General Mathematics

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Propositional Logic; Syllogisms and Fallacies – Part 001

Propositional Logic; Syllogisms and Fallacies -

Part 001
This module tackles topics on Propositional Logic, Syllogisms and Fallacies.
Course Module Objectives:
At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:
1. Illustrate a proposition
2. Symbolize propositions
3. Distinguish between simple and compound propositions
4. Perform different types of operations on propositions
“Everyone needs to study logic.” Use this statement as a point of discussion in
class. Divide your class in two groups. One will be in favor of the statement
and one against it. Create arguments that will support your group’s position
on the statement by brainstorming within your group. Use a debate as a
medium to discuss your arguments and let your teacher be the judge on who
wins the debate.

Proposition
The logic is a system based on propositions. One needs to understand what
propositions are and identify statements as proposition or not to be able to
justify arguments using logic.
Definition of terms:
1. Logic is the systematic study of the form/s of arguments. Logic is used to
prove or disprove arguments.
2. An argument is a series of statements typically used to persuade someone
of something or to present reasons for accepting a conclusion.
3. A statement is a meaningful declarative sentence.
4. A proposition is a statement that is either true or false (not both). We say
that the truth value of a proposition is either true (T) or false (F).
To be able to clearly and efficiently use logic for proof and disproof, one
needs to be able to understand propositions.
Reminder: A propositions needs to have a truth value. A sentence without a
truth value is not a proposition but a mere statement. Note that a proposition
should only have one value. It should only be either true or false and not
both. In logic, statements can be in words or numerical format.
Examples
1. “Mammals are bigger than insects.”

Course Module
 This is a statement as it states a meaningful sentence. This is also a
proposition as it has a truth value which is true. No insects are bigger
than any mammal.
2. “ ”.
This is a statement. It is a numerical statement. This is also a proposition
as it has a truth value which is false. This is read as “five hundred is less
than three hundred” which in mathematical perspective is false as five
hundred is not less than three hundred but is the opposite which is
greater.
3. “ ”.
This is a statement as it is a mathematical statement. This is not a
proposition. Although it could have a truth value, one cannot determine
its truth value unless an exact numerical value is given to . Example, if
, the statement is false. If , then the statement is true.
4. “I will get a perfect score in the Logic exam.”
This is a declarative sentence. Although the truth value of the statement
can only be known after the results of the exam is given, we know that the
value can only be either true or false. If I got 100 percent of the questions
correct, then the value is true. Otherwise, the value is false.
For a declarative sentence to be a proposition, it is not necessary that its
truth value be immediately known.
5. “Please do not fall asleep.”
Although the example is a sentence, it is not a statement. This is an
imperative sentence and not declarative which means it cannot be a
statement. Moreover, since it is not a statement, it cannot be a
proposition nor can it have a truth value.

Symbolizing Propositions
In the study of logic, propositions are commonly symbolized to make
computations easier.
Propositions are normally symbolized using a small letter.
Example:

This can be read as “p is the proposition “Mammals are bigger then insects.””.

Simple and Compound Propositions

A simple proposition is a statement which only states one meaning. It cannot
be broken down into other component propositions.
A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simple propositions
using logical operators or some combination of logical operators.
Examples:
Assume the p and q are propositions:
(could also be where ‘~’ is the not operator)
(could also be where is the ‘and’ operator)
(could also be where is the ‘or’ operator)
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Propositional Logic; Syllogisms and Fallacies – Part 001

(could also be where is the ‘if-then’ operator; this can

also be read as ‘p implies q’)
Simple propositions are also called atomic propositions because they are
building block of propositional logic. Remember that compound propositions
are composed of two or more simple propositions.

Operations on Propositions

Logical Operators

The previous section introduced you to several logical operators that you will
be seeing and using throughout the remainder of this module. These logical
operators can be used to populate a truth table for the determination of the
truth value of simple and compound propositions.

Truth Table

In logic, given a proposition, a truth table shows all the possible truth values
of a proposition.
Example: (for a simple proposition)
The truth table is

A truth table is useful if we need to show the possible truth values of

compound propositions.
Example: (for compound propositions with p and q as component
propositions)
First determine the number of possible combinations of the simple
propositions. For 2 component propositions, the number of combinations is
4 (given by the equation “ ” where N is the number of combinations
and n is the number of component propositions.
It is useful to remember the truth values for each combination below as this
is the basis for most logic computations.

p q ~p ~q

Course Module
 T T F F T T T

T F F T F T F

F T T F F T T

F F T T F F T

Examples:

1.
2.
3.

4. ( )

5. ( )

Computing for truth values

Consider the following propositions.

1. Determine the truth value of ( )

Column 4
1 2 3
Number
First Step Second Step
Row t
~s ( )
Number
T F T F
1
T F F F
2
F T T T
3
F T F F
4
Since we are using two simple propositions, the number of possible
combinations is 4, hence the four rows in the table above. You start with
the first proposition which is s. Getting the negation of the proposition,
you have the possible truth value in column 2.
Going back to the truth value of s and t, we know that s is true as  is
3.1416 which is greater than 3 and that t is likewise true as 2 is a prime
number. Looking at the truth values of s and t from the table, you are to
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Propositional Logic; Syllogisms and Fallacies – Part 001

choose Row 1. Hence, the truth value of the compound proposition

( ) is false.
2. Determine the value of the compound proposition ( )
Column 6
1 2 3 4 5
Number
Row s t u ( ) ( )
Number
T T T T F T
1
T T F T F F
2
T F T F T T
3
T F F F T T
4
F T T F T T
5
F T F F T T
6
F F T F T T
7
F F F F T T
8
Looking at the truth table of the compound proposition, the value for
almost all possible combinations of the truth values of s, t and u is true
except for Row . Hence, any truth value for s, t and u is true for the
compound proposition ( ) .
Another solution:
For propositions whose values can be readily known, you opt to
compute based on the truth value already so you do not need to
compute for all possible combination of truth values. Computing for
the same given:
This is True
This is True
This is False
Computing for ( )
( )
( )

References
Albay, Eduard M., et al., (2016). General Mathematics. Makati City: Diwa
Learning Systems, Inc.

Course Module