall project.

Overview inadequate underpinning and lack procedures and the permissible

During construction of a new of any horizontal restraint to the new stress design of falsework gives
basement, a semi-detached house basement walls prior to the new slab recommendations for temporary
suffered a significant collapse due to being constructed caused the collapse. structures, with practical guidelines on
inadequate temporary works during The party wall to the adjacent design, specification, construction, and
excavation of the basement. The form property was stabilised by the local the use and dismantling of falsework.
of the underpinning may have also authority. Basement temporary works should
contributed to the collapse. be designed by a suitably qualified and
Expert Panel comments experienced engineer – the Temporary
Report Basement construction is Works Engineer (TWE). Furthermore,
A reporter says that during specialist work a named person must be appointed
construction of a new basement, The lateral pressure on partly to coordinate temporary works on site
a semi-detached house suffered a constructed or completed basement
significant collapse. The collapse was walls is very significant. Groundwater
caused by inadequate temporary and/or adjacent surcharge loadings Key learning outcomes
works during excavation of the (e.g. from a highway) can add greatly
basement. The flank wall, rear wall, to the forces exerted on basement For clients and architects:
internal floors and roof as well as part walls. It seems many overlook the | Ensure temporary works engineers as well as
of the front wall all collapsed. The party fact that in basements, the floor(s) permanent works engineers are engaged
wall to the adjacent property was also have an additional role to provide | Party wall surveyors and structural engineers
damaged. Fortunately, the house was the horizontal propping between the may be required
not occupied at the time. basement walls. With basements, there | Basement construction is specialist work for
The existing walls had been is the dilemma of the project being experienced basement contractors only
underpinned with reinforced concrete stable when finished, but potentially
walls to a similar thickness as the unstable at intermediate stages. This For structural designers:
masonry walls over. The underpinning is why basement construction is | Structural designers must consider the
concrete did not, however, have any specialist high-risk work that can go construction processes required to build their
toe or other thickening at its base catastrophically wrong and should only designs and, as far as reasonably possible,
to spread load. The new basement be undertaken by suitably qualified and eliminate foreseeable risk
had been excavated but critically no experienced teams. | Information about significant residual risks (e.g.,
propping restraints had been put in the requirement for lateral restraint to basement
place to any of the surrounding walls. Basement design walls as excavation proceeds) shall be made
The basement slab had not been The permanent works designer for available to the contractor and other duty holders
started. a basement must indicate a viable
The collapse occurred following sequence for the works and detail For the construction team:
a period of heavy rainfall which may the basement walls and slab to allow | Temporary works required for basement
well have contributed to the failure. construction in stages. This design and construction must be designed and constructed
The removal of the overburden sequencing will be considered by the with the same degree of competence and quality
soil within the basement will have contracting team. as required for permanent works
lessened the soil strength under the | Basement construction is specialist work which
foundation, potentially allowing a slip Basements require considerable should only be undertaken by experienced
circle to form within the clay below the temporary works basement contractors
underpinning. The soil failure caused Temporary propping to resist ground | A Temporary Works Coordinator should be
the underpinned flank wall to drop and forces is essential during basement appointed
rotate significantly. construction. BS 5975:2019 Code
The reporter considered that the of practice for temporary works

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 CROSS report Professional guidance

What is CROSS?
BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION
IS SPECIALIST HIGH-RISK Collaborative Reporting for Safer Structures

WORK THAT CAN GO (CROSS) helps professionals to make structures

safer by publishing safety information based on
CATASTROPHICALLY WRONG the reports it receives and information in the public
domain.
CROSS operates internationally in the UK,
– the Temporary Works Coordinator Toolkit Part 2 covering CDM 2015 and US, and Australasia. All regions cover structural
(TWC). This may be a dedicated the responsibilities of permanent works safety, while CROSS-UK also covers fire safety.
person on larger sites, or the site designers with regard to temporary
manager or another manager on works. The Temporary Works forum
smaller sites. Both the TWE and TWC has guidance including Information
must be competent in basement Sheet No 6: The safe management of
construction. Regardless of project temporary works: The basics for small
size, these roles need fulfilling. and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
In planning for construction, there All temporary works should strictly
should be discussions between the follow BS 5975. The Health and Safety
designer of the permanent works, Executive has produced a summary
the TWE, the TWC, the Principal guide for Domestic basement
Contractor and any specialist construction projects following the
contractors to ensure that appropriate principles in BS 5975:
designs and sequences are in place | Ensure a suitably competent TWE is
before work starts. in place to confirm safe and secure
construction processes taking
The CDM Regulations 2015 account of all the forces acting.
It is critically important to understand | Ensure adequate information
that temporary works designers flow between permanent
have the same designers’ duties works designers, the TWE and
as permanent works designers as contractors.
confirmed within the Construction | Ensure the permanent works and
(Design and Management) temporary works designs are
Regulations 2015 (CDM 2015). The checked and complement one
regulations also require the Principal another.
Designer to take reasonable steps | Ensure verification of correct
to ensure cooperation between all erection of the temporary works How reporting to CROSS
designers, including to confirm that and a TWC overseeing and works
permanent and temporary works monitoring the whole process. The secure and confidential
designs are compatible. The Principal safety reporting system allows
Designer’s role continues into the Projects affecting party walls professionals to share their
construction phase when design Where projects impact party walls, experiences to help others.
work is carried out. On a design- party wall surveyors and structural Professionals can submit
and-build (D&B) project it will be engineers should ensure the design reports on safety issues
common for the D&B contractor to be (both permanent and temporary) and related to buildings and
appointed as both Principal Designer construction method statements are other structures in the built
and Principal Contractor. properly reviewed. environment. Reports typically
relate to concerns, near
Basement construction guidance Get appropriate expertise misses or incidents. Find out
Significant guidance is available Whichever approach is followed, more, including how to submit
(some of which is aimed at domestic- there should be clear evidence that a safety report, at https://bit.
scale projects) to help all parties, appropriate temporary works expertise ly/cross-safety. Your report will
including clients. The Association of has been engaged and basement make a difference.
Specialist Underpinning Contractors failures, such as reported, won’t follow.
has an excellent guide on Safe and
efficient basement construction The full report, including links to
which provides a significant body guidance mentioned, is available on
of practical guidance for clients, the CROSS website (report ID: 1063)
designers, engineers and others. at www.cross-safety.org/uk/safety-
The Institution of Structural information/cross-safety-report/
Engineers has published concise basement-excavation-under-semi-
guidance in its Temporary Works detached-house-causes-1063/.

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 Technical Concrete-encased steel frames

Concrete-encased are left with partially enhanced steel structures

which are difficult to assess and harder to justify
to modern standards3.

steel frames, 1900–

Regardless, the practice of encasing steel
within concrete became widespread throughout
the UK, especially for multistorey commercial

70: considerations in
buildings. While no comprehensive study has ever
been undertaken to quantify these structures, the
inclusion of encased sections within contemporary
literature produced by steel manufacturers is

their assessment and

indicative of their prevalence. As such, a plethora
of examples have been identified across Bristol
(Figure 1), Cardiff, Glasgow, Manchester and,

refurbishment
especially, London.

Effect of encasement on frame

design and stability
Initially, concrete-encased steel structures were
designed considering the steel supported all
SYNOPSIS loads without any assistance from the casing,
neither strength nor stiffness. When analysing
In Britain, little attention has been paid to the influence steel frames, the prevailing assumption was that
of the concrete encasement on the performance of vertical loads were transferred from beams to
columns via pinned connections, irrespective of
historic steel-framed buildings, nor how their details may the fixity offered by typical connections (Figure
influence their refurbishment. This paper aims to provide 2). The only moment transferred into the column
resulted from the eccentricity of the connection.
some guidance on their unusual characteristics, which Under horizontal loading (wind), however, it
require careful consideration when assessing and was customary to assume rigid connections,
modifying these structures. sometimes with mid-span pins4.
This diametrically opposed philosophy was
justified on the grounds of design simplicity
NICHOLAS A BILL was to encase the steel within either masonry or and the belief that the actual stresses induced
BE(Hons)(Melb), PhD(Cantab), CEng, MICE terracotta tiles, packed tightly around the section. by wind loads were not excessive for low-
Senior Lecturer, Cardiff University, UK This practice was difficult and often flawed, failing rise buildings. Moreover, if service moments
to fully protect the steel from fire1 and water deviated from those calculated through elastic
ingress, with the latter leading to a problem known analysis, it was thought plastic redistribution
Introduction as Regent Street Disease (Box 1). could occur and, therefore, the structure would
Steel-framed buildings, whereby loads Encasing the steel within concrete solved both have adequate strength to resist the resulting
are entirely supported by the frame, were problems and, soon, engineers were exploring redistributed moments.
introduced into Britain c.1890. Early designs the structural benefits. However, building Known as ‘simple design’ this approach
were heavily influenced by developments in the regulations were slow to evolve, hindering was still permitted in the latest revisions of BS
USA, which were themselves based upon earlier further development. Moreover, construction 449, subject to certain restrictions, which later
British ‘fireproof’ mills built using iron breams professionals typically viewed steel and concrete included the provision of column encasement5.
and columns, together with masonry floors. as competing forms, rather than complementary2. Research instigated by the Department
Experience demonstrated that structural What should have developed were fully of Scientific and Industrial Research sought
steel elements exposed to heat from fires were fledged steel–concrete composite structures, to address problems faced in design, with
vulnerable to premature failure. One solution with supporting design standards. Instead, we the view of producing more cost-effective

Box 1. What is Regent Street Disease?

Regent Street Disease (also known

as Deansgate Disorder) is a condition
that affects early-20th-century steel-
framed, masonry-clad buildings.
Water penetrating the facade
can lead to corrosion of the steel
members. When metal corrodes, it
undergoes a volumetric expansion
of between seven and 10 times
its original volume. Consequently,
relatively low levels of metal corrosion
can cause large tensile forces within FIGURE 1: Concrete-
the masonry, resulting in cracking and encased steel-framed
displacement of the cladding without building on Bristol
waterfront – 1950s
structurally significant section loss. construction on left,
later extension on right

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 Concrete-encased steel frames Technical

connections.
FIGURE 2: Typical beam-to-column connections before 1970
Batho and Lash further investigated the
effects of encasement on semi-rigid connections,
finding that the strength and stiffness of various
specimens were enhanced until the concrete
in tension cracked (Figure 3)7. The improved
behaviour was dependent upon the arrangement
of reinforcement within the encasement.
However, the cases without reinforcement
were also found to have significant improvements.
In these cases, local passive stresses develop
within the encasement surrounding the flange
and web cleats, creating a confining effect.
Hence, the flexure of the cleats is reduced and
therefore the rotation of the beam, resulting in a
higher yielding moment (Figures 3 and 4). Once
cracks form in the concrete encasement, the
effects of confinement reduce (especially around
the top cleat) and the curve roughly follows that of
the bare steel specimen.
Batho and Lash’s conclusions concurred
with Baker. They recommended that for beam
design, the increase in restraining moments
provided by the encasement should be ignored.
However, for column design, stiffening should
FIGURE 3: Moment-angle curves for encased connections be considered to calculate the worst-case
actions.
The extent to which the stiffening effects
of the encasement were subsequently
considered in analysis is difficult to determine,
as the approach is absent from contemporary
textbooks. Indeed, when presenting the design
of the Red Road Towers of Glasgow (1967),
then Europe’s tallest residential buildings,
McClusky noted that the determination of such
properties had been the subject of argument for
years8, indicative of a varied design approach.
Moreover, the author has encountered buildings
REPRODUCED AND ADAPTED FROM BATHO AND LASH, 1936

where the arrangement of walls alone would

be inadequate to resist lateral stability and yet
those buildings have stood without any signs of
distress for over 50 years. Therefore, they must
be reliant upon frame action generated through
the encased semi-rigid connections.
In general, it is important to note that different
codes of practice, such as BS 449 and BS
5950, permitted designers to choose between
a variety of design methods, all of which were
valid. Therefore, if an existing structure is
analysed using a different method from the
original design, then the calculated actions will
be different.
Steel frames designed through the simple
design but subsequently re-assessed
using rigid elastic analysis may exhibit
an underutilisation of their beams but an
overutilisation of their columns, together with an
overstress of the beam–column connections in
structures. In 1936, the publication of the walls) could not be ignored, finding that bending.
Final Report of the Steel Structures Research column moments in actual buildings could be In the absence of the original calculations,
Committee presented its findings, which were underestimated by a factor greater than 26. This it therefore seems appropriate to carry out
based upon experiments carried out on sub- stemmed not only from an underestimation an analysis using several methods, with a
frames in laboratories, on full-scale frames of the member stiffness, but the behaviour of comparison of results providing an indication
and on real building projects. Crucially, the the connections. Baker demonstrated that for of the original design utilisation. When using
research explored the effects of encasement vertical loading, moments observed in bare steel computer-based finite element packages, the
on members, connections and overall frame columns followed closely to those calculated model input should consider the appropriate
performance. for frames with semi-rigid connections6. The stiffness properties of the encased members
Baker concluded that the stiffening effect effect of encasement saw the rigidity of semi- in conjunction with joint stiffness to arrive at a
of ‘clothing’ (slabs, casing and external rigid connections approach that of fully-fixed correct distribution of forces.

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 Technical Concrete-encased steel frames

Table 1: Material properties and requirements of encasement

Year Code/ Permissible/working stress Requirements for encasement

standard (excluding wind)
Bending Comp. Concrete Reinforcement Steel
N/mm² N/mm²
(T/sq.in.) (T/sq.in.)
1909 London C.C. Act 116 (7.5) 116 (7.5) Casing to be at least 4in. None stipulated One coat of Portland
wider than flanges and cement wash of adequate
provide 2in. cover consistency applied after
erection (in lieu of coats of
4in. for external walls oil tar or paint)

‘Incombustible’
1930 London C.C. Act 116 (7.5) 116 (7.5) As previous As previous As previous
1939 London C.C. Act 124 (8) 124 (8) As previous As previous As previous
1948 BS 449:1948 154 (10) 139 (9) 1:2:4 mix and adequately 4.76mm (3/16in.) dia. I-section with single web
reinforced by binding or bars in the form of
stirrups stirrups or binding at
not more than 6in.
Casing to be at least 4in. (152.4mm) pitch, and
wider than flanges and so arranged as to pass
provide 2in. cover through the centre of the
covering to the edges
and soffit of the lower
flange
1959 BS 449:1959 162 (10.5) 147 (9.5) 1:2:4 mix As previous I-section with single web

(Combined BS 154 (10) 139 (9) 9.53mm (3/8in.) aggregate C-section back-to-back,
449 and CP113) t>19mm t>19mm not more than 1½in. apart
Works strength >20.68MPa
(3000lb/sq.in.) at 28 days Steel to be unpainted

Casing to be at least Flanges to be equal size

4in. wider than flanges
providing 2in. cover
1959 BS 449-1 162 (10.5) 147 (9.5) As previous As previous As previous
Supplement No.
1:1959 154 (10) 139 (9)
t>19mm t>38mm
1961 BS 449-1 162 (10.5) 147 (9.5) As previous As previous As previous
Addendum No.
1:1961 154 (10) 139 (9)
t>19mm t>38mm
1964 BS 449:1959 162 (10.5) 147 (9.5), As previous As previous As previous
Amendment No.
4, BSI, London, 154 (10) 139 (9)
31 January 1964 t>19mm t>38mm
1969 BS 449-2:1969 165 155 ‘Ordinary dense concrete’ 5mm dia. bars in the Steel to be unpainted
form of stirrups or
[Metric units] 40 t>40mm 10mm aggregate binding at not more Flanges to be equal size
than 200mm pitch, and
so arranged as to pass
Works strength >21MPa at Columns to be fully
through the centre of the
28 days encased to apply semi-
covering to the edges rigid design
and soffit of the lower
Casing to be at least flange
100mm wider than flanges
and provide 2in. cover Fabric could be used as
an alternative

Materials used in construction more than 40mm apart) were considered by such measurements rarely identify the correct
Steel frame members: sizes and steel British codes to be enhanced structurally. section. The only certain way to determine the
quality Approximate sizes of the steel members can section is to locally break out the encasement
Practically any section could be encased for fire be cautiously deduced from measurements and take measurements of the steel.
purposes, but only single I-sections (including of the encasement. However, considering the With these structures typically appearing
those with additional riveted flange plates) and encasement can be oversized and compound after 1900, rolled sections should conform to
twin channel sections (fixed back-to-back, no sections were commonly used for columns, standard sizes. Most can be identified in the

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 Concrete-encased steel frames Technical

by the wartime emergency amendment to

BS 449:193911. It should also be noted that
minimum yield strength was not specified before
BS 15:1948.
When assessing existing structures, it is
important be aware of all of these changes.
Moreover, care needs to be taken with
structures erected c.1940, as the exigencies of
World War II also forced emergency standards
relating to steel production. Limitations imposed
upon the quantity of the different elements of
steel were altered, resulting in changes to the
mechanical properties12.
FIGURE 4: Development of plastic hinge in typical semi-rigid beam-to-column connection (left); Development of local
stresses as encasement confines connection (middle); Reduction in confinement stresses as encasement cracks (right)
Properties of concrete encasement and
reinforcement
Buildings before 1936, which neglected any
contribution to strength and stiffness, used low-
strength concrete. The weakest mix permitted
for construction under the London Building Act,
not specifically for encasement, was a 1:12
plain concrete of crushing strength not less than
370lb/sq.in. (2.55N/mm2) at 28 days. As codes of
practice developed to include the contribution of
the concrete, requirements were placed upon the
REPRODUCED AND ADAPTED FROM BSCA, 1965

type of mix to be used, as summarised in Table 1.

Tests carried out on samples of existing
structures reveal considerable variation in
properties. In one structure in Bristol (erected
c.1950 and extended c.1970), samples from
beams provided cube strengths of between
17.2N/mm2 and 38.2N/mm2. The sampling
suggests that the encasement was applied
universally for fire protection, but not always for
enhancing the structural properties of the frame.
Table 1 also outlines the requirements on
reinforcement. Enhanced columns would normally
FIGURE 5: Common precast floor systems used for concrete-encased steel frames have at least 4No. longitudinal bars of at least
3/16in. (4.76mm) diameter, with shear links. Fabric
mesh was also permitted, especially for beams.
When assessing these structures, appropriate
Historical Structural Steelwork Handbook9, and disruptive break-out work followed by representative sampling is needed, while
which provides tables with sectional properties destructive forms of testing. considering other indicators, such as paint and
for most British and some European steel. Alternatively, properties can be approximated, reinforcement, to determine if the steel was
Additional section types are recorded in based upon the building’s age and the intended to be enhanced by the casing.
technical literature published by manufacturers corresponding design standard appropriate
Dorman Long and Co., Redpath, Brown and for the day. These buildings pre-date the Capacity of members
Co., and others. These publications also provide introduction of limit state design (c.1980) and BS EN 1994 permits designers to consider the
data for encased sections as a unit, from the instead adhere to the principles of permissible, effect of concrete encasement through composite
1930s onwards. or working stress design. Assuming linear elastic design. It defines a composite member as a
Difficulty in matching survey measurements behaviour, the ultimate strength of concrete structural member with components of concrete
with standard-sections may indicate the and the yield strength (or 0.2% proof stress) of and of structural steel, interconnected by shear
presence of US steel, used throughout Britain steel are divided by factors of safety to obtain connection so as to limit the longitudinal slip
c.1900–40*. US steel mills produced sections permissible stresses within the material. between concrete and steel and the separation
with similar but often different dimensions and These factors were supposed to take into of one component from the other.
mechanical properties. account uncertainties in manufacturing of Before 1948, the shear connection was
The mechanical properties can be determined materials, but did not consider phenomena limited to the friction generated between the
directly from material testing, with appropriate such as shrinkage and creep, which are time- encasement and the steel, which may be
representative sampling. Testing should also dependent and plastic in nature. Although compromised by the application of oils and paint.
provide details on the chemical composition, simple and reliable, this method pays little Compound sections may achieve a greater shear
used to determine weldability. However, attention to the actual conditions at the point of connection via interaction between the concrete
references should first be made to published failure and can yield uneconomical sections. and the rivet heads. However, neither are
data before embarking upon expensive Table 1 includes the stress limits for steel considered sufficient under BS EN 1994.
members corresponding to the changing After 1948, more onerous requirements were
*Concerns regarding US steel manufacturers undercutting requirements for encasement. A more detailed placed upon the detailing (Table 1). Encased
British suppliers and flooding British markets were discussed chronical summary was presented by Beal, which beams featured stirrups attached to the steel web,
at the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1902 (see Molesworth, includes the design stresses recommended while encased columns typically had a light cage
190210). A prime example is the Bristol Tramway Generator
Building, which was erected from prefabricated units by the by the Institution of Structural Engineers in consisting of 4No. longitudinal bars and stirrups.
Ritter-Conley Manufacturing Co. of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 1927, BS 449:1932 and the stresses permitted Although they align in principle to the

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 Technical Concrete-encased steel frames

stiffness deteriorated continually, leading to

spalling of concrete in the compression zone,
followed immediately with buckling between
ties of the longitudinal reinforcement bar at the
compression corner, thus reducing the column to
a mechanism. Transverse cracking was observed
across the encasement of the specimens,
propagating from the side under tension.

Influence of concrete encasement on beam

capacity
BS 449:1935 first provided for the stiffening
effects of the encasement on the steel core, in
a similar way that columns were later assessed,
by reducing the calculated slenderness of the
compression flange. Regulations, including
FIGURE 6: Bearing support detail for precast planks the London Building Act (1939), capped the
permissible extreme fibre stresses at 8 tons/
sq.in. (124N/mm2), for all beams with full lateral
restraint. Beams which had their compression
requirements of BS EN 1994, they typically calculated for the gross area of the encasement flanges embedded within the floor slab were
fall short when considering the required was permitted to equal that of 1/30th of the considered to be full restrained; experience has
dimensions, ratios, etc. Moreover, owing to the calculated permissible compressive stress in demonstrated that sectional capacity in bending
interdependence of Eurocodes, BS EN 1994 the steel. Any cover in excess of 3in. (76.2mm) usually governs compared to buckling.
demands that the assumptions on which both was ignored. No provision, however, was made This follows anecdotal evidence noting that
BS EN 1992 and BS EN 1993 are based are for the casing to provide additional moment it was common practice to ignore increases in
also satisfied. These include the assumptions capacity. Moments caused by eccentric loading stiffness and strength resulting from the concrete
regarding material properties and section or other causes were deemed to be resisted by encasement. Essentially, enhancements were
classification. Given these were derived for the steel core alone. only beneficial for isolated beams, such as lintels,
modern materials and workmanship practices, it Further research carried out in the 1960s or where beam end fixity is considered such that
would be inappropriate to apply BS EN 1994 in demonstrated that these additional measures the bottom flange is in compression.
its current form. still produced conservative results15,16. Yet The experimental work by Batho, Lash and
Determining the original capacity based regulations were not substantially updated prior Kirkham determined that the failure mechanism
upon historic codes of practice provides an to full-composite sections. BS 5950-1:1990 of fully encased beams was dependent
understanding of any reserve strength that could finally permitted the designer to consider the upon the measures taken to anchor the steel
be utilised in a refurbishment. effect of the encasement on moment capacity, to the concrete. Where no special means
but only in terms of resistance to buckling. The were adopted, bond stresses up to 60lb/
Influence of concrete encasement on sectional capacity was based entirely on the sq.in. (414kPa) were achieved. Failure was
column capacity steel core. accompanied by the opening of diagonal cracks
The first British investigation on the influence Tests carried out by Virdi and Dowling in the encasement outside the loading points,
of encasement upon column capacity was c.1973 provide details on how encased following patterns observed in similarly loaded
instigated in 1914; however, the outbreak of H-section columns failed under axial load and reinforced concrete beams. These diagonal
war delayed testing until c.1922. Reporting biaxial bending17. Failure began with yielding cracks were delayed until failure was almost
on the results, John Mitchell Moncrieff in the compression tip of the steel H-section, reached, characterised by crushing in the
(1865–1931) noted that the concrete provided followed by the steel flange at the opposite compression zone18.
considerable assistance to the bare steel corner (tensile zone) reaching yield. Column Despite later experimental work, with the
in supporting concentric axial load. Despite
these observations, over 25 years would pass
before regulations considered even a modest
assistance from the concrete casing13.
BS 449:1948 eventually provided for the
stiffening effects of the encasement on the
steel core, by modifying the radius of gyration
(r = 0.2(b + 4in.), minor axis only) for the steel
section, before applying the Perry–Robertson
formula to determine the capacity. This process
allowed higher stresses in the steel (up to a
maximum of 1.5 times that of the bare section),
corresponding to an enhanced resistance to
buckling. To achieve this increase, modest
conditions were placed on the characteristics of
the encasement (Table 1).
Following research conducted in the 1950s14,
BS 449:1959 introduced further measures. With
additional conditions placed upon the casing,
a maximum stress of two times that of the bare FIGURE 7: Local
breakout of primary beam
section could now be considered, together encasement to connect
with the ability of the encasement to carry a new secondary beams
portion of axial load. For mild steel, the stress

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 Concrete-encased steel frames Technical

insulating properties. This was attributed to the

aggregates’ coefficient of thermal expansion.
During the course of a fire test, the
mechanical properties of the steel section and
the concrete encasement are altered by the
high temperature. Moreover, internal stresses
are generated by temperature gradients
across the column. The surface temperature
of the encasement rises rapidly, while the
temperature of the steel section increases
slowly, with respect to the thickness and type
of encasement, until failure occurs at range of
between 540° and 674°C.
Malhotra and Stevens concluded that the
induced stresses rendered the majority of the
concrete encasement incapable of carrying load
after a short exposure to the heating conditions
and, therefore, proposed a reduced ultimate
strength criterion for a fire event, placing greater
emphasis on the steel22.
Subsequent comments in the discussion to
FIGURE 8: Partial breakout of column encasement exposing rivet heads (left); Attempts to site-weld bracket to Malhotra and Stevens’ paper seize upon this
column using packer plates (right) latter observation. Some saw it as grounds for
replacing encasement with alternative means of
fire protection, such as asbestos or vermiculite,
exception of filler-joist floors and encased consider the actual fire-resistance of materials while others point to similar experiments on
grillages used for foundations, there were no as determined under test20. unprotected frames, suggesting that the
subsequent provisions within codes permitting Following WWII, the findings from testing presence of encasement would help limit the
the encasement to carry a portion of the beam were published by the Joint Committee on Fire failure under lateral torsional buckling observed
load, prior to the introduction of fully composite Grading of Buildings. It concluded that members in those specimens23.
members. encased within 4in. (101.6mm) of concrete, Over time, it would appear that the former
There were benefits with regards to shear not leaner than a 1:2:4 mix and reinforced with view prevailed, as these alternatives were seen
capacity. Safe load tables produced by the steel mesh or wire, were afforded a six-hour fire as quicker and cheaper options24, which saw
British Constructional Steelwork Association rating. Similarly, 2½in. (63.5mm) of encasement the practice of encasing steel frames die out.
(BCSA) were based upon the assumption provided four hours, 2in. (50.8mm) two hours
that the web was stiffened throughout its and 1in. (25.4mm) one hour21. Peculiar building details
length, using a higher permissible stress19. Mesh reinforcement considered suitable for Support for slabs
The possibility of this benefit needs due protection was 6in. (152.4mm) by 4in. (101.6mm) Numerous forms were developed prior to the
consideration when planning to remove mesh 13 Standard Wire Gauge (SWG) wire. practice of concrete encasement, which used
the encasement or core through for service Alternatively, wire reinforcement could consist masonry or tiles. Early metal deck forms were
openings. of 1/8in (3.2mm) to 13 SWG. iron wire loosely also developed, involving arched-corrugated
Early BCSA publications also reveal a bound round the steel at 4in. (101.6mm) to 6in. iron sheets. The most common form was
practical difficulty when assessing beams for (152.4mm) pitch. These requirements were less the filler-joist floor, until precast beams or
future use. Deflection was not considered a onerous than those of BS 449:1948 (Table 1). planks were adopted. The BCSA publication
limiting factor in determining safe loads for These early experiments were based upon Prefabricated Floors for Use in Steel Frame
sections, partly because there was no precise the assumption that the concrete encasement Buildings demonstrates a plethora of types
and generally accepted method for calculations. acted only as an insulating material, slowing the produced by 56 different manufacturers c.196525.
Batho, Lash and Kirkham determined that transfer of heat to the steel member, in a similar Typical examples for encased-steel frames are
the encasement significantly reduces the initial fashion to present-day intumescent paint. After reproduced in Figure 5.
deflections but is highly dependent on the bond the revised BS 449:1959 permitted the concrete A common feature of these systems, which is
generated between the steel and the concrete18. to resist part of the design axial load, a joint not obvious from a visual inspection, is the use
Under sustained loading, the effects of cracking, investigation between the Building Research of the encasement as a bearing support for the
shrinkage and creep increase deflections, in a Station and the Fire Research Station was slab, transferring the load to the lower flange of
similar manner to reinforced concrete beams. launched c.1964 to investigate the effects of the steel beam. Grout between the precast units
Engineers may now face a scenario where fire upon the composite section. Their findings and the steel locks the slab in place, creating a
deflection may govern design, such as beams were summarised by Malhotra and Stevens, sufficient diaphragm for redistributing lateral loads
supporting new cladding. With an unknown who provided details on how encased columns and provides full lateral restraint to the beam.
load history, it may be practically impossible to actually performed when exposed to fire22. Difficulties arise if there is a need to remove
accurately predict deflections. Column specimens formed with gravel the encasement, such as to connect new
aggregate concrete suffered physical disruption, members to the encased steel member. Not
Fire performance and such as cracking and spalling, which increased only is temporary support required for the slabs
requirements with time of exposure to high temperatures. (Figure 6), but lateral restraint is compromised.
The London Building Act (1894) considered However, reinforcement detailed in accordance Similarly, removing slabs on one side to create a
concrete to be a ‘fire-resisting material’. with BS 449:1959 was sufficient to ensure floor opening can compromise restraint and may
However, there were no specific requirements integrity of the concrete, enabling it to continue introduce torsion on the beam, for which fabric
other than it was to be composed of broken providing insulation to the steel. In contrast, reinforcement is insufficient.
brick tile, stone chippings, ballast pumice or lightweight aggregate concretes saw the Hence, slabs are rarely tied down vertically
coke breeze, and lime cement or calcined development of only fine surface cracks or horizontally. This presents a challenge if the
gypsum. The Act was updated in 1939 to and slight damage, hence fully utilising the building must comply with modern standards

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 Technical Concrete-encased steel frames

regarding disproportionate collapse, notably

where there is a material change in use of
the building. For Class 1 and 2A buildings, as
defined in the Building Regulations, it may be
argued that the existing floors are tied by both
friction and embedment. For Class 2B buildings,
ties are required from the slabs to the frame
members. Hence, these floors should not be
considered to satisfy current regulations without
further investigation.
Engineers should also consider the arching
behaviour of slabs, especially in cases where
the reinforcement is absent or limited. Hence,
creating openings or other discontinuities may FIGURE 9: Core
drilling through
have detrimental effects. beam webs. Bottom:
Indicates where
Fixing to encased members excessive cover
resulted in damage
Resin anchors offer a practical solution but require to lower flange
careful consideration. Design data produced necessitating repair
by manufacturers is typically based upon
concrete with an fck,cube ≥ 25N/mm2, greater than
encasement requirements (Table 1). Moreover, plates or compound sections are encountered. been oversized and the lower flange of the
the geometry is unlikely to satisfy the minimum Some contractors report difficulty in making steel beam is located higher than expected
edge distance requirements. small-diameter holes through the encasement. (Figure 9). Hence, pilot holes should be
Where there is a temptation to justify fixings These concerns need to be considered ahead considered to establish the amount of cover.
with standard pull-out tests, it should be noted of the main works.
that these tests consider local shear failure of a Fixing directly to the steel member by locally Conclusions
single cone of concrete (from the tip of the bolt breaking out the encasement may require In summary, any assessment of concrete-
to the surface of the concrete) and, crucially, temporary support (Figures 6 and 7). This is encased steel frames requires a thorough
do not test for block shear failure or cone difficult, time-consuming work that should be understanding of the materials used and
interaction. Given the limited reinforcement, properly factored into the programme. Once the knowledge of design practices at the time
there is a risk that block shear failure leads to steel is exposed, similar challenges to fixing to of their construction. Current British guidance
concrete being pulled off the steel member. This other historic frames remain, including weldability, consists of sporadic references within
failure mechanism is particularly relevant with hindrance of any rivet heads, and tapered flanges texts focusing on historic steel frames.
continuous fixings, such as balustrades and (Figure 8). Typically, these point to the role of encasement
cladding fixings. in fire protection and neglect its influence
Drilling through both the encasement and Service penetrations on the structural behaviour of the frame.
steel section is preferential, where possible. Limited floor-to-floor heights can necessitate core Furthermore, specific building details require
This may be easier to achieve with beams than drilling through beam webs to provide routes for careful consideration before any works
columns, especially where additional riveted services. Danger lies where the encasement has are carried out.

REFERENCES

1) Humphrey R.L. (1912) ‘Fireproofing’, Transactions 9) British Constructional Steelwork Association 18) Batho C., Lash S.D. and Kirkham R.H.H. (1939)
and Notes of The Concrete Institute, 4 (3), pp. 316–396 (1991) Historical Structural Steelwork Handbook, ‘The properties of composite beams, consisting of
London: BCSA steel joists encased in concrete, under direct and
2) Andrews E.S. (1924) ‘Structural steelwork
sustained loading’, J. ICE, 11 (4), pp. 61–114
reinforced with concrete’, The Structural Engineer, 2 10) Molesworth H.R. (1902) ‘American workshop
(7), pp. 290–291 methods in steel construction’, Min. Proc. ICE, 19) British Constructional Steelwork Association
148, pp. 58–74 (1950) Safe Load Tables, London: BSCA
3) Institution of Structural Engineers (1964) Report
on composite construction in structural steel and 11) Beal A.N. (2011) ‘A history of the safety 20) Wilson H.C. (1939) Building Design and
concrete, London: IStructE factors’, The Structural Engineer, 89 (2), pp. 20–26 Construction, London
4) Bussell M. (1997) P138: Appraisal of existing 12) BCSA, Historical Structural Steelwork 21) Joint Committee on Fire Grading of Buildings
iron and steel structures, Ascot: Steel Construction Handbook, pp. 9–10 (1946) Post-War Buildings Studies No. 20. Fire
Institute, p. 44 Grading of Buildings. Part 1: General Principles
13) Results published in 1924 by Redpath, Brown
and Structural Precautions, London: HMSO
5) British Standards Institution (1969) BS 449-2:1969 & Co. In: BCSA, Historical Structural Steelwork
The use of structural steel in building, London: BSI Handbook, p. 73. 22) Malhotra H.L. and Stevens R.F. (1964) ‘Fire
resistance of encased steel stanchions’, Proc. ICE,
6) Baker J.F. (1936) ‘The rational design of steel 14) Faber O. (1956) ‘Savings to be effected by
27 (1), pp. 77–98
building frames’, J. ICE, 3 (7), pp. 127–210 the more rational design of cased stanchions as
a result of recent full-size tests’, The Structural 23) Malhotra H.L., Stevens R.F., Creasy L.R. et al.
7) Batho C. and Lash S.D. (1936) Further
Engineer, 34 (3), pp. 88–109 (1964) ‘Discussion. Fire resistance of encased steel
investigations on beam and stanchion connections
stanchions’, Proc. ICE, 29 (2), pp. 446–459
encased in concrete. Together with laboratory 15) Jones R. and Rizk A.A. (1963) ‘An investigation
investigation on a full-scale steel frame, Final Report, on the behaviour of encased steel columns under 24) Bailey C.G. and Newman G.M. (1998) ‘The
Steel Structures Research Committee, Department load’, The Structural Engineer, 41 (1), pp. 21–33 design of steel framed buildings without applied
of Scientific and industrial Research, London: HMSO, fire protection’, The Structural Engineer, 76 (5), pp.
16) Stevens R.F. (1965) ‘Encased stanchions’, The
pp. 276–363 77–81
Structural Engineer, 43 (2), pp. 59–66
8) McClusky H. (1967) ‘Thirty-one-storey flats in 25) British Constructional Steelwork Association
17) Virdi K.S. and Dowling P.J. (1973) ‘The ultimate
structural steelwork’, The Structural Engineer, 45 (3), (1965) Prefabricated Floors for Use in Steel Frame
strength of composite columns in biaxial bending’,
pp. 111–130 Buildings, Publication No. M2.1964, London: BCSA
Proc. ICE, 55 (1), pp. 251–272

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 The arguments for
Lap lengths sized for poor Casing widths fabricated in
bond conditions as per EC2 any increment up to
requirements (parameters 480mm and any individual
checked on job by job basis) length up to 2.40m (to suit
reinforcement design) ‘non-standard’ are
set in concrete.
Grade B500C high-ductility Anchorage depths sized to
reinforcement, ‘slow’ fabricated enable interaction with main
for accuracy and to reduce the reinforcement in wall (main FERBOX® bespoke reinforcement continuity system
effects of cold-working reinforcement not shown) is designed to maintain structural continuity across
construction joints in reinforced concrete structures.
It enables safe, rapid and reliable connections.

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optimum efficiencies for concrete construction by:

■ Satisfying design requirements

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So in practice, good practice won’t cost more.

Individual casing lengths Weatherproof and

(used in combination) are tearproof labelling system
fabricated to suit joint uniquely identies exact
lengths; so no cutting on positioning of FERBOX
site (safer and less wastage) within the structure
®

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TSE.May22_025.indd 25 19/04/2022 16:59

 Project focus Compton and Edrich stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground

Design and construction

of the Compton and Edrich
stands, Lord’s Cricket
Ground redevelopment
SYNOPSIS
This paper describes the key design and construction
challenges of the Compton and Edrich stands – two
striking additions to Lord’s Cricket Ground in London.
The new stands increase the capacity of the ground and
bring new sponsor boxes and other modern facilities.
The design includes steel moment frames and a steel-
framed canopy, with a secondary timber beam network,
partially covering the stands. The varying geometry
of the stands required complex steelwork fabrication.
Construction challenges included the programme
constraints of working around the cricket seasons, and
the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic around six months
after work began on site.

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 Compton and Edrich stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground Project focus

Project credits
Client Marylebone Cricket Club
Architect: WilkinsonEyre
Structural, building services, Buro Happold
fire and ground engineering;
Acoustics; Energy consulting;
People movement; Sustainability;
Transport and mobility; Technology;
Waste management and logistics:
Main contractor: ISG
Steelwork contractor (steelwork Severfield
connection design, detailing,
fabrication, supply, erection,
installation of metal decking, steel
stairs and precast seating units):
Demolition subcontractor: J Coffeys
Piling: Frankie
Groundwork: J Coffeys
Membrane supplier: ArchitenLandrell

Project manager: Gardiner & Theobald

Quantity surveyor: Arcadis
Planning consultant: DP9

CLARE ADAMS/MCC

FIGURE 1: View of Lord’s

Cricket Ground looking
west from Pavilion side
of Ground and showing
new Compton and Edrich
stands. Test Match,
England vs India

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Project focus Compton and Edrich stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground

FERGUS McCORMICK beverage concessions, two new restaurants, ground level, with the outer perimeter of the
MSt, MSc, MA, CEng, FIStructE, FICE new washrooms and a high-level connecting stands conceived as a lighter colonnade with
Partner, Buro Happold, Bath, UK walkway for improved crowd circulation. slim columns. The structural framing of each
In contrast to the previous stands, the top stand developed to a moment frame solution in
level is partially covered with a steel-framed roof, each direction.
TIM SULLIVAN which complements the subtle curvature and In the cross-section, the main part of the
form of the design while creating a distinctive main frames was generally supported on two
IEng, AMIStructE
silhouette, helping to heighten the sense of main columns with two further supports for the
Technical Director, ISG, London, UK drama of sporting events. lower tier (Figure 3). The rear columns became
A key requirement was to develop a coherent, pin-ended, enabling a transparent welcoming
IAIN HILL integrated structural design and construction elevation with a refined aesthetic; the lateral
strategy respecting the high-quality aesthetic strength and stiffness was focused on an
BEng, CEng, FIStructE, FICE
that the client and architect required. inner main column coupled with the bending
Associate Director, Severfield, Bolton, UK This article describes how Buro Happold resistance of main grid-line rakers. Lateral
considered all materiality for the frame design, resistance in the longer directions was also from
PAUL EDDLESTON before selecting steel after an extensive moment action, with the main front column
construction programming study. The design again providing the key strength and stiffness.
MSc, BSc, CEng, MICE
diagram of the steel moment frame in each The main supporting columns were some of
Senior Structural Engineer, Buro Happold, Bath, UK direction was chosen to suit the required the largest elements in each of the two stands:
openness, but the frame was designed with pin- typically 1400mm × 500mm box sections, with
MICK SLACK ended columns on the outer perimeter to enable 100mm thick base plates fixed with Macalloy
a light colonnade elevation and stiffer columns bar anchor assemblies. There are nine of these
BEng, CEng, MIStructE
on an inner line. The moment connections of the columns in the Compton stand and seven in the
Engineering Manager, Severfield, Bolton, UK frame were key details, with Severfield providing Edrich stand. Positioned on grid line B, which
important design input for the final choice. is in the middle of each stand, the columns sit
RAJAN MISTRY The article also discusses some of the towards the back of the lower tier, support the
challenges of working within the existing site 7m cantilevering seating area of the second
BSc (Hons)
and the unprecedented demands imposed by tier, and also support the underside of the
Engineering Technician, Buro Happold, Bath, UK Covid-19, explaining how ISG approached and uppermost seating level.
worked through these. The steel section types, depths and
Introduction connections give a clear legibility to the framing
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) has led the Design challenges diagram of the design (Figure 4). The lower
game of cricket for over 200 years and helped Design diagram tier was not included in the radial lateral stability
take it from a national pastime in England to The layout and organisation of floors and system as a low-level prop, because of its
a global obsession. At its heart is Lord’s, the seating tiers responded to the functional needs variable relationship to the main frame around
‘Home of Cricket’, where MCC is dedicated to of the buildings, with the overall form and shape the stands and because its optimum design
growing its reputation as the most celebrated developed to complement the JP Morgan choice for construction was uncertain for some
venue in cricket. Lord’s has been at its current Media Centre. Each stand, including its roof, time. Eventually, the lowest part of the lower tier
location in St John’s Wood, northwest London was spatially offset from the Media Centre to was generally formed of in situ concrete and the
for over 200 years. allow each part of the new elevation to be read whole of the tier was laterally isolated from the
Responding to an increasingly competitive individually, but also so that all three separate remainder of the main frame.
sporting environment, the Ground has building blocks – the Compton stand, the Edrich The frame was designed to the dynamic
been undergoing upgrade work to steadily stand and the Media Centre – could be read as criteria and method of the IStructE guide1.
improve facilities in accordance with a staged a single new composition. The cantilevers are long, but the frame is not
masterplan. MCC Chief Executive and The key structural design challenge was designed for concert events, which significantly
Secretary, Guy Lavender, has stated: ‘MCC is to maintain a light, airy feeling to the whole reduces the spectator excitation and, hence,
committed to ensuring Lord’s remains the best development and very open circulation at demand on the cantilevers.
place in the world at which to watch and play
cricket.’
The latest phase of the masterplan
FIGURE 2: View from Nursery
encompasses redevelopment of the Compton Ground (west) during later stages
and Edrich stands, which are situated either of construction showing new
stands, either side of JP Morgan
side of the distinctive aluminium JP Morgan
Media Centre
Media Centre at the famous Nursery End of
the Ground (Figure 1). The previous stands
were dated and lacking in facilities. The new
stands transform the Nursery End, providing
world-class facilities, opening up views both
to the Pavilion and back towards the Nursery
STEVE MACEY/BURO HAPPOLD

Ground (Figure 2), and adding another design

enhancement to Lord’s.
A three-tier arrangement takes the capacity
of the new stands from 9000 to 11 600 seats,
accompanied by two new main sponsor
boxes. There are new wheelchair spaces,
additional accessible seating exceeding
industry best practice, and modern associated
amenities. Other features include food and

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 Compton and Edrich stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground Project focus

alignment was at odds with the setting-out

of the frames at the northern and southern
ends in a fan arrangement (Figure 6). The
superstructures of these northern and southern
frames were all different and the variation was
compounded by their main bases all needing
to be designed to miss the tunnel. There were
seven special foundation scenarios transferring
columns over the tunnel.
Further ground constraints included the
substructure of two previous versions of the
stands on this part of the site, which were
shown on archive drawings. The previous

PAUL EDDLESTON/BURO HAPPOLD

stand was founded on pads, but the new, taller
development with its higher loads was founded
on rotary auger-bored piles in London clay. Pile
diameters were 600mm and 750mm. Despite
the availability of records, the team decided that
FIGURE 3: every pile location should be probed to mitigate
Framing diagram for
cross-section and risk – a decision subsequently justified by the
bending moment fact that many probes located unexpected
diagram against obstructions that were not shown on the record
lateral loads
drawings. These locations required modified pile
positions and special pile caps.
The principal challenge was maintaining the
Designing for programme hosting of matches while increasing the ground construction programme as these discoveries
Construction for sports projects within existing capacity and operational efficiency to enhance arose during the construction phase; probing
grounds needs to understand and respect spectator experience. However, site constraints took place relatively late as it could only follow
the sports event calendar. This project was and working within an operational site presented demolition. During the peak of the piling, revised
no exception and the schedule included challenges. For this project, there were complex designs, models, drawings and reinforcement
demanding quantities of work in each closed interfaces with adjacent structures, but the drawings needed to be produced very quickly,
season with two key dates: below-ground challenges were the most requiring close coordination and communication
| C losed season 1 (September 2019 to spring demanding. between Buro Happold and ISG.
2020): demolition and new superstructure. A shallow Thames Water tunnel runs right Another oddity of the existing site is that
| P
 laying season 2020 – key date 1: stands through the footprint of the stands. Its straight Lord’s is famous for having a sloping field, with
ready for new season with seating capacity
of 11 600, albeit with limited new fit-out and
no roof.
FIGURE 4: Early sketch developing
| C losed season 2 (September 2020 to April member and connection design of steel
2021): completion of hospitality, canopy and solution. Note significant service hole
requirements in beams
other site works.
| P
 laying season 2021 – key date 2: stands
complete for matches in the new season.
Stands open for England versus New
Zealand on 3 June.

Before the onset of the project, the initial

assumptions had been for a concrete-framed
structure. Steel was subsequently chosen
for the main frame following a fully detailed
design, programming and cost option study
led by Buro Happold, which compared the
comparative merits of a steel design, a precast
concrete design, an in situ concrete design and
other variants (Figure 5).
PAUL EDDLESTON/BURO HAPPOLD

Significant constructional analyses found that

steel construction was both quickest and the
only option that enabled the programme to be
achieved. Buro Happold optimised the structural
design for minimum construction time using both
conceptual thinking and traditional sketching of
sequences along with advanced constructional
analysis. The schedule was so tight that floors
were optimised for piece count to reduce
cranage and hook time.

Site constraints
Phased developments can allow continued

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 Project focus Compton and Edrich stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground

FIGURE 5: Thumbnail sketches used to explore different materiality options. Blue = steel, dark grey = in situ concrete, light grey = precast concrete

BURO HAPPOLD
the southwest side of the Ground almost FIGURE 6: Revit
2.5m lower than the northwest side. In model of stand
showing steel,
matches, it causes deviation to the ball when foundations and
bowling; for the project, it resulted in different shallow tunnel in
lengths of the lower tiers all the way through red. Half-toned
pink elements are
the Compton and Edrich stands. existing pile caps

Other design considerations

A series of options was explored for the
design of the elliptically shaped canopies,
including steel monocoque and semi-
monocoque (Figure 7). The final option was
a steel framework that supports a further
secondary timber beam network and a
membrane covering. Relatively frequent

RAJ MISTRY/BURO HAPPOLD

spacing of the timber was chosen to
enable a fairly smooth membrane surface
sympathetic to the synclastic shape of the
Media Centre. PROBING TOOK PLACE
RELATIVELY LATE AS IT
The canopy’s surface geometry was highly
unusual, taking a number of iterations to
refine. The team worked with computational COULD ONLY FOLLOW
software (Grasshopper/Dynamo) to more
readily analyse and produce Revit model
DEMOLITION
information with a rapidly developing design.
The bridge link serves both stands at
second-tier level, allowing spectators to to ensure robustness in accordance with BS Fire protection to the structure was provided
travel between the two hospitality areas. It EN 19912. Imperfections were considered predominantly using intumescent paint.
is 40m long × 3.5m wide and supported by designing for notional horizontal loads in
on a single row of 7.5m high circular hollow accordance with BS EN 19933. The lateral Construction
section (CHS) columns. effects of the live load of the crowd were also First closed season
The seating deck is formed of conventional considered through an equivalent horizontal Impact of Covid-19
precast units and makes no contribution load as a 5% factor of the vertical load. Westminster City Council (WCC) granted full
to the overall lateral resistance of the main The fire strategy for Lord’s has been planning permission for the project in January
frame. designed in line with a typical Green Guide 2019. ISG was subsequently awarded the
Secondary structures of the new stands, approach4, utilising sterile circulation and contract in July 2019.
such as external stair towers, are compliant, concourse spaces, and enclosing areas of Construction works started in August 2019
being unbraced and taking stability from fire load (such as hospitality areas, bars/ after the Ground’s final international cricket
the main frame. At the interfaces of the new concessions and store rooms) in fire-resisting match of the season had taken place, but while
stands with other existing stands, there are construction. Spectator evacuation is via the it was still being used for County Championship
movement joints in the floor plate and in ground-floor vomitories for the lower tier, and games. Therefore, the old stands were
the connection detailing to ensure lateral the rear escape stairs for the upper tiers. demolished with hoardings in place to separate
movements were not restricted. The evacuation is designed to be within the working areas from the pitch, with work
Vertical and horizontal ties were provided eight minutes specified by the Green Guide. completed in November/December 2019.

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 Compton and Edrich stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground Project focus
PAUL EDDLESTON/BURO HAPPOLD

FIGURE 7:
Sketches for
developing
canopy design
FERGUS McCORMICK/BURO HAPPOLD

FERGUS McCORMICK/BURO HAPPOLD

FERGUS McCORMICK/BURO HAPPOLD

FIGURE 8: Grid line B lower column, after fabrication

and awaiting entry to paint shop. Photo shows thick
baseplates with cruciform shear keys, anchor holes and
grout holes. To right are connections to floor and lower- FIGURE 9: Elevation of backspan part of Level 2 raker FIGURE 10: Level 3 raker, showing cantilever portion,
tier raker structures whose geometry and form varied showing, at right, tapered flanges towards connection for with field of play tip to right of image and junction with grid
around stand rear outer connection to CHS columns line B node to centre of image

As well as demolition and groundworks, times. Inevitably, some members of the supply assembly. The three subassemblies were then
the first phase also included the erection of chain had to contend with Covid impacts, which dimensionally checked and welded together to
the main steel frames of the stands along affected productivity levels. form the single assembly, prior to painting and
with precast floor and terrace units. Work loading for delivery to site.
on the new structures began in January/ Steel frame fabrication and erection The grid line B box columns form the
February 2020, before concrete started to Severfield’s steelwork package involved some backbone of the primary structural stability
be placed in March/April. The project was complex fabrication, partly due to the effect system for the stands, incorporating moment
maintaining programme despite one of the of significantly varying geometries through the connections in both the transverse and
wettest winters in the past decade. WCC stands; this was especially true for the columns longitudinal directions. Not surprisingly, these
was supportive in allowing weekend working (Figure 8) and plate girder rakers (Figures 9 are among the most heavily engineered
for a four-month period. and 10), which provide support to the precast steelwork details on the project.
At this point, the Covid-19 pandemic hit, concrete terraces. The final connection details reflect Buro
with a lockdown imposed in March 2020. As part of the fabrication method, each Happold’s original concept very closely, with
ISG rapidly put a Covid plan into operation raker component was split into three individual the columns split above and below the primary
and site works continued safely with between subassemblies. This made turning, handling rakers at levels 2 and 3, effectively enabling
100 and 125 operatives on site each day, and machining in the factory a lot easier than the cantilever terrace rakers to be continuous
adhering to social distancing measures at all if the rakers had been fabricated as a single through the column, while facilitating moment

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 Project focus Compton and Edrich stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground

creating a common, clean aesthetic throughout

the stands.
An added benefit of the chosen solution
compared with others considered was the
minimum fabrication content, to the benefit of
the project overall.
The construction logistics of the site were
particularly challenging, with only a single
access point for vehicles that involved driving
through areas that were open to the public,
as the Indoor Cricket Centre needed to
remain in use throughout the majority of the
construction works. To complicate matters, the
single access point needed to feed four work
fronts for both steelwork and precast concrete
deliveries.
To construct the stands, Severfield primarily

MICK SLACK/SUK
used four mobile cranes working concurrently
FIGURE 11: 3D – allowing both stands to be constructed at
model view of adopted
detail for typical raker–
the same time. (For further details, see article
column connection in NSC5.)
The longest upper-tier rakers were up to
20m long. This is marginally over a commonly
accepted transport limit of 18m, but Severfield
transfer between rakers/columns. FIGURE 12: MEP installation, with pre-detailed service established that it would be beneficial to
holes in steelwork
The detail was developed collaboratively fabricate and transport these as single-raker
between all parties; it involved widening the units rather than include site splices. The
top/bottom flanges of the raker local to the weights were up to 22t, requiring an additional
column, enabling the upper and lower column 300t capacity crane. During March 2020 there
assemblies to bolt directly to the raker section was a fifth crane on site – a self-erecting tower
(Figure 11). The increased flange width was crane – installing the steel stairs.
achieved by locally inserting a wider, ‘thicker’
flange plate – facilitated by virtue of the raker June 2020 onwards: roof fabrication and
sections being ‘fabricated’ plate girders, giving erection
greater flexibility for local thickening of material Building works continued through what had
where required. been anticipated to be the 2020 summer
The widened flange plates were specified cricket season and into the next closed season
to be slightly thicker than required, enabling from September. The phases after the main
FERGUS McCORMICK/BURO HAPPOLD

the plates to be machined flat after completion frame erection included blockwork installation,
of all welding (thus accounting for potential dry lining and MEP fit-out (Figure 12). The
‘distortions’ due to welding processes), to final construction phases included bar and
provide a suitable bearing fit-up between the restaurant fit-out, and the erection of the
rakers and columns. stands’ steel-framed roofs and the steel link
The column section was effectively replicated bridge.
within the depth of the raker, ensuring a direct The first major challenge in developing the
load path with minimal internal stiffening. steelwork connection details for the canopy
The principles of this detail were adopted as was to ensure accurate location of the roof
standard at levels 2, 3 and 4 on all primary cantilever tip, in elevation and on plan. This
frame gridlines, maximising rationalisation, and was required both for the structural fit-up of the
CHS leading-edge members with the cantilever
tip and for ensuring a smooth, continuous
FIGURE 13: View from curve and smooth aesthetic to the members
upper tier of Edrich stand (Figure 13).
looking north across rear
of Media Centre towards The challenge was addressed by designing
canopy of Compton and incorporating sufficient scope for
stand adjustment to accommodate potential building
tolerances. Several measures were adopted,
including a packing facility incorporated within
each connection of the canopy rib to the back
STEVE MACEY/BURO HAPPOLD

of the stand. This detail is highly visible and

required careful coordination to achieve the
desired architectural intent while dealing with
significant multi-planar forces and varying 3D
geometry around the stands (Figure 14).
The connection of the canopy rib to the CHS
leading-edge member incorporated slot holes
for vertical adjustment as well as a facility for
packing to aid alignment on plan (Figure 15).

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 Compton and Edrich stands, Lord’s Cricket Ground Project focus

the rakers onto which the canopy rib would

connect. This survey information was fed into
the Tekla model to enable any deviations from
theoretical to be incorporated at the detailing
stage, thus minimising potential inaccuracies
during installation. Overall, the canopy fitted
together exceptionally well given the complex
geometry, with tip locations generally being
within 25mm of theoretical.

Conclusion
Lord’s Cricket Ground required stands of
significant merit that would integrate with the
Ground’s character. The team worked to deliver
the complex engineering solutions required
for this high-quality project, and to overcome
MICK SLACK/SUK

construction problems associated with this

FIGURE 14: 3D model unique site. Complex projects of this nature,
view of typical canopy
rib connection to back
working around existing constraints, with an
of stand, incorporating operational ground and to demanding schedules,
packing facility always involve a significant team effort.
The stands were opened to a limited
attendance for the first test match of the 2021
season between England and New Zealand,
and fully opened on 10 July for the match
between England and Pakistan.
The transformation of the Compton and
Edrich stands enriches this exceptional venue
for players and fans alike, and reinforces
the Ground’s reputation for commissioning
excellence in design.
The new stands greatly improve the east-
facing frontage to the Nursery Ground and the
visual impact on fans from around the world
arriving on match days. Spectators now have
unrivalled views, high-end hospitality and
catering facilities, ease of access and wayfinding
in fresh and spacious new surroundings, helping
to ensure that Lord’s remains the best place in
the world to play and watch cricket.

Acknowledgements
Fergus McCormick thanks Monica McCormick
MICK SLACK/SUK

for her knowledge and love of cricket.

FIGURE 15: 3D model view of

typical canopy rib connection to REFERENCES
CHS leading-edge member

1) IStructE Joint Working Group (2008)

Dynamic performance requirements for
The ‘hidden’ bolted splices within the deliver connection forces and moments for permanent grandstands subject to crowd
CHS leading-edge member went through a Severfield that were within the capacities of action, London: IStructE Ltd
number of design iterations before a solution the concealed splice proposed to meet the 2) British Standards Institution (2006) BS
was reached that was both architecturally constraints of the CHS member section size. EN 1991-1-7:2006+A1:2014 Eurocode 1.
acceptable and capable of dealing with the The number of splices was kept to a Actions on structures. General actions.
myriad loading effects. The roof membrane minimum by supplying the leading-edge Accidental actions, London: BSI
generated a series of in-plane internal forces member in the longest lengths practicable – 3) British Standards Institution (2005) BS
within this member which combined with typically double-bay lengths. This necessitated EN 1993-1-1:2005+A1:2014 Eurocode 3.
internal forces from an array of other global the fabrication of some very complicated 3D Design of steel structures. General rules and
effects from global loadings. curved elements, which required jigging up rules for buildings, London: BSI
Each of the splice connections of the inner in the fabrication shop with the associated 4) Sports Grounds Safety Authority (2018)
drip line edge was governed by different ‘rib’ elements to ensure accurate fit-up during Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds, 6th ed.,
conditions, which also varied according to erection. London: SGSA
whether the radius or curvature of the 3D curve In addition to the above measures, fabricating 5) Cooper M. (2020) ‘Stands bowled by
of the member was tighter or larger. Buro and erecting the canopy a year after the steel’, New Steel Construction [Online]
Happold carried out an extensive examination erection of the stands provided an opportunity Available at: www.newsteelconstruction.
of all loading conditions, rather than envelope to carry out an accurate ‘as-built’ survey of the com/wp/stands-bowled-by-steel/
forces, and precisely located the splices to pin locations and end plates to the top end of (Accessed: March 2022)

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 Opinion Planning
Simpler codes
application
and sustainability
procedures

Viewpoint
Could sustainability
be advanced through
simplification of codes
of practice?
Alasdair Beal sets out his views on how changes to codes
of practice could enable engineers to achieve more efficient
designs with lower embodied carbon.

Ideas for reducing the carbon footprint and realised in practice because, in the real ratios for individual members but is less
improving the sustainability of structural commercial world, engineers on tight fee economical than a good manual design.
engineering have attracted attention in recent budgets may make conservative assumptions The potential useful life of a structure can
articles in The Structural Engineer. However just to ‘get the job done’ rather than spending also be extended by careful consideration of
there is little scope for reducing safety factors time honing a code-perfect design. serviceability and detailing for durability and
(the safety margin for structural steel has been There is also the risk that over-complex code low maintenance, often for little or no extra
reduced by about 40% since 1984). clauses may be misunderstood by material. If buildings are designed to last
Similarly, while overspecification of floor inexperienced engineers, leading to errors and longer, fewer will need to be demolished and
loadings should be avoided, reducing code designs which are either over-conservative or fewer will need to be constructed, reducing
imposed loadings would be a two-edged else dangerous – and potential extra costs far waste, energy and material use. The creativity
sword: possible small savings in initial cost and exceeding the theoretical benefits envisaged by and care of a good engineer can make a big
materials would have to be balanced against code writers. difference here3,4.
the potential loss of flexibility of use and So, simplifying codes is not just a ‘nice idea’.
consequent shortening of future useful life of If codes are made clearer and simpler to use, Code changes: six easy wins
buildings1–4, which could lead to long-term engineers are more likely to interpret them While there may be little scope for
costs and material waste far exceeding any correctly in practice and have the confidence to economising by cutting code safety factors or
initial savings. design consistently to code limits, improving loadings, other changes could be made which
However, there are other aspects of design the quality and economy of ‘real world’ designs. would significantly reduce material use and
and construction where changes could lead to carbon footprint without any need for fancy
significant ‘real world’ improvements in ‘Nice calculations, shame about calculations or compromising safety.
economy, material use and carbon emissions. the structure’
Excessive focus on code strength calculations 1) Structural steel grades
Simpler codes can distract attention from other important Several years ago, UK steel manufacturers
Current codes of practice for structural design matters. Lest we forget, good conceptual stopped producing UBs, UCs and PFCs in
are complicated and often difficult to design, efficient load paths and detailing for grade S275 and standardised on grade S355
understand. Given the continuing squeeze on ease of construction can have a major effect on steel, but this was not widely publicised in
structural design fees, most engineers would economy in cost and materials. technical journals, so some engineers still
welcome codes which are easier to understand However, for this to happen, engineers need design to grade S275 stresses. Structural steel
and use – but there is more to it than that. a good understanding of structural behaviour use could be significantly reduced simply by
Complexity is unavoidable in some aspects and time to think about the structural scheme publicising this change more widely.
of design, but many current code clauses could before starting detailed calculations5. This is However, in some other sections caution is
be made simpler without any significant effect particularly important when using 3D computer needed: grade S355 used to be standard for
on economy. Also, the theoretical economy analysis6. If this is not done, the result may be most steel tubes, but many are now produced
offered by a complex code clause may not be an inefficient structure which has high utilisation in S235. Also, although European sections are

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 Simpler codes and sustainability Opinion

available in grade S355, they are also produced codes11, would improve safety and economy
in S275 and S235. where a full second-order analysis is not carried
out; it would also help initial sizing of columns
2) Specifying concrete ENDING OVER- and provide a ‘sense check’ on the results from
Most commercial buildings have concrete SPECIFICATION complex computer analysis.
floors and it is common for the concrete grade
to be specified as RC30/37 or RC32/40. OF CONCRETE Also, the EC3 clauses on sway frame
columns are complex, confusing and over-
However, unless the concrete is to be exposed COULD REDUCE conservative: in addition to wind loads, the rules
as a wearing surface this is rarely necessary –
RC20/25 is adequate for strength and
CEMENT USE BY require lateral loads representing imperfections
to be applied, even though these imperfections
durability in an indoor slab. Ending UP TO 20% have already been allowed for in the standard
overspecification of concrete could reduce column allowable stresses12. Furthermore, while
cement use by up to 20%. it is a good idea to specify minimum lateral
reasonably accurate span-to-depth rules which loads on a structure to ensure robustness,
3) Concrete cover can be applied at the start of the design. This requiring these to be added to the wind load is
For indoor concrete slabs, Eurocode 2 and BS can be done if accurate span-to-depth ratios unnecessarily conservative.
8500-1 generally require at least (15 + 10mm =) are calculated for different types of slab (e.g. Revising these EC3 clauses would simplify
25mm nominal reinforcement cover and some simply supported, continuous, flat slab), with design – and also improve economy.
engineers specify even more. However, fully stressed reinforcement supporting various
throughout most of the 20th century, UK codes values of total (dead + live) load; the results can Construction quality
only required 13mm or 15mm cover and the be presented in a simple table7. An ultra-refined design is worthless if it is not
resulting structures have stood for many Similar tables can be prepared for EC2 and constructed in accordance with the engineer’s
decades without problems. The reason is BS 81108. Adding such a table to EC2 would drawings and specification. Investigations
simple: even if carbonation reaches the steel allow engineers to determine accurate slab following the Grenfell Tower disaster revealed
surface, significant corrosion will not occur if the depths at the start of design, removing the need widespread errors and poor construction,
concrete is kept dry and does not contain for conservative assumptions in scheme indicating inadequate supervision and checking
chlorides. designs. This could lead to significant material of site work. Sadly, this is commonplace, with
Reducing nominal cover in indoor floor slabs savings in practice. adverse effects on strength, durability and
from 25mm to 15mm would reduce slab energy efficiency.
thicknesses by 10mm, typically reducing 5) Concrete columns Many factors have contributed to this,
concrete volume by 5–10% and also reducing Concrete column sizes also usually need to be including cut fees and ‘design only’ contracts
dead load, saving on reinforcement and agreed early in the design process. The EC2 for engineers and architects, as well as Local
foundations. column design method is very complex, so Authority Building Control being under-
(Note that greater cover may be required for again scheme designs are often conservative. resourced and having to compete for work with
higher fire resistance but overspecification Although it is theoretically possible to reduce private approved inspectors. (Current tax
should still be avoided. However, it is important column sizes later, in practice this often does incentives for contractor-led design-and-build
not to skimp on concrete quality or cover for not happen. contracts are also relevant.)
concrete in outdoor or corrosive environments.) A new slender column design method which If we want buildings to last longer and to
gives safe, reasonably accurate results, but is have a lower environmental footprint, current
4) Slab span-to-depth ratios much simpler than Eurocode 2 was recently arrangements for supervision and checking of
Slab thickness affects the volume of concrete presented in Concrete magazine9. (In some site construction need to be radically changed.
and the deadweight of a structure. As it common situations, it is actually more accurate
determines floor zone depth, it must be decided than EC2. It is also simpler and more accurate Existing structures
early in the design process. It is usually than BS 8110.) The number of new buildings constructed each
controlled by span-to-depth ratio to limit Including this method in EC2 would allow year is a very small percentage of the whole
deflection, but unfortunately the EC2 ‘simple’ engineers to determine column sizes more building stock, so most of the buildings which
ratios are crude and conservative and the depth accurately at the start of design, and in most will be present in future already exist. Engineers
required by the ‘accurate’ method can only be structures more complicated analysis would be can make a major contribution to reducing
calculated after reinforcement percentage and unnecessary. It would also enable more energy and material use in construction by
stress are known, i.e. when structural design is accurate initial sizing of column sizes for applying their imagination and skill to help
almost complete. computer analysis and allow simple checking of clients extend the useful lives of existing
Increasing the slab thickness at this stage the results of more complex calculations. structures13–17. (Taxation changes would also
can cause trouble, so engineers commonly help: at present in the UK, VAT applies to work
base their scheme designs on conservative 6) Steel columns to save and reuse an existing building, but
assumptions. In theory, the design should then EC3 includes tables for steel column allowable demolition and reconstruction is tax-free.)
be refined and optimised later, but with limited stress based on slenderness ratio, similar to Training courses for structural engineers
time and fees this often does not happen, so previous codes. However, there is no guidance generally focus on the design of new structures
slabs are commonly thicker than strictly on ‘buckling length’ factors. SCI publication rather than assessing existing structures. There
necessary. P360 gives some limited guidance10. Fuller is more to this than ‘put it into the computer
To solve this problem, engineers need simple, guidance on effective lengths, as in previous UK and see if it complies with the current code’.

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 Opinion Planning
Simpler codes
application
and sustainability
procedures

Firstly, the construction of the existing structure, codes, making them easier to use, changing
the materials used and their condition must be some detailed requirements and ending
assessed. Then the engineer must try to unnecessary overspecification of materials.
understand the design and work out what the Engineers can also make a difference by
original assumed loadings and allowable designing new buildings to last longer. Changes Alasdair N. Beal
stresses were. (Remember Bob Dylan’s advice: are needed, too, in the way that site construction BSc, CEng, FIStructE, FICE
‘don’t criticise what you can’t understand’.) is supervised and checked, to ensure that Alasdair Beal is a retired civil and structural
This is essential when assessing allowable structures are actually built in accordance with
engineer formerly with Perega Ltd, Leeds, UK
floor loadings, etc., the feasibility of a change of the design drawings and specification.
(previously known as Thomasons Ltd). He has
use and the possible need for strengthening18,19. However, the biggest savings of all in
written technical papers on a variety of
In addition to the information in the BCSA’s materials and carbon footprint may come not
subjects, including limit state design, reinforced
Historical Structural Steelwork Handbook20, from changes to the design rules for new
historical material properties and design buildings, but from engineers using their skills concrete and structural steel design, codes of
stresses for reinforced concrete were and creativity to extend the useful life of existing practice, Eurocodes, engineering history, quality
summarised in Concrete in 199021. A corrected structures. assurance, and health and safety.
and updated summary of these was published
in The Structural Engineer in 201122.
Although engineers in the past did not have REFERENCES
modern computer analysis, they knew more
about the materials in their structures (e.g. the
origin and species of timbers, the source and 1) Hughes A. (2021) ‘Letter to Verulam’, The 13) Fernandez S. (2020) ‘An introduction to
quality of cast iron) than we can establish today. Structural Engineer, 99 (5), p. 42 refurbishment. Part 1: Identifying opportunities
Also, load testing was used more often than at the feasibility stage’, The Structural
2) Beal A.N. (2021) ‘Letter to Verulam’, The
today. Engineer, 98 (11), pp. 14–18
Structural Engineer, 99 (5), pp. 42–43
In Salts Mill in Saltaire, calculated stresses in 14) Tayler H. (2020) ‘A short guide to reusing
the cast iron floor beams were found to be 3) IStructE Safety, Health and Wellbeing
foundations’, The Structural Engineer, 98 (11),
Panel (2021) ‘Structural safety when designing
much higher than usually permitted, but pp. 20–23
lean in the climate emergency’, The Structural
valuable information about its construction was
Engineer, 99 (1), pp. 16–17 15) Fernandez S. (2021) ‘An introduction
found in a book by noted Victorian engineer to refurbishment. Part 2: Maximising the
Fairbairn including the fact that every beam was 4) Chapman T. and Firth I. (2021) ‘Low-carbon
opportunities at the design stage’, The
load tested before installation. outcomes in the built environment’, The
Structural Engineer, 99 (1), pp. 10–14
Structural Engineer, 99 (5), pp. 16–17
On the other hand, the trusses found on site
16) Cobb F. (2021) ‘Understanding existing
were different from the design drawings – and 5) Gholam B. (2020) ‘What do we mean by
buildings – five studies to complete before
badly distorted; they needed to be strengthened efficiency? A holistic approach to reducing
design work starts’, The Structural Engineer,
to prevent failure. ‘Work not carried out in embodied carbon’, The Structural Engineer, 98
99 (3), pp. 10–13
(10), pp. 14–17
accordance with the engineer’s drawings’ is not
17) Pattison J. (2021) ‘Vertical extensions:
a new problem. 6) Hairsine R.C. (2010) ‘Simplified 3D analysis
technical challenges and carbon impact’, The
Sometimes increasing the imposed load on of portal structures – observations, problems
Structural Engineer, 99 (5), pp. 12–15
an existing structure can be justified by careful and solutions’, The Structural Engineer, 88 (3),
pp. 25–33 18) Mathew M. (2021) ‘Analysing existing
analysis and materials testing, and/or reducing
structures: a brief introduction’, The Structural
dead load. If strengthening is needed, this is 7) Institution of Structural Engineers (1991)
Engineer, 99 (6), pp. 14–17
usually by adding columns or beams, but Recommendations for the permissible
sometimes more radical and innovative stress design of reinforced concrete building 19) Foster J. (2021) ‘What can you do if you
solutions are necessary. structures, London: IStructE Ltd are convinced a structure will work but can’t
prove it to code?’, The Structural Engineer, 99
In a Nottingham office block, overstressed 8) Beal A.N. (2009) ‘Eurocode 2: Span/depth
(6), pp. 18–22
high-alumina cement (HAC) roof beams were ratios for RC slabs and beams’, The Structural
strengthened by adding steel beams and Engineer, 87 (20), pp. 35–40 20) Bates W. (1984) Historical Structural
hangers above and applying controlled Steelwork Handbook, London: BCSA
9) Beal A.N. (2019) ‘Concrete column design:
preloading to these to de-stress the HAC simplifying Eurocode 2’, Concrete, May, pp. 21) Steel Reinforcement Commission (1990)
beams23. The same technique was later used in 52–55 ‘UK Reinforcement Standards, 1938–1990’,
combination with dead load reduction in a mill Concrete, 24 (3), pp. 40–41
10) Gardner L. (2011) SCI Publication P360:
at Dean Clough, Halifax to de-stress existing Stability of steel beams and columns, Ascot: 22) Beal A N. (2011) ‘A history of the safety
cast iron beams and allow increased floor Steel Construction Institute, pp. 73–77 factors’, The Structural Engineer, 89 (20), pp.
loading for an office conversion. A leaning 11) British Standard Institution (2000) BS
20–26
masonry viaduct in Adel (Leeds) was stabilised 5950-1:2000 Structural use of steelwork in 23) Beal A.N. (1996) ‘Skyhooks at 18 foot
by post-tensioning steel cables inserted through building, London: BSI (withdrawn), Cl. 4.7.3 centres: strengthening a precast OPC/
the structure24. and Appendix D (Appendix E should only be HAC concrete frame at Hattersley Heaton,
used for rigid-jointed frames) Nottinghamshire’, The Structural Engineer, 74
Conclusions 12) Beal A.N. (2006) ‘Columns, sway frames
(1/2), pp. 6–8
Significant ‘real world’ economies in materials and BS 5950-1:2000’, The Structural Engineer, 24) Beal A.N. (2002) ‘The leaning towers of
and the carbon footprint of new construction 84 (21), pp. 40–42 Adel: stabilising the Seven Arches Aqueduct’,
could be achieved by simplifying over-complex The Structural Engineer, 80 (9), pp. 27–33

36
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Viewpoint_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 36 20/04/2022 09:51

 Using concrete in a
changing environment
5 – 7 July 2022
Virtual

Speakers include: The climate emergency is forcing

all professions across the built
environment to consider how to
Emily Halliwell Octavian Lalu lower the embodied carbon of the
structures they design and build.
Structural engineer, Professional
The Concrete Centre researcher, BRE This inaugural e-conference is dedicated
to helping structural engineers
understand how to assess, strengthen
and reuse existing concrete structures to
Lee Richardson Rossella Nicolin extend their life and reduce the impact
Technical Leader - Technical Director, the build environment profession has on
Structural Solutions Laing O’Rourke the environment.

It will cover real life examples of how

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explore the following themes:
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Registration now open:

istructe.org/events/hq/using-concrete-conference

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19/04/20224:22 pm
17:02
 Opinion Book review

Review
The key value of this book is in reminding readers of the non-technical qualities, such as
cultural sensitivity and communication skills, that seismic safety advocates must embody,
concludes Damian Grant.

Why do buildings THIS BOOK STARTS with the conundrum posed Engineering Research Institute (EERI). This again

collapse in
in its title: given that engineers and seismologists reflects the emphasis of the book on the role of non-
have taken such huge strides over the last five or six engineering stakeholders, and non-technical solutions

earthquakes? decades in developing technical solutions for seismic-

resistant buildings, why has the global earthquake
to the earthquake problem.
The intended audience for this book is tricky to
mortality rate barely reduced? define. According to the authors, it could be read by
Author: Robin Spence and Emily So The answer that the authors develop over the government officials, political representatives, business
Publisher: Wiley Blackwell next 300 or so pages is that implementing seismic managers and homeowners, as well as architects and
Price: £79.95 safety measures is not just a technical problem, but engineers.
ISBN: 978-1-119-61942-0 fundamentally a social, economic and political one. I find it difficult to imagine a homeowner in an
They argue that engineers are just one of many earthquake country purchasing a 300-page hardcover
stakeholders that bear responsibility for solving the textbook by UK-based academics, but that is not to
earthquake problem, and that governments, the say that such a reader would not find the contents
private sector and individuals and homeowners all have valuable. Certainly, Chapter 9, which describes how
an important role to play. different stakeholders can contribute to seismic
Throughout the book, they draw examples risk reduction, should be required reading for those
from across the seismically hazardous areas of the who are being called to arms: government officials
globe – both in describing the impact of destructive and international agencies, business owners, non-
earthquakes from the last few decades, and in governmental organisations, insurers, individual
highlighting successful programmes of seismic risk citizens, and of course engineers.
reduction. They stress the important role of field As a practising earthquake engineer, I have a few
reconnaissance in learning lessons from earthquakes – minor quibbles with the book, but they probably
perhaps not surprisingly, given the authors’ prominent reflect more a difference in emphasis in my own work
AN IMPORTANT involvement in the UK-based Earthquake Engineering
Field Investigation Team (EEFIT; affiliated society of
– often carried out at the higher end of the economic
development ladder for private clients – compared with
LESSON IS THE the Institution of Structural Engineers), and their role that of the authors.
ROLE THAT in setting up the Global Earthquake Consequences There is only brief mention in the book of a shift

CLIMATE PLAYS IN
Database. of engineers’ focus, particularly since the 2011
The book also covers common construction Christchurch earthquake, towards resilience-based
CONSTRUCTION materials and typologies used around the world, and design and a ‘functional recovery’ seismic design
TYPOLOGIES how these different construction types typically fare
in earthquakes. An important lesson – especially for
objective – beyond the typical ‘life safety’ objective
we’ve targeted for four or more decades.
THAT ARE FOUND the reviewer, a smug engineer from temperate New And seismic-resistant technologies that can help us
IN A REGION Zealand – is the role that climate plays in construction
typologies that are found in a region. For example,
achieve these stretch goals, such as base isolation,
supplemental damping devices and unbonded post-
thick mud or stone walls, valuable for their thermal tensioning systems, are also given only a few passing
mass in arid climates, are heavy and brittle – terrible mentions.
properties when considering seismic resistance. That said, there are many books on the market
Of course, unfavourable climate is not the covering these innovative technical solutions to
only feature contributing to building collapses in the earthquake problem. The value of this book is
earthquakes. After extolling the successes of building in reminding us of many other important qualities
code development, particularly over the past half that seismic safety advocates, including engineers,
century, the authors discuss how codes have had must embody: cultural sensitivity, flexibility, empathy,
less success in reducing risk in the developing world. communication skills, persistence and bravery. To this
They cite gaps in the codes themselves, such as end, the nine individuals profiled in the book – and the
not accounting for culturally appropriate and locally two authors – are edifying role models.
available materials, and implementation hurdles, such
as corruption and failure to enforce the codes, as
examples of what has gone wrong.
Another novel feature of this book is the inclusion Damian Grant
of biographical profiles of nine people (seven PhD, CEng
individuals and one couple) who have all made
Damian Grant is an Associate Director at Arup, and
strong contributions to seismic risk reduction in their Seismic Skills Leader for Arup’s UKIMEA region. He
communities. Interestingly, of the nine, only two are co-authored the 4th edition of Earthquake Design
engineers. For what it’s worth, only one (Dr Lucy Practice for Buildings for ICE Publishing, and is
Jones, an eminent California-based seismologist) has current Vice Chair of the Society for Earthquake and
been recognised with awards from the US Earthquake Civil Engineering Dynamics (SECED) committee.

38
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Book review_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 38 20/04/2022 09:53

 Manual for the design of building
structures to Eurocode 1 & Basis
of structural design
(Second edition)

Members enjoy a 35% discount

Students enjoy a 50% discount

Comprehensively revised
references, code amendments and
recently published guidance

Get a discount when buying the

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Visit:
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TSE.May22_039.indd 39 19/04/2022 17:04

 Opinion Letters

Verulam
Send letters to…
HAVE All contributions to Verulam should be
YOUR submitted via email to: [email protected]

SAY Contributions may be edited on the grounds

of style and/or length by the Institution's
Readers’ letters, comments and queries publishing department.

the date our site visit.’ Getting CROSS

over bad
Computational
No recommendations were made and engineering

the date of the ‘site visit’ is not stated.

concrete
Peter Debney

No one from the firm visited the

property or spoke to us, so the ‘site visit’
can only have entailed looking at the
house from the street. However, the roof
modelling
slope in question is behind a parapet and PETER DEBNEY
not visible from ground level, so that will I read with interest, and then with dismay,

Assessing roofs have given them no useful information

other than the approximate date of the
the report ‘Concern over modelling of
concrete-frame building for construction
for solar panels house.
Knowing that the purlin had deflected
stage’ in the April issue. Interest because I
am always on the lookout for lessons to be
ANDREW SMITH by around 1 in 90, I made my own learned in improving the industry’s
I have read the article on assessing roofs assessment of the roof’s capacity to carry structural modelling practice; dismay
for solar photovoltaic (PV) panels (April the solar PV array and concluded that the because, alongside valid criticism of the
2022) and have the following observations rafters would be adequate but that the design approach, the reporter was
on the issue about which Jonathan Prew purlins needed significant stiffening to ‘surprised that the IStructE’s latest
has written. reduce deflections. I therefore designed guidance on the subject, Computational
I live in a terraced house built around stiffening of steel plates, cranked at their engineering, does not even consider the
1840 and recently commissioned the overlap to follow the deflected shape of importance of this subject in modelling
installation of a solar PV array on one slope the purlin and coach-screwed to it; these structures of this type’. The reporter may
of its pitched roof, of common rafters were installed through a normal ceiling not have read, nor understood the purpose
spanning over a single mid-span purlin. access hatch. The panels were installed of my book.
The reputable company that undertook the and, two years on, the roof is fine. Computational engineering is not there
work sent me a signed ‘Structural Many people receiving this ‘certificate’ to give a step-by-step guide to any
Engineer’s Certificate’ it had commissioned would accept it as a professional and particular structural type, whether concrete
from a firm providing ‘Renewable Energy legally reliable authority on which to go high-rise or all the long list of building,
Consulting Engineering Services’. The ahead: though if, like us, they were bridge, or other structural types, but to give
person named as signing the document unaware of any visit that could have a wide overview to the whole automated
does not appear to be a member of the included an inspection of the roof analysis and design process. I did consider
Institution. structure, they might wonder about its discussing staged analysis, but excluded it
Under ‘Additional Comments’, the evidence base. as the book was not to be about a
certificate states: I raised the value of the certificate with particular software package.
‘We conclude that we have carried out the firm which had commissioned it, but Instead, Computational engineering
the structural load checks required under received no response beyond ‘we will does include all the report’s
the above noted codes of practice that look into it’. Their own surveyor who did recommendations, including hand/parallel
the combined loading scenarios from the visit the property and the roof void was calculations (remembering that they may
Solar PV installation and any snow or concerned with the location of the solar be as flawed as the computer model),
wind loads do not exceed the designed inverter and the routing of the cables, not model validation and verification,
load capacity of this properties (sic) roof with structure. consideration of what the purpose of the
structure and that no strengthening works If such deceitful surveys are model is (what is the question being
are required. We therefore are please (sic) widespread in the solar PV industry, we asked?), what the model is NOT saying,
to confirm that the roof is APPROVED for can anticipate a rash of problems with and basic structural understanding, as well
the proposed installation.’ domestic roofs in the future, and I wonder as a host of other topics. The intention is
This certificate’s ‘Declaration’ states that: if other members have already been then that Computational engineering is the
‘Based on structural roof loading checks called on to investigate such? first word, not the last, in the subject and
carried out and subject to the above, I can that the reader should from there delve
confirm that the roof structure for this There are a number of CROSS deeper into the particular topics of interest
building appears to be adequate to reports on structural issues related and need.
withstand the additional loading resulting to solar panel installation. But just On that note, there are a couple of
from the PV module installation subject to referring to Andrew’s letter, it does additional items from this report that require
any recommendations being made above. not seem credible that anyone can consideration. The first is the suggestion
Please note that […] cannot be held assess the capacity of a timber roof that hand calculations are inherently more
responsible for any damage caused or any unless they have actually looked at accurate than computer calculations: this is
alterations made by the installer or any it, and that will include looking at not true. The advantage with hand
alterations that have been made following the connections. calculations is that they force the engineer

40
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Verulam_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 40 20/04/2022 15:43

 Letters Opinion

to think about how they expect the

structure to behave and thus give a check Reducing While I fully agree that all design and
construction should include serious
on any computer calculations produced.
When the two calculations disagree, they
component consideration regarding the minimal use
of carbon, a 3D (holistic) approach should
force the engineer to consider why and weight and always be adopted when designing
subsequently adjust their model, their
assumptions, or both. The calculations carbon anything, ideally considering all primary
and secondary aspects.
mentioned in the report imply an BOB WODEHOUSE Issues that jumped out to me from this
assumption of zero Vierendeel action, I read with interest the recent proposal by proposal were:
which is patently not true, but a good ACORN to use a thin, precast, segmental, 1) The example described was
starting point for the assessment. externally tied arch/dome as a means of impractical and did not offer a level
The second is that of the conflict reducing the deadweight of concrete by playing field for the carbon calculation.
between transfer structures (especially 75% and carbon by 60%. It is good to see 2) Both calculations should have been
inefficient transfer slabs) and the quest for universities responding to this requirement, based upon a common foundation
zero-carbon construction. I note that the and hopefully there will be more to come. depth of 800mm, assuming 900mm
self-weight accounts for 80% of the total Another method of reducing concrete below ground level, thus resulting in a
load on the structure, which indicates a component weight has been to use smaller carbon saving than that
very inefficient design. How much glass-reinforced cement (GRC). This has claimed, either that or a calculation
concrete might have been saved in the been used in folded geometric single including the carbon usage for 200mm
first-floor slab by the inclusion of a couple plates or as a composite sandwich height masonry required to have a
of beams to carry the suspended column? section1,2 with lightweight fireproof thermal top-level foundation.
How much more by allowing the column insulation1. GRC in the past has found an 3) My guess is that the original 600mm
to go all the way to the foundations? application as lightweight cladding, such width (from the example) was taken
Ensuring that load paths are kept as short as on the Crédit Lyonnais building in from Approved Document A.
as possible, including reducing spans and London2, with many others in Europe 4) It follows that if a loading/meter is
avoiding transfers, is key to make our including insulated panels for storage stated, many (the unwary) would
structures more sustainable. facilities. decide the width of foundation simply
Regarding guidance from the Institution The drive for a GRC lightweight floor by dividing the load by the permitted
on modelling construction sequencing, the construction will have to accommodate safe allowable ground bearing
Computational Design and Digital the sound insulation requirements. pressure.
Workflows Panel, of which I am a member, Localised loads could be dispersed in a 5) The loading kN/m together with design
is now considering a technical document controlled manner by the use of a raised calculations showing ground pressures
addressing this point. We welcome floor with suitable base spreaders. were omitted.
suggestions of other such guidance Perhaps the various universities like 6) Cavity walls are not unusually
documents that may be needed by the ACORN could club together with ±350mm. Thus, on a drawing,
profession. interested contractors and consultants to suggesting a 450mm width leaves just
use their expertise and facilities. 50mm spare on each side of the wall.
The report in question covered The opportunity is there. Achieving this reasonably accurately is
analysis of a frame in its as-built almost impossible for any digger
condition, which the author of the REFERENCES operative due to setting-out tolerances
report to CROSS thought was invalid and operative errors.
because it did not account for stress 7) The internal leaf of a cavity wall would
states generated by the construction 1) Glassfibre Reinforced Cement always be supporting heavier loads
Association (www.grca.online/).
sequence. The reporter expressed than the external leaf. Thus, the
Publications available from the
surprise that the topic was not Concrete Society assessment of ground bearing
covered in the IStructE publication pressure should account for a load
2) Fordyce M. and Wodehouse R.
Computational engineering. But to (1983) GRC and buildings, London: eccentricity, plus a potential eccentricity
be precise, the reporter did not Butterworths due to the out-of-position foundation.
‘blame’ Computational engineering 8) A site investigation should always take
for the alleged errors in the original place.
analysis. Moreover, CROSS reports We all recognise we have a 9) Not all foundations are specified by
reflect life as it is, not always as it ‘problem’. Solving it requires as qualified structural engineers, and
should be, and we can all learn from many innovative ideas as we can notes on drawings often state ‘to the
that. think of, but always taking account satisfaction of Building Control’, which
There seems general consensus, of their drawbacks, for it seem does not have any responsibility for
from the reporter, the CROSS panel unlikely that there will be a panacea. design or, in fact, for checking.
and Peter, that structures cannot just 10) A  client always wants the minimum
be ‘wished’ into position but that amount of mass concrete to be used
their analysis ought to consider how
they are constructed, since that may Carbon savings in any foundations.

well be a factor governing a realistic MARTIN ASHMEAD In conclusion, consideration of carbon

stress distribution for design. This [Martin writes in response to Jamie Speirs should not only be determined relating to
whole topic is rather complicated (Verulam, March 2022) who commented an element(s), but should relate to all
and there seems consensus that on an example offered by Will Arnold (‘The other aspects of construction, even the
further guidance and education on structural engineer’s responsibility in this consequences of having to remove the
how to model to reflect the reality of climate emergency’, June 2020) foundation due to an error in the trench
construction would be useful. To advocating the benefits of a site position, or digging alongside the existing
assist that, other readers’ views investigation to justify reductions in footing foundation due to an impractical
would be most welcome. size.] instruction.

41
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May 2022

Verulam_TSE May 2022_The Structural Engineer.indd 41 20/04/2022 15:43

 Opinion Letters

I hope the topic will generate much more compatibility wasn’t essential, as it is for an A few years ago he wrote ‘Skeletons:
discussion, benefiting all those that find the elastic theory, as the natural state of A Technical Autobiography Written for
subject of interest. masonry is to be cracked. Instruction and Entertainment’, which was
He first applied this approach to published in the Peterhouse Annual
As Martin points out, designing (in masonry bridges, but was soon asked to Record in 2019, of which he kindly sent
the widest sense) even a trench fill apply it to the more complex structures of me a copy.
foundation is not that straightforward Gothic churches. His work linked modern Jacques Heyman has been a member
and the foundation depth below structural mechanics, which seeks to of the IStructE History Study Group for
ground is a function not just of the predict the distribution of structural forces many years and in 1992 gave the ‘Star’
ground bearing capacity required, but when in equilibrium with the applied loads, (now Sutherland) history lecture on ‘Rib
a depth to assure long-term moisture back to medieval ‘tacit’ understanding, vaults and flying buttresses – the structure
stability. While discussion is based on the masons’ experience of of Gothic’.
welcome, undoubtedly Will was just weight, their observation of the movement Knowing that many engineers, and not
trying to point out that if you have of temporary supports and sense of just members of the Group, would be
confidence in the ground capability correct proportion: his work has interested to read his autobiographical
(via a site investigation) you may well reconnected these two long-separate ways essay, Rob Thomas, the Institution’s
be able to save a good amount of of thinking, greatly broadening our Librarian, and I have been working with
carbon. understanding. Prof. Heyman and Dr Pattenden, the
I do not think it any exaggeration to say Editor of the Peterhouse Record, to
that his work in this field, largely single- publish the autobiography on the

Jacques
handed at first, has transformed how not Institution’s website, as we wish this
just engineers, but many others, picture the essay to be available to the many

Heyman and
structural action of historic masonry. He engineers and others who have
has advised on the structure of many appreciated and benefited from his

plastic theory
historic masonry buildings – cathedrals and teaching, research and practice.
churches in particular. To it, we have appended as full a list of
His work has inspired a younger Prof. Heyman’s publications as we could
ANDREW SMITH generation of engineers, both practising assemble. Together, the article and the
Professor Jacques Heyman’s teaching, and academic, and led to novel structural publications list are a vivid testament to
research and practice will be known to forms which use modern materials and his work and its substantial and
many members. Jacques was one of the construction techniques designed using continuing influence on the thinking and
people who recognised the limitations of developments of his thinking about imagination of engineers and the
the elastic theory of structural mechanics plasticity, equilibrium, shells and lines of structures to which we contribute.
and developed the plastic theory to better thrust. The article is available at www.istructe.
predict the failure of structures. Stimulated by his work on historic org/get-involved/study-groups/
His early work applied plastic theory to masonry, Jacques has also researched the history-of-structural-engineering/.
the prediction of the strength of steel development of engineering understanding
structures and that work has changed how and design over time. He has published a Professor Heyman was indeed an
we picture their behaviour and assess their great many papers and a number of original thinker, and it pays to reflect
strength and stability. books, many of lasting influence, in each of on the principles he espoused.
He then perceived that plastic theory these fields. Nowadays, when using
could be applied to masonry structures, For a very long time, though earlier on computerised stress analysis, we
recognised that the central problem was interspersed with periods spent elsewhere, seem to have sort of defaulted back
usually the stability of their equilibrium, Prof. Heyman worked in the Engineering to elastic theory and equate big
rather than their strength, which was the Department of Cambridge University, of elastic stress to ‘failure’. As Andrew
focus of most approaches and of all codes which he was the Head of Department records, rather it pays to truly
of practice, and opened up an entirely new from 1983 until his ‘retirement’ in 1992, understand how real structures
way of assessing that stability. and for much of that time he has been a behave, taking account of ‘plasticity,
He also recognised that maintaining Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. equilibrium and lines of thrust’.

Enter a sketch in the next competition – deadline 1 June 2022

The Drawing Board Sketches must be: To take part, submit your
is The Structural • hand drawn (no CAD, except for ‘guided free- entries to: [email protected]
Engineer’s quarterly hand’)
Each published entry will
sketching competition, • from a real project or assignment
receive a free single e-book
judged by Ron Slade • at a suitable scale for publication (i.e. not too
from the Institution’s current
FIStructE of WSP. intricate/detailed).
Please also submit a short description (150 words)
to put the sketch into context.

42
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 Diary dates At the back

Most events run by IStructE

HQ are being delivered online.
For in-person events, a
location will be given.
History Study Group meetings
start at 18:00 and are free of

Diary dates
charge to attend. Registration
is not typically required.
Meetings may be online or in
person.
For Regional Group events,
check the website for the
latest information. Note that more current information may be available from
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09:00–18:00 10:00–12:00 12:00–16:00
Price: £150 + VAT Price: Members: £295 + VAT; Standard: £395 + Price: Free
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 At the back Diary dates

18–19 May 13 June

SCOTLAND
Understanding structural Design and analysis of tall buildings
behaviour Presenter: Feng Fu 24 May
Presenter: David Brohn 10:00–17:30 CPD seminar: Tenements –
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Price: Members: £535 + VAT; VAT refurbishment
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Booking: www.istructe.org/events/ design-and-analysis-of-tall-buildings-course/ Andrew Allan
hq/2022/understanding-structural- Stirling Court Hotel, Airthrey Road, Stirling
behaviour/ 15–16 June FK9 4LA
Managing engineering projects 15:00–19:00
Wednesdays/Thursdays, 26 Presenter: Derek Bell Price: £70–90
May–22 June 10:00–17:30 (each day) Booking: www.istructe.org/events/
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Booking: www.istructe.org/events/ 6–8 June Chartered, Associate and AM-CM
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Seismic design of structures 5 May Jon Avent, Brian Jarvis, Sinclair Johnston,
Presenters: Dr Agathoklis Giaralis, New stone bridge construction Ed Morton
Dr Panagiotis Mergos and Prof. 18:00 Royal Agricultural University, Cirencester
Konstantinos Daniel Tsavdaridis Presenter: Dr Adrienn Tomor GL7 6JS
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7 June 21 June CONFERENCES
Discover how to protect yourself The engineering behind the Shakespeare Cape Town, South Africa
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09:00–10:00 32a Altrincham Street, Manchester M1 7JR Computation
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8 June
Designing for blast resilience and 20 September
resistance Reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete
Presenters: Bob Sheldon and Presenter: Chris Atkins
Piroozan Aminossehe Renold Building, The University of Manchester,
10:00–17:30 32a Altrincham St, Manchester M1 7JR
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 CM Exam on-
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 At the back Spotlight on Structures

All articles in Structures

are available free of
charge to paying-
grade members of
the Institution as one
of their membership
benefits. The journal
is available online at:
www.structuresjournal.
org

Read the latest issue

Volume 38 of Structures (April 2022) is now available to read at
www.sciencedirect.com/journal/structures/vol/38.
Associate Editor, Jason Ingham, has selected a review article
on machine learning for structural engineering as the ‘Featured
Article’ from this issue. The article will be available free of charge
for six months.

Editor’s Featured Machine learning (ML) has become ambitious and comprehensive review
the most successful branch of on the growing applications of ML
Article artificial intelligence (AI). It provides a algorithms for structural engineering. An
Machine learning for structural unique opportunity to make structural overview of ML techniques for structural
engineering: A state-of-the-art engineering more predictable due engineering is presented with a
review to its ability in handling complex particular focus on basic ML concepts,
Huu-Tai Thai nonlinear structural systems under ML libraries, open-source Python codes,
Department of Infrastructure extreme actions. Currently, there is a and structural engineering datasets.
Engineering, The University of boom in implementing ML in structural The review covers a wide range of
Melbourne, Australia engineering, especially over the last structural engineering applications of
five years thanks to recent advances ML including: (1) structural analysis and
in ML techniques and computational design, (2) structural health monitoring
capabilities as well as the availability of and damage detection, (3) fire resistance
large datasets. This paper provides an of structures; (4) resistance of structural
members under various
actions, and (5) mechanical
properties and mix design
of concrete. Both isolated
members and whole systems
made from steel, concrete
and composite materials are
explored. Findings from the
reviewed literature, challenges
and future commendations
are highlighted and discussed.
With available databases
and ML codes provided, this
review paper serves as a
useful reference for structural
engineering practitioners
and researchers who are not
familiar with ML but wish to
enter this field of research.

| Read the full paper at

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
istruc.2022.02.003

Register for alerts

If you’d like to receive regular updates about new content in Structures, register for email alerts at www.sciencedirect.com/.

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 Spotlight on Structures At the back

What are researchers reading? 4) Optimization-driven conceptual

design of truss structures
What is the most popular research published in Structures? Here, we highlight the in a parametric modelling
five most downloaded articles of the past three months. environment
Linwei Hea, Qingpeng Lib,c, Matthew
Gilberta, Paul Shepherdc, Catherine
1) Machine learning for structural 3) Study the impact of the Rankined, Thomas Pritcharde,
engineering: A state-of-the-art COVID-19 pandemic on the Vincenzo Realed
review construction industry in Egypt a
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
Huu-Tai Thai Shereen Mohamed Elnaggara, b
Nanjing University, Nanjing, PR
Department of Infrastructure Hosam Elhegazyb China
Engineering, The University of a
Arab Academy for Management, c
University of Bath, Bath, UK
Melbourne, Australia Banking and Financial Science, d
Arup, London, UK
Egypt e
LimitState Ltd, Sheffield, UK
See overleaf for abstract. b
Department of Structural
| Read the full paper at https://doi. Engineering and Construction Structural optimization methods can
org/10.1016/j.istruc.2022.02.003 Management, Future University in be extremely powerful when used at
Egypt, Egypt the initial, conceptual, design stage
of a building or bridge structure,
This paper attempts to quantify the potentially identifying materially
2) Collapse probability of
impact of the COVID-19 pandemic efficient forms that are beyond the
code-based design of a
seismically isolated reinforced on the construction industry under imagination of a human designer.
concrete building different investment and economic This is particularly important at
Necmettin Güneşa, Zülfü Çınar scenarios in Egypt. The survey was present, given the pressing need
Ulucanb conducted to assess the cost to reduce the carbon footprint
a
Department of Architecture, impact of the ongoing COVID-19 associated with the built environment
Sivas Cumhuriyet University, pandemic on the construction in the face of the current climate
Sivas, Turkey industry, considering essential emergency. In this contribution, a
b
Department of Civil Engineering, aspects, such as manpower, computationally efficient global–local
Fırat University, Elazığ, Turkey plant and machinery, and optimization framework is proposed,
material, and their net effect on in which a linear programming-
In this study, the collapse overall construction cost. The based truss layout optimization
probability of a Reinforced recommendations covered in step is employed to generate initial
Concrete (RC) seismically isolated this paper address many such (near-)optimal designs, with a
building designed according to measures under short, medium, non-linear optimization step then
ASCE 7-16 is given using the and long-term categories. These used to generate designs that take
Incremental Dynamic Analysis measures underline the need to account of real-world complexity. To
(IDA) and Adaptive Incremental improve systems and processes for facilitate rapid exploration of design
Dynamic Analysis (AIDA) adequately responding to the current concepts, the proposed global–local
methods. In a region where changing environment and effectively optimization framework has been
spectral demands of different confronting such disruptions in the made available in the Peregrine plug-
intensity levels are known, thirty future. In addition, the paper serves in for the popular Rhino-Grasshopper
ground motions are selected as a start to thinking about the parametric modelling environment.
and gradually changed from study of procedures during a future The efficacy of the approach is
first to last seismic intensity level pandemic to inhibit any impact on demonstrated through its application
to match hazard-consistent the project timeline or personnel to a range of case study problems.
properties in the extreme events, health. | Read the full paper at https://doi.
as given in the AIDA procedure. | Read the full paper at https://doi. org/10.1016/j.istruc.2021.12.048
The analysis results reveal that the org/10.1016/j.istruc.2021.09.028
collapse probability of isolators is
sensitive to ground motion suites.
5) A review on modular construction for high-rise buildings
Despite the isolator displacement
capacity, the fragility curves of Huu-Tai Thaia, Tuan Ngoa, Brian Uyb structural robustness. The developments of design
the superstructure drift demands,
a
Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The codes for modular construction are also discussed.
beam plastic rotations, and University of Melbourne, Australia The paper concludes by highlighting the technical
column tensile strains provide
b
School of Civil Engineering, The University of challenges that hinder the widespread adoption
sufficient exceedance probabilities Sydney, Australia of modular construction, and proposing potential
at the MCER level. solutions for future research. This review paper is
| Read the full paper at This paper presents a critical review of recent expected to be a complete reference for experts,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j. innovations in modular construction technology for researchers and professionals in this field of study.
istruc.2021.06.010 high-rise buildings with an emphasis on structural | Read the full paper at
systems, joining techniques, progressive collapse and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.09.070

47
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 Upcoming online
CPD courses

Net-zero Seismic design Designing for Design and

structural of structures blast resilience analysis of tall
design and resistance buildings
6-9 June
26 May-23 June 10:00-14:00 BST 8 June 13 June
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Learning outcomes
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