THE ENGINEER AND GRAIN-SIZE

CONTROL IN STEEL
By
B. R. NIJHAWAN;Ph.D. (Sheffield), B.Sc., (Met.),
Inspecting Officer (Research)
Metallurgical Inspectorate,
TATANJ\GAR.

rr:.r~SJ- or 2a. 3d, .

l'rinWd a\ the Job Pr-. C&WDporo.

 INTRODUCTION.
The object of this short paper is to invite the attention ani;! arouse tho
interest of Engineers to a very useful development in steel metallurgy, of recent
growth, namely "Grain-size control in steel", which originated in the United
States of America and is now actively pursued all over the world particularly
in America and the United Kingdom. A voluminous literature has been com-
piled on the subject by various scientific bodies. It is hoped that this
summarised survey on " Grain-size control in steel " will briefly present the
essential data on the subject to the Engineers without their having to resort to
a comprehensive and detailed study of this field of steel Metallurgy-often a
discouraging task to non-metallurgists.
It is further hoped that a study of the data will initiate the applications
of the developments in " Controlled grain-size " to various types of Indian
steels both by the steel makers and users in this country.
FJG. I.-Normal structure of low Carbon Steel.

l\lagnification 100 Dia.

F10. 2. Composite Micrographs showing the actual grain si1.es of the Coarse
~nd Fine-grniued types after normalizing at Tt>mperature showu
m degrees Fuhrenheit. (P. Schnne Jr.)
 "THE ENGINEER AND GRAIN-SIZE CONTROL IN STEEL. "
What is Grain Size ?
As is generally known, a mass of metal is made up of "Crystalline aggre-
gates" or Crystalline Grains " or Simply Grains. In a general way, the three
dimensional size of these metal grains affects the metal's behaviour to heat-
treatment, its properties and service performance. When a steel ingot is cast
the metal solidifies in a certain grain or dendritic pattern depending upon the
size, shape and nature of the mould, the rate and the temperature of pouring,
the fluidity of the metal etc. This original cast or dendritic grain pattern is
then altered into the rolled, forged or pressed grain structure resulting from
hot-soaking and mechanical work. The rolled or mechanically worked grain-
structure is, in most cases, re-oriented into its normal distortion-free pattern
through high temperature treatments termed "Normalizing" or "Annealing"
which also tend to relieve the metal of any residual mechanical stresses. This
finished grain-structure is thus ready to go into service. A typical example of
mild steel in this normal condition is shown in Fig. 1.
Besides this grain-structure, there is another high temperature grain
size of steel which is termed " Inherent Austenitic grain size " or simply " In-
herent grain size ". For plain carbon steels there is a temperature range between
about 720° C. to 880-890° C. which is called its "Critical temperature range ".
When heated to this " Critical range ", the steel undergoes an allotropic modi-
fication from what is termed as o~ type-Ferrite to "I type-Austenite and vice-
versa from Austenite to Ferrite on cooling through the 'Critical range". In
heating through this range, the metallic grains get rid of their mechanical
distortion and tend to change into their normal structure or in short re-orient
themselves into normal grains. Besides, certain changes in the solubility of
carbon or iron-carbide (the form in which the carbon exists in steel) take place
during its passage through the critical range. Just below the critical range the
carbon is in solution in o( ferrite to only about 0·04% and the rest of it exists
in loose pearl like form, termed in metallographic language as " Pearlite ". As
the steel passes through the critical range more and more of the Pearlitic carbon
is absorbed into the iron and finally, above the critical range, the carbon is
wholly in solution in "I iron to form the Austenite. Thus, on passing through
the critical range, the metal undergoes certain constitutional changes and at the
end of it, is hom a new grain structure-the Austenitic grain structure.
Difierent steels possess difierent initial Austenitic structures. This
Austenite grain structure develops or coarsens gradually as the metal is heated
above the "Critical Range". No two steels will exhibit the same Austenitic
grain coarsening characteristics above the " Critical temperature range ". Some
steels will show more Austenitic grain coarsening, and some less. This Austeni-
tic grain-coarsening characteristics is, what is termed as ""Grain-size " control
in its latest metallurgical sense. It depends upon the chemical composition of
the steel and certain rather exacting features of steel making, notably the mode
of deoxidation and the final residual deoxidant in solution in the cast steel.
Besides other elements Aluminium is a strong deoxidant. Strong deoxidation
of the steel with Aluminium tends to raise the temperature at which austenite
grain growth takes place on heating above the " Critical Range ". In a steel
to which a small amount or no Aluminium bas been added, austenite grain growth
takes place readily at a temperature not far above the critical range and pro-
greases rapidly as the temperature rises. The former is termed an "Inherent Fine
Grain" or simply "Fine Grain" steel and the latter as an" Inherent coarse grain"
or simply " Coarse Grain" steeL These new and specific meaning of the grain
 2
size terminology should be clearly borne in mind since this inherent or Austeni-
tic grain size may not necessarily have any relationship with the grain size of
tho steel as it goes into service. The room-temperature grain size of a steel is
influenced mostly by the conditions of casting and the subsequent thermal and
mechanical work to which the steel is subjected; whilst the inherent or Austeni-
tic grain size is influenced by the deoxidation practice of the steel ma.king and
particularly by the residual Aluminium in solution in the steel. There may be
two steels, one showing a fine room temperature grain structure and the other
coarse. Yet, it is possible that the latter if it contains suitable additions of
Aluminium would resist grain coarsening above the critical range and would
thus be an "Inherent fine grain" steel in relation to the former which, if it were
not suitably deoxidized or what is termed as " Killed " with Aluminium, would
show great propensity to grain growth at relatively low temperature above
the critical range and would thus be an " Inherent coarse grain steel ". On
the other hand, if there are two types of steel, one fine Austenitic grained and
the. other coarse Austenitic grained size, both identically worked and subjected
to Identical heat treatments or say normalised (i.e. air cooled from just above
t~e c.ritical temperature range), then their normalized grain structures will
likewiSe tend to be fine and coarse in the case of the former and the latter
respectively. The normalized grain structure in the two cases, will not how-
ever, reveal the actual Austenitic grain size prevailing above the critical tempera-
ture range. To reveal this actual Austenitic grain size, various methods have
~ be e~ployed and will be referred to later. The composite Micro-photograph
F1g. 2 Illustrates the difference in grain-coarsening characteristics between
O?arse a_nd fine grained steels. The two steels had been heated up to progres-
sively higher temperatures and air cooled. Their structures were then examined.
The coarse Austenitic grained steel started to coarsen at about 14500F., whereas
the fine grained type exhibited the same fineness of structure upto 1900°F.

....,
...
800

700 ...I<

600
Q
I
I•
~ ...
l!
I
~! ...
;
t~
I
=: ...
I
' I
i
..
..,..... ..I
,..am
... .
FIG. 3. Diagram showing the critical temperature range. for !'lain Carbon Steels.
 3
Fig. 3 shows a diagramatical sketch showing tho critical temperature
range for plain carbon steels.
It has been shown that in a properly deoxidized plain carbon steel a final
residual content of 0·03 to 0·04 % of Aluminium in solution confers upon it an
" Inh~rent fine Austenitic grain " structure. Most of the Engineering, steels
examined by this Inspectorate have shown upto a maximum of 0·003%
Aluminium in solution.
The earlier notions that aluminium addition to steels result in detrimental
non-metallic inclusions have now lost ground. It is apparent that tho objection
to Aluminium additions arose from the fact that these had been employed as
dope in the past to condition over-oxidized and badly worked hcate of steels and
under these conditions gave rise to large aluminium inclusions. If, however,
the heat is properly worked and deoxidized, the aluminium additions arc very
useful in imparting an " Inherent fine grain " quality to the steel.

DIFPERENOES BETWEEN CoARSE AND FINE AusTENrriC GRAINED STEEL.

To an Engineer's mind, the question will naturally occur that if the new
conception of " grain size " refers to its graiu:coarsening characteristics at high
temperatures above the" critical range", what relation has it with the physical
properties of the metal with which he is mainly concerned to determine its
suitability for a.. particular purpose. The answer is simple. The high tempera-
ture grain-growth characteristics greatly influence the physical properties and
the response of the metal to various beat-treatments particularly that of harden-
ing.' Besides, the resistance to grain growth at high temperatures above the
critical range renders unnecessary certein heat-treatment cycles following
case-carburization. The inherently fine grain steels possess certain marked
favourable physical properties compared to the inherently coarse grained type,
the most outetanding of which is their high impact toughness. Aa will be shown
later, the fine- Austenitic grained steel eliminates the necessity of its being
alloyed with some expensive elements to develop certain physical properties.
Furthermore, low alloy inherent fine grained steels can economically replace
highly alloyed costly steels.
'
The knowledge of Austenitic grain size is of little value unless its efiect
upon the physical properties of steel are known and applied in service.· The
following summarizes the influence ·Of grain size variations on the physical
properties and characteristics of steel.

I. lHPAOT AND TENSILE PROPERTIES.

From the results of numerous investigations it is now well established

that the fine grained steels po8SOSS much higher impact values than coarse-
grained types of identical chemical composition and tensile properties. In
normalized condition the fine grained steels have a slightly lower ultimate tensile
strength, a higher elongation and a substantially higher notched-bar toughness.
This is illustrated in (J-40% Carbon steels as below :-

Grain size. Tensile strength Elongation Izod Impact.

tons per sq. inch. %
Coarse 44 22 15 ft. lbs;
Fine 40 28 55 ft. lbs.

When inherently fine and coarse-grained specimens of the aame steel are
quenched from above the critical temperature ra'!'ge and tempered under the
same conditions, the former have a slightly lower tensile strength, a slightly
higher elongation and reduction in area and a substantially higher notched-bar
tcughness. Carpenter gives the following results in the case of a 0·5% carbon
steel oil quonched from 840° C. in the form of 1·1/8" diameter bar and tempered
at 6500 C.:-
Grain Tenl!ilc Yield stress Elonga- Red of A lzod impact
size. strength tens /sq. inch tion % ft. lbs.
tons fsq. inch.
Conr•e 53·1 37·0 25·5 59·2 16·7
Fine 50•0 35·1 27•0 6~·6 76•0

The impact tcughness of the fine grained steel was distinctly superior.
When this fine grained steel after quenching was tempered at 600° C, it gave the
following values :-
Tensile strength Yield- stress Elongation Red of A lzod Impact
tons per sq. inch. tons /sq. inch. % % ft, lbs.
53•4 26 57•2 . 54,-7

The tensile strength was the same as that of coarse grained steel but lzod
value Wl\8 much higher. Scott has shown that when the coarse and fine grained
types of the same steel are heat-treated to give the same hardness values say
between 400 and 600 V.P.H. No., the toughness of the fine-grained type is much
greater than that of the coarse-grained.

Grain size. Hardness value. lzod impact value

ft. lbs.
Fine 440 37
Coarse 440 8
Fine . ; 600 25
Coarse 600 6

Daven-port aud Bain took one steel, heated to different temperatures

above the critical temperature range to develop different Austenitic grain sizes
and quenched· from a uniform temperature and tempered at different tempe-
ratures to give a Rockwell hardness of C 50. The results are given below : -

Austenitic grain ·
Heating Quenching size develop at Hardness C Impact
temperature. temperature. the heating Rockwell. ft. lbs.
temperature.
760°C 760°C Very fine 50 11
845°C
93000
... Fine
Coarse
50 3
2
1010°C . Very coarse
50
50 1

The results show that the Austenite grain size established during heating
greatly iulluenoes the tcughness of the heat-treated steel. The author obtained
the following values in the case of 0·20% carbon steels one treated with Alumi-
nium and the other Alwninilllli.-free both in the normalized state : -

lzoil lmpoot Average,

Fine grain •• 82·4 ft. lbs.

Coarse grain .• 37·6 ft. lbs.
..
"1)
c
Legend
~ 100 ~---~~
~....._.....+---t----t---t-1
a, 60 - - Cot~rst grain
----- Fint grain ~
0
.t:
.... 50 ~ 90 L-.-.1....---'--~:---~:::-----::::=-'
1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Quenching Ternp.,Oeg. f. Quenching Temp.,Deg.f.

70 100

60
DU~;.~:z:N: ---- :::1- - -
. .--R~= OF AA:r; 80
,"
,.l'.ii ::11---iliii iii:~-- ~i!C:!!

Ill!!!:
+ 50 Ji 60
c ... IZOD IMP.~CT

.,
u"
\,. 30 ELON6ATI
;:z___ii:
:JNIN11N. ~ 40
:: :::1---:z: :
20 = :::111- - - :::111- - -
zo ':oil
lll!:.ii ~

10 0
!!:iii !!:iii
1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Quenching Ternp..Org.F. Quenching Temp..Oeg. f

Fto. 4.-Grnphs illustrating the differences in the Physical Properties of a Coarse _and
a Fine Grained S. A. E. 1040 Steel Quenched from the Temperatures
Indicated and Tempered at 1050 deg. F. (Courtesy of P. Schane, Jr.)
 5.
O'Neill gave the following results for straight carbon steels in coarse and
fine grain condition.
A B
Carbon 0•35% 0•35%
Silicon 0·22% 0•25%
Manganese 0·95% 0·96%
Rulphur 0·027% 0·027%
Phosphorus 0·036% 0·036%
Nickel 0•44% 0·46%
Chromium 0·06% 0·09%
Aluminium O·OOI% 0·009%
Grain Coarse Finer
Yield streas tons per sq. inch 29·4 30·4
Max. stress tons per sq. inch 44·6 43·4
Elongation % .. 64 66
Izod value ft. lbs. 12 J
93
Fig. 4 shows a chart illustrating the relative physical properties o£ coarse
and fine grained steels after quenching from various temperatures follow~d by
·tempering at 1050° F.
IIARDENABILITY (Hardness & Penetration).
The properties of quenched steels are more directly related to their
Austenitic grain size than those of annealed or normalized steels. It is neces-
sary to differentiate between the potential maximum hardness attainable and
hardenability or the depth of hardening of the maas of the metal. The maximum
surface hardness attained on quenching does not greatly depend upon the
Austenitic grain size for a given mass but the depth of hardening is influenced
by the Austenitic grain size to a marked degree.· This is illustrated in the
following three diagrams, 5, 6 & 7..

EdJe Centre Edge

Fza. 5. Curves illustrating the variation of Hardenability with Grain Size.
The upper curve represents a deep hardening coarse grained steel
and the lower curve a fine grained shallow hardening steel in which
the hardneas drops to a very low value in the Core. The suri'ace
hardneas is the same in both the cases. Both the steel were quenched
from the same temperature.
 6

...

,.. 100

I;i•,
-··ilt·~::::=;;:::::::::===it~·>M;::::::::::::::::::•
FIG. 6. Curves illustrating variation in Hardenability with Grain Size.
The curves shown above represents results obtained by the Author
on two low carbon steels of identical composition, one of fine Austeni-
tic grain aize and the other coarse. The fine grained steel contained
0·02 % Aluminium while the coarse grained was Aluminium free.
Both steels were quenched from 980° C. (Nijhawan).

llll '10

·-.
669 ' ... _____ _,.,,·'
' · (oorSI.

60
FIG. 7. Hardness Distribution across the B
u inch thickness of two specimens of the
same bar of Tool Steel.
ii.. One heated to 990° C., the other
to 815° C., both 'luenched from a fixed .
temperature (Daven-port and Brun)'
 7
Daven-port and Bain heated two specimens of the same steel at 990°0.
and 815°0. respectively. In the former a very coarse grain size was established
and in the latter a fine grain size. Both specimens were cooled to 745•0. and
quenched and the hardness at a series of fixed points determined across the
section. Fig. No. 7 gives the hardness values across the section:
In general, the fine grained steels are shallow-hardening and the coarse
grained types are deep-hardening and less subject to mass effect.
Due to larger Austenitic grain boundary surface areas in the case of fine
grained steels, the transformation rates of these steels on quenching are faster
than the coarse grained types. So in the case of the former the core undergoes
comparatively rapid transformation and liberates more of the ferrite which
makes it less hard and renders the steel shallow-hardening.
Since the toughness or impact values of hardened steels increase as the
hardness diminishes, fine austenitic grained steels are not so hard in the core
as coarse Austenitic grained steels. Therefore, they have tougher cores and
resist dynamic stresses to a greater extent than similar deep hardening coarse
Austenitic grained steels. Fine grained plain carbon steels can be economically
substituted for low alloy steels where high core toughness is important. How-
ever, in. tool and certain other types of steels where deep hardening properties
are essential, the fine grained steel is unsnitable. Alloying elements like Mang..-
nese etc. add to the deep-hardening properties of the steel.
Fine. grained steels are less liable to macroscopic cracking during quench-
ing. Oases are on record where by making the steel inherently fine grained
through snitable deoxidation, the rejections due to cracking in the heat-treat-
ment were entirely eliminated. Fine-grained steels are also less liable to warping
and distoration during heat-treatment. It has been further established that
the micro-cracks observed in quenched steels result from large dimensional
changes that increase with increasing grain size. Thus, the superior toughness
of fine-grained steels is due to some extent at least, to the existence of a smaller
number of microscopic cracks. Coarser grained steels have higher internal
stress after quenching and are therefore, more susceptible to grinding cracks than
the finer grained types.
However, due to their more rapid rates of transformation, finer grained
steels are more prone to soft spots on quenching and are not snitable where full
uniform hardening throughout the section is desired. -
MAcHINABILITY AND SURFACE FINISH AND FoRGEADILITY AND PaEBSINU.

In America the view is widely held that coarse-grained steels machine better
than fine grained. It is stated that in the coarse grained steels the size of the
final ferrite and carbide lamellae resulting from the transformation of Austenite,
is coarser and hence better machinability is imparted. However, compl!Jtely
identical results have not been obtained elsewhere. Where there is a great
difference in the machinability as in the case of free-cutting and ordinary steels,
it is easily shown but when the difference is small, it is difficult to discover which
of the two types possess superior machining properties. However, the coarse
grained structure causes roughness of the finished surface and the fine grained
·steels give a superior finish. In punch press operations fine grained steels
exhibit several advantages over the coarse grained types. It has been shown
that finished surface of fine grained mild sheets steels were much superior to
those of coarse grained steels since the latter became rough after deep drawing
whereas the fine grained steel remained smooth and uniform. In blanking,
 8 '
fine grained types shear cleaner and exhibit smaller burrs and are less embrittled
by cold work and therefore may be drawn deeper and show fe_wer defects than
the coarse grained steels. Fine grained steels are more smtable for heavy
punching operations, drastic cold rolling, shearing and trimming.
It is also reported that coarse grained steels forge more r':'ldily than fine
b"'ained types due to low interference to slip in the coarse gramed ~ypes and
that coarse-grained types give better fibre structures tha':' the fine gramed steels
on forging.
0ARBURIZING 0HARACTERIB'f!C8.

It has been observed that the rate of difiusion of carbon into fine grained
Austenite is less rapid than in the coarse grained Austenite and so fine grained
types carburize less deeply and more slowly than the coarse grained steels. Fine
grained steel are prone to give abnormal or soft spots on quenching after
carburization. • Abnormal ' spots refer to a coalesced state of carbide which
causes low hardness values. The object of carburization is to obtain components
with a case possessing a high surface hardness and of sufficient depth and a
soft but tough core. The carbon content of a low carbon steel is usually raised by
heating for a sufficient length of time in a carburizing atmosphere i.e.; usually
in a container packed with a solid carburizing compound. The carburized
material is then quenched to harden the case. Apart from the shallow-harden-
ing characteristics of fine grained steels these are ideal for oarburizing. During
tho prolonged heating at the carburizing temperature, pronounced grain growth
occurs in steels which have not been -suitably deoxidized and are therefore
coar.e-grained. So after case-carburization, grain-refining treatments have
to be carried out. The following is a complete cycle :-
(a) Carburization and air cooling of the box after carburization.
(b) Heating the material to just above the critical temperature range of
the core, about 850'0-880'0. to refine its grain size, followed by
quenching in oil or water.
(c) Heating just above the critical temperature range of the high carbon
!l"se! about 750-770'C. to refine its grain size, followed by quenching
Ill 01l or water.

(d) Final tempering at about 200'0. to relieve the internal stresses.

"':here fine-gra~e~ steels are employed, the core and case retain their
fine-gramed characteriStiCS after prolonged heating at the carburizing tempera-
tur~ and hence the core and case grain-refining operations ete. can be safely
Ollll.t~d and the case-carburized material quenched directly from the car-
b~zmg b?x. In s~~e cases even the final tempering may aico be dispensed
With. I~ IS now reah~cd that so long as an allowance is made for ihe slower
penetration of carbon 111. fine grained steels these have pronounced advantaaes
over ~he coa.rse-.grained types in materially cutting down heat-treatment co~ts
and time, peld!-"g more p~oduction of an equally good if not, better case-
harden~d materml. There IS always the danger of warpage, distortion, macro-
cracks Ill t~e heat-treatment cycle following carburization of the coarse-grained
ste_els ~.g., lll cns~·hardened gear applications .. Such dangers practically do not
exist Ill fine-gramed st.,els. ·
. "Pipe "-Sh;ir~kage cavity :-It is claimed that fin~ grained ~teels tend
to give a deeper pipe than normal coarse-grained steels. · -
Decarb11niation :-It is reported by some investigators that coarse-grained
steels show " greater tendency towards de-carbqrization than the fine-grained
types. ·
 9

Agiwj :-It has been reported that fine-grained Hteels age much le•s than
coarHe-grained steels. The coar:;e grained steelS show after aging an increago
in the hardness, tensile strength, yield point and a greater loss in the impact
toughness, reduction of area and elongation values than the fine-grained steels.
In orie case, the impact toughness of a fine-grained steel was actually shown
to increase after aging. Embrittlemcnt failures in boiler plate due to aging of
strained areas a hour rivet holes, have been eliminated by the usc of fine graiRed
non-aging Izett steel. . . . ·
Temper-BriUleness :-Temper-brittleness is the name applied to the lollll
of ductility or impact toughness that results after tempering hardened specimens
to a temperature· below the critical range followed by slow cooling. Steels
containing alloying 'elements like nickel, chromium arc chiefly susceptible to
temper-brittleness. It has been shown by various workers that after tempering
in the temper-brittleness range the Izod impact values of the fine grained steels
are much greater than coarse-grained steels although the latter is somewhat
less susceptible to temper-brittleness than the fine grain aggregates.
. . . '

Magnetic Properties :-Ruder has correlated the existing data of the effect
of grain size tipon. the magnetic properties of steels and has shown that the
hysteresis, coercive force and residual all decrease with increase in grain size.
This condition varies with prior treatments whether mechanical or chemical and
consequently the effect of grain size cannot readily be ascertained.
Grain size control and its practical app!ic<Uions:~ A full under•tanding of
the characteristics of fine and coarse grained steels has led to the choice of each
type for different purposes. : Coarse grained steels are recommended for easy
machinability, deep hardening etc. and fine-grained steels are preferred for
advantages hitherto obtained from alloying elements e.g., greater toughness
with a given strength and hardness, wide heat-treating range, freedom from
danger of cracking, warpage etc., and the elimination of grain-refining treatments
after carburizing. All these attributes should be taken into consideration for
the purpose of selection of the steel for a particular purpose. Where
machinability is o{ prime importance, fine-grained steels with their atten-
dant higher toughness etc., can also be usefully clllployed after normalizing
from a high temperature to improve their machining. Where deep hardening
properties are of paramount importance, fine-grained steels . could also be
employed with an increased manganese content and ·their slightly lower
strength.., improved by tempering at a lower temperature. A balanced
view of the whole range of the characteristics of the two types has established
that for all uses of steels involviug heat-treatment, fine grained materials with
suitable alterations of heat-treatment and composition, are of a actually better
quality than coarse grained types. Fine-grained steels can be economically
substituted for low alloy coarse grained types and fine grained low alloy steels
substituted for high alloy coarse grained types. For example, in case-carburized
or hardened gear applications, low alloy coarse grained steels can be replaced
by fine grain un-alloyed steels w bich, because of their sha~ow hardening charac-
teristics give an equally hard case and a tougher core w1th complete freedom
from dangers of dist<>rtion and cracking during hardening following carburiza-
tion or hardening as such. This control of distortion is important in order to
avoid heavy localized tooth press~ue by irre~r and .s~ll tooth· contact.•.
Besides the grain-refining operatiOns followmg carbunzat10n can be safely
omitted with attendant economy and an increased production of a sounder,
crack-free, case-hardened product. In particular cases, even carbnrizat~on
itself may be eliminated since fine-grained shallow hardening steels on hardemng
will give an outer shell of fully hardened steel produced on a softer but tougher
• core of the B8IIle composition.
 10

Swindcn and Bolsovcr state that they are in favour of inserting a grain
size sp~cification clause for engineering mater~als whic~ w~l. ensure a mor~
regulated product and will serve a~ an altemattve, _wtthin limits to the !'ddi-
tion of increased contents of alloymg elements which may be comparattvely
expensive and which almost certainly add to the difficulties of manipulation
and heat-treatment of the alloyed materials as well as, in some cases, causing
complications connects~ with such o~eration as flame-cutting and wel~g.
Flame-cutting and welding of coarse-gramed alloy or carbon steel cause excessive
and deep hardening of the metal with possibility of cracking therein. Without
making exaggerated claims for the fine grained steels it can be stated that if
and when the Engineer desires better impact toughness with a given tensile
strength or a high tensile strength with a given.impact resistance it will be worth-
while for him to study the possibility of achieving his objective by the use of
controlled-grain size steel as a substitute for a low or highly alloyed steels.
Hugh O'Neill in his excellent paper on "Alloy and Fine grained steels
for locom.otive complying rods" (J.I.S.I. 1937 No. 1) gives details of plain carbon
steels of inherent fine grain which yield practically the same mechanical proper-
tics as low alloy steels and are giving satisfactory performance both during
manufacture and in service as coupling rods for the L.M.S. Railway.
William (J.I.S.I. 1938 II) while referring to American steel industry
estimated that 75% of all killed steel made in the United States is made under
specifications requiring grain size control. In general, it is now possible to
produce steels of coarse or fine grain at will, by the omission or regulated addi-
tions of alDDiinium to steel of just the proper degree of deoxidation. Inter-
mediate sizes cannot be so precisely controlled yet but progress is being made
through the use. of vanadium, titanium and zirconium separately and in various
combination along with aluminium.
With India on the threshold of big post-war industrial development in
the field of Metallurgy, it will be a wise and far-sighted attitude on the part of
Indian strull-makers as well as the users like the Railways, to study the applica-
tion of grain size control to their requirements of various types of Indian steels
which have hitherto been made or will have to be produced in the not too
distant a future in this country and which will in the long run feed the heavy
Indian Engineering Industries such lis the manufacture of locomotives. auto-
mobiles and the rest.

liiETBODS OF DETERMINING AUSTENITIC GRAIN SIZE

A. McQuAID-EBN CARBURIZING TEsT.

This is based on the work of original American investigators and issued

as tho A.S.T.M. Standard E. 19·33. .
A specimen is selected of a suitable size to obtain a convenient Micro-
~ection w~en parted into. t~o. All scale is removed from the specimen and it
ts packed m a box contammg a good carbnrizing compound. The box is care-
fully scaled to prevent the escape of carburizing gases. The box and contents
are ~ee.ted in 2 hours and soaked for 6 hours at 927°0. and then allowed to cool
s!o-yly down to 400°0. before emptying. A section is cut from the sample,
polished on the cut face and etched. The free carbide of the carburized case
outlin"'! a ?lee.r~y defined gra_in size which is examined on a projection microscope
at a ID!gmficatwn of 100 diameters. Comparison of the projected fields with
those given ?n t~e standard charts in Fig. 8 which shows typical standard fields
for each gram siZe, enables the inherent Austenitic grain size of the specimens
Pro. &-GRAIN SIZE CHART FOR CLASSmCATJON Otr STEELS (A.S.T.lf. 8TA~"DARDS)
Samplel oarbarized at nooor. ( 927°C.) for 8 boon (X 100)
Hypo-Eutectoid Hypereutootoid

No.1: Up to l·lfJ gt"aine

per eq. inch.

No.2. J·l fJ to :'S 1raiaa

1~r eq. iacb.

No.3. 3 lo I srain•
pt'r ~· inrb.

Xo. f. ' 10 12 P•
pw 1111. iar Ia.

No. 5.. Jj to M graiu

per aq. inch.

No. G. it to .a paiDa
p« eq. ioch.

No. 7. 48 to U6 grain•
per NJ· inch.

No. 8. 96 gram. and more

per sq. iocb.
 11
to he assessed. It is an arbitrary method of determining the size of the Auste-
nite grains which had formed at a specified carburizing temperature, i.e., 927°C.
The grain size is reported as a number which, in fact, represents the numbers of
~rain per sq. inch at a magnification of 100 diameter. The following tabulation
Illustrates the basis of the 8 Standard grain sizes normally worked to-
Grain size index. Number of grains per sq. inch
N X 100, n

Mean Maximum :Minimum

1 1 1•5
2 2 3 1·5
3 4 6 3
4 8 12 6
5 16 24 12
6 32 48 24
7 64 96 48
8 128 96
As the basis of this table is n = 2N·l, the index for smaller or larger grain
size may be calculated. Most coarse grained carbon steels have the index 2
or 3 and most fine grained have 6 or 7. In alloy steels, the grain sizes are smaller
and when the content of alloying elements is substantial, the efiect of strong
deoxidation etc., on the grain size and ita accompanying characteriBtics tends
to become negligible. The Mcquaid-Ehn test has become the standard method
of determining Austenitic grain size and is one of the major routine te•ta
employed by user and producers in America. All the characteristics of the fine
grained steels can be related to the Mcquaid-Ehn-grain size.
Fig. 9 shows the standard Austenitic grain size chart for steels prepared
by Messrs. Timken Roller Bearing Co. of America.
There are some other methods of ascertaining the Austenitic grain size
and are outlined as follows :-
Oxidation method :-Suitable marking of the Austenitic grain boundaries
can be obtained by heating a polished surface of a specimen in an electric
furnace at a standard temperature. The specimen is then taken out and air
cooled. The oxide scale is removed and the specimen repolished and etched.
The former Austenite grains are outlined by the absorption of oxygen at the
Austenitic grain boundaries.
Another method developed by O'Neill flash-etches the Austenitic grain
boundaries at the surface of steel specimens at high temperature by dry chlorine.
The specimen is then cooled, suitably etched and examined.
In carbon steels of about 0·7-0·9% carbon content, the steel is simply
quenched from above the critical temperature range and the former Austenite
grain size revealed by etching with " Villella & Bain " etching reagent preferably
after tempering the specimen at 200° C-300° C.
In low and medium carbon steels a simple method is to take a steel test-
piece, heat to above the critical temperature range, water-quench one of its
end whilst leaving the other end to a~ cool. The test piece is ~~en lo~gitudi­
nally cross-sectioned and micro-exammed. The former Austemt1c grams are
in one area in the section outlined by a dark, partially transformed product of
Austenite, termed Troostite, around Martensitic matrix-another transition
product obtained during the transfomiBtion of Austenite.
 1~.

'l.'u~< Su&t·umm-PMN&TRATION·FRACTURE TEsT FOR TooL .STEELS.

The Shepherd-penetration-fracture or simply P-F test consists es;entially

in subjecting four samples of tool steels in question to brine quench at tempera·
tures of 14[>0°F., 1500°F,, 1550°F, and 1600°F. respectively. ·Each specimen is
then notched and broken, and from a comparison of one of the fractures with
a set of standard fractures, the fracture-grain-size is determined. The penetra·
tion is determined by macro-etching the other half. From a correlation of
these data, the P·F values are determined. · · · · ·
Results :-The Metallurgical Laboratory of this Inspectorate has been
conducting from time to time Mcquaid-Ehn carburizihg Austenitic grain-size
tests in the course of its investigations on various types of steels including failed
Railway materials, both of Indian and non-Indian manufacture. It is not
possible to give here all the results ?f such grain-size determinations. ~?wev~r,
micro-photographs Nos. 10 to 21 Illustrate the Mcqua1d-Ehn AusterutLC gram
sizes revealed in the course of such investigations. The necessary details are
given.
It is a policy of this Inspectorate to pursue further investigations on
"Controlled Grain Size" particularly on Indian steels in their application to
Engineering and Railway materials and other allied steel industries.
Comments on the results :-Tyre steels represented by Figures 13, 14 and 15
of fine grained quality gave lzod values of 11 ft. lbs. against the values of 4 ft.
lbs. given by the coarse b'fuincd tyre steels shown in Figures 10, 11 and 12. The
former contained Curbon 0·58'}'., Manganese 0·62'}'., Sulphur and Phosphorus
each below 0·04% and the latter contained Carbon 0·59 '}'., Manganese 0·58 '}'.,
Sulphur and Phosphorus each below 0·04% i.e. both possessed identical composi-
tion.
Duplexed Austenitic grain structures have also been observed by
Lauderdale and Harder on case-carburized S.A.E. steels and is believed to be
due to excessive rato of growth of some individual grains following certain
conditions of deoxidation of the steel. ·
. .
AcKNOWLEDGEMENTS·

. N.o ~!aim for originality is intended i~ t~ ~~rt r~vie~:.. It \s merely

an outline o~ the data on the subject to which are 'appended just ~he miillmum
of the e:openmental results obtained here, designed to introduce the subject to
the Engrneers. ·
. The author ~esires to acknowledge gratefully' th~ '.u'>v~luabl~ ~dvic.e. and
enoourage~ent which he ~s received from Mr. R. 0. Arbery, O.B.E., ,Controller
of InspectiOn. (Metallurgtcal), Department of Industries and Supplies. The
author also WIShes to thank Mr. T. V. N. Kidao, Assistant Inspecting Officer,
Department of Industries and Supplies for assistance. · ·
 PHOTO :\IICROGRAPHS SHOWING AUSTENITIC URAIN ~IZE IN STI<:fo;LS.

F1o. 10. Coarse graiued tyre steel etched FIG. II. Extremely coal'l'!~ grained tyre steel
in Sodium Picrate. etched in ~ita!.
X 100 X IOo

I ' x
. f \

fto. 12. Coarse grained tyre steel etched FIG. 13. Fine ~rained tyre steel etched in
in Sodium Picrate. Sodium Picrate.
XlOO • X 100
 PHOTO ~IH'ROURAPH~ SHOWING AUSTENITIC GRAIX SIZE 1X STEELS.

F1o. J.l . i''ine ~rained t.yre steel etched m FJG, 15. Fine j.:ra iued tyn~ steel etched
Sodium Pit·rate. Sodium Pierate.
X 100 X 100

F1o. 16. Fine grained tyre steel etched

in Nital. .· FIG. 17. Duplexed grained tyre steel eto1
in Sodium Picrate.
X 100
X 100
 PHOTO :\IIC'lWGRAPHS SHOWING AUSTENITIC GRAIN f'IZE IX STEELS.

FzG. 18. T_rl'e stt•el showin~ Duplexed grained FH;. HI. Axle :<teel ;;twwing Duple%ed
structure etched in Sodium Picrate. grained 11tructure E-t<-bcd in
Sodium Picrate.
X 100 X 100

FIG. 20. Fine grained Axle steel etched in F IG. 21 • Coar~'""

~ grained Axle steel eoohed io
Sodium Picrate. Sodium Picrate.
X 100 ~00
 13_
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 16

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